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<div class='nf-center-c1'>
<div class='nf-center c001'>
    <div><span class='xlarge'>CROWELL’S TRAVEL BOOKS</span></div>
  </div>
</div>

<p class='c002'><b>RAMBLES IN SPAIN.</b> By <span class='sc'>John D. Fitzgerald</span>.
Map and 135 illustrations. 8vo, $3.00
net. (Postage, 30 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>SWITZERLAND.</b> Its Scenery, History, and
Literary Associations. By <span class='sc'>Oscar Kuhns</span>.
Map and 32 illustrations. 8vo, $2.00 net. (Postage,
20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>A MEXICAN JOURNEY.</b> By <span class='sc'>E. H. Blichfeldt</span>.
Map and 32 illustrations, 8vo, $2.00
net. (Postage, 20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA.</b> By <span class='sc'>H. W.
Van Dyke</span>. Introduction by Hon. John Barrett.
Map and 32 illustrations. 8vo, $2.00 net.
(Postage, 20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>CHOSEN DAYS IN SCOTLAND.</b> By
<span class='sc'>Josephine Helena Short</span>. Map and 32
illustrations. 8vo, $2.00 net. (Postage, 20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>FROM GRETNA GREEN TO LAND’S END.</b>
By <span class='sc'>Katharine Lee Bates</span>. 32 illustrations.
8vo, $2.00 net. (Postage, 20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>GEORGE ELIOT.</b> Scenes and People in her
Novels. By <span class='sc'>Charles S. Olcott</span>. 24 illustrations.
8vo, $2.00 net. (Postage, 20 cents.)</p>

<p class='c002'><b>OBERAMMERGAU.</b> By <span class='sc'>Josephine Helena
Short</span>. 32 illustrations. 12mo, $1.00 net.
(Postage, 10 cents.)</p>

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    <div><span class='xlarge'>THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY</span></div>
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  <div class='linegroup'>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>See page <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</i></div>
    </div>
  </div>
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<div class='nf-center-c1'>
  <div class='nf-center'>
    <div>“THE SOLDIER’S LEAP”—GORGE IN THE ANDES, ACROSS WHICH ONE</div>
    <div>OF O’HIGGINS’S CAVALRY LEAPED HIS HORSE TO ESCAPE</div>
    <div>THE ROYALISTS.</div>
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<div>
  <h1 class='c003'><span class='color_red'>THROUGH<br />SOUTH AMERICA</span></h1>
</div>

<div class='nf-center-c1'>
<div class='nf-center c000'>
    <div>BY</div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='large'>HARRY WESTON VAN DYKE</span></div>
    <div class='c001'>WITH INTRODUCTION BY</div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='large'>JOHN BARRETT</span></div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='small'>DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION</span></div>
    <div class='c001'>NEW YORK</div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='color_red'><span class='large'>THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY</span></span></div>
    <div class='c000'>PUBLISHERS</div>
  </div>
</div>

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    <div><span class='sc'>Copyright</span>, 1912,</div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='sc'>By</span> THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY.</div>
    <div class='c004'><i>Published October, 1912.</i></div>
  </div>
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<div class='nf-center-c1'>
<div class='nf-center c001'>
    <div>TO</div>
    <div class='c000'>MY FRIEND</div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='large'>JOHN BARRETT</span></div>
    <div class='c000'><span class='small'>IN TOKEN OF MY ESTEEM AND MY APPRECIATION OF</span></div>
    <div><span class='small'>HIS MANY KINDNESSES</span></div>
  </div>
</div>

<div class='pbb'>
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</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='vii' id='Page_vii'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>INTRODUCTION</h2>
</div>

<p class='c006'><span class='sc'>By Hon. John Barrett, Director-General of
the Pan American Union and formerly
United States Minister to Argentina, Panama,
and Colombia</span></p>

<p class='c007'>I have real pleasure in complying with
the suggestion that I should write an introduction
to this interesting and instructive
work by Mr. Harry Weston Van Dyke.
As it was through me that he was led to make
his studies and investigations which resulted
in the preparing of this book, I naturally find
much gratification in the success with which
he has handled the responsibility. No one can
read his travel story of South America without
being impressed with the importance of
these countries, the enjoyment and value of
visiting them, and the advantage of the development
of closer relations between all of them
and the United States.</p>

<p class='c008'>As the executive officer of the Pan American
Union, an international organization
<span class='pageno' title='viii' id='Page_viii'></span>maintained in Washington by all the American
republics, twenty-one in number, including
the United States, for the advancement of
commerce, friendship, and peace among them
all, it is my lot to realize, possibly better than
any one else, the remarkable growth of interest
which is being manifested now, not only
throughout the United States but in all parts
of the world, in the countries of the southern
portions of the American continent commonly
classed as Latin America.</p>

<p class='c008'>When the Pan American Union was reorganized
about five years ago, and it began
an active propaganda for making the
twenty Latin American republics better
known in the United States, and correspondingly,
the United States better known
among them, there was little cause for encouragement.
The average newspaper editor,
the man in public life, the manufacturer,
the exporter, the importer, the traveler, and
the student seemed to be largely absorbed
in studying and watching the development of
our commercial relations with Europe and
the Orient, and not with Latin America. The
persistent and continued effort, however, of
the Pan American Union in educating the
<span class='pageno' title='ix' id='Page_ix'></span>world to the importance of the Latin American
countries and to an appreciation of the
commercial opportunities and moral responsibilities
of the United States in its relations
with them, has now resulted in a complete
change of conditions which is indeed gratifying.
To-day the manufacturers and merchants
in all parts of the world, the editors of
American and European and even Asiatic
newspapers, special writers on foreign subjects,
lecturers, members of Congress, professors
and students in universities and colleges,
librarians, professional and amateur
travelers are corresponding with the Pan
American Union or visiting its headquarters
in order to gain accurate information about
the Latin American republics.</p>

<p class='c008'>As an illustration of this growth of interest
a few comparisons can be made. Five
years ago the total number of printed reports,
pamphlets, and other publications
distributed by the Pan American Union was
approximately one hundred thousand. This
year, the total will approximate nearly one
million. None of these have been sent
broadcast in a careless way. Five years
ago there was little or no demand for
<span class='pageno' title='x' id='Page_x'></span>the “Monthly Bulletin” of the Pan American
Union; now the demand for it is greater
than can be supplied. Then it was an uninteresting
public document; to-day it is an
attractive and instructive illustrated magazine,
descriptive of the progress and development
of the American nations. Five years
ago the Pan American Union was housed in
a small building, used formerly as a private
dwelling, on the corner of Lafayette Square
and Pennsylvania Avenue; to-day it occupies
a building which a great French architect has
described as combining beauty and utility
better than any other public building of its
cost in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>The library of the Pan American Union,
which is a practical collection of books useful
to all persons who wish to study those countries,
has been increased from twelve thousand
to twenty-three thousand volumes, while its
collection of photographs has grown from
one thousand to eleven thousand.</p>

<p class='c008'>During this same period the foreign commerce
of Latin America has grown from
one billion seven hundred million dollars
($1,700,000,000) to two billion three hundred
million dollars ($2,300,000,000). Of this, the
<span class='pageno' title='xi' id='Page_xi'></span>share of the United States has increased from
less than five hundred million dollars ($500,000,000)
to nearly seven hundred million dollars
($700,000,000).</p>

<p class='c008'>The total annual contributions of all the
American republics, including the United
States, for the maintenance of the Pan American
Union in 1906 was $54,000; now the total
of their quotas for support approximates
$125,000.</p>

<p class='c008'>All these facts I mention, not to call attention
to the Pan American Union especially,
but to emphasize with actual truth the evidences
of the growth of interest throughout
the world in the countries which are described
in part by Mr. Van Dyke in this practical
volume. If its reading stimulates further interest
in them, the Pan American Union will
be only too glad to furnish any information
in its power.</p>

<p class='c008'>While this book will perhaps be most appreciated
by persons who are contemplating
a visit to Latin America, it should be read by
all those who wish to know more of what the
American nations aside from the United
States are doing. What is their interesting
history, what are their resources, what are
<span class='pageno' title='xii' id='Page_xii'></span>the characteristics of their peoples, what is
the progress being made by them in national
and municipal government, in education, and
in solving social and economic problems?
Most of the people of the United States and
even of Europe have been so absorbed in their
own histories, development, and general progress
that they have given little attention to
the twenty republics of southern America.
After reading Mr. Van Dyke’s story they
cannot fail to appreciate that there are other
important nations and peoples in the world
than those of northern America, Europe,
and Asia.</p>

<p class='c008'>Possibly a few general facts may be mentioned
here which will enable the reader better
to appreciate what follows in the chapters
of this book. It must be remembered that the
twenty republics lying south of the United
States in the Western Hemisphere occupy an
area of nine million square miles. This is
three times greater than the connected area
of the United States. Their total population
now exceeds seventy millions. This is seven-ninths
of the total population of the United
States. Their foreign trade—and commerce
is often called the life blood of nations—now
<span class='pageno' title='xiii' id='Page_xiii'></span>exceeds two billion three hundred million dollars
($2,300,000,000) a year, which in turn
represents an increase of nearly one billion
dollars ($1,000,000,000) during the last ten
years. Nearly all of these countries secured
their independence under the leadership of
generals and patriots who were inspired by
the example of George Washington. Nearly
all of them have written their constitutions
with the constitution of the United States as
their example. All of them to-day are watching
the United States in its efforts to solve its
endless variety of social and economic problems,
and they will profit by the example
which the United States sets them.</p>

<p class='c008'>They are not to be classed as lands of revolution,
because two-thirds of all Latin America
has known practically no revolution during
the last fifteen or twenty years. The
revolutions which occurred should possibly be
called evolutions, and are efforts of their peoples,
even though sometimes crude, to improve
their permanent conditions of prosperity
and progress. They are not by any
means solely “tropical lands,” as is often supposed
or as may be judged from a glance at
the map. The great southern section of
<span class='pageno' title='xiv' id='Page_xiv'></span>South America, including southern Brazil,
Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, and a large section
of Bolivia, are in the South Temperate
Zone, where they have climatic conditions corresponding
to those of the United States.
The countries, moreover, which are actually
under or near the equator have a mingling of
high lands with low lands which means much
for their future development. There are high
plateaux ranging from three thousand to
twelve thousand feet above the sea, covering
oftentimes individual areas as large as that of
Connecticut or Massachusetts, where the climate
the year round is like that of New England
in June or September and where the
white man can live in corresponding climatic
comfort.</p>

<p class='c008'>Although, because of the slight seasonal
changes, the average temperature of the low-lying
lands of the tropical sections is somewhat
trying to the resident of northern bringing
up, yet under the influence of modern
methods of sanitation and practical methods
of living, they are being transformed
into healthful sections of growing population,
commerce, and influence. The example which
the United States has set at Panama, and
<span class='pageno' title='xv' id='Page_xv'></span>the demonstration which this government is
giving there of the possibility of white men
thriving in the tropics, is having its influence
throughout the tropical belt of our sister republics
and great changes are resulting.</p>

<p class='c008'>The approaching completion and opening
of the Panama Canal gives a special interest
to this work of Mr. Van Dyke’s. Only the
person who has thoroughly studied what the
Panama Canal means, its effect not only upon
the commerce of the world but upon the commerce
and influence of the United States, and
what it will do for the Latin American
countries, as well as for the United States, can
appreciate fully how important to the future
of the relations of North and South America
is the completion of this mighty waterway.
Its opening should be followed not only by
a great development of the export trade of
the United States to those countries but of
their export trade to this country. It should
cause a remarkable increase in the travel between
North and South America. There is
no better influence for commerce and friendship
than that of mutual acquaintance of peoples
of different countries. When the Canal
is completed there should be a great increase
<span class='pageno' title='xvi' id='Page_xvi'></span>in the number of North Americans going to
South America and of South Americans coming
to the North.</p>

<p class='c008'>When the shipping of the world goes
through the Canal, it will have direct access
to a remarkable coast line which heretofore
has been so isolated that it could only be
reached from the eastern part of the United
States and the western part of Europe by
the long journey around South America. The
coast line which is made immediately accessible
by the Canal reaches for eight thousand
miles from the California-Mexican line south
to Cape Horn, three thousand miles from
Panama northwest to San Diego in California
and five thousand miles south from Panama
to Punta Arenas. This coast, without
the Canal and in its isolated position, conducts
now an average foreign commerce valued
at four hundred million dollars ($400,000,000).
With the opening of the Canal
this should be doubled or trebled in the next
ten years. It is a safe prediction that the
Panama Canal will have the same influence
upon the western shore, comprising the following
countries: Mexico, Salvador, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador,
<span class='pageno' title='xvii' id='Page_xvii'></span>Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, which the construction
of the transcontinental railways had
upon the Pacific coast of the United States.
The fact that their population and their commercial
and industrial development to-day is
somewhat limited is no argument against
their possibilities in the future. There was a
time when the best experts and judges in
the public and official life of the United States
declared that the Pacific coast of the United
States was not only of little value but never
would be of great consequence. There were,
however, some wise men like Seward who
recognized the mighty potentialities of our
Pacific coasts and of the Pacific seas. There
is every reason to believe that western or
Pacific Latin America, in view of its varieties
of resources and climate, will, under the
influence of the Panama Canal, experience a
development and progress that will astonish
the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>In conclusion, a word can be added of personal
appreciation of our sister republics
which I believe will be shared by all those
who read this book and later visit Latin
America and study carefully its possibilities
and potentialities. It was my privilege, before
<span class='pageno' title='xviii' id='Page_xviii'></span>being elected by the vote of all these
countries to the position of Director-General
of the Pan American Union five years ago,
to have served as Minister of the United
States in such representative countries of
South America as Argentina, Panama, and
Colombia. My association with the officials
and the rank and file of the peoples of these
countries, and my travels both in a public
and private capacity throughout the Latin
American countries, have developed in me a
regard for them that approaches real affection.
The more I have learned and seen of
them, the more I have admired them. They
have their faults and weaknesses, as have the
government and the people of the United
States; but they have a great many virtues
and numerous favorable features which are
too often overlooked by the critics who have
not studied Latin America from a sympathetic
standpoint.</p>

<p class='c008'>If we of the United States will remember
that they are our sister republics, that
they gained their independence under our
example, that they have written their constitutions
upon that of the United States,
and that they will learn to love or hate us according
<span class='pageno' title='xix' id='Page_xix'></span>as our attitude is that of sympathy
and love or of selfishness and material concern,
we shall in turn gain their confidence
and sympathy and they will join with us in
that spirit of Pan American unity and of
solidarity which will make the Western Hemisphere
the world’s leader in civilization, in
business, and in enduring friendship among
all nations.</p>

<div class='lg-container-r'>
  <div class='linegroup'>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='sc'>John Barrett.</span></div>
    </div>
  </div>
</div>

<div class='lg-container-l c009'>
  <div class='linegroup'>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Washington</span>, <i>June 1, 1912</i>.</span></div>
    </div>
  </div>
</div>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='xxi' id='Page_xxi'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2>
</div>

<table class='table0' summary=''>
<colgroup>
<col width='20%' />
<col width='66%' />
<col width='13%' />
</colgroup>
  <tr>
    <td class='c010' colspan='2'>&#8196;<span class='xsmall'>CHAPTER</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><span class='xsmall'>PAGE</span></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>I.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Historical Sketch</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>II.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Brazil</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>III.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Argentina</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>IV.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Uruguay</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>V.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Paraguay</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>VI.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Bolivia</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>VII.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Chile</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_275'>275</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>VIII.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Peru</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_314'>314</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>IX.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Ecuador</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_352'>352</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>X.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Colombia</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_375'>375</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>XI.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>Venezuela</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_400'>400</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c012'>XII.</td>
    <td class='c013'><span class='sc'>The Guianas</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_424'>424</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c010' colspan='2'>&#8196;<span class='sc'>Bibliography</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_429'>429</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c010' colspan='2'>&#8196;<span class='sc'>Index</span></td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_433'>433</a></td>
  </tr>
</table>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c001' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='xxiii' id='Page_xxiii'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
</div>

<table class='table1' summary=''>
<colgroup>
<col width='66%' />
<col width='33%' />
</colgroup>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>“The Soldier’s Leap”</td>
    <td class='c011'><i><a href='#frontis'>Frontispiece</a></i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'></td>
    <td class='c011'><span class='xsmall'>OPPOSITE PAGE</span></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Map of South America</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#map'>1</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Francisco Pizarro</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i038'>38</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Inca Burial Tower near Lake Titicaca</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i056a'>56</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Cloisters of Dominican Monastery, Cuzco</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i056b'>56</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Cathedral at Lima, built by Pizarro</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i076'>76</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Pizarro’s Palace, Lima—Now the Government Building</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i090'>90</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>San Martín’s Passage of the Andes</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i126'>126</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Statue of Bolívar, in Lima</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i132'>132</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>The City of Bahia</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i156'>156</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Botafogo Bay, Rio Harbor</td>
    <td class='c011'><i>between</i> <a href='#i162'>162</a> <i>and</i> 163</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Bay and City of Rio de Janeiro</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i166'>166</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Avenue of Royal Palms, Rio Botanical Gardens</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i170a'>170</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Avenida Central, Rio de Janeiro</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i170b'>170</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Coffee Plantation, Brazil</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i184'>184</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Colón Theater, Buenos Aires</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i204a'>204</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Federal Capitol, Buenos Aires</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i204b'>204</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Jockey Club’s Grand Stand at Race Track</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i210'>210</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Prize Winners from “the Camp”</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i216'>216</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'><span class='pageno' title='xxiv' id='Page_xxiv'></span>The Uspallata Pass</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i222'>222</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Iguazú Falls</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i226'>226</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Solis Theater, Montevideo</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i232a'>232</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Cagancha Plaza, Montevideo</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i232b'>232</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Government Palace, Asunción</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i242a'>242</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>View of Asunción and River Paraguay</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i242b'>242</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Shrine of Our Lady of Capacabana</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i266a'>266</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Town and Mountain of Potosí, Bolivia</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i266b'>266</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Church of the Conservidas, La Paz</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i272a'>272</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Old Spanish Residence, La Paz</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i272b'>272</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Punta Arenas</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i312'>312</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Plaza Mayor, Lima</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i326'>326</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Scene on the Oroya Railway</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i330'>330</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Church of La Merced, Lima</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i350'>350</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Street Scene in Guayaquil</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i362a'>362</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Condor of the Andes</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i362b'>362</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Room in Old Palace at Quito</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i374'>374</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Overlooking Bogotá</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i386'>386</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>A <i>Posada</i> or Country Inn</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i392a'>392</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>Battlemented Wall, Cartagena</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i392b'>392</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>View of Maracaibo</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i404'>404</a></td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c013'>A Coffee Plantation, Venezuela</td>
    <td class='c011'><a href='#i414'>414</a></td>
  </tr>
</table>

<div id='map'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-map.png' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>SOUTH AMERICA</p>
</div>
</div>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>

<div class='nf-center-c1'>
<div class='nf-center c001'>
    <div><span class='pageno' title='1' id='Page_1'></span><span class='xxlarge'><i>Through South America</i></span></div>
  </div>
</div>

<div class='chapter'>
  <h2 class='c005'>I<br /> <br />HISTORICAL SKETCH</h2>
</div>

<h3 class='c014'>I</h3>

<p class='c015'>A little more than four hundred
years ago, when Europe was emerging
from the darkness of the Middle
Ages into the era of printed books, when
the Field of the Cloth of Gold had impressed
the official stamp of culture on her civilization,
when gunpowder was changing the aspect
of war—in an age that produced such
intellects as those of Machiavelli, Copernicus,
Lorenzo the Magnificent, Cardinal Wolsey,
and John Werner—wise men were still
groping blindly for knowledge about the
world in which they lived that is regarded as
elementary by the school children of our day.
What was its shape? What lay beyond the
western horizon of the Atlantic, the vast and
stormy <i>Mare Tenebrosum</i> of fabled terror
<span class='pageno' title='2' id='Page_2'></span>to mariners? What was south of the African
countries bordering the Mediterranean? How
far east did Asia extend? No one knew.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the year 150 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>, the learned Alexandrian
Claudius Ptolemy had made a map of
Europe and of those parts of Asia and Africa
which were then known, or supposed to
exist; and on that map, for the first time in
history, the world was represented as a sphere—<i>though
a stationary one</i>. Therefore, speculated
those who thought about it at all, assuming
Ptolemy’s theory to be correct, how
could a mariner, even were he successful in
navigating his vessel down the awful declivity
on one side of the globe, hope to make it
climb up again on the other? How could he
cross the equator, which Aristotle and Pliny
had declared was an uninhabitable zone, so
torrid that the earth around was burnt up as
with fire and only marine salamanders, if
such monsters existed, could live in the super-heated
waters? And, even if the equator
were passable, how could the frightful abysses
into which the ocean was supposed to discharge
itself at the pole be escaped?</p>

<p class='c008'>Some time in the sixth century a monk
named Cosmas had attempted to answer
<span class='pageno' title='3' id='Page_3'></span>these questions by means of a theory evolved
from a study of the Bible and more consistent
with its descriptions and metaphors. In the
map he made, the world was represented as a
level rectangle, its sides composed of blue
walls, supporting a dome that separated the
mortal domain from the Paradise where dwelt
the Creator and his angels; and, fanciful as
was this cosmos of Cosmas’ devising, his map
was regarded as the standard of geographical
knowledge down to the time of Columbus.
Even after his time the famous astronomer
Galileo was imprisoned as a heretic partly for
reasserting the theory of Ptolemy. No one
but a few scientists even imagined that the
east could be reached by sailing west; no one,
not even they, yet knew that Africa could
be circumnavigated and the treasures of
gorgeous Far Cathay (as China was then
called) brought to Europe’s doors by water.
<i>Yet it was to accomplish that very object
that the series of voyages was begun that led
eventually to the discovery of America.</i></p>

<p class='c008'>Venice and Genoa, grown rich and powerful
through trade with India and the nearer
countries of the Orient, had for a space enjoyed
a prosperity and revival of culture that
<span class='pageno' title='4' id='Page_4'></span>were felt throughout Christendom. Then had
come the conquest of Spain and domination
of the Mediterranean by the Moors, and,
afterward, the wars of the Crusades, which
had checked the Saracen advance but interrupted
all other commerce with the infidels.
Meanwhile, as though to compensate for this
loss, the great Mongolian conqueror Genghis
Khan had fulfilled his remarkable destiny
and, instead of adopting measures to prevent
it, invited western intercourse with the countries
he had brought under his sway, and
China, about which almost nothing was then
generally known, was visited overland by
traders, adventurers, and missionaries. Marco
Polo, a Venetian, after spending more than
twenty years in the far east, part of the time
in the service of the Great Khan Kubilay,
had returned by way of India and Persia,
laden with jewels of enormous value, and
had written a book descriptive of the countries
he had seen and the wealth and customs
of the people. In the fourteenth century,
when the Mongolian dynasty was overthrown,
the Asiatics had again turned hostile and the
land route was closed.</p>

<p class='c008'>But during this open season it had become
<span class='pageno' title='5' id='Page_5'></span>known that Cathay was not the end of the
world, as had been supposed—that there was
an ocean beyond and the wonderful Island of
Cipango (Japan) and other islands rich in
spices and costly products; and Europe began
to wonder, since the Tartars barred the
route by land, whether these desirable places
might not be accessible by water. “Between
wondering and the attempt,” says Hawthorne,
“there was a considerable interval,
for the idea was too novel to be digested all
at once. But it was an age of unbridled license
of imagination and of desperate courage.
The mere possibility of encountering
perils never until then conceived of was
allurement enough, as, even to-day, our
young adventurers go forth to die on the ice
fields of the north and south poles, or in the
mysterious heart of savage Africa, or on the
ghastly plateaux of Tibet. In addition,
there were the fabulous rewards that success
seemed to promise.”</p>

<p class='c008'>At first, though, if the plan of sailing west
was even thought of, it would seem to have
been regarded as less feasible than that of
rounding Africa. Prince Henry, a son of
King John I of Portugal—for it was the
<span class='pageno' title='6' id='Page_6'></span>Portuguese, not the Spanish, who were the
pioneers in this series of discoveries—determined
to devote his life to the work. Retiring
from the splendors of the Lisbon court,
he built an astronomical observatory on the
promontory of Sagres (in southern Portugal),
extended its hospitalities to all the wise
men of the age and sent out expedition after
expedition to the south. “Until then,” says
Dawson, “nautical knowledge was very
meager. The compass served only to indicate
direction, not distance or position, and
did not suffice for the systematic navigation
of the open Atlantic. The Portuguese first
made that possible by using astronomical observations
and inventing the quadrant and
astrolabe.”</p>

<p class='c008'>This knowledge, once acquired, was
promptly applied. Madeira was discovered
in 1418, the Canaries in 1427, the Azores in
1432. To the west the Portuguese ventured
no farther, but, continuing south, they
reached Cape Blanco in 1441, Senegambia
and Cape Verde in 1445, the Cape Verde
Islands in 1460, and the Gulf of Guinea in
1469. In 1471 they were the first Europeans
to cross the equator. The idea was then conceived
<span class='pageno' title='7' id='Page_7'></span>that they had only to keep on and
they could round the southern extremity of
the continent and reach Abyssinia and India
by sea—a hope that was realized in 1487
when Bartholomew Dias arrived at last at the
Cape of Good Hope. A few miles beyond,
however, he was compelled by the condition
of his crew to return and it remained for his
compatriot Vasco da Gama some years later
to double the cape and complete the voyage
up the eastern coast and across the Indian
Ocean to Hindustan.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>II</h3>

<p class='c015'>The significance of these early voyages
of the Portuguese lies in the fact that
thereby it was demonstrated that a shorter
route was needed—that with the very small
and badly equipped vessels of the period
the trip around the Cape of Good Hope, at
least for commercial purposes, was impracticable;
also in the fact that with Dias had
sailed the Genoese navigator Bartholomew
Columbus, a brother of the discoverer of
America.</p>

<p class='c008'>Years before that first great achievement,
<span class='pageno' title='8' id='Page_8'></span>Christopher Columbus—who had studied at
the University of Pavia and had himself
taken part in one or more of Prince Henry’s
African expeditions, and even ventured to the
northwest, probably as far as Iceland—had
been converted to the theory that the world
was round and that the oceans west of Europe
and east of Cathay were the same. As
a consequence, he had concluded, the East
Indies (as India, China, Japan, and the other
countries and islands east of the Indian Ocean
were indiscriminately called) <i>could be reached
from Europe by sailing west</i>. Eighteen years
before he was finally enabled to put this theory
to the test, he had written Toscanelli,
one of the foremost astronomers of the time,
asking his opinion as to this possibility. Toscanelli
sent him a copy of a letter he had
written shortly before to King Alfonso of
Portugal on the same subject, in which he
said:</p>

<p class='c016'>“I have formerly spoken of a shorter route to the
places of spices than you are pursuing by Guinea.
Although I am well aware that this can be proved by
the spherical shape of the earth, in order to make the
point clearer I have decided to exhibit that route
by means of a sailing chart, made by my own hands,
whereon are laid down your coasts and the islands
<span class='pageno' title='9' id='Page_9'></span>from which you must begin to shape your course
steadily westward, the places at which you are bound
to arrive and how far from the pole or equator you
ought to keep away.” (Neither in the chart nor in
the description was there indication of anything whatever
resembling the continents of North and South
America.) “From the city of Lisbon as far as the
very great and splendid city of Quinsay” (Pekin),
he continued, “are twenty-six spaces, each of 250
miles. This space is about a third of the whole sphere.
But from the Island of Antilia, which you know, to
the very splendid Island of Cipango” (Japan) “there
are ten spaces. <i>So, through the unknown parts of
the route, the stretches of sea are not great.</i>”</p>

<p class='c008'>In his letter to Columbus he congratulates
him on having undertaken an enterprise—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Fraught with honor, as it must be, and inestimable
gain and most lofty fame among all Christian peoples.
It will be a voyage to powerful kingdoms” (he prophetically
added, though he had never even dreamed
of the empires of the Aztecs and the Incas) “and to
cities and provinces most wealthy and noble. It will
also be advantageous to those kings and princes who
are eager to have dealings and make alliances with
the Christians of other countries. For these and
many other reasons, I do not wonder that you, who are
of great courage, and the whole Portuguese nation,
which has always had men distinguished in such
enterprises, are now inflamed with a desire to make
the voyage.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Thus encouraged, Columbus began his efforts
<span class='pageno' title='10' id='Page_10'></span>to secure patronage and money for the
expedition. He tried in his birthplace, Genoa,
and in Portugal and Spain, even in England,
where he was accompanied by his brother
Bartholomew after the latter’s return from
the voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, and
suffered many refusals. Toscanelli had been
dead eight years before he at last succeeded;
and then, had he known that the distance from
Lisbon to the coast of Asia was in fact some
13,000 miles, or twice that which the astronomer
had estimated, and that, even so, the
route straight across was barred by the Isthmus
of Panama—had he known that Cathay
did not, as his mentor believed, extend some
thousands of miles farther east than it does,
even such a man as Columbus might have
abandoned the project as chimerical when the
cockleshells then available for ocean travel
were taken into consideration. Nor, if she
too had not been misled by the same “valuable
pieces of ignorance,” is it likely that his
plea would have prevailed on the practical
Isabella of Castile, however elated and invincible
she may have felt over the taking of
the last of the Saracen strongholds at Granada
and the expulsion of the Moors from
<span class='pageno' title='11' id='Page_11'></span>Spain, for in that she was engaged when Columbus
finally succeeded in securing her aid.</p>

<p class='c008'>Fortunately, however, whatever might have
happened if Toscanelli had not held the voyage
to be practicable, Columbus was not only
a man of indomitable spirit but possessed of
a presence that inspired in others the confidence
he felt in himself. A man of striking
personality, he is said to have been about
forty-five years of age at the time, tall, well
formed, and dignified, with sharp gray eyes,
alight with “that divine spark of enthusiasm
which makes true genius,” and hair prematurely
white. And so, in spite of his many
disheartening failures, he did not abandon the
project; so also was Queen Isabella sufficiently
impressed by his learning and appearance
to agree, in consideration of a fifth share
in the profits, that he should have the rank of
Admiral and govern, as Viceroy, all the lands
that he might discover and bring under her
dominion. With the great astronomer’s chart
before him, therefore, and vowing to devote
his share of the profits to the rescue of the
Holy Sepulcher, he set out from Palos,
Spain, on the 3d of August, 1492. His vessels,
the <i>Niña</i>, <i>Pinta</i> (well named the “Pint
<span class='pageno' title='12' id='Page_12'></span>Cup”), and <i>Santa María</i>, bore a company of
but ninety, including the crews.</p>

<p class='c008'>After a voyage of ten weeks, filled with
difficulties and hardships, even threats of
mutiny, that taxed his courage and diplomacy
to the utmost, he came to land on an island
(now known as Watling’s) on the outward
bow of the Bahamas, to which he gave the
name of San Salvador. The wild beauty of
the foliage, the tropical luxuriance, the clear,
fresh-water streams, the soft climate and perfume-laden
breezes, more than ever delightful
to men who had given themselves up for lost,
and the natives themselves, bedecked with
gold ornaments and dusky-skinned as those
of Cathay were said to be—all seemed what
might have been expected in the outlying
spice islands of the east. So, supposing this
to be one of those islands of which they were
in quest, the adventurers cruised about for
ten days more and finally arrived at Cuba,
which they assumed to be Cipango.</p>

<p class='c008'>In his infatuation, Columbus now saw his
journey’s end. He had, he thought, but to
sail a few courses farther to reach the mainland
of Cathay, exchange compliments with
the Great Khan at Quinsay, and return in triumph
<span class='pageno' title='13' id='Page_13'></span>with the wealth he was to amass and
herald the news of his wonderful achievement
to a skeptical Europe. <i>And all the while
Cathay was ten thousand miles away—due
west!</i> Sailing across the strait to Hayti, he
was directed south by the natives when questioned
as to the source of their gold; but
there, for the time being, his explorations
were brought to an end. The flagship was
wrecked on a sand bar and Pinzon, captain
of one of the remaining two, stole treacherously
away, to anticipate the Admiral in announcing
the discoveries in Spain. Leaving
a volunteer colony of about forty men to
await his return with reinforcements, however,
he at once set sail, overtook and captured
the deserters, and, on the way back to
Palos, was driven into the port of Lisbon by
a gale.</p>

<p class='c008'>“The news of his exploit set all Portugal
afire,” says Hawthorne.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The King was urged to have Columbus run
through the body and to appropriate his discovery;
but John II perceived that there was more peril than
profit in such a scheme, and he invited him to court
and made much of him instead. In due time he resumed
his voyage and reached Palos on the 15th
of March. This was Columbus’ apogee. He was
<span class='pageno' title='14' id='Page_14'></span>called to Barcelona and welcomed in triumph; he was
even allowed to sit down in the august presence of
Ferdinand and Isabella. The half dozen Caribs he had
brought with him were assumed to be East Indians
and the Admiral’s interpretation of his discoveries
was accepted without question. The little detail that
nothing of oriental magnificence—no Great Khans, no
mighty cities—had yet been revealed, was passed over.
Land had been found and it could be nothing but
Cipango and Cathay. The short route to the Indies
had been discovered for Spain.”</p>

<p class='c008'>This so completely overshadowed all that
Portugal had accomplished that an intense
rivalry sprang up between the two powers.
The Pope, as the Vicar of Christ on earth,
and accordingly the repository of the title to
all lands still occupied by infidel peoples, was
appealed to to confirm the discoveries to
Spain. He issued a bull granting to His
Most Catholic Majesty the lands then, and
such as might thereafter be, discovered in the
western sea, and to the Portuguese such as
they might discover by way of the African
route. This was supplemented by a second
to the effect that only those lands lying west
of a meridian of longitude a hundred miles
west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands
should belong to the Spaniards. Dissatisfied
<span class='pageno' title='15' id='Page_15'></span>even with that division, the Portuguese demanded
a line still farther west, and, by a
treaty signed at Tordesillas in June, 1494,
Spain agreed that it should be advanced in
that direction 370 leagues. This resulted
eventually in giving Portugal title to the then
yet undiscovered country of Brazil.</p>

<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, on the 25th of September,
1493, Columbus set out on his second expedition—this
time with seventeen ships and fifteen
hundred men, among them his brothers
Bartholomew and Diego and many adventurers
of noble rank, for there was no lack either
of men or money now. “Their dreams,”
Professor Fiske tell us, “were of the marble
palaces of Quinsay, of islands of spices and
the treasures of the mythical Prester John.
The sovereigns wept for joy as they thought
that such untold riches were vouchsafed them
as a reward for having overcome the Moor at
Granada. Columbus shared these views and
regarded himself as a special instrument for
executing the divine decrees. He renewed his
vow to rescue the Holy Sepulcher, promising
within seven years to equip, at his own expense,
a crusading army of fifty thousand foot
and four thousand horse.” When the fleet
<span class='pageno' title='16' id='Page_16'></span>arrived at Hayti and the company landed at
the place where the little colony had been left,
it was found that it had been annihilated.
Not a whit dismayed by that, however, Columbus
ordered a town to be built and the
island, which he named Española (Little
Spain), became the base of hundreds of exploring
expeditions undertaken by the hordes
of adventurers that followed in his wake and
soon overran the neighboring islands.</p>

<p class='c008'>Columbus himself made two other voyages,
in the course of which he discovered Jamaica
and the Island of Trinidad at the
mouth of the Orinoco, reached the southern
shores of Cuba, and, having heard rumors
of another ocean to the west, coasted along
the Central American mainland in search of
a passage through. There he found stone
houses and towns and what appeared to be a
semi-civilized people, who wore clothes and
knew how to weave cotton, embalm their
dead, and carve ornaments on their tombs,
and who had plenty of gold; and all this only
confirmed his conviction that he was drawing
nearer the countries of his quest. During this
period, however, his fame was in turn overshadowed
by that of Vasco da Gama, who
<span class='pageno' title='17' id='Page_17'></span>had at last succeeded in discovering the African
route to the Orient and had actually
seen some of those spice islands and mighty
cities that Columbus was still only searching
for on the other side of the world so many
thousands of miles away.</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1506, soon after his return from his
fourth expedition, he died at Valladolid, discredited
and defrauded of his viceregal powers,
a victim of treachery, jealousy, and intrigue,
yet still believing that he had found
the western route to the Indies. Even then
“nobody had the faintest idea of what he had
accomplished,” says Professor Fiske. “Nothing
like it was ever done before and nothing
like it can ever be done again. No worlds
are left for future Columbuses to conquer.
The era of which this great Italian was the
most illustrious representative had closed forever.”</p>

<h3 class='c014'>III</h3>

<p class='c015'>Having, in the interval between the second
Columbian expedition and the discovery
of the African route by Vasco da Gama, induced
Spain to agree to the extension of the
Papal meridian 370 leagues farther west, the
<span class='pageno' title='18' id='Page_18'></span>Portuguese continued their activities with
renewed ardor. In March, 1500, on his way
to the Cape of Good Hope, Pedro Alvarez
Cabral, a Portuguese nobleman in command
of an expedition intended to resume the work
begun by Da Gama, was blown across the Atlantic
to the coasts of Brazil, where he touched
at a point in the southern part of what is now
the State of Bahia. Under the impression
that it was an island, and assuming that it lay
east of the Tordesillas treaty line, he landed
and took possession in the name of his King.
The news having reached Portugal in the Fall
of the same year, no time was lost in asserting
title and sending out a small fleet to ascertain
the extent and resources of the region, also
in the hope that a wealthy and civilized people
like that of Hindustan would be found.</p>

<p class='c008'>This expedition was placed under the command
of Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine astronomer
and navigator, who had already
made two voyages for Spain and skirted the
coast of Yucatan and the northern continent,
around Florida, as far north as the
Chesapeake. Setting sail now to the south,
he made a systematic examination of the Brazilian
coast for two thousand miles. All he
<span class='pageno' title='19' id='Page_19'></span>found that seemed to have any immediate
commercial value were immense quantities of
a dyewood known in Europe as “<i>brazil</i>” (the
color of fire); it was from this, of course, that
the country took its name. The Portuguese,
being by that time, however, too engrossed in
their African mines and sugar plantations
and East Indian trade to think it worth while
to found colonies in such a region, did nothing
to develop it until thirty years had passed
by and it became necessary for them to protect
their rights, particularly from the French,
who had been tempted by the great demand
for the dyewood to engage in coastwise poaching
on a large scale.</p>

<p class='c008'>For this reason, to his contemporaries, the
most interesting feature of Vespucci’s report
was the conviction he expressed that this
country south of the equator was neither Asia
nor an island, <i>but a new continent</i>, or, as he
himself called it, a “new world”—“for it
transcends the ideas of the ancients,” he said
in a letter to his friend Soderini, “since most
of them declare that, beyond the equator to
the south, there is no continent but only the
sea which they call the Atlantic; but this last
voyage of mine has proved that this opinion
<span class='pageno' title='20' id='Page_20'></span>of theirs is erroneous, because in these southern
regions I have found a continent more
thickly inhabited by peoples and animals than
our Europe or Asia or Africa, and, moreover,
a climate more temperate and agreeable than
any known to us.” In 1504 this letter was
published under the title “<i>Mundus Novus</i>.”
The term “new world” caught the popular
fancy, and although, in 1497, Columbus first
of all, and later Vespucci himself with Alonso
de Ojeda, had cruised along and touched at
points on its Caribbean coast, by virtue of his
Brazilian explorations Vespucci was acclaimed
the discoverer.</p>

<p class='c008'>And therein was the source of the confusion
that gave to South America, and eventually
to the northern continent as well, the
name they bear rather than one commemorative
of Columbus. No one suspected that
there were <i>two</i> oceans instead of only the
Atlantic between Europe and Asia; that the
land Amerigo Vespucci had explored south
of the equator was of a piece with that discovered
by Columbus to the north. It was
conceived to be entirely detached from and to
the south of <i>Cathay</i>, which Columbus was still
supposed to have reached, and to lie in a position
<span class='pageno' title='21' id='Page_21'></span>somewhat similar to that which Australia
was afterward found to occupy. Consequently,
when in 1507 Mathias Ringmann
published his “<i>Introductio Cosmographie</i>,”
he proposed that this (as he estimated it)
“fourth part of the globe” be called “<i>Amerigo</i>.”
The following year Martinus Waldseemüller
published his map, whereon for the
first time the name “America” appeared. Investigation
has made it clear that there was
no attempt, as Vespucci’s maligners charged,
to immortalize his name at the expense of
Columbus. The southern continent was not
named for Columbus simply because it was
thought to be distinct from his discoveries;
the northern, because it was thought already
to have been named Cathay.</p>

<p class='c008'>At last, when the existence across the Atlantic
of a continuous stretch of land had
been comprehended, and when, in the light of
the Portuguese discoveries by way of the African
route, it was realized that these strange
coasts did not in the least coincide with the
ideas formed of them by those who had assumed
them to be Asiatic, the conviction grew
that the fabulous treasure lands of the Orient
had not been reached by this western route
<span class='pageno' title='22' id='Page_22'></span>at all. <i>The whole stretch must be embraced
in the new world</i>, it was concluded; <i>there
must be another ocean than the Atlantic beyond</i>.
“Rumors of it had been heard, or
glimpses caught, perhaps, at one time or another,”
says Hawthorne, “before the actual
fact was understood. Meanwhile Spain was
very anxious to get through or around this
singular barrier of islands, or whatever it was
that was keeping her from sharing the profits
that Da Gama had brought to Portugal from
Hindustan, and she sent out expeditions to
accomplish it.” In 1505 Amerigo Vespucci
(who had returned to the Spanish flag), with
La Cosa, explored the Gulf of Darien and
penetrated two hundred miles up the Atrato,
thinking it might prove a strait leading to
the Asiatic waters. Juan de Solis was trying
to find it when he explored the Rio de la
Plata and met his death at the hands of the
natives. Jacques Cartier was seeking it when
he explored the St. Lawrence, D’Ayllon when
he tried the Chesapeake and James, and
Hendrik Hudson when he ascended the river
that bears his name.</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1513, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, Governor
of Darien, a valiant adventurer who had been
<span class='pageno' title='23' id='Page_23'></span>prominent in the conquest and colonization
of the Isthmus, undertook by means of an
expedition by land to ascertain whether such
an ocean did really exist. Starting with a
company of about a hundred and ninety
Spaniards and a few Indians, he skirted the
coast of Panama to a point near Cape Tiburon,
and there disembarked and headed inland.
For twenty days his party persevered
over forest-clad swamps, valleys, and mountains,
fought a pitched battle with the natives,
and finally cut its way through the
dense undergrowth to the heights overlooking
what is now known as the Gulf of San
Miguel, on the Pacific side, and thus resolved
all doubt into certainty and completed an
event which, declares Dawson, “was second
in its far-reaching consequences only to Columbus’
first voyage.” Balboa dubbed it the
Southern Sea, little thinking that it was a
body of water more vast than the Atlantic
that he had found to bar the way to Cathay.
“So elated was he over his epoch-making
discovery,” says Mozans, quoting from an
early chronicler, that—</p>

<p class='c016'>“With no lesse manlye courage than Hannibal of
Carthage shewed his souldiers Italye and the promontories
<span class='pageno' title='24' id='Page_24'></span>of the Alps, he exhorted his men to lyft up
theyre hartes and to behoulde the land even now
under theyre feete and the sea before theyre eyes,
which shoulde bee unto them a full and juste reward of
theyre great laboures and trauayles now ouerpassed.
When he had sayde these woordes, he commanded them
to raise certeine heapes of stones in the steede of
altars for a token of possession. Then, descendynge
from the toppes of the mountaynes, lest such as might
come after hym shoulde argu hym of lyinge and falshod,
he wrote the Kyng of Castelles his name here and
there on the barkes of the trees, both on the ryght
hande and on the lefte, and raysed heapes of stones all
the way that he went untyll he came to the region
of the nexte Kynge towarde the south, whose name
was Chiapes.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“The act of taking possession was so
typical of similar formalities of the Conquistadores,”
continues Mozans, “that I transcribe
from Oviedo his account of the manner
in which Balboa and his companions
claimed for his sovereign the Sea of the
South, all islands in it and all lands bordering
on it, in what part of the world soever.
Armed with his sword and bearing aloft a
banner on which were painted an image of
the Blessed Virgin and the Divine Child
and the arms of Castile and Leon, Balboa,
followed by his associates, entered the water
<span class='pageno' title='25' id='Page_25'></span>until it rose above his knees, when in a loud
voice he said:</p>

<p class='c016'>“‘Long live the high and mighty monarchs, Don
Ferdinand and Doña Juana, Sovereigns of Castile,
of Leon and of Aragon, in whose name and for the
royal crown of Castile, I take real and corporal and
actual possession of these seas and lands and coasts
and ports and islands of the south, and all thereunto
annexed, and of the kingdoms and provinces which
do or may appertain to them, in whatever manner or
by whatever right or title, ancient or modern, in times
past, present or to come, without any contradiction;
and if other prince or captain, Christian or infidel, or
of any law, sect or condition whatsoever, shall pretend
any right to these islands and seas, I am ready and
prepared to maintain and defend them in the name of
the Castilian Sovereigns, present and future, whose
is the empire and dominion over these Indias, islands
and <i>terra firma</i>, northern and southern, with all their
seas, both at the arctic and antarctic poles, on either
side of the equinoctial line, whether within or without
the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, both now and at
all times so long as the world shall endure and until
the final judgment of all mankind.’ And then the
Notary, who always accompanied such expeditions,
was ordered to make on the spot an exact record of
what had been said and done, which was duly signed
and authenticated by all present.”</p>

<p class='c008'>It was to the Portuguese navigator Fernão
de Magalhães (Ferdinand Magellan in the
English rendering of the name) that the
<span class='pageno' title='26' id='Page_26'></span>honor finally fell of being the first, not alone
to find the passage through the new continent
that was being so eagerly sought, but
to cross by the western route to the East Indies
and thereby blaze the way to making
geography an exact science. He had already
been to the Moluccas by the African route,
and, disgusted by the failure of his King
suitably to reward his services, had transferred
his allegiance to Spain and managed
to secure from the Emperor Charles V a
commission and five ships, the largest of
but 120 tons’ burden. On the 20th of September,
1419, he sailed from the Guadalquivir,
with a crew numbering 280, all told, and,
having entered the Plata River and satisfied
himself that it was not a strait, ran down the
Patagonian coast through many storms until
he found shelter in the harbor of St.
Julian, where, on Easter Sunday, a mutiny
broke out that only a man of such remarkable
courage and resourcefulness as Magellan
possessed could have suppressed. It had
been a hard voyage, the chances of finding the
strait seemed slim, there was only the prospect
that there they must remain throughout
the antarctic winter in idleness and discomfort;
<span class='pageno' title='27' id='Page_27'></span>it is small wonder that they wanted to
desert.</p>

<p class='c008'>However, during the last week in August
spring began (the seasons are reversed south
of the equator, it must be remembered) and
the fleet, without the <i>Santiago</i>, which had
been wrecked, proceeded to the south. After
experiencing much more bad weather, they
made Cape Virgins on the 21st of October
and entered a large bay, which was flanked by
lofty mountains, crowned with glaciers and
snow. This at last was the entrance to the
passage, but at that very point one of the
vessels, the <i>San Antonio</i>, seized an opportunity
to make its escape and return to Spain.
“For five weeks,” as Hawthorne relates, “the
remaining three ships wound along through
the tortuous channel. Provisions were running
short, yet Magellan would not turn back
‘even if he had to eat the leather off the
ships’ yards.’ At length his persistence was
rewarded by a sight of the open sea. ‘When,’
to quote Richard Eden, ‘the Capitayne was
past the strayght and saw the way open to
the mayne sea, he was so gladde thereof that
for joy the teares fell from his eyes and he
named the poynte of the lande from whense
<span class='pageno' title='28' id='Page_28'></span>he first saw that sea Cape Desiderato.’ And
the broad ocean which lay before him was so
calm, after his many stormful days, that he
called it the Pacific.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“But months of a voyage as trying as any
they had encountered still lay before them,”
Hawthorne goes on. “Could the planet be so
vast? Until December they kept a northerly
course, then struck out boldly across the unknown
waste. They ran across one or two
islands, but erelong were swallowed up in
the seemingly endless immensity of ocean.
They were reduced to the utmost extremities
for food and water; scurvy broke out; nineteen
men died and thirty were too ill to work.
Finally, on the 6th of March, they reached
the Ladrone Islands, so named because of
the thievishness of the natives. Here they
got fruit and other food, and the worst was
over. Ten days later the Philippines were
sighted and Magellan knew the extent of his
achievement. He had sailed round the world.
Happier than Columbus, he did not survive
this mightiest exploit of his time; in a fight
with the natives the great sailor was killed.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Only one of the little vessels ever got back
to Spain. Returning by way of Africa, she
<span class='pageno' title='29' id='Page_29'></span>arrived at the Guadalquivir in September, a
year after she had set out, and with but
eighteen survivors of the expedition. “What
a picture!” the historian exclaims—“those
eighteen seaworn mariners in their battered
craft, survivors of the greatest feat of navigation
that has ever been performed. What
a poem is their story, what an event in the
history of mankind! What reward did Magellan
have? None that mortal could bestow.
He was dead and his wife and son had also
died. Del Cano, the captain of the ship, was
given a crest, with the legend, on a terrestrial
globe, ‘<i>Primus circumdedisti me</i>,’ together
with a pension of five hundred ducats, and
Espinosa was likewise pensioned and ennobled.
But every mariner who sails the seas
knows Magellan and the story of his exploit,
and mankind accords him the honor that
Spain could not bestow. Of all the great
explorers, he is perhaps the one whose character
and deeds we can contemplate with the
most unalloyed satisfaction.”</p>

<h3 class='c014'>IV</h3>

<p class='c015'>Until the great Dutch navigator, Willim
Cornelis Schouten, found the way around
<span class='pageno' title='30' id='Page_30'></span>Cape Horn nearly a hundred years later, however,
no practical advantage over her rival resulted
to Spain from Magellan’s discoveries—so
far as trade with the East Indies was
concerned, that is. The passage through the
Strait was too perilous for sailing vessels, the
distance across the Pacific too great. Yet
only a year before Magellan set out on his
famous voyage an era began in her new possessions
that was to pour into her coffers a
stream of gold in comparison with which the
profits Portugal was deriving from her trade
with the Orient seemed trivial. For in that
year Hernando Cortés, the greatest soldier
and statesman Spain ever sent to the new
world, began his conquest of Mexico.</p>

<p class='c008'>Except for the spirit of emulation it inspired,
except for the knowledge it brought
of the existence in the newly discovered countries
of a people less barbarous than the
aborigines of the Antilles, of mines that
were worth while and of enormous hoards of
treasure, the story of that conquest has no
place in the history of South America, and,
therefore, will not be gone into here. It is related
somewhere as an interesting commentary
that in an obscure little house in the City
<span class='pageno' title='31' id='Page_31'></span>of Mexico still lives a modest, well-educated
gentleman who is directly descended from
the Emperor of the Aztecs. Señor Montezuma
entertains no hope of a restoration, it
is said, but quietly accepts the meager pension
allowed him by the present government,
while the heirs of Cortés receive immense
revenues from their Mexican estates and the
Marquis del Valle, as the present-day Cortés
is called, lives in luxury and is a man of influence
and power in the land.</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1526, Sebastian Cabot was commissioned
by the King of Spain to locate the Papal
meridian in America and then to follow in
Magellan’s track and determine the corresponding
longitude on the Asiatic side; but,
when he put in at the mouth of the Rio de la
Plata, he heard rumors of a great and wealthy
people who dwelt near the headwaters of the
river—rumors like those Grijalva had heard
respecting the Aztecs and which had led to
the Mexican conquest by Cortés; only these
wonderful accounts were of a South American
empire. In proof of what they said, the
Indians of the Plata exhibited silver ornaments
that had passed from hand to hand
from the highlands of Bolivia and Peru, along
<span class='pageno' title='32' id='Page_32'></span>the river to the Atlantic; and, too strongly
tempted to resist, and trusting that the discovery
of the rich mines from which this silver
came would excuse their disobedience,
Cabot and his company abandoned their survey
and spent three years exploring and
prospecting along the Uruguay and Paraná
as far north as the present site of the city of
Asunción. As their forces and provisions
were inadequate to enable them to penetrate
farther, the search was in vain; and so, having
found, on their return to a fort they had
established, that it had been taken by the Indians
and the garrison massacred, Cabot
abandoned the effort and went back to Spain
to make what explanation he could.</p>

<p class='c008'>The news of this supposed encroachment,
added to the ever increasing poaching of the
French, proved what was needed to stimulate
the Portuguese at last to make a serious attempt
at colonization in Brazil. One Christovão
Jaques and a few settlers had already
established a small sugar factory in the neighborhood
of the present site of Pernambuco,
and it had been found that much of the land
in the northern part of the country was
admirably adapted to the cultivation of that
<span class='pageno' title='33' id='Page_33'></span>staple, the demand for which in Europe was
constantly increasing. Five vessels were sent
out, therefore, under the command of Martim
Affonso da Souza. Early in 1531 he drew
near Cape St. Roque, captured three French
ships laden with brazil wood, sent part of his
own fleet north to explore the coast beyond,
and with the other ships sailed south and
dropped anchor near the site of what is now
the great coffee port of Santos. There he
established São Vicente, the first permanent
colony in Brazil.</p>

<p class='c008'>There also they came across one João Ramalho,
a former sailor who had been put
ashore for mutiny years before by a ship on
its way to India and was living among the
natives of the neighborhood with his half-breed
children. Glad enough to welcome his
countrymen, he disposed the Indians to peace
and showed the Portuguese the way up the
mountains to the vast plateau that begins only
a few miles from the sea. There, near the
present site of São Paulo, was founded another
settlement, from whence they could
stretch out in all directions over what was
destined to become the greatest coffee-producing
country in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='34' id='Page_34'></span>A year or two afterward, encouraged by
Da Souza’s success, Duarte Coelho set out
with a carefully selected and more numerous
company and founded the colony of Pernambuco.
Here, as in the south, the country back
of the coast was fertile and easily accessible
and there was little trouble with the Indians.
Sugar planting proved wonderfully profitable,
Coelho turned out to be a good manager,
and so politic was he in the relations
with the mother country that within a few
years the colony had become self-supporting
and, like the other, possessed of all the elements
of permanence and prosperity. Soon
afterward São Salvador da Bahia was established.
With such a beginning, it was not
long before the Portuguese began flocking
to Brazil as the Spaniards had to the Caribbean.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>V</h3>

<p class='c015'>In the meanwhile in this region of the
Caribbean much progress had been made.
Towns had been built, not only in Española,
but in Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico and in
Darien and other places on the Isthmus,
landed estates (<i>repartimientos</i>) had been apportioned,
<span class='pageno' title='35' id='Page_35'></span>as rewards for services, among
such as desired to cultivate them, mining
rights had been allotted. These plantations
and the mines were being worked by natives
impressed into slavery, some of the communities
had become large and thriving, in Spain
a Council of the Indies and in the islands local
governmental tribunals (<i>Real Audiencias</i>)
had been created.</p>

<p class='c008'>Whole fleets of ships plied back and forth
across the Atlantic, those setting out from
Spain laden with implements of agriculture
and war, clothes, and fresh companies of adventurers,
coming over as colonists, or to
continue the work of conquest and the search
for treasure; those returning, laden with the
products of the tropics and with gold and
precious stones. Emeralds had been found
near the coast of Colombia, and Balboa had
discovered in the Gulf of San Miguel—that
famous group of islands where, as Mozans
tells us, “pearls were so common that the
natives used them for adorning the paddles
of their canoes”—pearls “as large as filberts
and of exceeding beauty of form and luster,”
many of which, “found in the same fisheries
a short time subsequently, at once took place
<span class='pageno' title='36' id='Page_36'></span>among the largest and most perfect of the
world’s gems.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, neither there nor anywhere
else in the Caribbean region, had any vast
wealth and civilization comparable to that of
the Mexicans been discovered. Balboa, however,
had married, according to the Indian
custom, the daughter of a <i>cacique</i> (native
chief), and, being in the confidence of
the Indians of his province, had heard rumors,
even before the conquest of Mexico,
of a rich and powerful empire to the south
(the same that were afterward heard by
Cabot); and, after he had been succeeded
as Governor by his jealous rival, the notorious
Pedrarias Davila, was commissioned
to take charge of an expedition to go in
search of it. Already he had accomplished
the unheard-of task of taking four ships to
pieces on the Caribbean shore, transporting
them across the Isthmus and reconstructing
them on the shore of San Miguel, and, when
about to sail, had been arrested by order of
Pedrarias, tried on a charge of treason, and
executed before he could appeal to Spain.
Some years later, having forestalled his great
rival in that summary way, Pedrarias entrusted
<span class='pageno' title='37' id='Page_37'></span>the venture to one Francisco Pizarro,
an opportunist, without money, rank, or
credit, and then nearly fifty years old, yet
one who startled the world by an achievement
equaled only by Cortés’ own.</p>

<p class='c008'>Francisco Pizarro had been but a swineherd
in his boyhood, but later had served
under Gonzolo de Cordova (<i>El Gran Capitan</i>)
in that splendid body of infantrymen
which fought its way to the foremost rank
in Europe, and was a son, too, though an
illegitimate one, of a Spanish officer of
noble blood. For such a man, as Dawson
says, “an admirable soldier, conscious that
he possessed powers of the highest order yet
hopelessly handicapped in old Europe by
his base birth and illiteracy, the discovery of
the new world opened up a field for his
talents” that led him “eagerly to embrace
the opportunity to embark with Alonso de
Ojeda in 1509 for the Darien gold mines.”
His first appearance in history is as a
member of the party that went with Balboa
to search for the Pacific; afterward he was
among the first of “the adventurers that
flocked to the new city of Panama, looking
over the mysterious sea, like a pack of wolves
<span class='pageno' title='38' id='Page_38'></span>eager for a share in the spoils of its unknown
shores;” later he happened to be the officer
chosen by Pedrarias for Balboa’s arrest.</p>

<p class='c008'>As he had no funds of his own, and since
it was the custom of the times for the Conquistadores
who undertook such expeditions
to do so at their own expense, he associated
with him a priest named Hernando de Luque,
who had some capital, and Diego de Almagro,
a soldier of still more advanced age but of
ability and good reputation. It was agreed
that the Padre de Luque should contribute
the funds, that Almagro should attend to the
collecting and forwarding of troops and supplies,
and that Pizarro himself should have
the active command. Whereupon they
bought one of the ships that had been carried
across the Isthmus by Balboa and set out on
their first expedition in 1524. As so frequently
occurred in such cases, however, inadequacy
of provisions caused the venture
to fail.</p>

<div id='i038'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_038.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>FRANCISCO PIZARRO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Eighteen months later they sailed again,
with a much larger stock of supplies and
this time with 160 men. For hundreds of
miles they found nothing but the same
swampy, forest-clad wastes along the Colombian
<span class='pageno' title='39' id='Page_39'></span>shore, inhabited only by naked tribes
of savages. Pizarro’s disheartened companions,
too ready to believe that the country
they were seeking was but a myth, would
have had him return; but one day the pilot,
who had been sent on ahead, suddenly reappeared
with the news that he had penetrated
south of the equator and had there met a
large trading raft on its way north, bearing
cloth, silver work, vases, and other things pertaining
to civilization and manned by a crew
that wore clothes. These men, the pilot reported,
had told him that they came from a
town called Tumbez, which lay in a fertile
valley behind a penetrable coast—that the
whole interior of the country was inhabited
by a civilized people, subjects of an emperor
whose capital was a great city, high up in the
mountains still farther south. On this confirmation
of their hopes, the commander succeeded
in inducing his men to push on until
they had reached nearly as far as the northern
boundary of Ecuador, where he landed
most of the company on an island called
Gallo and sent Almagro back to Panama for
more provisions and supplies.</p>

<p class='c008'>At Gallo the climate proved unhealthful;
<span class='pageno' title='40' id='Page_40'></span>fevers soon decimated the party; even their
clothes were rotted by the almost incessant
rains and steamy heat, and, as though that
were not enough, when the Governor learned
from members of the crew who had returned
that the men were being held there against
their will, he flew into a rage, instead of sending
supplies and reinforcements, and despatched
a ship to bring back all who wished to
desert. Only emboldened by these misfortunes,
Pizarro “drew his sword and traced a
line with it on the sand from east to west,”
says Montesino in his <i>Anales del Perú</i>.
“Then, turning toward the south, ‘Friends
and comrades,’ he said, ‘on that side are toil,
hunger, nakedness, the drenching storm, desertion,
and death; on this side, ease and pleasure.
There lies Peru with its riches; here
Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man,
what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my
part, I go to the south,’ and, so saying, he
stepped across the line.” He was followed by
the pilot Ruiz, a Greek cavalier named de
Candia, and only eleven others. There is, indeed,
as Prescott comments—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Something striking to the imagination in the spectacle
<span class='pageno' title='41' id='Page_41'></span>of those few brave spirits consecrating themselves
to a daring enterprise that seemed as far above their
strength as any recorded in the fabulous annals of
knight-errantry. A handful of men, without food,
without clothing, almost without arms, without knowledge
of the land to which they were bound, without
even a vessel to transport them, were left there on a
rock in the ocean with the avowed purpose of carrying
on a crusade against a powerful empire, staking their
lives on its success. What is there in the legends of
chivalry that surpasses it?”</p>

<p class='c008'>For weary months they awaited the return
of Almagro with the provisions, and the moment
they arrived set sail for the Gulf of
Guayaquil. Landing at Tumbez, says Dawson,
“with their own eyes they saw confirmation
of what the Indians of the raft had told
them. Irrigated fields, green with beautiful
crops, lined the river bank; eighty thousand
people, all comfortably housed, lived in the
valley; commerce was flourishing; large temples,
profusely ornamented with gold and silver,
testified to their wealth and culture; the
government was well ordered and stable, and
the people received the visitors with open-handed
hospitality.” It is easy enough to
imagine with what longing eyes these forlorn
adventurers who had risked and endured so
<span class='pageno' title='42' id='Page_42'></span>much must have gazed on such a scene as
this!</p>

<p class='c008'>Yet, concluding that his force was too
small even for a raid, and thinking it wiser,
anyway, after what had happened, to be invested
with independent powers before making
any attempt at a conquest, Pizarro made
his way back to Spain and related his experiences
to the King, who was so greatly
impressed both with the story and the petitioner’s
noble and commanding presence that
he did more than merely commission him to
undertake a new expedition: he legitimized
him and created him marquis, appointed him
<i>Adelantado</i> (governor) of such countries as
he might conquer, created Almagro marshal,
and made the thirteen who had so gallantly
stood by them gentlemen of coat armor.</p>

<p class='c008'>On Pizarro’s return to Panama, he brought
with him a few kindred spirits selected from
among the very flower of the fighting men
of the Peninsula, including his brothers Hernando,
Juan, and Gonzalo and his half-brother,
Francisco Alcantara, his equals in
valor if not in audacity and intellect. And
then, as he believed from what he had seen of
the fighting on the Isthmus, that a few scores
<span class='pageno' title='43' id='Page_43'></span>of good men, mail-clad and well provided with
artillery and horses—for these, unknown in
the new world before the advent of the
Spaniards, had never failed to strike terror
to the natives—would be as effective as
thousands in overcoming undisciplined masses
of Indians, armed in their inferior fashion,
instead of attempting to assemble an army
he got together only a small company composed
of men of whose courage and experience
he was well assured. Having arranged
with Almagro to follow with what reinforcements
he could recruit from among the unemployed
adventurers in Nicaragua, he set
out once more.</p>

<p class='c008'>This time he happened to land first
among the less civilized tribes in Ecuador,
where he had the good fortune to find a
rich store of emeralds and gold, which he
sent back to Almagro to encourage him in
his work. Then, marching down the coast
to Guayaquil, he crossed to the island of
Puna to await the reinforcements, conquered
the fierce inhabitants of the place, and was
afterward joined by a detachment sent out
by his associate under the command of Hernando
de Soto, an adventurer who had served
<span class='pageno' title='44' id='Page_44'></span>with Cortés in Mexico and was later to
attain still greater fame as the discoverer
of the Mississippi. Even with those De Soto
brought, the whole force numbered less than
two hundred and fifty.</p>

<p class='c008'>Though they had not the faintest idea of it
then, the empire they were destined to bring
under the Spanish sway covered a territory
along the plateaux and eastern and Pacific
slopes of the Andes extending from Quito
in Ecuador to the river Maule in Chile, a
distance of nearly three thousand miles, inhabited
by hardy and warlike races, that
numbered, according to the estimate of the
early historians, somewhere near twenty millions
of people.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>VI</h3>

<p class='c015'>So great was the empire of the Incas. But
from whom were these remarkable rulers descended
who brought their people to a state
of civilization relatively so superior to that
of the savages east of the Andes? To what
race did they belong? From whence did
they originally come—Europe or Asia?—and,
if so, how did they get to South America?
How did they acquire the knowledge of the
<span class='pageno' title='45' id='Page_45'></span>arts and sciences that they possessed? “Students
of archæology have essayed in vain to
answer these questions,” says Mozans. “All
is still shrouded in mystery—in mystery even
darker than that which veils the advent of
the Toltecs and Aztecs to the valley of Anahuac,
more profound than that which obscures
the first beginnings of the civilizations
on the elevated Pamirs and in the valleys of
the Nile and Euphrates. In all this uncertainty
and mystery, however,” he adds,</p>

<p class='c016'>“One fact seems to remain incontrovertible, and
that is that Manco Capac and Mama Oello” (the
founders of the dynasty) “first appeared on the shores
of Lake Titicaca” (a body of water nearly as large
as Lake Erie, lying between the two main Cordillera
of the Andes in southeastern Peru, two miles and a
half up above the level of the sea). “On this point
tradition and the concurrent testimony of the earlier
historians are practically at one.... Another
fact, too, is unquestioned. Whether Manco Capac,
the Minos of Peru, was of foreign or of native birth,
it is certain that he was able, in the space of thirty
years, to lay the foundation of that vast empire which,
under the Inca Yupanqui, extended its conquests to
the Maule in Chile, and, under Huayna Capac,
planted its victorious banners above the fortresses of
the Shiri” (the <i>Cacique</i> of the Caras), “in the extended
territory of Quito, and which gave its laws
and religion and language to hundreds of conquered
tribes.”</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='46' id='Page_46'></span>“What is one to do with no historical records
to study over?” asks Hawthorne.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The Aztecs did have some sort of writing, and,
though we have not yet learned how to read it, we
may solace ourselves with the hope that enlightenment
may sometime come; but the people of the Andes
did not even use hieroglyphics. Their sole documents
were knotted strings. These strings, which they
called <i>quipus</i>, were of course merely aids to memory—in
the same way that a knot in a handkerchief enables
a husband to remember the instructions his wife gives
him when he sets out for the city, and which could
not be written down in many pages.... Nevertheless,
we have traditions in plenty.... Starting
with the reasonable assumption that there must
have been a very considerable past before the Spaniards
appeared, we may construct various more or
less plausible surmises, based on the Cyclopean architectural
ruins which are distributed about the country.
Marvelous works they are, though their form, and
the carvings with which they are decorated, are less
impressive than their mere size and weight....
It has been very generally thought that they were
the handiwork of the prehistoric Piruas; yet, since
the Piruas are prehistoric, it is not to be expected
that much historic information concerning them is
obtainable.... The ruins had been abandoned long
before the Spaniards came and the Indians knew
nothing of their origin.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“Still, it is indisputable,” he goes on to say,</p>

<p class='c016'>“that in Peru the grade of culture found in Mexico
<span class='pageno' title='47' id='Page_47'></span>at the time of the conquest must have been
reached and passed many ages earlier. In proof of
this we have the fact that the Peruvians alone had
succeeded in domesticating animals. Only the dog
had been adapted to man’s service in other parts of
America. Here the domestic llama, for instance, was
derived from the wild huanacu and the alpaca from
the vicuna. Many centuries would be required in
order to bring about these results. Several varieties
of maize were also produced under cultivation, and
the Peruvian species of cotton plant is known to
exist only as it appears under cultivation. Wild
tubers were found in Peru from which the potato was
educed. Now, it has been proven by experiment that
wild potatoes require a very long time to put on
a civilized complexion. It was in Peru that the
potato, as <i>we</i> know it, was first discovered. It was
not cultivated north of Darien. Raleigh brought
the first specimens to Ireland in 1568, but it was not
until the end of the eighteenth century that they
came into general use in Europe. The Peruvians
practiced irrigation and manured their crops with
guano.”</p>

<p class='c008'>And he continues:</p>

<p class='c016'>“The materials for this nation were provided by
the four tribes—Incas, Quichuas, Canas, and Cauchis—scattered
over the northwest of South America.
They were all mountaineers, short but strong and
active, with soft, brown skins, black hair, and arched
noses. At first the tribes were composed of clans, but
the Incas settled in the lofty valley of Cuzco and
<span class='pageno' title='48' id='Page_48'></span>from that coign of vantage gradually subdued the
other tribes. Unlike the Aztecs, they confirmed their
conquests, not by exacting tribute, but by military
occupation of the subject territory. The town of
Cuzco was built about the end of the twelfth century
and the work of internal organization was begun. It
is at this point that solid historical information first
comes to hand. A succession of head chiefs or kings
had already been instituted. These monarchs were
called Incas <i>par excellence</i>—<i>the</i> Inca of all minor
Incas. To this general name, nicknames were added,
by way of distinguishing them. Finally, the eighth
of the line was called Viracocha, which means Sun-God,
and indicated that by that epoch the Incas had
acquired something of the divinity that doth hedge
a king.</p>

<p class='c016'>“Viracocha annexed the land of the Aymaras” (in
Bolivia), “who are suspected of descent from the
builders of Tiahuanucu” (where are some of the most
interesting of the ruins). “In the next reign the
strong tribe of the Chancas, living close to the
equator, resisted the march of conquest, but were
finally defeated under the walls of Cuzco and their
country afterward annexed. The Chimus, who gave
its name to Chimborazo, were the next victims of the
Incas, who now ruled the region from Lake Titicaca
to the equator and from the Andes to the sea. It
was under the Inca Yupanqui that this conquest took
place, and he is regarded as the great hero of Peruvian
history. To him was applied the name Pachacutec,
Changer of the World. The successor of this
champion extended the dominion of his people so much
farther that it became necessary to found the city of
Quito to keep watch over the northern portion of the
<span class='pageno' title='49' id='Page_49'></span>empire. He brought in the valley of Pachacamac,
where there was an ancient and desirable temple, and
also penetrated far into Chile....</p>

<p class='c016'>“The Inca language was spoken throughout the
empire. Garrisons were distributed at strategic
points and were connected by the famous roads which
have been the wonder and admiration of the world....
There was a central highway from Quito
to Cuzco, and thence southward, which is thus
described by the historian Cieza” (de Leon): “‘I
believe that since the history of man has been recorded
there has been no account of such grandeur as is to
be seen on this road, which passes over deep valleys
and lofty mountains, by snowy heights, over falls of
water, through the living rocks and along the edges
of furious torrents. In all these places it is level
and paved, along mountain slopes well excavated,
through the living rock cut, along the river banks
supported by walls, in the snowy heights with steps
and resting places, in all parts clean-swept, clear of
stones, with posts and storehouses and temples of the
sun at intervals. Oh, what greater thing could be
said of Alexander, or of any of the powerful kings
that have ruled in the world, than that they had
made such a road as this and conceived the works
that were required for it! The roads constructed by
the Romans in Spain are not to be compared with it.’
The post houses were some four or five miles apart and
in each were two Indians who carried messages to and
from the next house in line, whereby the government
was kept constantly informed of what was going on
in all parts of its dominions. In this way messages
could travel at the rate of nearly a hundred and fifty
miles a day.”</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='50' id='Page_50'></span>The Inca deities were the Sun and Moon.
The Sun they regarded as God the Father
and the Moon (believed to be the Sun-God’s
sister and wife) as the Goddess-Mother. The
people called themselves Children of the Sun.
The reigning Inca was at once the Chief
Priest and absolute temporal ruler. Following
their conception of the divine relationship,
he could marry only his sister of the full blood
and only their eldest son could inherit the
throne. If no son was born of this first incestuous
marriage, or if he died and no other
was born, the Inca married the next sister,
and so on until there was one capable of inheriting.
But there were morganatic marriages,
as a result of which each of the reigning
Incas left numerous sons and daughters,
whose descendants constituted a privileged
class, and in the course of ages the throne
came to be surrounded by thousands of men
of the royal blood who were devoted from
their birth to warfare, learning, and state-craft.
A subject, however, could have more
than one wife only by favor of the Inca. The
government, though exercised in a <i>kindly</i>
spirit, as we are told by the ancient chroniclers,
was in form a military despotism.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='51' id='Page_51'></span>There was no money or other medium of
exchange; gold and silver were used only for
purposes of adornment; such trade as there
was, was by barter. Every man was obliged
to work for the common good at some form of
industry or occupation suitable to his strength
and age and, if able, to take his turn at the
maintenance and extension of the irrigation
systems, which in that way were brought to
such a state of perfection that modern Peru
still lives on the half-ruined fragments of
their canals and conduits and reservoirs.
Hardly a spot of arable soil was left uncultivated.
Whole mountains were terraced for
thousands of feet up their sides.</p>

<p class='c008'>Private ownership in land did not exist; it
belonged to the communes. The custom was
to divide it into tracts, each large enough to
support a family, and parcel it out; for every
child born there was an additional allotment,
and, at intervals, a general revision and redistribution.
The produce was divided into three
parts: one for the Inca and his establishment,
one for the priesthood, and one for the commune.
When one section of the country was
impoverished by war or some other casualty,
its needs were supplied by assessments levied
<span class='pageno' title='52' id='Page_52'></span>on the others. The occupations of the women,
both in town and country, were essentially
domestic. Some were brought up from childhood
and specially educated to serve in the
religious rites and in the household of the
reigning Inca. These were known as Virgins
of the Sun.</p>

<p class='c008'>The capital, Cuzco, was located in a valley
about two hundred miles northwest of Lake
Titicaca and at a lower elevation, yet still
more than two miles up above the level of the
sea. A colossal, massive-walled citadel loomed
over it from the heights of Sacsahuaman
above the town. Strong walls and towers
inclosed it on every side. In its midst was
a great square, from which started the remarkable
roads leading to the four corners
of the empire, referred to by Hawthorne.
One whole side was occupied by the temple,
and near by were the dwellings of the
priests and the palaces of the Inca and
the Virgins of the Sun. This sacred space
was a citadel in itself, protected by five heavy
walls.</p>

<p class='c008'>Describing the temple, the historian of
the conquest, Garcilaso de la Vega (and
there was no one better qualified to write on
<span class='pageno' title='53' id='Page_53'></span>the subject, for he was himself, on the maternal
side, a grandson of one of the last of the
Inca kings), says that “All the four walls
were covered from roof to floor with plates
and slabs of gold. In the side, where we
should place the altar, they placed a figure
of the Sun, made of a plate of gold of a
thickness double that of the other plates
which covered the walls. The figure was
made with a circular face and rays of fire
issuing from it, all of one piece, just as the
sun is represented by painters. It was so
large as to occupy one side of the temple
from one wall to the other.” Even the doorposts
were of gold. One door, encased in
silver, led to a hall dedicated to the Moon-Goddess,
where the images and furnishings
were all of silver, as were also the decorations
of the mummies of the Incas’ wives.</p>

<p class='c008'>“The walls of their palaces,” Markham
says, “were built of stone, of a dark slate
color, with recesses and doors at certain intervals,
the sides of the doors approaching
each other” (narrowing toward the top) “and
supporting huge stone lintels. The side walls
were pierced with small square windows, as
in the ruins of Manco Capac’s palace, and the
<span class='pageno' title='54' id='Page_54'></span>roofs were thatched with the <i>ycha</i>, or long
grass of the Andes. The interior consisted of
several spacious halls, with smaller rooms
opening into them, and the interior walls were
adorned with golden animals and flowers,
executed with much skill and taste. Mirrors
of a hard stone, highly polished, hung on
stone pegs, while in the numerous recesses
were utensils and <i>conopas</i> (household gods)
of gold and silver, fantastically designed.
The couches were of vicuna cloth of the softest
and finest texture.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Of the palaces of the Incas, Francisco Lopez
de Gomara tells us that “all the service
of their house, table and kitchen, was of gold
and silver, or at least of silver and copper.
The Inca had in his chamber hollow statues
of gold, which appeared like giants, and others
naturally imitated from animals, birds,
and trees, from plants produced by the land
and from such fish as are yielded by the
waters of the kingdom. He also had ropes,
baskets and hampers of gold and silver and
piles of golden sticks to imitate fuel prepared
for burning. In short, there was nothing
that his territory produced that he had not got
imitated in gold.”</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='55' id='Page_55'></span>Cieza de Leon says of the magnificence
of the harvest festivals celebrated in the
great plaza of the temple: “We hold it
to be very certain that neither in Jerusalem,
nor in Rome, nor in Persia, nor
in any other part of the world, was such
wealth of gold and silver and precious stones
collected together.” In his later years, while
living in Spain, Garcilaso de la Vega, who
had been just as enthusiastic in his description,
and seemed to fear that he might be
suspected of romancing, took occasion to
write that “this is not hard for those to believe
who have since seen so much gold and
silver arrive here from that land. In the
year 1595 alone, within the space of eight
months, thirty-five millions of gold and silver
crossed the bar of San Lucar in three cargoes.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“Many generations of culture and Inca
rule had produced men of a very different
physical type,” Markham tells us, “from the
Peruvian Indian of to-day. We see the Incas
in the pictures at the church of Santa Ana
at Cuzco,” he continues.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The color of the skin was many shades lighter
than that of the downtrodden descendants of their
<span class='pageno' title='56' id='Page_56'></span>subjects. The forehead was high, the nose slightly
aquiline, the chin and mouth firm, the whole face
majestic, refined, and intellectual. The hair was
gracefully arranged, and around the head was the
<i>llantu</i>, the sign of sovereignty. The <i>llantu</i> appears
to have been a short piece of red fringe on the forehead,
fastened around the head by two bands. It
was habitually worn, but, when praying, the Inca
took it off and put it on the ground beside him.
The ceremonial headdress was the <i>mascapaycha</i>, a
golden semicircular miter on the forehead, to which
the <i>llantu</i> was fastened. Bright colored feathers
were fixed on the sides and the plume” (of black
and white falcon feathers, he says in another place)
“rose over the summit. Long golden eardrops came
down to the shoulders. The tunic and mantel varied
in color and were made of the finest vicuna wool. On
the breast the Incas wore a golden semicircular breastplate,
representing the sun, with a border of signs
for the months.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The later Incas wore a very rich kind of brocade,
in bands sewn together, forming a wide belt. The
bands were in squares, each with an ornament. The
material was called <i>tocapu</i>. Some of the Incas had
the whole tunic of <i>tocapu</i>. The breeches were black
and in loose plaits at the knees. The <i>usutas</i>, or
sandals, were of white wool. The Inca clad for war
had a large square shield of wood or leather. There
was a loop of leather at the back to pass the arm
through. In one hand was a wooden staff, about two
feet long, with a bronze star, of six or eight points,
fastened at one end—a most formidable warclub.
In the other hand was a long staff with a battle axe
fixed at one end. The Ccoya, or Queen, wore the
<span class='pageno' title='57' id='Page_57'></span><i>lliclla</i> or mantle fastened across the chest by a very
large golden <i>topu</i> or pin, with head elaborately
carved with ornaments and figures. The <i>lliclla</i> or
mantle and <i>acsu</i> or skirt varied as regards color.
The head was adorned with golden circlets and
flowers.... The nobles wore headdresses of egret
feathers and gold breastplates over their tunics. The
princesses wore long mantles of various colors, and
the Virgins of the Sun long white mantles, secured
across the bosom by large gold pins.”</p>

<div id='i056a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_056_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>INCA BURIAL TOWER NEAR LAKE TITICACA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i056b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_056_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CLOISTERS OF DOMINICAN MONASTERY, CUZCO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Mozans, writing of the spot they held most
sacred of all, says:</p>

<p class='c016'>“It would be difficult to find any place in the world
richer in legends and traditions than is Lake Titicaca.
Every cove and inlet, every rock and island has its
myth, and many of these places were held in special
veneration by the Incas for long generations. This
was especially true of two islands—Titicaca, sacred
to the Sun, and Coati, sacred to the Moon, the Sun’s
sister. What a fascination there was about these
two islands! Beholding the cradle and sanctuary of
Inca civilization, it was easy to fancy oneself a spectator
of one of those long processions of reed <i>balsas</i>”
(boats) “conveying the children of the Sun from
the mainland to the sacred islands of their race, where
were the rich temples dedicated to their Sun-Father
and Moon-Mother. Adorned with gorgeous trappings
of gold and silver—royal colors—the Inca’s
barge, manned by stalwart young oarsmen, specially
selected for this service, led the way. Immediately
following the Sphinxlike Inca came the members of
his court arrayed in gaudy vesture. Next to them
<span class='pageno' title='58' id='Page_58'></span>were the ministers of the temple and the officers of the
army, gleaming in barbaric attire. The rear of the
procession was made up of the humble tillers of the
soil, who had gathered from all parts to greet their
idolized ruler and to swell the number of worshipers
congregated about the effigies of the Sun and Moon,
or in front of the sacred rock decked with richest
tissues and plates of burnished silver and gold....</p>

<p class='c016'>“In these temples and palaces, according to the
old chroniclers, were immense treasures, rivaling those
in the temples of Cuzco. The riches in the temple of
the Sun were especially great, for ‘here,’ writes Garcilaso,
‘all the vassals of the Inca offered up much
gold and silver and precious stones every year, as
a token of gratitude to the Sun for the two acts
of grace that had taken place on that spot. This
temple had the same service as that of Cuzco. There
was said to be such quantity of gold and silver heaped
up in the island, besides what was worked for the use
of the temple, that the stories of the Indians concerning
it are more wonderful than credible. Father
Blas Valera, one of the earliest Spanish chroniclers,
says that the Indian colonists, called <i>Mitimaes</i>, who
lived in Copocabana, declared that the quantity of
gold and silver heaped up as offerings was so great
that another temple might have been made of it, from
the foundations to the roof, without using any other
materials. But as soon as the Indians heard of the
invasion of the country by the Spaniards, and that
they were seizing all the treasure they could find, they
threw the whole of it into the great lake.’”</p>

<div>
  <span class='pageno' title='59' id='Page_59'></span>
<h3 class='c014'>VII</h3>
</div>

<p class='c015'>Fortunately for Pizarro, at the time he
made his appearance on the scene, it happened
that these people were either still engaged
in or had only just terminated a civil
war that had been brought on by an attempt
of Huascar, the then reigning Inca, to impose
his will on his half-brother, Atahualpa,
a rebellious vassal. It appears that Huascar’s
father, the Inca Huayna Capac, having
completed the subjugation of the Caras
and their brave allies in Ecuador, had found
it necessary to remain in Quito nearly all the
rest of his life, to keep the inhabitants in
subjection and suppress revolts that frequently
occurred. As a political move, perhaps,
he had married the daughter and heiress
of the defeated Shiri and by her had had a
son. This was Atahualpa. As he, too, had
continued to live in Quito, he had come to be
regarded rather as a scion of the ancient
Shiri dynasty than as a prince of an alien
conquering house.</p>

<p class='c008'>And so when in 1525 Huayna Capac died,
he left this northern kingdom to Atahualpa
and only the southern to Huascar, his eldest
<span class='pageno' title='60' id='Page_60'></span>son of the full Inca blood, born of his sister-wife;
but, to preserve some sort of unity in
the empire, he commanded that Huascar, as
the only legitimate heir, should be paramount.
Huascar, nevertheless, had declined to acquiesce
in any such virtual division of dominions
that he regarded as his by right of
succession, and at the first opportunity had
quarreled with Atahualpa and invaded the
territory apportioned to him. In the battles
that followed Atahualpa’s forces had been
uniformly victorious, for, always superior in
prowess to the now more effete soldiery that
had defeated them in their former less organized
state, years of Inca rule had taught these
northerners how to make better avail of their
energy and courage. Suffering enormous
losses in every engagement, the forces of
Huascar had been driven farther and farther
south, until at last, in spite of reinforcements
which, it is said, brought his army up to fully
seventy thousand, he was beaten before the
walls of his capital and made prisoner.</p>

<p class='c008'>As soon as his capture had become known,
what was left of his army had dispersed, the
city had surrendered, and Atahualpa, if we
are to believe the chroniclers, had taken a terrible
<span class='pageno' title='61' id='Page_61'></span>revenge, first causing all Huascar’s subjects
that were of royal blood, and who
could be found, to be put to death, and
afterward the captured officers who had
fought for him. His cruelty, Garcilaso
de la Vega tells us, “was greater than that
of the Turks. Not content with the blood of
his own two hundred brothers, the sons of the
great Huayna Capac, he passed on to drink
that of his uncles, nephews, and other relations,
so that none of the blood royal might
escape, whether legitimate or not. They were
all murdered in different ways.... He
ordered all the women and children” (of
royal blood) “to be assembled, of whatever
age and condition, reserving only those who
were dedicated to the Sun in the convent of
Cuzco. He ordered that they should be killed
outside the city, by little and little, and by
various cruel tortures, so that they might be
long in dying.”</p>

<p class='c008'>When Pizarro and his party reached
Tumbez, Atahualpa, accompanied by a small
army, was at the baths near Cajamarca, a
town on the Peruvian plateau not far from
the Ecuadorian boundary. It was to him
there that the report came that strangers had
<span class='pageno' title='62' id='Page_62'></span>landed—strangers of a different color, who
had long hair on their chins and wore strange
clothing and armor, who had weapons different
from any that had been seen in the land
and bestrode terrible monsters that carried
them over the ground with incredible speed.
The effect of such startling news may be imagined.
Pizarro, however, after having fully
informed himself respecting the political
status of affairs, thought he saw an opportunity
to further his ends by diplomacy and
protested that his mission was a friendly one.
It would seem that Atahualpa must have
realized that the strangers were far more formidable
than was indicated by their mere
number, for he sent his brother Titu to welcome
them and make inquiries as to their desires
and the purpose of their visit. By him
Pizarro, having first expressed his thanks,
sent a message to the effect that he would go
at once to Cajamarca and call on Atahualpa
in person. What then occurred is thus related
by Dawson:</p>

<p class='c016'>“On receiving Pizarro’s answer to his friendly message,
Atahualpa resolved to await the promised visit,
apparently suspecting no evil. The audacious Spaniard
had, however, conceived the design of capturing
<span class='pageno' title='63' id='Page_63'></span>the victorious claimant of the throne of the Incas,
well knowing that in its actual distracted condition
the country would be left without a center about
which it could rally. Open war, no matter how overwhelming
his first victory might be, could hardly be
ultimately successful. Atahualpa, once safe at Cuzco
or Quito, and surrounded by the disciplined soldiers
who had overthrown Huascar, a defensive campaign
might be undertaken in which Pizarro would find
every step toward either capital bitterly disputed.
Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians pouring up from
the numberless provinces of the empire would be
thrown in a never ceasing succession of armies against
the little band of Spaniards and the latter would
infallibly be driven back to the coast by starvation
and fatigue, if not by defeat in the field.</p>

<p class='c016'>“Apparently foolhardy, in fact Pizarro’s plan offered
the only chance of success. Never dreaming
that such a step was in contemplation, Atahualpa took
no precautions. Leaving fifty-five men at the little
port of San Miguel in the Paita valley to secure his
retreat, Pizarro marched south with one hundred
and two foot soldiers, sixty-two horses, and two small
cannon, two hundred miles along the coast plain to
a point opposite Cajamarca, and ascended along an
Inca military road, meeting a friendly reception from
the wondering natives, and supplied with provisions
by Atahualpa’s orders. On the 15th of September,
1532, he entered Cajamarca. He found an open
square in the middle of the town, surrounded by walls
and solid stone buildings, which he received permission
to occupy as quarters. From his camp outside Atahualpa
sent word that on the following day he would
enter the town in state and receive the Spaniards.</p>

<p class='c016'><span class='pageno' title='64' id='Page_64'></span>“Marvelous good fortune favored Pizarro’s designs.
The Indians had furnished a trap all ready made, and
now Atahualpa deliberately walked into it. On the
morning of the 16th the Indian army broke camp and
marched to Cajamarca, followed by the Emperor, who
was borne in a litter and surrounded by his personal
attendants, the great chiefs and the nobles belonging
to his own lineage.” (Those belonging to Huascar’s
he had caused to be killed.) “At sunset he entered
the square, accompanied only by these unarmed attendants
and found Pizarro and a few Spaniards
awaiting him. The rest were hidden in the houses
around the square with their horses saddled, their
breastplates on, and musketry and cannon ready
charged. From among the group that surrounded
Pizarro, stepped forward Friar Valverde and approached
the Inca monarch, who, reclining in a litter
raised high above the crowd on the shoulders of his
attendants, waited with dignity to hear what these
strangers had to say.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The priest advanced with a cross in one hand and
a Bible in the other and began a harangue which,
clumsily translated by an Indian boy, the Inca hardly
understood. But in a few moments he realized that
this uncouth jargon was meant to convey an arrogant
demand that he acknowledge himself a vassal of
Charles V and submit to baptism. With haughty
surprise, he threw down the book Valverde tried to
force into his hand. The priest shouted: ‘Fall on,
Castilians—I absolve you!’ and into the helpless
crowd burst a murderous fire from the doors of the
houses all around. Aghast and bewildered by this
display of powers which to them seemed necromantic,
the survivors nevertheless stood manfully to the attack
<span class='pageno' title='65' id='Page_65'></span>of the mail-clad horsemen who rode into the
huddled masses, ferociously slashing and slaughtering.
The Indians strove desperately to drag the Spaniards
from the horses with their naked hands and interposed
a living wall of human flesh between the murderers
and their beloved sovereign. At length Pizarro’s own
hands snatched Atahualpa from the litter. The
Indian soldiers outside, hearing the firearms and the
noise of the struggle, tried to force their way into
the square, but the Spanish musketry and cannon
mowed them down by hundreds and they fled before
the charges of the cavalry, dispersing in the twilight.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Atahualpa was then confined in a small
stone house adjoining the palace of the Virgins
of the Sun (the latter is now a convent,
occupied by Sisters of Charity), and every
precaution possible under the circumstances
was taken to prevent his rescue. Pizarro’s
next move in the conquest was to murder him.
But, in the meanwhile, he had suggested in
conversations with his prisoner that Huascar’s
followers would probably take advantage of
the opportunity afforded by his capture to
reorganize their scattered forces and make an
effort to regain the throne; he had hinted,
too, at the advisability of arbitration, and
Atahualpa had taken alarm and secretly ordered
Huascar’s execution; whereupon Pizarro
had feigned the greatest indignation
<span class='pageno' title='66' id='Page_66'></span>and had contrived to frighten his victim into
offering his famous ransom. “I will fill this
room with gold,” he said, “as high as I can
reach, if only you will liberate me.” (The
room in which he was confined was 32 feet
9 inches long, 20 feet 9 inches wide, and 10
feet 9 inches high.) Pizarro accepted, a truce
was agreed upon, Atahualpa ordered all
preparations for war on the Spaniards to be
suspended, and arranged for the collection of
the gold. When the amount stipulated for
was at last assembled, it was found to have
a value equivalent to more than seventeen
millions of dollars in our currency. Some
historians say much more. Dawson, for instance,
says it was more than twenty-two
millions. One-fifth was sent to the royal
treasury in Spain and the rest was divided
among the adventurers. The share of the
private soldiers even was large enough to
make each of them rich for life.</p>

<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, Pizarro had not performed
his part of the agreement by setting his prisoner
at liberty. Whether or not he had ever
intended to can only be conjectured. It is
clear only that, even if he did enter into the
agreement in bad faith, as was charged by the
<span class='pageno' title='67' id='Page_67'></span>chroniclers, he was afterward confronted by
a problem which, in the opinion of recent
writers, justified his perfidious behavior.
Quizquiz, the general whose ability had enabled
Atahualpa so often to defeat his late
rival, was known to have taken the field with
a large body of troops. Could a man such as
Atahualpa had proven himself to be, released
and at the head of a great army once
more, be expected to permit these foreigners,
who had so treacherously captured him and
slain his attendants while on a friendly visit,
to depart in peace with their loot? It did not
seem likely. On the other hand, retreat
through a then hostile country with the prisoner
still in custody was out of the question,
and, if he should continue to hold him in Cajamarca,
Quizquiz, who had only been awaiting
the word, would no longer hesitate to
attack.</p>

<p class='c008'>No; a bold <i>coup de main</i> of some sort was
imperative. If Atahualpa could be gotten rid
of altogether, for instance, there was a chance,
in the confusion that must follow, to reach
Cuzco and form an alliance with the partisans
of the murdered Inca, with a view to
ousting the usurper’s party and restoring the
<span class='pageno' title='68' id='Page_68'></span>throne to the legitimate line. Such a chance
had only to exist to be appreciated by one so
clear-sighted and audacious as Pizarro. It
was his life and his friends’—and, of course,
the Indian treasure—against only the life of
Atahualpa, and the prisoner’s fate was sealed.
There was a mock trial, wherein he was convicted
of the murder of Huascar, conspiracy
against the Spaniards, and other high crimes
and misdemeanors, and then he was strangled
to death in the public square—strangled
rather than burned, says Hawthorne, as an
act of grace, in consideration of his having
professed at the last the Christian faith.</p>

<p class='c008'>Some weeks before this, Almagro had
joined the Conquistadores at Cajamarca with
reinforcements that brought the Spanish
force up to about five hundred. As soon as
Atahualpa had been disposed of, the commander,
with all his men, began his advance,
by forced marches, on Cuzco, an advantageous
position near which he was fortunate enough
to secure without having encountered Quizquiz,
though some of the cavalry under De
Soto were engaged by a detachment on the
way; all efforts to interpose the main body
of the Indian army were frustrated by their
<span class='pageno' title='69' id='Page_69'></span>speed. However, though “the true heir to
the crown was a second son of Huayna Capac,
named Manco, a legitimate brother of the
unfortunate Huascar,” says Prescott, “Pizarro
had too little knowledge of the disposition
of this prince and he made no scruple
to prefer Toparca, a young brother of Atahualpa
and to present him to the Indian
nobles as their future Inca.” So, to make
assurance doubly sure, he did not, before he
set out, announce his purpose of driving off
the enemies of the rightful heir, but took the
boy with him, “attended by a numerous
retinue of vassals and moving in as much
state and ceremony as if in possession of regal
power.” Before they reached Cuzco, much
to Pizarro’s chagrin, the boy fell sick and
died.</p>

<p class='c008'>But the misfortune was soon repaired, for,
sure enough, when the adventurers went into
camp outside the walls of the capital, no less
a personage than Manco Capac II himself
called on the commander in person and proposed
the hoped-for alliance; and, just a year
from the day he had taken Cajamarca, he
entered Cuzco as the protector of the real
Inca, whose coronation he permitted to be
<span class='pageno' title='70' id='Page_70'></span>celebrated with all the splendor of the ancient
rites. The Indians of central Peru hailed
him as their deliverer from the tyranny of the
usurper. Manco Capac, for his part, soon
assembled a great army, and, with the help of
some of the Spaniards, decisively defeated
Quizquiz and drove him back to Ecuador.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>VIII</h3>

<p class='c015'>But there was a sad awakening in store for
the Inca on his return from that victorious
campaign. He had permitted these allies of
his—rapacious, recklessly daring as they were,
and unscrupulous, cruel, and fanatical in their
attitude toward infidels—to obtain a foothold
in the very capital of the empire. And what
manner of man was it of whom the great
body of his subjects was made up? He was
brave, yes—physically; he could fight, and
conquer, too, when ably led, but also he was
morally utterly irresponsible, “a slave,” as
Mozans puts it, “utterly devoid of energy
and individual initiative,” accustomed to look
to the ruling class for guidance, to regard the
Inca “with superstitious awe, as a being of a
superior order.” Centuries of despotic government,
<span class='pageno' title='71' id='Page_71'></span>rigid religious ritual, communal
ownership of property, and labor, not for
himself but for the commonwealth, had
robbed him of all ambition and instilled into
him the habit of accepting with patient resignation
whatever fate might decree.</p>

<p class='c008'>And now, after all these centuries of complaisance,
what must have been his mental attitude
at the end of such a succession of
events? First, the late legitimate Inca Huascar,
omnipotent as he was supposed to have
been, directly descended from the Sun-God
and Moon-Mother themselves, had been overthrown
and put to death by an illegitimate
rival. Then that rival, also of the Inca blood,
had in his turn been captured in the very face
of his army, and put to death despite another
and much greater army, by a little band of
mysterious strangers, against whose mail-clad
bodies the battle-axes and spears of the Indians
had been powerless—strangers who
had made fierce, “fleet-footed monsters”
(horses) subservient to their will and who
carried terrible weapons that went off with a
noise like thunder and vomited fire and
smoke, and with which they killed their enemies
before they could come near enough to
<span class='pageno' title='72' id='Page_72'></span>get in a blow. Had not these invincible
strangers, and apparently by supernatural
means, overcome even the legitimate Inca’s
conqueror? Surely, then, they must be some
still superior order of beings, sent by the Sun-God
to accomplish some wonderful purpose.
Therefore they must be obeyed. Pizarro
himself could not have created a people more
suited to the carrying out of his designs had
he had the power.</p>

<p class='c008'>Probably realizing this, he promptly abandoned
all subterfuge. As a consideration for
the help he had been given in the campaign
against Quizquiz, the Inca had been induced
by stress of circumstances to acknowledge the
supremacy of the King of Spain. It was
only as a matter of form, he had been led to
believe, but Pizarro now exacted the fullest
compliance. As Adelantado by appointment
of the overlord, he established a municipal
council to govern the city, transformed the
great temple into a church, made use of certain
of the public buildings as officers’ quarters
and barracks for the soldiers, seized all
the treasure that was to be found—even the
private dwellings and tombs were searched
and stripped of it—and required the authorities
<span class='pageno' title='73' id='Page_73'></span>to supply troops and carriers to accompany
the exploring parties he sent out. “Pizarro,
on entering Cuzco, had issued an order
forbidding any soldier to offer violence to the
dwellings of the inhabitants,” says Prescott:</p>

<p class='c016'>“But the palaces were numerous and the troops
lost no time in plundering them of their contents as
well as in despoiling the religious edifices. The interior
decorations supplied them with considerable
booty. They stripped off the jewels and rich ornaments
that garnished the royal mummies in the
temple of Coricancha. Indignant at the concealment
of their treasures, they put the inhabitants, in
some instances, to the torture and endeavored to
extort from them a confession of their hiding places.
They invaded the repose of the sepulchers, in which
the Peruvians often deposited their valuable effects,
and compelled the grave to give up its dead. No
place was left unexplored by the rapacious conquerors,
and they occasionally stumbled on a mine of wealth
that rewarded their labors. In a cavern near the city
they found a number of vases, richly embossed with
figures of serpents, locusts, and other animals. Among
the spoils were four golden llamas and ten or twelve
statues of women, as large as life, some of gold, others
of silver, ‘which merely to see,’ says one of the conquerors,
with some naïveté, ‘was truly a great satisfaction.’...
The magazines were stored with curious
commodities—richly tinted robes of cotton and
feather work, gold sandals and slippers of the same
material, for the women, and dresses composed entirely
of beads of gold.’... In one place, for
<span class='pageno' title='74' id='Page_74'></span>example, they met with ten planks or bars of solid
silver, each piece twenty feet in length, one foot
in breadth, and two or three inches thick. They were
intended to decorate the dwelling of an Inca noble....
The amount of booty is stated variously by
those present at the division of it. According to
some, it considerably exceeded the ransom of Atahualpa.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Fully appreciating also the desirability of
establishing a capital of his own at some
strategic point much more easily accessible
from Panama, Pizarro made a careful study
of routes and possible sites and finally chose
one beside the river Rimac, on a fertile, elevated
plain near the base of the Cordillera,
only about three leagues from one of the best
harbors on the coast, and at the point where
the Inca military road began its ascent to the
plateau. Here, only about a year after he
entered Cuzco, he founded <i>La Ciudad de los
Reyes</i> (the City of the Kings), so named in
honor of the Three Kings or Wise Men of the
East, because their feast day, Epiphany, occurred
at that season of the year. Soon it became
known as Lima. “Before the erection of
a single house was permitted,” he had a plan
drawn up, Mozans tells us, providing for
large squares and streets unusually wide, “and
<span class='pageno' title='75' id='Page_75'></span>in making this plan he had in view, not the
small number (only sixty-nine) of those who
were then prepared to make their homes
there, but the future greatness of ‘The Empire
City of the New World.’ Moreover,
as the city had to be in God and for God and
in His name—<i>en Dios y por Dios y en su
nombre</i>—to use his own words, work was
first begun on the church, which was named
<i>Nuestra Señora de la Asunción</i>. The first
stone and the first pieces of timber were put
in place by the hands of the Adelantado himself,
who wished, like the other Conquistadores,
to emphasize his zeal for religion and
his devotion to <i>La Santissima Virgen, Madre
de Dios</i>.”</p>

<p class='c008'>In the meanwhile his brother Hernando
had gone to Spain with the King’s fifth of
the loot, and on the way had spread the
news. Once more all was excitement on the
Isthmus. It was not long before Pizarro’s
forces were augmented by three or four
hundred soldiers that had been led into
Ecuador by Pedro de Alvarado, Governor of
Guatemala, who consented to abandon his
expedition when persuaded by Almagro, who
went at once to meet him, that he was trespassing
<span class='pageno' title='76' id='Page_76'></span>on Pizarro’s preserves, for which act
of grace the Spanish King added the province
of Honduras to Alvarado’s jurisdiction, and
Almagro gave him a large sum of money; and,
when communication was established between
Lima and Panama by sea, adventurers of
every degree began to flock to the new city
as they had before to Mexico and Central
America.</p>

<p class='c008'>This enabled Almagro, with an army of
nearly six hundred Spaniards and fifteen
thousand Indians, the latter under the command
of one of the Inca’s brothers, to make
an excursion into Chile for purposes of exploration,
for it had been agreed that he
should have the southern half of the territory
they might conquer and Pizarro the northern.
Sebastian de Benalcázar, another of Pizarro’s
lieutenants, went to Ecuador with a force of
two hundred Spaniards and a large Indian
contingent and completed the defeat of Atahualpa’s
adherents, took possession of Quito
and founded the city of Guayaquil at the
mouth of the Guayas River, which provided
for that country, too, independent access from
the sea.</p>

<div id='i076'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_076.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CATHEDRAL AT LIMA, BUILT BY PIZARRO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Also by this time any illusions the Inca
<span class='pageno' title='77' id='Page_77'></span>may have had as to the continuance of the
ancient dynasty under the protection of the
Spaniards were dispelled. By this time even
his complaisant subjects must have discovered
that these superhuman deliverers, as they had
thought them, were mere men—or else, if they
were indeed a different order of beings, that
order, they must have concluded, was infernal
rather than divine. The sovereignty of the
Inca had become little more than a fiction.
As in the islands of the Caribbean and elsewhere,
the fairest lands in the country had
been divided into vast estates and great numbers
of natives practically reduced to slavery
and set to work them for the benefit of
their new masters. With respect to their
treatment in general, though Pizarro himself
seems to have been guilty of few acts
of wanton cruelty, he either could not, or
did not if he could, restrain the oppression
of them by his followers. If their behavior
was not quite as atrocious as that of other
Spaniards toward the tribes in the north,
there was an utter lack of considerateness in
it and disregard of their property and rights
that galled even them.</p>

<p class='c008'>Roused at last, the Inca took advantage
<span class='pageno' title='78' id='Page_78'></span>of the opportunity afforded by the scattering
of the Spanish force and made his escape
from Cuzco, where Hernando Pizarro and
his younger brothers Juan and Gonzalo were
in command, and, finding his subjects ripe for
revolt, had no difficulty in raising two large
armies. One he sent against the Adelantado,
who was in Lima; with the other he returned
to Cuzco and took the great citadel of
Sacsahuaman, overlooking the town, and began
a siege that was to last more than six
months, and during which Juan Pizarro was
killed in an attempt to recapture the citadel.
The army that went to the coast was ambushed
and defeated by the Spaniards and
their local adherents before ever it reached
Lima. All that what was left of it could
do was to prevent the sending of reinforcements
to Cuzco despite the desperate straits
to which the Spanish force there was reduced.
Pizarro was himself compelled to send to
the Isthmus for help. Just before it was too
late, however, he managed to get away two
hundred and fifty men to the relief of his
brothers, and just at that juncture also, Almagro,
on his way back from Chile, turned
up with his followers, and, caught between
<span class='pageno' title='79' id='Page_79'></span>Cuzco and these two new detachments of the
enemy, the Inca was overwhelmed and concluded
to retire into the wild region of Vilcabamba,
where the Spaniards could not follow
with any hope of success, and there held out
for some years. But with his retreat all that
remained of the Inca dominion came to an
end. There were a few other attempts, but
neither he nor his descendants ever succeeded
in recovering the throne.</p>

<p class='c008'>As for Almagro, he had had a frightful
experience during his excursion into Chile
and had met with nothing but disappointment
and disaster. The route unwittingly chosen
had been over the bleak Bolivian plateaux
and across the mountains where the Cordillera
reaches its highest, at a season when the
passes are buried in snow and swept by
furious storms, and his men had perished
by thousands, some of the best of his Spaniards
among the number. When he had at
last made his way to the beautiful central valley
between the Cordillera and the coast range
and down to the river Maule, he had found
nothing of the opulence of Peru, but only
a poor but brave, warlike people who in a
fierce battle had succeeded in checking his
<span class='pageno' title='80' id='Page_80'></span>advance. And now, disgusted with this
country of his to the south, he returned and
made claim to Cuzco as being within his half
of the conquered territory and demanded of
the Pizarros its surrender. On their refusal,
he promptly carried it by assault, made
Hernando and Gonzalo his prisoners, and
went out to meet the troops that had been
sent to their relief by the Adelantado and
defeated them.</p>

<p class='c008'>And then, as Hawthorne puts it, “had he
cut off the heads of both of these gentlemen
on the spot, he would have saved himself
years of struggle, with a death on the scaffold
at the end of them. But he was not of the
right fiber for the work that was laid upon
him; he was not what the English would call
‘thorough’”; he temporized and listened to
his wily associate. “Civil disturbances went
on for eleven years,” continues Hawthorne,
“‘in the course of which,’ as Professor Fiske
remarks, ‘all the principal actors were swept
off the stage as in some cheap blood-and-thunder
tragedy. It is not worth while to
recount the petty incidents of the struggle—how
Almagro was at one moment ready to
submit to arbitration and the next refused
<span class='pageno' title='81' id='Page_81'></span>to abide by the decision; how Hernando was
set at liberty and Gonzalo escaped; how Almagro’s
able lieutenant, Rodrigo de Orgoñez,
won a victory over Pizarro’s men at Abancay
but was totally defeated by Hernando Pizarro
at Las Salinas and perished on the field;
how at last Hernando had Almagro tried for
sedition and summarily executed. On which
side was the more violence and treachery it
would be hard to say. Indeed, as Sir Arthur
Helps observes, “in this melancholy struggle
it is difficult to find anybody whom the reader
can sympathize much with.”’”</p>

<p class='c008'>Then, once more Francisco Pizarro entered
Cuzco in triumph, this time wearing an
ermine robe that had been presented to him
by Hernando Cortés, and again he devoted
himself to organizing his government and
extending the Spanish dominion over the
distant provinces. The number of his compatriots
had increased to eight thousand.
Gonzalo was appointed Governor of Quito,
from whence he strayed to make a disastrous
journey down the eastern slope of the Andes
in search of the mythical Eldorado, which he
did not find, but which resulted in the discovery
of and voyage down the Amazon, from
<span class='pageno' title='82' id='Page_82'></span>the mountains to the sea, by Francisco de
Orellana, his second in command. Hernando
went to Bolivia to search for the mines from
which the Incas were supposed to have gotten
their wealth, a labor that was rewarded by the
discovery of Potosí, which has yielded more
than two billions of ounces of silver—<i>and
silver and gold were of equal value in Europe
in those days</i>. Pedro de Valdivia undertook
the conquest of Chile and Alonso de Alvarado,
one of the most generous and humane
of the Conquistadores, that of the
mountains of northern Peru. The Adelantado
himself traveled over most of the empire,
founding cities at strategic points in the more
populous and fertile valleys, among them
Arequipa, and here in Bolivia as in the
country about Cuzco he divided the most desirable
of the lands into <i>repartimientos</i> and
apportioned them among his favorites.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the meanwhile Almagro’s adherents,
helpless and impoverished, were burning with
envy of their more fortunate comrades, who
were, by favor of the successful rival, rapidly
enriching themselves with Indian tribute and
gold and silver taken from the mines. At
last, unable to stand it, they sent the news
<span class='pageno' title='83' id='Page_83'></span>of their leader’s illegal execution to Spain,
with a demand for justice against the Pizarros.
The rest of the story is told by Dawson
as follows:</p>

<p class='c016'>“The Spanish government was not unwilling to
secure a selfish advantage from the disputes among
the original conquerors and sent out Vaca de Castro
to investigate and report. When the Royal Commissioner
arrived at Panama early in 1541, the latest
news from Peru was tranquilizing. Pizarro was busily
engaged in enlarging and beautifying Lima, in regulating
the revenue and the administration, in distributing
‘<i>encomiendas</i>,’ and in restraining the rapacity
of his Spaniards. However, Lima was full of the
‘men of Chile,’ as Almagro’s adherents were called,
all bitter enemies of the Governor. They passed him
in the street without saluting, and their attitude was
so menacing that Pizarro received repeated warnings
and was urged to banish them. Absolutely incapable
of personal fear, magnanimous when his passions
had not been aroused, he only replied: ‘Poor fellows.
They have had trouble enough. We will not molest
them.’ He even sent for Juan de la Rada—the guide,
counselor, and guardian of the young half-breed who
was Almagro’s heir—and condescended to try to
argue him into a better frame of mind, saying, at
parting: ‘Ask me frankly what you desire;’ but the
iron had entered too deeply into Rada’s soul. He
had already organized a conspiracy to assassinate
Pizarro.</p>

<p class='c016'>“At noon, on Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541,
Pizarro was sitting at dinner in his house with twenty
<span class='pageno' title='84' id='Page_84'></span>gentlemen, among them his half-brother Francisco
Alcantara, and several of the most illustrious knights
who had taken part in the conquest. The great door
into the public square was lying wide open. The conspirators,
to the number of a score, had assembled
in a house opposite. All of a sudden they rushed
into the square fully armed and carrying their swords
naked in their hands. A young page standing in
front of the Governor’s house saw them and ran back
shouting: ‘To arms! All the men of Chile are coming
to kill the Marquis, our lord.’ The guests rose
in alarm from the table and all but half a dozen fled
to the windows and dropped into the garden. Pizarro
threw off his gown and snatched up a sword, while the
valiant Francisco Chaves stepped forward through
the ante-room to dispute the passage at the staircase.
The ferocious crowd of murderers rushed up and laid
him dead on the stairs. Alcantara checked them for
a few moments with his single sword, but was soon
forced back into the dining-room and fell pierced with
many thrusts. The old lion shouted from the inside:
‘What shameful thing is this! Why do you wish to
kill me?’ and, with a cloak wrapped round one
arm and his sword grasped in the other hand, he
rushed forward to meet his assassins and strike a
blow to avenge his brother before he himself should
fall. Only two faithful young pages remained at his
side. Though over seventy years of age, his practiced
sword laid two of the crowd dead before he was
surrounded. The two boys were butchered, and, in
the mêlée, Pizarro received a mortal wound in his
throat, and, falling to the floor, made the sign of the
cross on the boards” (with his blood) “and kissed it.
One of the ruffians had snatched up an earthen water
<span class='pageno' title='85' id='Page_85'></span>jar and with this pounded out the old man’s brains
as he lay prostrate, disdaining to ask for mercy.</p>

<p class='c016'>“Thus perished by the sword this great man of
blood. The measure he had meted out to Atahualpa
and Almagro was measured to him again. He who
had shamelessly broken his oath times without number
to gain his own high ends was slain by treacherous,
cowardly assault. But his great vices should not blind
us to his greater virtues. Courageous, indomitable,
far-sighted, patriotic, large-minded, public-spirited,
possessing a God-given instinct to see straight
into the center of a problem and the energy to strike
at the psychological moment, he was equally great
as an explorer, a soldier, a general, a diplomatist,
and an administrator. Even his shocking moral delinquencies
lose something of their turpitude when we
consider the greatness of his aims and the baseness
of his origin.... But that his real nature was
magnanimous, generous, and truthful is proven by
the many instances in which he forgave his enemies
and kept his word to his serious loss, and that his
ambition was not too sordid is shown by his self-sacrificing
devotion to the public good during the
later years of his life. Formed in nature’s grandest
mold, circumstances and environment had much deformed
his character, but the original lineaments are
plain.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Pizarro thus disposed of, young Almagro
assumed the governorship and transferred his
headquarters to Cuzco, where his father’s
party was stronger than at Lima, and the
Royal Commissioner, appointed Governor by
<span class='pageno' title='86' id='Page_86'></span>the King, sailed from Panama, got together
an army with the help of Pizarro’s friends,
and proceeded to Guamanga, to which point
the usurper was advancing with his forces
from Cuzco. The battle that ensued was
more hotly contested than any that had theretofore
been fought. Of the twelve hundred
Spaniards engaged, less than five hundred
escaped death or wounds. Almagro’s troops
were practically annihilated. Two days afterward
those of the Adelantado’s murderers
who had survived were executed in the public
square and young Almagro himself, who had
succeeded in making his escape, was recaptured
and put to death. Then for the time
being Vaca de Castro administered the office
without further opposition.</p>

<p class='c008'>Before this, the great-hearted Padre Bartolomé
de las Casas, the Indians’ indefatigable
champion and friend, had written his
famous book exposing the horrors of their
treatment and had so successfully appealed
to the King in their behalf that it had been
decided to abolish native slavery and gradually
do away with the system of <i>repartimientos</i>
and <i>encomiendas</i> (allotments of land
and Indians); and, since manifestly such a
<span class='pageno' title='87' id='Page_87'></span>course would result in trouble with the Conquistadores,
it seemed best to appoint a viceroy
who would not be subject to their influence
and invest him with absolute power.
This dangerous office was bestowed upon
Blasco Nuñez de Vela, whose integrity, piety,
and rigid obedience to the King had already
gained for him high positions. Arriving in
Peru early in 1544, he promulgated the new
laws abolishing personal service by the Indians,
providing that <i>encomiendas</i> might not
be sold or descend by inheritance, and, worst
of all, that those granted to participants in
the war between Pizarro and Almagro should
lapse. To set the example, in his journey
down the coast, the Viceroy sternly insisted
that no Indian be compelled to carry a burden
against his will.</p>

<p class='c008'>To the Spaniards this seemed an outrageous
violation of the natural order of
things. The whole fabric of their fortunes
was based on enforced Indian labor. Without
it how could they work their mines and
estates or transport their goods? In the
general dismay, armed resistance was decided
on, and Gonzalo Pizarro was called from
his estate in southern Bolivia and induced
<span class='pageno' title='88' id='Page_88'></span>to take the lead. He seized the artillery and
stores at Cuzco and was soon at the head of
some four hundred desperate men, well
armed and provided. “The Viceroy retreated
north beyond Quito to Popayan,” says
Dawson—</p>

<p class='c016'>“But, being joined by more recruits, rashly returned
to the neighborhood of Quito to offer battle.
He was defeated and killed. Pizarro went back to
Lima, while his lieutenant, Carbajal, hunted down and
put to death every loyalist who remained under arms
in southern Peru. Gonzalo’s administration lasted
three years. They were golden ones to the Spanish
adventurers. The marvelous silver mines of Potosí
and the gold washings of southern Ecuador were discovered.
<i>Encomiendas</i> were lavishly granted; the
Indians were sent back to their fields; the mining
industry began that marvelous development which
soon made Peru the treasure box of the world and
Potosí the synonym for limitless wealth. But the
dazzling sunlight of prosperity was dimmed by the
shadow of Pizarro’s scaffold slowly creeping across
the Atlantic and down the coast. His chief lieutenants,
knowing that they had sinned past forgiveness,
urged him to declare himself King of Peru, but he
was at once too proud and too patriotic to fling away
his right to die a loyal Spaniard. Philip, the leaden-eyed,
close-mouthed despot, was regent of Spain. Bitterly
chagrined that the stream of Peruvian gold had
ceased to flow into the royal treasury, his vindictive
heart had no mercy for the gallant soldier whose
sword had helped win the riches now temporarily diverted.
<span class='pageno' title='89' id='Page_89'></span>He selected a man after his own heart—Pedro
de la Gasca, an ugly, deformed little priest, hypocritically
humble, though astute and untiring, whose
success as an inquisitor was a guarantee that he would
be as pitiless and cruel as even Philip could wish.”</p>

<p class='c008'>This man, says Hawthorne, was—</p>

<p class='c016'>“A real diplomatist, with a tongue capable of making
the worse appear the better reason and of winning
support from the ranks of the enemy. He was endowed
with official powers, but chiefly with brains
and with the tongue aforesaid. His first step was
to repeal such parts of the abolition laws as were
hardest upon the colonists, and thereby he won their
favor. Not until after these good news had been
promulgated did Gasca venture to leave Panama for
Peru. The captains of Pizarro’s fleet had been
despatched to Panama to meet and watch the new
emissary and either stop or bribe him, as might seem
most expedient. But allowance had not been made for
that tongue. Gasca wagged it with such good effect
that they thought perhaps they were not Pizarro’s
captains after all; at all events they put their fleet at
his disposal and to Peru he came, landing at Tumbez
in June, 1547.... Captain Diego de Centeno,
acting for Gasca, captured Cuzco, but was defeated
in the battle of Huarina. Hereupon Pizarro pressed
on, nothing doubting—and indeed one can hardly
blame him for his confidence, since it lay not in human
foresight to anticipate the magical seductiveness of
this Gasca’s conversation. The armies met, but Gasca
did but open his mouth and Pizarro’s soldiers began
deserting by troops. The thing was inexplicable; it
<span class='pageno' title='90' id='Page_90'></span>was uncanny. We would call him a magnetic man
nowadays, and Pizarro’s men were the iron filings.
Even those who stood by him could not be induced
to fight. By great efforts fifteen men contrived to
get themselves slain, and then Pizarro, losing patience,
got on his horse, rode over to Gasca’s camp,
and gave himself up.”</p>

<p class='c008'>With his execution, Spain’s conquest of
Peru was complete.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>IX</h3>

<p class='c015'>In 1525, at the foot of the great outlying
mass of mountains on the peninsula that lies
between the Gulfs of Maracaibo and Darien,
and not far from where the Magdalena River
empties into the Caribbean Sea, the town of
Santa Marta had been founded—the first
Spanish settlement in Colombia beyond the
Isthmus. It was nothing more than a slave
station for a time, from whence kidnaping
parties made raids into the country round
about and captured natives to sell to the gold
miners in Española. Real attempts at colonization
were not begun until Pedro de
Heredia founded Cartagena, farther west, in
1533; but it was from these points that the
<span class='pageno' title='91' id='Page_91'></span>explorations were undertaken that led to the
discovery of the next great stores of gold and
also to fresh, and this time seemingly trustworthy,
affirmations of the truth of the story
told by the Indians of the Isthmus, of the
king the Spaniards called <i>El Dorado</i> (the
Gilded Man), in whose country the rivers
were said to run over sands of silver, where
the palaces were of gold, with doors and columns
studded with precious stones and the
king bathed in aromatic essences and covered
his body with gold dust.</p>

<div id='i090'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_090.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>PIZARRO’S PALACE, LIMA—NOW THE GOVERNMENT BUILDING. IT WAS HERE THAT THE GREAT CONQUISTADOR WAS ASSASSINATED.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Heredia had found that the hills south of
Cartagena contained profitable gold washings
and had learned from the Indians of a region
called Zenufana back in the mountains of
the interior where the deposits were more
valuable still, and this story, having proven
true, had brought about the conquest of the
rich valley of the Cauca and the development
of mines that have yielded hundreds of millions
in gold. The shares, even of Heredia’s
men in the first outcroppings, are declared
by the chroniclers to have been greater than
those of the followers of Pizarro in the ransom
of the Inca. And, at about the same
time, Pizarro’s enterprising lieutenant, Sebastian
<span class='pageno' title='92' id='Page_92'></span>de Benalcázar, the conqueror of Quito,
had continued north and fought his way
through the warlike, semi-civilized tribes that
inhabited the high plateaux around Pasto to
the lower country now known as Popayan,
where the Cauca gathers its headwaters, and,
in rapid succession, had overcome the tribes
that opposed his progress until he had met
the expedition from Cartagena, after which
he had gone back to Peru.</p>

<p class='c008'>His purpose was to return and undertake
the conquest of the region of the upper Magdalena
and the rich Indian communities on
the broad table-land on top of the eastern
Cordillera; but, before he could set out, an
expedition from Santa Marta, under the
command of the gallant young Gonzalo Jiminez
de Quesada—ranked by many as the
greatest of the Conquistadores after Cortés
and Pizarro—had forestalled him. Quesada
too had heard the stories of El Dorado and
had been directed to a lake called Guatavita,
two miles high in the mountains, that was
supposed to be in the country over which El
Dorado ruled, and also the dwelling place of
a powerful goddess to whom the people offered
jewels and gold by throwing them in
<span class='pageno' title='93' id='Page_93'></span>the water. “They had a legend,” says Hawthorne—</p>

<p class='c016'>“To the effect that the Goddess of the Lake had
been the wife of a former chief who had thrown herself
into the lake to escape a whipping, and, like the
maidens of Greek mythology, had been made one of
the immortals. Pilgrims came from afar to add their
offerings of gold and emeralds to the divinity. At
every installation of a chief there was an imposing
ceremony. First marched a squad of naked men
painted with red ocher, as mourners, then men adorned
with gold and emeralds, with feather headdresses,
then warriors in jaguar skins. These shouted and
made an uproar on horns, pipes, and conch shells.
Black-robed priests accompanied the procession, with
white crosses on their breasts, and in the rear came
the nobles, bearing the new chief on a barrow hung
with gold disks. He was naked, his body rendered
sticky with resinous gums and then smeared over with
gold dust. Having reached the shore of the lake,
he got on a barge and was rowed to the center, where
he dived into the water and washed off his gold,
while the assemblage on the shore shouted with joy
and flung their offerings into the transparent abode
of the Goddess.”</p>

<p class='c008'>This, it seems, had once been true, but,
although the Indians of the lowlands may
not have known it, the custom had ceased to
exist long before the coming of the Spaniards.
Many of the bravest were lured to
<span class='pageno' title='94' id='Page_94'></span>their death in the vain quest, not only in the
Colombian Andes but in the valleys of the
Orinoco and Amazon, and even south along
the Paraguay and Paraná, before the discovery
was made that the custom was a thing
of the past.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the belief that it still existed, therefore,
Quesada and his company of nearly
eight hundred men had left Santa Marta
sometime in 1536, and, harassed by bands
of savages, forced their way, with almost inconceivable
difficulty, through the wild forests
and undergrowth, along the foothills
bordering the Magdalena and up the steep
side of the Cordillera to the delightful series
of plateaux which were then, as they are yet,
the populous heart of the country and the
principal seat of her wealth and culture. In
the continual fights with the Indians and from
starvation and fatigue, three-fourths of the
company had died, but here the survivors
found themselves at last in a beautiful, fertile
region, where the climate is perfect and all the
products of the temperate zone grow luxuriantly,
and where the inhabitants, the Chibchas,
had reached a state of civilization not
much inferior to that of the Aztecs of Mexico
<span class='pageno' title='95' id='Page_95'></span>and the Caras of Ecuador. Quesada, after
having subdued them, had founded Bogotá
near the site of the Chibcha capital, on the
7th of August, 1538.</p>

<p class='c008'>Later the same year, to his dismay, Benalcázar,
who had come down the Magdalena
from Pasto, in the opposite direction, reached
this same plateau, and, a few days later, to
the confusion of both, another expedition,
under the command of Nicolaus Federmann,
which had started from Coro in Venezuela,
crossed the mountains south of Maracaibo,
continued in that direction along the <i>llanos</i>
(plains) at the eastern base of the Cordillera
and ascended at that point, also put in an appearance.
Thus these three adventurers, believing
they had almost reached the goal for
which many were yet to search, found themselves
simultaneously in the very neighborhood
of the former domain of the gilded
chiefs, but each confronted with the prospect
of losing all that he had toiled so hard for
unless he could overcome his rivals.</p>

<p class='c008'>What was to be done? Undoubtedly Quesada
had the right to possession by virtue of
his prior discovery and conquest, but the other
two made claim on plausible grounds, and he
<span class='pageno' title='96' id='Page_96'></span>had not been commissioned by the King.
With his depleted force he could not hope
to defeat their forces combined. Besides, as
all realized, if they should fight, there would
probably not be enough of the men left to
hold the country against the natives, who
would only be emboldened by such a dissension.
So when it was found that Quesada
had already gathered in all the spoils in
sight—which consisted of several thousand
emeralds and gold vases and ornaments that
made a pile so high that a man on horseback
could be concealed behind it—Benalcázar and
Federmann allowed themselves to be persuaded
to accept shares in the loot and submit
to the King’s arbitration their respective
claims to the country. Soon
afterward the three captains set out for
Spain in the same ship, leaving Quesada’s
brother in command. None of them ever
returned. Federmann and Benalcázar were
censured for exceeding the authority given
them by their superiors and undertaking conquests
on their own account, and, instead of
appointing Quesada Adelantado, the King
sent over another governor with considerable
reinforcements, after which the process of
<span class='pageno' title='97' id='Page_97'></span>assimilation and settlement went on about as
it was going on in Peru.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>X</h3>

<p class='c015'>Very different was the experience of Pedro
de Valdivia in Chile. Unlike these other adventurers,
when he set out it was not in
the expectation of finding any great store
of gold, since Almagro had reported that
the inhabitants were poor, but with the intention
of conquering the country and converting
it into a province of Peru. In accomplishing
only a part of this purpose, he
was to have a far more difficult task, had he
but known it, and many more Spanish lives
were to be sacrificed, than in all the other
conquests put together. It had already been
discovered by Almagro, however, that as far
south as he had gone, the natives were subjects
of the Inca and that their civilization
and system of irrigation and agriculture had
been brought to almost as high a standard.
He had advanced down the great central
valley as far as the river Maule, finding
everywhere a population as dense, probably,
as that which exists to-day, and had met with
<span class='pageno' title='98' id='Page_98'></span>little resistance, probably because of the presence
in his party of the brother of the Inca,
until he reached the boundary of the empire
and encountered the independent tribes beyond,
and there met his reverse.</p>

<p class='c008'>As a consequence, misled by this favorable
experience with the northern tribes and his
own with the easily conquered natives of Peru,
Valdivia took with him, besides his Indian
auxiliaries, only about two hundred Spaniards
and a number of women belonging to
their families. He soon found that, since
they had learned of the execution of Huascar
and Atahualpa and that the new Inca, Manco
Capac, was little more than a mere puppet
of Pizarro’s, the disposition even of these
northern tribes had changed; that they now
regarded themselves as released from their
vassalage. He found also that, although they
all spoke the same language and appeared
to belong to the same race, they still maintained
their tribal organizations, each with
its own Cacique and entirely distinct from the
others; that the Inca socialistic system had
not been adopted, and that individually they
were democratic, resentful of encroachments
on their liberty, and self-reliant. Hardly had
<span class='pageno' title='99' id='Page_99'></span>he entered their country when his troubles
began. To this second invasion, these people,
who had only looked askance at Almagro,
now promptly showed their hostility. Their
lack of efficient military organization and
concert of action made it easy, however, to
overcome what resistance they could offer on
the spur of the moment, and Valdivia succeeded
in pushing on for several hundred
miles until he came to the section of the
valley through which flows the river Mapocho.</p>

<p class='c008'>There, fascinated doubtless by the gorgeousness
of the environment, he selected a
site at the river side, at the base of an isolated
hill (called Santa Lucia), in the midst of the
broad plain that lies between the two great
mountain ranges, two thousand feet above the
level of the sea, and founded the city of Santiago,
which has ever since remained the capital.
Following Pizarro’s example, among the
first buildings he caused to be erected were
the Cathedral and Bishop’s house, and afterward,
and only just in time to save the colony
from annihilation, he fortified Santa Lucia,
for the town itself was soon attacked by an
overwhelming force of Indians and half the
houses burned to the ground before they
<span class='pageno' title='100' id='Page_100'></span>could be driven off with the help of an exploring
party that opportunely returned.
This was only one of many such vicissitudes,
in the course of which, so beset were the invaders
and so reduced did their number and
the health of the survivors become by privations
and fighting, that all but Valdivia were
for abandoning the conquest and making a
dash for Peru.</p>

<p class='c008'>Mutiny was only prevented by the discovery
of gold in the mountains near by and
the arrival of reinforcements from Lima.
After that he was enabled to found the town
of Coquimbo on the coast about two hundred
and fifty miles north of the capital, and visit
Peru to arrange for the sending of more
colonists and supplies. While there he assisted
in the suppression of Gonzalo Pizarro’s
revolt, and had no difficulty in inducing a
large body of adventurers to go back with
him, for Lima now was swarmed with men
who were eager enough to win lands and
slaves or take their chance of making their
fortunes in the mines. “With their help,”
says Dawson, “the conquest and settlement
of all Chile as far south as the Maule was
effectually completed. The land was apportioned
<span class='pageno' title='101' id='Page_101'></span>among the cavaliers, each becoming
a sort of feudal baron, and in effect creating
a landed aristocracy which has continued to
rule the country to the present day.”</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1544, Valdivia founded Valparaiso, the
seaport of the capital, and rebuilt Coquimbo,
which had been taken and burned by the
neighboring Indians during his absence in
Peru. He then devoted several years to
making good his conquest and firmly establishing
the colony, and in 1550 turned his
attention to the country south of the Maule.
Between the Maule and the Bio-bio were the
Promaucians and their kindred tribes, and
south of the Bio-bio was a confederacy composed
of tribes, also related by blood and
language, which inhabited the forests and
mountains and lake region for a stretch of
two hundred miles. Chief among these were
the Araucanians—the one unconquered aboriginal
race in the new world, the one
aboriginal race in America, North or South,
that never was conquered by Europeans, the
one race that checked the victorious march
of the Spaniards and compelled them, after
more than a hundred years of almost incessant
warfare, to acknowledge their independence
<span class='pageno' title='102' id='Page_102'></span>and accept the Bio-bio as the southern boundary
of the Spanish possessions—not warfare
of the usual desultory, treacherous Indian
sort, but warfare abounding in formal campaigns
and sieges and pitched battles, in
which large armies were engaged, in numbers
often evenly matched.</p>

<p class='c008'>Inferiorly armed with clubs, spears, and
bows and arrows, their bodies protected
only by leather cuirasses, they met the Spaniards
and their native auxiliaries in open
field and charged and fought them hand to
hand, and defeated them too in many a
Homeric fray in spite of the steel armor and
swords of the Conquistadores and their cavalry,
artillery, and firearms. Inspired by admiration,
a chivalrous Castilian, the soldier-poet
Alonso de Ercilla, who was himself in
some of the fights, has told the first part of the
story in his historical epic in thirty-seven cantos—the
story of how their lion-hearted chief,
Caupolican, undismayed by defeat in the first
encounter, persisted until he had destroyed
an army of the invaders and driven the survivors
back to Santiago; how, when wounded
and helpless, he was captured at last and
underwent torture and death with the stoicism
<span class='pageno' title='103' id='Page_103'></span>of a Mohawk; how his wife, indignant at his
having permitted himself to be taken alive,
ran to the scaffold and threw their baby at his
feet, crying out that she would no longer be
the mother of the child of a coward; how the
brilliant young Lautero took three Spanish
strongholds, invaded the country north of the
Bio-bio, defeated every army that was sent
against him, and laid siege to Santiago itself;
how the fiery Tucapel, while besieging a
Spanish fort, scaled the wall alone, ran the
gantlet of the garrison, killed four mail-clad
Spaniards in fighting his way through, and
escaped by leaping from a cliff; how another
of their chiefs, moved to pity by the
straits to which he had reduced a town he
was besieging, gallantly challenged the Spanish
commander to single combat, on condition
that if he should defeat him the town must be
surrendered, but that if he were himself defeated
the siege would be raised, and how,
when he was killed, the Indians kept the
compact and withdrew—and many other such
stories, some of them rivaling those told of
the Scottish chiefs.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c017'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>

<hr class='c018' />
<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
<p class='c008'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The story of the Araucanian wars is told in full in Hancock’s
“History of Chile.”</p>
</div>
<hr class='c018' />

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='104' id='Page_104'></span>These Araucanians “had not felt the influence
of Peruvian culture,” says Hawthorne;
they were “still in their healthy, primitive condition.
In person,” he goes on—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Most of them were tall, strong, and active, with
a complexion of light, reddish brown, sometimes approaching
white. They had a copious language,
cooked their food, made bread and brewed a dozen
kinds of spirituous liquors. Cities, in the Peruvian
sense, they had none, but lived in patriarchal hamlets,
ruled by <i>ulmens</i>, who were in turn subject to a <i>cacique</i>
of the tribe. Each farmer was master of his own
field; there was none of that land ownership by the
state that obtained in Peru.... They made cloth
garments, which their women adorned with embroidery
and dyed with vegetable or animal extracts.
They manufactured a kind of soap, and their utensils
were of well-fashioned pottery, wood and marble....
They went to sea in canoes and fished with
fish hooks. They knew something of astronomy and
physics and had some rather crude notions of drawing
and carving. They called themselves Children
of the Sun, and are supposed to have worshiped the
sun and moon; they had the red man’s vision of
happy hunting grounds after death, and believed that
those who died fighting in battle were certain of a
happy immortality.... Cleanly they were in the
extreme, in this respect offering a sharp contrast
to their invaders.... They took particular pains
to keep their magnificent teeth white and clean, and
were careful to remove all hairs from their faces and
bodies. The women were dressed in woolen garments
<span class='pageno' title='105' id='Page_105'></span>of a green color, with a cloak and girdle; the men
wore shirts and breeches, woolen caps and footgear,
and over all capacious woolen <i>ponchos</i> (capes). The
military system was efficiently organized.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Having learned that the Araucanians and
Promaucians were hereditary enemies, Valdivia’s
first step toward the conquest of the
former’s country was to form an alliance with
the latter and to establish a base of supplies
at the mouth of the Bio-bio, where he founded
the city of Concepcion, and, during the year
1551, occupied himself in fortifying it and
making preparations for the invasion. On
the arrival of reinforcements he had sent for,
he advanced a hundred and fifty miles south,
and, encountering but little opposition, founded
the city of Imperial, and from that
point pushed on a hundred miles farther
and founded the city to which he gave his
name. On the way back in 1553 he built
several forts and at Santiago found awaiting
him a fresh body of troops and horses. Two
hundred of the men, with an Indian contingent,
he sent across the Andes to begin the
conquest of what is now the Province of
Mendoza in Argentina; and then, as Hawthorne
relates it—</p>

<p class='c016'><span class='pageno' title='106' id='Page_106'></span>“The Araucanians, uniting with local tribes, made
ready to clear the country of Spaniards. An army
of four thousand Indians crossed the bloody Bio-bio
and gave battle to Valdivia, but that stout warrior
succeeded, after a desperate conflict, in driving them
back for the time. In the following year he carried
the war into the enemy’s country.... There
was among them a remarkable old Ulysses named
Colocolo, who added to ardent patriotism a wonderful
sagacity in both war and intrigue. He traveled
over the country preaching a crusade against the invaders.
A great conference was held among the
various tribes, and a chief named Caupolican was, at
Colocolo’s suggestion, chosen commander in chief.
This hero was modest and valiant, a giant in stature,
and wise in counsel as he was brave. His first exploit
was the capture of the fort of Arauco, which
he accomplished by an unexpected attack, compelling
the garrison, after severe fighting, to evacuate and
retire to the fort at Puren. The garrison at Tucapel
fort was in like manner driven to Puren, from which
place word was sent to Valdivia of their peril.</p>

<p class='c016'>“He started for the seat of war with two hundred
men and five thousand Indians.... The two armies
came in sight of each other on the 3d of December,
1553, and maneuvered for position. The right wing
of the Araucanians was led by Mariantu, the left
by Tucapel, the Murat of the host. At the opening
of the battle Mariantu attacked and cut to pieces
the Spanish left, and served in the same manner a
detachment sent to their support. At the same time
Tucapel swept down on the Spanish right. The latter’s
artillery wrought terrible havoc among the
Indians and they were thrice repulsed, though without
<span class='pageno' title='107' id='Page_107'></span>being thrown into confusion. At the critical
moment of the fight, a young man saved the day for
the Araucanians. His name was Lautero. He had
been previously captured by Valdivia, baptized and
made a page, but he seized this opportunity to escape
from the enemies of his country and join his friends.
He called on them to follow him in a final charge.
They caught the contagion of his valor, and, collecting
themselves, swept the Spaniards and their allies from
the field with awful carnage.</p>

<p class='c016'>“Valdivia himself was captured. He begged hard
for his life, even promising, if he were spared, to quit
Chile with all his followers. Nor did he scruple to
entreat Lautero to intercede for him. This the magnanimous
former page did, but in vain. The grim
old <i>ulmens</i> knew too well the worth of Spanish promises,
and, disregarding Valdivia’s screams for mercy,
one of them crushed his skull with his war club. And
the next day the trees that grew in the great plain
again bore Spanish heads as fruit, and Lautero was
appointed Caupolican’s second in command. At the
council which was forthwith held, it was resolved, in
accordance with the advice of old Colocolo, to make
a general attack upon all the Spanish strongholds.
Angol and Puren were promptly abandoned by the
invaders, who congregated in Valdivia and Imperial.
Lautero fortified himself on the precipitous mountain
of Mariguenu, in order to prevent possible Spanish
incursions southward. Of a band of fourteen Spanish
cavaliers who were riding from Imperial to Tucapel,
seven were slain by the Araucanian Lincoyan.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The inhabitants of Concepcion were terrified at
these catastrophes. Villagran was chosen Valdivia’s
successor. He made careful preparations and advanced
<span class='pageno' title='108' id='Page_108'></span>with a strong army of Spaniards and native
allies toward Mariguenu. In a narrow defile Lautero
fell upon him. The Spaniards tried to scale the
mountain but were checked by slings and arrows, and
a body of the Indians, falling furiously upon the
Spanish cannoneers, captured the guns. An attack
was then delivered upon the Spanish front and it
gave way, Villagran flying headlong with the rest
and barely making good his escape. The remnant
of the Spanish army was pursued by Lautero to the
river Bio-bio, where the Araucanians paused, and the
fugitives staggered into Concepcion. There Villagran
stayed only long enough to gather together what
property he could, and then, with all the inhabitants,
he fled to Santiago. When Lautero entered Concepcion
the next day, he found nothing but empty
houses, which he destroyed. The seven cities were
having a hard life of it.</p>

<p class='c016'>“An attempt some time afterward to retake and rebuild
Concepcion was prevented by the Araucanians,
who met and defeated the Spaniards in open plain
and again drove them back to Santiago.... In
the next campaign Lautero went against Santiago,
while Caupolican attempted the siege of Imperial
and Valdivia. Lautero laid waste the country of the
Promaucians and fortified himself on the Claro. A
Spanish reconnoitering party was surprised and cut
to pieces and Santiago was in danger. Villagran,
being ill, gave the command to his son Pedro, who
was led into an ambuscade by Lautero and his army
slaughtered. But this was Lautero’s last victory, for
a few days later, standing on his battlements to watch
the approach of a Spanish party, he was killed by
a chance shot, and though in the battle that followed
<span class='pageno' title='109' id='Page_109'></span>the Araucanians fought valiantly, they were finally
overpowered. The death of Lautero was for three
days celebrated by the Spaniards; and indeed his fall
meant much to them. He had invariably defeated
them in battle and outgeneraled them in maneuvers,
and at the age of only nineteen had made a reputation
as a warrior such as any veteran might envy.”</p>

<p class='c008'>From then on the war continued with varying
success, the Spaniards stubbornly persisting
in their efforts to conquer their indomitable
opponents, the Araucanians always
resisting, and, when beaten for a time, retreating
to the mountains, only to recruit and
return to the contest with renewed vigor, and
this even when their enemies had grown so
numerous that they could put thousands of
their well armed and trained soldiers into
the field instead of hundreds. Gradually, in
the course of many years, the Spaniards secured
more and more of a foothold, until
the great leader Paillamachu took command
of the Indians and began an uninterrupted
series of victories. He burned Concepcion
and Chillan, a hundred miles to the north,
ravaged the whole country as far up as the
Maule, carried Valdivia by storm and captured,
besides the garrison and inhabitants,
<span class='pageno' title='110' id='Page_110'></span>$2,000,000 of booty and a large store of arms
and ammunition, afterward reduced Imperial,
Osorno, Villarica, Cañete, Angol, Coya and
Arauco, and, by the time of his death in 1603,
every one of their cities and forts on the
mainland; and, at last, when the Spaniards,
after many other attempts, had failed to recover
the lost ground they were forced to
resort to a treaty. Says Hawthorne:</p>

<p class='c016'>“Another term of raids and reprisals ensued, with
no conclusive results to either party. Spanish governors
and Araucanian chiefs succeeded one another
year after year; the operations now favored one side,
now another, but the Spaniards on the whole lost
more than did the Indians. It was not until 1640,
about a hundred years since the outbreak of the war,
that anything approaching a settlement was made,
and the initiative came from the Spaniards. At the
village of Quillin the Spanish Governor, the Marquis
of Baides, met the Araucanian chief Lincopichion,
both being attended by a great retinue. The treaty
was ratified by speeches and the sacrifice of a llama.
The Spaniards and Araucanians were mutually to
refrain from incursions and the Araucanians were
not to permit the troops of foreign powers to land
on their coasts or to furnish supplies to the enemies
of Spain. This clause was inserted in view of recent
attempts of the Dutch to effect a lodgment in Chile.
This compact was kept by the Indians, in spite of
temptations to break it, for ten or a dozen years,
when hostilities broke out afresh owing to bad faith
<span class='pageno' title='111' id='Page_111'></span>on the part of Spain. The Spanish were overwhelmingly
defeated in 1655 and during ten years the
power of Spain in lower Chile was broken. In 1665
the Spaniards were glad to make another treaty with
the Indians, which was kept for half a century. The
invaders from the first had gained much more by
their treaties than by their arms.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“Thenceforward,” says Dawson—</p>

<p class='c016'>“The Bio-bio remained the southern boundary of
the Spanish possessions. An army of two thousand
men and a line of forts guarded the frontier; and,
though hostilities were frequent, for centuries no real
progress was made toward depriving the Araucanians
of their independence. In the progress of time the
slow infiltration of Spanish blood and Spanish customs
modified their characteristics, but it was not until
1882 that they became real subjects of the Chilean
government.”</p>

<p class='c008'>It may be that the Spaniards ought not
to be blamed for these efforts to complete
their conquest of Chile and the appalling
amount of bloodshed and distress they
caused. After all, they only did what the
Aztecs, Caras, and Incas had already done
to the peoples of their neighboring countries,
what the European peoples were constantly
doing to each other, what England soon afterward
did in India, and what, within the last
<span class='pageno' title='112' id='Page_112'></span>century, our own people did in Mexico, the
French in Algiers, and the English in South
Africa. It may be true, as is asserted by
their apologists, that the motive that actuated
the Spanish in their conquests was not alone
greed of land and gold, but in large part
to Christianize a pagan people and bring
them into the true fold; but for the long,
brave fight these Araucanians made, for their
high standard of patriotism, for their adherence
to their convictions, both religious and
political, we can feel only admiration and
sympathy. For these things, as Hawthorne
puts it, “they merit the thanks of all friends
of manhood and liberty.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The northern areas of Argentina submitted
more quietly to the conquerors. In 1542,
Diego de Rojas led the first expedition from
Peru down through the Humahuaca Valley.
Though he was killed in a fight with a wild
tribe near the main Cordillera, his followers
continued their march. Near the site of the
present city of Tucumán they passed out
from the mountain defiles, and, leaving the
desert to their right, penetrated through Córdoba
to the Paraná River country beyond.
Lured by the reports of peaceful and wealthy
<span class='pageno' title='113' id='Page_113'></span>native communities in the irrigated valleys
and the magnificent pasture lands in the pampas
stretching away to the east—now the
scene of Argentina’s enormous stock-raising
and wheat industries—other adventurers soon
followed from Peru and Chile and were met
by expeditions from the Atlantic coast,
marching west in quest of another Peru. No
permanent settlement was made on the site
of the present city of Buenos Aires until
1580. The two parties that had attempted
it, the first commanded by Juan Diaz de
Solis, the other by Pedro de Mendoza, had
been defeated by the Indians and driven off,
but Mendoza had penetrated into the interior,
and his lieutenant, Domingo Irala, who remained
and founded a colony, became the
dominant figure of the new agricultural empire.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>XI</h3>

<p class='c015'>The system adopted by Spain for the government
of her vast colonial possessions is
set forth in the famous code known as the
Compilation of Laws of the Kingdoms of the
Indies, framed in the reign of Philip IV and
published in 1680 in the reign of Charles II.
<span class='pageno' title='114' id='Page_114'></span>The American possessions had originally
been divided into two great political entities
by the Emperor Charles V in 1542. These
were known as New Spain and New Castile
and were governed only by <i>Real Audiencias</i>,
(royal audiences, or tribunals that had both
legislative and judicial functions). Later
they were created Viceroyalties, and the
name New Castile was changed to Peru.
“We order and decree,” said the King in
Law 1, Title 3, Book III of the Compilation,
“that the Kingdoms of Peru and New Spain
be ruled and governed by Viceroys who shall
represent our royal person. These shall exercise
superior power, do and administer
justice equally to all our subjects and vassals
and apply themselves to all that will promote
the tranquillity, repose, ennoblement and pacification
of these provinces.”</p>

<p class='c008'>At that time the Viceroyalty of New Spain
embraced all the provinces of Central America
and the islands of the Caribbean, and
Mexico and (west of the Mississippi) pretty
much all the land to the north, and in the
Viceroyalty of Peru were included Panama
and all the land in South America, except,
of course, Brazil. These viceroyalties themselves
<span class='pageno' title='115' id='Page_115'></span>were subdivided into great provincial
districts, each administered by a <i>Real Audiencia</i>.
These audiencia districts were in
turn divided into lesser governmental jurisdictions
known as <i>Gobernaciones</i> (provincial
sub-districts), <i>Alcaldias Mayores</i>, <i>Alcaldias
Ordinarias</i> and <i>Corregimientos</i> (municipal
districts of greater and lesser extent),
and, in harmony with this political arrangement,
there was also an ecclesiastical
division: into Archbishoprics, coextensive
with the audiencia districts, Bishoprics, corresponding
with the <i>gobernaciones</i> and <i>alcaldias
mayores</i>; and Parishes and Curacies,
corresponding with the <i>alcaldias ordinarias</i>
and <i>corregimientos</i>. The Viceroys were respectively
Presidents of the Audiencias and
Captains-General of the military forces at
Lima and the City of Mexico, the viceregal
capitals; the provincial audiencia districts
were presided over by Gowned Presidents
(<i>Ministros Togado</i>) and were under the military
command of Captains-General, both of
which officers were subordinate to the Viceroys.</p>

<p class='c008'>Within the jurisdiction of the Viceroy of
Peru were seven royal audiencias: Panama
<span class='pageno' title='116' id='Page_116'></span>(created in 1535), Lima (created in 1542),
Santa Fé de Bogotá, now Colombia (created
in 1549), Charcas, now Bolivia (created in
1559), San Francisco de Quito, now Ecuador
(created in 1563), Chile (created in 1609)
and Buenos Aires, now Argentina (created
in 1661). In the eighteenth century two
more viceroyalties were created from districts
withdrawn from the Viceroyalty of
Peru: New Granada and Buenos Aires.
That of New Granada, established in 1717,
was made up of the Audiencias of Santa Fé
de Bogotá, Panama, San Francisco de Quito
and Venezuela; that of Buenos Aires, established
in 1778, included the territory now
embraced in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay,
Patagonia, Bolivia (Charcas) and the southern
part of Chile. Afterward the Audiencias
of Venezuela and Chile were constituted independent
Captaincies-General, subordinate
only to the Council of the Indies in Spain,
and the Audiencia of Charcas was returned
by royal decree of 1810 to the Viceroyalty of
Peru. From these colonial divisions logically
sprang the South American republics as they
exist to-day—of course, again excepting Brazil,
which, after she had secured her independence
<span class='pageno' title='117' id='Page_117'></span>in 1822, retained a monarchial form
of government until 1889, when she became
a republic like the others.</p>

<p class='c008'>Under this Spanish colonial system, therefore,
<i>the King was absolute sovereign</i>, and
governed, not through his ministers of the
cabinet—for the various provinces were regarded
as appanages of the Crown—but
primarily through his Council of the Indies,
to which his officers in America reported
directly, and secondarily through these officers
themselves—the Viceroys and Captains-General,
and their subordinates. In addition
to these executive officers and the royal audiences,
there were <i>Cabildos</i> (municipal councils),
which had jurisdiction of local affairs in
their respective communities, but there were
no <i>elective</i> officers or tribunals, or legislative
bodies representing the people. The King
regarded the provinces as his personal property
and their occupants as instruments for
their development for his benefit alone. Incidentally,
they might derive for themselves
what profit out of it they could, but only in
ways consistent with his interests and policies.</p>

<p class='c008'>Consequently, during this colonial period,
the Spanish Americans had no opportunity to
<span class='pageno' title='118' id='Page_118'></span>develop a representative and self-sustaining
body politic, which, in the course of time,
might by peaceful means have altered this
theory and corrected the evils of such a system—as
was the case in Brazil, where the
Portuguese King in person resided in the
country for several years (during the period
of Napoleon’s Peninsula invasion) and in
that way became familiar with local conditions
and the needs of his people. He, on his return
to Portugal, opened the Brazilian ports
to the commerce of the world and created
Brazil a vassal kingdom, with a form of
government almost wholly autonomous.</p>

<p class='c008'>In contrast with this, no Spaniard (and
certainly no foreign trader) was allowed to
freight ships for the colonies, or to buy a
pound of goods anywhere else, without obtaining
special permission and paying well
for the privilege. Cadiz was the only port
in Europe from which ships were permitted
to sail for America, and the whole trade was
farmed out to a ring of Cadiz merchants.
Every port in Spanish South America was
closed to transatlantic traffic except Nombre
de Dios on the Caribbean side of the Isthmus
of Panamá, near the present city of Colon.
<span class='pageno' title='119' id='Page_119'></span>Not a merchant ship could enter Buenos Aires,
Valparaiso, Callao or Guayaquil. Imports
from Spain must first go to the Isthmus, there
be disembarked and transported over the Andean
passes and the Bolivian plateaux on the
backs of llamas, and finally be carried down
over the Argentina pampas to Buenos Aires,
or along the arid coast to the Peruvian and
Chilean settlements. Under such conditions
in the southern provinces European manufactures,
agricultural and mining implements,
and other essentials for a people’s advancement
were to be had only at fabulous prices.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the other hand, also, the system made
exports impossible, except the precious metals
mined in the north, and drugs, and other
easily transportable products. Hides, hair,
wool, agricultural products and hard woods
would not stand the cost of such long and
difficult hauls. The Peninsula authorities
acted upon the theory that America should
be confined to producing gold and silver.
The Plata settlements, especially, and all
others south and east of the Peruvian-Bolivian
mining region, suffered from this ruinous
suppression. Having no mines, they were
considered worthless, so far as the royal
<span class='pageno' title='120' id='Page_120'></span>treasury was concerned, and were in consequence
ignored—until they came in conflict
with home industries by the cultivation of
olives and grapes, and then, to protect the
Peninsula growers, the Argentinos were
forced to cut down their olive trees and uproot
their vines. The inevitable results followed.
Smuggling, bribe-giving, evasion and contempt
for all law, and hostility to the fiscal
authorities of the Peninsula grew up when,
in their stead, the colonists could have been
developed into a bulwark for Spain, which
was so soon to totter from her proud position
as the greatest of the world powers. Where
science of government and national up-building
should have been taught and fostered,
revolution became the only political refuge.</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1808, when Napoleon forced the abdication
of Charles IV, held him and his
successor, Ferdinand VII, prisoners in
France, and established his brother Joseph
on the throne, came the colonists’ opportunity.
In April, 1809, a <i>Junta</i> (national
assembly) was formed in Caracas; in July of
the same year the example was followed in
Peru, and in August at Quito; in May of
the next year, Santa Fé de Bogotá and
<span class='pageno' title='121' id='Page_121'></span>Buenos Aires followed, and Santiago elected
the Chilean <i>Junta</i> in September. The colonists
expected by these steps to release the
Indians from slavery in the mines in the north
and west; to restore and develop the cultivation
of grapes, olives and tobacco, and
build up their grazing and agricultural industry
in the south and east; also to open
their ports to commerce with Europe, so that
they might buy commodities essential to their
growth, and export their own products by
way of exchange; also to lighten the crushing
imposts and internal taxation, to abolish the
tithe system, and reclaim and parcel out the
vast feudal estates which had gradually been
absorbed by the Spanish officials in the course
of an administration which could only be
likened to that of the rapacious Roman proconsuls
against which Cicero inveighed so
impotently.</p>

<p class='c008'>But the ambitious attempts at reform met
with immediate and successful opposition.
The country was full of Spanish office-holders
who saw in them their dismissal and the
death blow to their spoils system. In the
short struggle that followed, the success of
the royal forces was almost universal. The
<span class='pageno' title='122' id='Page_122'></span>colonists had had no training in warfare, nor
had they yet developed as a people the unity
of purpose and sturdy self-dependence which
was eventually to bring them their freedom.
The <i>junta</i> governments were everywhere
effectively suppressed, except in Bogotá and
Buenos Aires, where the fires of revolution
smouldered during the succeeding years of
Peninsula chaos that preceded Waterloo,
and the colonists, with eyes opened at last to
the true and only remedy for their ills, were
formulating their great resolve to separate
themselves entirely from the mother country;
for, while their measures of reform had been
suppressed, the ideas that called them into being
could not be obliterated. Furthermore
their unsuccessful clash with the viceroys and
lesser officials brought even more glaringly
before their eyes the extortions and brutal
indifference of the ruling class. The attitude
of the Peninsulares toward the creoles and
<i>mestizos</i> of the colonies had always been contemptuous,
and now at last the creoles, being
for the most part of unmixed Spanish descent
(they were called creoles only because
born in America) found their resentment of
that attitude more than they could endure.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='123' id='Page_123'></span>The series of military successes that was
destined to lead to the desired result began
with the fights at Tucumán in the northern
part of Argentina, in the fall of 1812, and at
Salta, a little farther north, in February,
1813. By these battles the persistent efforts
of the royalist forces in Peru to put an end,
to the <i>junta</i> government of 1810 in the Plata
settlements, were checked under the leadership
of Manuel Belgrano. But on the first
of October following, the Royalists, in violation
of the armistice entered into after Salta,
almost destroyed Belgrano’s army at Vilcapujio.
Disastrous as was the reverse for the
time-being, this before long proved a distinct
service to the colonists, for it placed
in command of the remnants of Belgrano’s
army General José de San Martín, one of
the two great patriots who finally brought
the war to a successful issue, and who had
then just returned with the experience and
prestige acquired by twenty years’ service
in the Peninsula armies against Napoleon’s
famous marshals. The other of these great
patriots was Simon Bolívar.</p>

<p class='c008'>San Martín recognized at once the futility
of pursuing the campaign and attacking the
<span class='pageno' title='124' id='Page_124'></span>Royalists in the mountainous regions of Bolivia,
with over a thousand miles of difficult
roads between his army and base of supplies.
He conceived, therefore, the idea of
compelling Spain to defend her own bases
at Lima and Callao, and to this end elaborated
a plan for the invasion of Chile and
capture of Valparaiso, and, from thence, a
combined military and naval attack on the
capital of Peru, the seat of Spain’s continental
power. With this purpose in view,
he repaired to the almost inaccessible town
of Mendoza on the Argentine slope of the
Andes, on about the same parallel with the
Chilean capital, Santiago, and remained there
two years, recruiting and training a strong
force and accumulating equipment.</p>

<p class='c008'>Shortly after he had established his camp
of instruction, the Chileans under General
Bernardo O’Higgins had extorted from the
Royalist General at Talca a truce whereby
the protracted struggle to maintain the <i>junta</i>
government in Chile was for the moment suspended.
This truce of Talca, however, was
repudiated by the Viceroy at Lima, and
General Ossorio was soon on his way south
with another Royalist army, against which,
<span class='pageno' title='125' id='Page_125'></span>weakened by local political dissensions, the
Chilenos were unable to prevail, and were
decisively beaten at Rancagua in October,
1814. As this meant a complete restoration
of Spanish authority in Chile, O’Higgins and
a few of his officers made their escape with
the wreck of their army, crossed the Andes
and placed themselves under the command of
San Martín.</p>

<p class='c008'>In January, 1817, San Martín’s army, four
thousand strong, was ready to move against
the unsuspecting Spanish in Chile, who had
been led by a stratagem to believe that he
would enter the country through one of the
more easily accessible of the Andean passes
to the south. San Martín, however, chose
the highest and most terrible of them all, one
four thousand feet higher than St. Bernard,
and which lay to the north instead of south
of Aconcagua, and accomplished a feat which,
in endurance and skill, is thought by the
historians to have surpassed Napoleon’s famous
crossing of the Alps. Descending the
western slope, he fell upon the Spanish outpost
at La Guardia on the 7th of February,
and on the 12th, surprised and defeated Ossorio’s
main force at Chacabuco. Two days
<span class='pageno' title='126' id='Page_126'></span>later the liberating army entered Santiago.
The patriot government was at once re-established
and the directorship conferred on
O’Higgins after San Martín, refusing to be
diverted from his plans for the liberation of
the entire continent, had declined the honor.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the first day of the ensuing year the
independence of Chile was proclaimed. <i>De
facto</i> independence was not achieved until the
decisive defeat of the Royalists on the plains
of Maypú, on the 5th of April, 1815, and
then, with Chile cleared of Spanish troops,
and the port of Valparaiso at his service as a
base of supplies, San Martín was ready to
enter upon the next stage of his work—the
liberation of Peru.</p>

<div id='i126'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_126.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>SAN MARTÍN’S PASSAGE OF THE ANDES—FROM VILA’S FAMOUS PAINTING.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Another period devoted to recruiting, organizing,
and drilling elapsed. In August,
1820, his combined military and naval expedition
set out from Valparaiso with some
4500 troops. Thus far this stronghold of
Spain had undergone less violent revolutionary
disturbances than any other part of her
American possessions. In 1820 it was fully
under the control of Don Joaquín de la
Pezuela, the forty-fourth successor of Pizarro.
But it was three years now since
<span class='pageno' title='127' id='Page_127'></span>Pezuela had reported to the Madrid government
that he stood over a volcano liable to
burst into action at any moment, and had
received no aid, a situation San Martín understood.
In this expedition he was ably
seconded by Lord Cochrane, a former British
naval officer, who was to render most
valuable service in the naval warfare that
was at once begun against the Viceroy. Cochrane’s
first success was the capture of Valdivia,
Spain’s best harbor on the Pacific
south of Valparaiso, in spite of the fact that
his rockets were filled with sand instead of
powder, the Chilean authorities having imprudently
employed Spanish prisoners in the
manufacture of ammunition.</p>

<p class='c008'>Arrived off Callao, the seaport of Lima,
the liberators entered upon operations and
negotiations lasting several months, during
which effective missionary work in the cause
of independence was done throughout Peru
by San Martín’s lieutenants. At last, on the
6th of July, 1821, the Spanish leaders,
neglected by their home government, and
realizing the ineffectiveness of their forces,
evacuated Lima, which was at once occupied
by San Martín. He did not come, he said,
<span class='pageno' title='128' id='Page_128'></span>as a conqueror, and it was with much hesitation
that he accepted the supreme power
offered by the patriots; he styled himself
Protector of Peru, promising to surrender
the government to the people as soon as the
Peruvian congress should be assembled to
take over the burden, and retained his control
of the embryo republic for a year, notwithstanding
the hostility that was engendered
by misconception of the high purposes
embodied in the title he assumed. The wisdom
of his retention in power at such a critical
period is hardly to be contested.</p>

<p class='c008'>This was the decisive campaign of the
war of independence on the continent. The
future of Buenos Aires and Chile, of New
Granada and Venezuela, and of all the Spanish
settlements depended on the battles that
were now to be fought in the mountains of
Peru, where the Royalist forces had concentrated,
for this was the very heart of the
Spanish stronghold. San Martín was not to
fight these final battles, but to him is due the
credit of conceiving the plan of action, of executing
it almost to the end, and of showing, by
his retirement in favor of a more convincingly
popular fellow-patriot of the north, a modesty,
<span class='pageno' title='129' id='Page_129'></span>soundness of judgment, and generosity
almost unparalleled among statesmen—for
in the meantime the northern movement,
under the direction of Simon Bolívar, was
approaching Peru. It arrived at the coast
town of Guayaquil in the spring of 1822.
San Martín immediately repaired to that port
for a conference, leaving his administration in
the hands of the Marquis of Torre Tagle,
a member of the old nobility who had turned
revolutionist, and Bernardo Monteagudo.</p>

<p class='c008'>The meeting of the two Liberators marked
the close of San Martín’s military career.
He saw clearly that there could be no room
for himself and a brilliant, ambitious, magnetic
leader like Bolívar in the same sphere
of action, that it was necessary for the welfare
of the common cause that one of them
should retire. He was great and patriotic
enough to make the sacrifice. Returning to
Lima, he resigned the supreme authority and
retired to Europe. There was no place for
him in Buenos Aires, except as a leader in
the civil wars which by this time were distracting
the country, and this rôle he disdained.
In 1850 he died in France at the
age of seventy-two, after a thirty years’
<span class='pageno' title='130' id='Page_130'></span>struggle with sickness and poverty, but attended
always by his devoted daughter.
After his death his body was brought to
Buenos Aires and reverently placed in a
tomb, one of the handsomest in the world,
about which stand three marble figures representing
Buenos Aires, Chile, and Peru.</p>

<p class='c008'>Bolívar’s career had begun in Venezuela,
where he was born. After Spain’s suppression
of the <i>junta</i> established in Caracas in
1810, Bolívar, with the revolutionist Miranda,
had landed in Venezuela and called into being
the first congress of the people, and the
independence of the country was proclaimed.
In the fighting that followed, the movement
thus started met a speedy end—literally shattered
by an awful earthquake that occurred
on Holy Thursday of 1812, which the Royalists
claimed was a stroke of Divine vengeance
against those who would have overthrown
the anointed of the Lord.</p>

<p class='c008'>Miranda was captured and ended his days
in a Spanish prison, but Bolívar escaped into
New Granada and soon had full sway in the
revolutionary councils of the northern provinces.
In 1813 he founded at Bogotá an
active revolutionary <i>junta</i> and a military
<span class='pageno' title='131' id='Page_131'></span>organization. With the latter he struck the
Royalists at Cucutá, just within the eastern
border of Colombia, and passed over the
mountains to Caracas, proclaiming war to
the death. Here his rôle of Dictator began.
His career, however, was punctuated
by many disasters before the decisive battle
of Boyacá placed Bogotá permanently in his
hands and gave assurance of eventual success.
But from this triumph Bolívar hurried
to the revolutionary congress he had some time
before called at Angostura and procured the
enactment of a law providing for the union
of Venezuela and New Granada, to form
the Republic of Colombia, and was elected
President; and by the end of the year 1821
all of this territory, except Panama and
Puerto Cabello, near La Guayra, had been
freed from the control of Spain.</p>

<p class='c008'>The famous battle of Pichincha, won on
the 24th of May, 1822, by Bolívar’s great
lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, gave
Ecuador also to the northern federation;
later it was formally incorporated into the
new Colombian Republic. Still for two
years the final clash between the Royalists
and the patriots was deferred, during which
<span class='pageno' title='132' id='Page_132'></span>time the confusion of sectional interests and
negotiations by the now desperate mother
country threatened to undo the great work
of the liberators. But once more Bolívar
triumphed. By the withdrawal in his favor
of San Martín, harmony was restored; with
his victory at Junín on the 6th of August,
1824, and the decisive battle on the plain of
Ayacucho, midway between Lima and Cuzco,
on the 9th of December, the war came to an
end. In that brilliantly fought battle the
patriot army, again under Sucre, defeated a
largely superior force commanded by the
Viceroy in person in less than eighty minutes.
The Viceroy wounded and a prisoner, and
his men having deserted by hundreds, his
second in command sued for terms, and that
afternoon fourteen generals, five hundred and
sixty-eight officers of other grades, and three
thousand two hundred privates became prisoners
of war.</p>

<div id='i132'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>STATUE OF BOLÍVAR, LIMA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Following this victory, Sucre proceeded to
Charcas and convened the patriot congress
which in August, 1825, proclaimed the Republic
of Bolívia, and became its first President.
Bolívar was then at the head of affairs
in Peru. He soon, however, relinquished his
<span class='pageno' title='133' id='Page_133'></span>dictatorship and returned to Bogotá to resume,
for a brief term, his functions as
President of the federation of Colombia.
From that time on he sank rapidly from his
apogee and, beset on all sides by the enemies
his supposed imperial designs had made for
him, died on his estate of Santa Marta on the
17th of December, 1830, at the early age of
forty-seven. Disheartened, his personal fortune
gone, he had abandoned any designs of
that character he might once have had and
only a few days before the end wrote to the
Colombians: “My last wishes are for the
country’s happiness. If my death can contribute
to the quieting of party strife and to
the consolidation of the union, I shall go
down to the grave in peace.” To him also in
after years his people erected monuments in
tardy recognition of his matchless services.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Portuguese provinces were the only
ones to continue the monarchical system.
They too, however, declared themselves independent,
and became known as the Empire
of Brazil, until 1889, when the present republic
was declared.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='134' id='Page_134'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>II<br /> <br />BRAZIL</h2>
</div>

<h3 class='c014'>I</h3>

<p class='c015'>The United States of Brazil, next to
our own United States, form the largest
of the American republics. Brazil
has an area fifteen times greater than Germany’s,
sixteen times as great as that of
France, 250,000 square miles greater than
ours, excluding Alaska and our island possessions.
At its greatest width, the country
extends inland more than 2000 miles and its
coast line on the Atlantic is more than 3700
miles long, twice the distance from Portland,
Maine, to Key West; yet the population, although
it has doubled in the last forty years,
is not quite a fourth as large as our own.
It is estimated that if the whole country were
as densely populated as France, the inhabitants
would number 622,000,000, or, if as
densely populated as Germany, 955,000,000.
<span class='pageno' title='135' id='Page_135'></span>Some time it may be. Except in the regions
near the large cities, only a small part is even
sparsely settled now.</p>

<p class='c008'>It argues well for the industry and enterprise
of what inhabitants there are, however,
that Brazil’s international commerce is
relatively nearly as great in proportion to her
population as ours. Some idea of the remarkable
progress she has made is given in
the following extract from a pamphlet recently
published by the <i>Commissão de Expansão
Economica</i>, entitled “Do you Know
the Wealth of Brazil?”</p>

<p class='c016'>“In the colonial days, the foreign trade of Brazil
was done exclusively through Lisbon, under the protection
of Portuguese men-of-war.... The colonial
produce was distributed among the principal
Portuguese commercial centers and the imports
came exclusively from Portugal to the ports of Bahia,
Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco, Pará, and Maranhão.
Until the end of the eighteenth century, the foreign
trade of Brazil was continued more or less on this
basis, but the exports were considerably more than
the imports. By decree of January 28, 1808, the
King of Portugal, Don João VI of Braganza, lately
arrived at Bahia” (when he fled from the Peninsula
as a result of Napoleon’s invasion), “resolved to
open all the ports of Brazil to the commerce of foreign
nations, until then closed for the benefit of Portugal.
The first consequence of this decree was the
<span class='pageno' title='136' id='Page_136'></span>establishment of commercial relations with England.
English agencies were opened at Rio de Janeiro,
Bahia, and Pernambuco for the purpose of importing
manufactured articles and exporting sugar, alcohol,
gold, cotton, hides, coffee, cocoa, timber, and indigo.
After the proclamation of independence in 1822, the
trade developed enormously, France, the United
States of America, Germany, Holland, and Sweden
following the example of England.... From
1846 to 1875 the imports increased 110 per cent.
and the exports 175 per cent. From 1876 to 1905
the imports increased 175 per cent. and the exports
272 per cent.... In 1909 its total value was
£101,844,549 (over $500,000,000).”</p>

<p class='c008'>In 1910 it was $545,581,275, in which we
participated to the extent of $142,437,986,
including $58,808,467 worth of coffee and
$47,409,030 worth of rubber that were exported
to us. For the principal industry is
still, as it has always been, agriculture, though
in the mountainous sections there are vast
regions containing gold and precious stones
and minerals of incalculable value, millions
of square miles in the interior still covered
with virgin forests; and yet even the relatively
small sections that have been cultivated
produce more than three-fourths of
all the coffee consumed in the world and more
than three-fifths of all the rubber, not to
<span class='pageno' title='137' id='Page_137'></span>mention the other products. But within the
last few years immigration has been encouraged
and many conditions that were preventing
development have been improved. Wonders
have been accomplished in making the
cities as healthful as any in the world. The
railroads have been, and are still being,
extended tremendously and facilities for commerce
along the great inland waterways continually
increased.</p>

<p class='c008'>The first of the important seaports of
Brazil that are accessible by steamer from
New York is Belém, the capital of the State
of Pará. It ranks only as the fifth in size,
but to the tourist it is of surpassing interest
because it is situated on the Pará River, the
southern or commercial mouth of the Amazon,
that mightiest and most majestic of all the
rivers in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>Imagine!—a river more than 3400 miles
in length, with its source in the Peruvian
Andes, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea—a
river which, with its vast tributaries,
many of them themselves from a thousand to
two thousand miles in length, drains a territory
of 2,300,000 square miles, two-thirds
as large as our United States, and so rich
<span class='pageno' title='138' id='Page_138'></span>in indigenous resources, and so fertile, that
many years ago, when it was wholly a wilderness,
the great scientist Von Humboldt said
of it that “it is here that one day, sooner or
later, will concentrate the civilization of the
globe”—a river that is a mile and a half
wide at Tabatinga, the last Brazilian port to
the west, and gradually broadens on its way
to the sea until it attains a width of 150
miles at its northern mouth alone, and discharges
into the Atlantic a volume of water
more than four times as great as the outpour
of the Mississippi—a river that is navigable,
that is now actually being navigated by
<i>ocean liners</i>, for 2000 miles, clear across
Brazil to Iquitos in the frontier of Peru.</p>

<p class='c008'>Yet, although as early as 1541 Francisco
de Orellana, one of Pizarro’s little band of
conquerors, who had crossed the Andes in
quest of the fabulous country of <i>El Dorado</i>,
and, after having traversed the whole course
of the river through Brazil with a few companions
in a canoe, had made his way back
to Spain and told amazing stories of the
wealth of the region he had discovered, and
although a century later the astronomer La
Condamine, and still later Baron von Humboldt,
<span class='pageno' title='139' id='Page_139'></span>Castelnau, and others had successively
published alluring accounts of their explorations
in the same region, it was not until
1867 that the river was opened to free navigation.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is gratifying to reflect that, probably
more than to any other outside influence, it
was due to the publication of the report of an
expedition undertaken in 1851 by William
Lewis Herndon, a lieutenant in the United
States Navy, and to the explorations of
Louis Agassiz, a Harvard professor, that
the interest was aroused which at last brought
this about. Lieutenant Herndon, like Orellana,
started from Lima, and, braving the
passes of the Andes, entered the Amazon
from one of its western affluents and made
the journey in a canoe, with only a Peruvian
guide and a few Indian rowers, all the way
to its mouth. Professor Agassiz, whose explorations
were begun fifteen years later,
started from Belém and traveled in a steamboat,
such as it was, accompanied by his wife
and a corps of scientists, and was given every
assistance possible by the late Emperor Dom
Pedro, who took a lively interest in the expedition.
But even then in Brazil, the Professor
<span class='pageno' title='140' id='Page_140'></span>says in his book, “so little was known
of the Amazon that we could obtain only
very meager, and usually rather discouraging,
information concerning our projected
journey. In Rio, if you say you are going to
ascend their great river, your Brazilian
friends look at you with compassionate wonder.
You are threatened with sickness, with
intolerable heat, with mosquitoes, <i>jacaraes</i>
(alligators), and wild Indians.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Lieutenant Herndon, however, had already
made known to the scientific world that the
climate is healthful, notwithstanding the mosquitoes;
that, humid and hot as it is during
certain hours of the day, the nights are always
cool, and that “the direct rays of the
sun are tempered by an almost constant east
wind, laden with moisture from the ocean,
so that no one ever suffers from the heat;”
and, when he got back to Rio de Janeiro,
Professor Agassiz assured the Brazilians that
this was so. Arthur Dias indignantly protests
(in his <i>Brazil of To-day</i>) that “it is not
true, as they say, that the climate of this
region prevents the existence and the extending
of the population.” “It is a legend,
a fiction,” he adds. Mozans, who made a similar
<span class='pageno' title='141' id='Page_141'></span>journey to Herndon’s very recently, also
testifies to the same effect.</p>

<p class='c008'>Here in this Amazon country, Lieutenant
Herndon had reported, “we see a fecundity
of soil and a rapidity of vegetation that is
marvelous and to which even Egypt, the
ancient granary of Europe, affords no parallel....
Here trees, evidently young,
shoot up to such a height that no fowling-piece
will reach the game seated on their
topmost branches. This is the country of
rice, of sarsaparilla, of cocoa, of tonka beans,
of mandioca, black pepper, arrowroot, ginger,
balsam, tapioca, gum copal, nutmeg, animal
and vegetable wax, indigo and Brazil nuts, of
India rubber, of dyes of the gayest colors,
drugs of rare virtue, variegated cabinet woods
of the finest grain and susceptible of the highest
polish. Here dwell the wild cow, the fish
ox, the sloth, the anteater, the beautiful black
tiger, the mysterious electric eel, the boa constrictor,
the anaconda, the deadly coral snake,
the voracious alligator, monkeys in endless
variety, birds of the most brilliant plumage,
and insects of the strangest form and gayest
colors.”</p>

<p class='c008'>More than forty years of progress and
<span class='pageno' title='142' id='Page_142'></span>improvement have passed since Dom Pedro
decreed that the river should be open to international
trade, yet all these wonders may
still be seen there—the vast expanses of
water, the shore lines varied by lofty bluffs
and low plains of sand, rugged rocks and
dense masses of foliage, the river surface
dotted by islands, large and small—the magnificent
forest still crowding to the banks and
teeming with all the exuberant life and brilliant
hues of the tropics—giant <i>sumaumeras</i>,
their crests towering high above all other
trees, their huge, white-barked trunks and
limbs standing out in striking relief from the
masses of green; tall cocoanut palms, tufted
at the top with fan-shaped leaves cut into
ribbons and bedecked with creamy blossoms;
slender, graceful <i>assai</i> palms, tall and clean-stemmed
like the cocoanuts, but with fluffy,
feathery crowns; wine palms from which the
flowers hang in long, crimson tassels, studded
with berries of bright green; <i>jupati</i> palms
with plumelike leaves forty to fifty feet long
that start near the base of the trunk and
curve upward on all sides in the form of a
vase; the familiar fan palm, and a legion of
others.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='143' id='Page_143'></span>And there are rubber trees, which resemble
in this region our northern ash; stately <i>castanhas</i>,
the trees on which the Brazil nuts
grow, and <i>cacaos</i>, that look like our cherry
trees, only they give us our chocolate and
cocoa beans instead and have blossoms of a
saffron tint; mahoganies, rosewoods and satinwoods
and great sheaves of whispering bamboo;
myriads of ferns and exquisitely tinted
orchids, acacias, scarlet passion flowers, begonias,
yellow and blue—flowers innumerable
in the wildest profusion. Not little ones like
our violets hiding modestly among the mosses
and grass, but big blossoms growing luxuriantly
on bushes and on the parasite vines
that twine about the trunks of the trees and
hang in festoons from their branches, until
the whole river border seems ablaze with
their vivid lights; and there are still the
monkeys and beautiful butterflies and humming
birds, and the parrots, macaws, herons,
egrets, toucans, and countless other gorgeously
feathered birds, and the Indian villages,
too, in the midst of their orange and
banana groves or huddled near the beaches
where the turtles breed.</p>

<p class='c008'>Only now all these may be seen from the
<span class='pageno' title='144' id='Page_144'></span>decks of ocean liners, or, if one starts from
Belém or Iquitos, from river steamers as
safe and comfortably equipped and setting as
good a table as most of those in our northern
waters. Now the alligators and snakes
and tigers have been driven far from the
beaten tracks—not too far, though, for the
sportsman who loves the excitement of hunting
big game—now the negro slaves have
been freed and the Indians are no longer
hostile; now, in many places, lands have been
drained and clearings made in the forests,
and waste marshes and giant trees have made
way for pastures and thrifty-looking plantations,
where grain, coffee, sugar, tobacco
and cotton, and pineapples and many other
things are cultivated; now the rubber and
cacao and nut gatherers penetrate far into
the woods; now small, isolated communities
have grown to be large ones, that send their
produce directly from their own docks to
the markets of the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>There is Manãos, for instance, the capital
of the State of Amazonas. Manãos is situated
at the mouth of the Rio Negro, which
empties into the Amazon a thousand miles
from the coast. When Lieutenant Herndon
<span class='pageno' title='145' id='Page_145'></span>was there in 1851, it was a wretched little
town, containing but four hundred and seventy
houses, most of them one story in height,
and had a population of about four thousand—whites,
Indians, mixed breeds, and
negro slaves all combined. To-day it is a
modern, rapidly growing city, with a population
already numbering fifty thousand,
perhaps more, including many foreigners.
There is an imposing stone State House, a
white marble Palace of Justice, and a splendid
monument commemorating the opening
of the Amazon to international trade. It has
broad, shaded, well-paved streets, lined with
handsome buildings; it has electric lights,
trolley lines, a telephone system, water and
harbor works, an ice plant, banks, hotels,
newspapers, up-to-date shops, warehouses
and public markets, a good library and excellent
educational institutions, and is rated
among the greater ports of South America
because of its extensive shipments of rubber
and other products of the country round
about.</p>

<p class='c008'>A visit to the beautiful public gardens,
where an orchestra plays in the evenings, and
to the Amazonas Theater is well worth while.
<span class='pageno' title='146' id='Page_146'></span>It is said to have cost $2,000,000 in gold,
that theater—which is not at all surprising
to any one who has seen it, for it is truly
superb, a structure of stone with marble
supporting columns, that stands on a great
causeway of masonry occupying a commanding
site on the Avenida Eduardo Ribeiro, the
principal thoroughfare and fashionable promenade,
and has a lofty, brightly colored dome
that can be seen from the harbor, and a magnificent
foyer adorned with paintings by a
famous Italian artist.</p>

<p class='c008'>Obydos, too, perched on the bluffs beside
an old fortress near the mouth of the Trombetas,
and Santarem, at the mouth of the
Tapajos, about midway between Manãos and
the coast, are other progressive cities that offer
opportunities for agreeable breaks in the
long journey. As it was in the Tapajos that
gold was first found in the region, Santarem
is one of the oldest if now one of the most
up-to-date of the towns. It is possessed, besides,
of a peculiar interest for North Americans
because after our civil war it became
the home of quite a number of our “unreconstructed”
Confederates.</p>

<p class='c008'>But Belém, or Pará as it is more generally
<span class='pageno' title='147' id='Page_147'></span>called by foreigners (one may take his
choice, since the full corporate name is <i>Santa
Maria de Nazareth de Belém do Grão Pará</i>),
is by far the largest and most interesting of
them all, for not only has the wealth that
has poured into it in recent years transformed
it into a big city of about two hundred
thousand inhabitants, boasting, like
Manãos, all the modern public utilities and
conveniences, but it is old and rich in relics
associated with its romantic history, much
care has been taken in the adding of the new
to beautify it, its climate is much more delightful
than the others (the mean annual
temperature is only 82° F.), and it is also
charmingly clean and picturesque. “Who
comes to Pará,” runs a local proverb, “is glad
to stay; who drinks <i>assai</i> goes never away”—though
<i>assai</i> need have no real terrors for
that reason. It is nothing more seductive than
a most refreshing beverage made from the
fruit of the <i>assai</i> palm.</p>

<p class='c008'>Almost at the very threshold of the city,
on the approach from the sea, one encounters
some of the wonders in which the region
abounds—first the “<i>pororoca</i>,” which is the
name originally given by the Indians to the
<span class='pageno' title='148' id='Page_148'></span>huge waves that are created by the conflict
of the descending waters of the river with
the inrushing current of the Atlantic and
follow each other in series of three or four,
with thunderous intonations. For nearly an
hour in the progress through the great estuary
the conflict can be observed. Then the
river seems to prevail; its surface grows more
placid, the color changes from the dark hue
of the ocean to light green, and, on beyond,
to the tawny yellow of the Amazon. Yet they
say the ebb and flow of the tide is perceptible
as far up as Obydos, 700 miles away, and,
when it ebbs, that the tawny yellow can be
seen many miles out at sea. Then, scattered
about, here, there, and everywhere on the
twenty-mile-wide bosom of the Pará, as
though in the titanic struggle some larger
body had been broken into bits, are hundreds
of wooded islands, moist and radiant in the
sunlight, their varied greens in delightful
contrast with the silvery sheen on the waters
and the bright turquoise of the sky.</p>

<p class='c008'>The city, seen from a distance, with its
background of forests and rows of white-walled,
red-roofed houses, separated into
clusters by the parks and tree-lined avenues
<span class='pageno' title='149' id='Page_149'></span>sloping down to the shores of its own spacious
bay, has the gay, holiday appearance of
a summer resort. Only a closer view dispels
the illusion, for its harbor is filled with vessels
of every size and description, from the
little <i>monatrias</i>, or canoes, of the Indians, to
the great liners of the Brazilian Lloyd. Its
compact business section in the vicinity of
the quay, the Custom House and market and
the warehouses of the steamship companies
present a commercial aspect substantial and
busy enough to command the respect even
of a Chicagoan or New Yorker. As already
stated, more than three fifths of the rubber
supply of the world comes from Brazil, and
two of these three fifths pass this very port,
to say nothing of the cacao, nuts, oils, tobacco,
woods, and other things shipped there,
or of the importations.</p>

<p class='c008'>One of the features of a stay in Belém, by
the way—that is, for any one interested in
seeing how the first crude form of an article
so familiar in its finished forms is produced,
is a trip to one of the near-by rubber estates.
It has not yet been necessary in this section,
if anywhere in Brazil, to resort to cultivation
to any great extent, and so the huts of the
<span class='pageno' title='150' id='Page_150'></span><i>seringueiros</i> (gatherers) are located right in
the woods, where the rubber trees grow
promiscuously among the others, and each
<i>seringueiro</i> is allotted as many as he can attend
to. The sap, which resembles milk in
color and consistency, is collected in cups
placed under incisions in the bark, then
brought into camp in bucketfuls and reduced
by a primitive process of evaporation to the
slabs or cakes forming the raw article of
commerce. One does not have to leave
Belém itself, however, to see rubber trees and
most of the other species, too, for there the
people have been generous enough to preserve
within the city limits a large tract of
primeval forest, which has been cleared of
underbrush and converted into a park, known
as the <i>Bosque Municipal</i>. Also there is a
wonderful botanical garden and a museum
where the rarest specimens of the vegetation,
and animals and the birds and reptiles of the
country are assembled.</p>

<p class='c008'>And even in the business section there are
charming public squares. The one nearest
the quay, named for the Bishop Frei Caetano
Brandão, whose statue is in the center, is particularly
interesting because facing it is a
<span class='pageno' title='151' id='Page_151'></span>fine old seventeenth-century cathedral of the
Portuguese type, massive and grave, an old
marine arsenal now used as a hospital, and an
ancient fortification, called the <i>Castello</i>, which
has been maintained because of its historical
associations. Then there is the Praca da Independencia,
where the Governor’s Palace is,
and a quaint old blue-walled City Hall, built
in colonial times for a Portuguese minister,
the Marquis de Pombal, who dreamed of the
permanent transfer of the seat of the Lusitanian
empire to the banks of the Amazon.
In the heart of the city, on its most elevated
ground, is the celebrated Largo da Polvora,
now commonly called the Praca da Republica,
after a superb monument it contains—of
marble surmounted by figures in bronze,
symbolic of the republic proclaimed when the
Emperor Dom Pedro was dethroned in the
bloodless revolution of 1889. It is from this
point that the four principal avenues extend
through the city in the cardinal directions.</p>

<p class='c008'>“The Largo da Polvora,” Arthur Dias
pays it the compliment of saying (though
this may, perhaps, be rather too enthusiastic),
“shames our Avenida da Liberdade in
Lisbon; if they could place there the
<span class='pageno' title='152' id='Page_152'></span>Arc de Triomphe, it would rival the Champs-Elysées.”
It may be that for most its fascination
lies not so much in its beauty as
in its other attractions, for it is the great social
and amusement center of a prosperous
and pleasure-loving community, the thoroughfare
along which the best of its hotels
and clubs and the fashionable cafés and concert
halls are located and many of its finest
residences. It adds the lively mundane touch
that is needed to relieve the impressiveness
of a region where all nature is so overpoweringly
beautiful. In the midst of the gardens,
which are separated by luxuriantly
shaded streets, is the Theatro da Paz, regarded
as one of the best in Latin America,
and the Apollo Circus and Paz Carrousel.
Near by is the handsome Paz Hotel, with its
popular café.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the evenings, when the cool breeze sets
in from the ocean, the whole scene becomes
animated. The brilliantly lighted avenues
and driveways in the park are thronged
with the carriages and motor cars of the
“four hundred,” the sidewalks with crowds
of pleasure-seekers, cosmopolitan and well
dressed. Then the cafés all have out their
<span class='pageno' title='153' id='Page_153'></span>little zinc tables, jammed with customers
of both sexes (these cafés are not mere
drinking places, most of them, but a sort of
peculiar combination of café, candy store,
and ice-cream saloon), dozens of orchestras
play, the places of amusement are in full
blast, and music and gayety reign supreme.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>II</h3>

<p class='c015'>Because of peculiar economic conditions,
the railroads of Brazil, as originally planned,
were not intended, like ours, to facilitate commerce
among the States, but only for the
purpose of bringing the products of the various
developed sections of the country to
the nearest shipping points. Thus Recife,
the seaport of the State of Pernambuco, is
the focus of one system, São Salvador da
Bahia of another, Rio de Janeiro of a third,
Santos, the port of São Paulo, of a fourth,
and Porto Alegre, the chief port of Rio
Grande do Sul, of a fifth. Not long ago,
when these conditions began to undergo radical
changes, the government realized the desirability
of establishing connections by
means of lines running north and south. The
<span class='pageno' title='154' id='Page_154'></span>Rio de Janeiran system was extended north
to the growing port of Victoria, in the neighboring
State of Espirito Santo, and connected
with the systems of São Paulo and
Rio Grande do Sul, and in 1910 pushed still
farther south into Uruguay, so that by the
end of the year it was possible to travel by
rail from Victoria to Montevideo, a distance
of more than two thousand miles.</p>

<p class='c008'>The lines north of Victoria, however, have
not yet been connected and the nearly twenty-five-hundred-mile
journey from Belém to
Rio, therefore, must still be made by sea.
But, long though the trip is, it is very far
from being a monotonous one, if only the
tourist has the time to make it on a coastwise
steamer that stops at the principal ports
of call. São Luiz da Maranhão, “the City
of Little Palaces”; Fortaleza, the port of
Ceará, regarded as one of the loveliest in
Brazil; Pernambuco, with its canals and lagoons
and bridges, a city that inspired a
famous Brazilian poet to exclaim: “Hail,
beautiful land! O Pernambuco, Venice transported
to America, floating on the seas!”
and terraced, crescent-shaped São Salvador,
enthroned on the hills beside its magnificent
<span class='pageno' title='155' id='Page_155'></span>bay—all these are so interesting that
they richly repay a visit. All are older than
the oldest English settlement in the northern
continent, yet, unlike Jamestown, there is
not one of them that has not kept pace with
the national progress.</p>

<p class='c008'>The huge breast of land on which these
cities are located, that reaches out in a direct
line toward the western extremity of Africa
and lies in the track of all ships bound by
way of the Atlantic to and from the country
south of the equator, is the great sugar, cotton,
and tobacco region, and was the first in
Brazil to contain a large European population.
The French coveted and poached on
it and were the first to settle São Luiz in
Maranhão; the Dutch seized it in 1630, while
Holland was at war with Spain and Portugal
and her possessions had fallen under
Spanish suzerainty, and held it for twenty-five
years in spite of all the Portuguese and
Spanish could do, only to be driven out at
last by the persistence and courage of the
colonists themselves.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is doubtful whether anywhere else could
be found such a mingling of the classic,
medieval, and modern in architecture, such
<span class='pageno' title='156' id='Page_156'></span>quaint old institutions and customs of living
in an atmosphere permeated with up-to-date
business methods, such strangely attractive
displays of primitive ornaments and curios
as may be seen in their shops side by side
with importations from Paris. In few other
places could such results be studied as have
come from the process of racial assimilation
that has been going on for centuries in the
mestizo classes—the Indian by the Caucasian,
the African by both; for in Brazil, as
in the islands of the Caribbean, immense
numbers of blacks were brought over in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries after the
enslavement of the Indians had been forbidden.
Nor could more cordial courtesy be
met with anywhere than that with which one
is here treated by all, as a rule, from the
highly cultured, thoroughbred Portuguese to
the poorest and most illiterate mixed-breed
or negro laborer—though this is true of nearly
every place in South America.</p>

<div id='i156'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_156.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>THE CITY OF BAHIA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Of all these cities, though, Pernambuco is
perhaps the most interesting. After Rio,
São Paulo, and Bahia, it is the largest and
most important in the country. Its canals
and lagoons and handsome bridges, which
<span class='pageno' title='157' id='Page_157'></span>give it an attractiveness distinct from the
others, are accounted for by the fact that the
city is divided into sections by the channels
of the river at the mouth of which it lies, and
a few hundred yards out from the shore is
a long reef, running parallel with it, that
forms a natural breakwater, which encloses
the harbor and protects it from the heavy
rollers in time of storm. It is from this reef
that the section known as Recife, the old city
proper, derives its name.</p>

<p class='c008'>Recife is the commercial and shipping section
now. There is not much to commend it
to the sightseer except a few fine old churches
and the Praca do Commercio, a place of general
resort facing the local Wall Street, where
almost every one who is engaged in business
down town is to be seen taking a breathing
spell at some hour or other during the day.
Near by is a large hucksters’ market, which,
it must be confessed, serves better than the
hotel <i>menu</i> to disclose the peculiarities of the
fare with which the denizens of the neighborhood
regale themselves. And good fare it
is, too, and wonderful to behold—to a northerner
unaccustomed to such luxuriance.</p>

<p class='c008'>The section in which the government buildings
<span class='pageno' title='158' id='Page_158'></span>and custom house and the principal retail
stores, theaters, and places of amusement
are to be found is the one called São Antonio,
on a large island a little to the southeast.
This part of the town is much better
built. Many of the old houses, as in Recife,
are reminiscent, some of the early Portuguese,
others of the Dutch occupation—tall,
pointed-roof structures, painted white or pale
blue or pink—but the newer ones, and the
streets generally, are more sightly and characteristic
of the indulgent, easy-going, artistic
temperament of the people. The fashionable
residence district is called Boa Vista
and lies back on the mainland, where the
bishop has his palace. Most of the houses
here are the charming one-story affairs, surrounded
by beautiful gardens, so suited to
life in the tropics.</p>

<p class='c008'>Three or four miles to the north is a
suburban section called Olinda, where many
of the old families still have their homes.
In colonial times, as Dawson tells us, when
this part of the country was supplying Europe
with nearly all of the sugar it used
and the planters were rolling in wealth,
this “was the largest town in Brazil and
<span class='pageno' title='159' id='Page_159'></span>the one where there was the most luxurious
living and the most polite society.
Great sums were spent in fêtes, religious
processions, fairs, and dinners. The simple
Jesuit Fathers were shocked to see such velvets
and silks, such luxurious beds of crimson
damask, such extravagance in the trappings
of the saddle horses. Carriages were
unknown and, instead, litters and sedan
chairs were used, and these remained in common
use until very recent times.” Lots of
these old houses and customs still exist, and
there are many new features of the town that
are worth seeing.</p>

<p class='c008'>São Salvador da Bahia, “where the wicked
Brazilian cigars come from,” was the provincial
capital once, and the seat of government
of the whole Portuguese empire when
the King was forced by Napoleon’s aggressions
to take refuge in Brazil. Formerly, too,
it was the headquarters for diamonds, before
the mines in the south and in South Africa
were developed. Now it is the capital of the
rich Bay State, and is the third of the big
cities in point of size and importance—though
here the percentage of negro blood
is much higher than anywhere else in the
country.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='160' id='Page_160'></span>Its location is delightfully picturesque, the
upper section built on bluffs several hundred
feet above the level of the bay, the
lower along the shore. In this lower section,
behind the docks, are the warehouses
and factories, the arsenal and a great lighthouse,
and, aside from defensive works of
modern type, the old fortifications which the
Dutch had made the most formidable in
America in colonial times; and on the upper
terraces are the Governor’s palace and
public buildings, one of the best public
libraries in the country, the cathedral and
convents, the municipal theater, and the better
class of residences and amusement resorts.
In general, the streets are much like
those of Belém and Pernambuco: paved with
cobblestones and narrow in the shopping and
café districts, with long white rows of two
and three story houses built closely together,
many with balconies above the show windows;
and the parks are as beautiful and the residences
out along the wide, palm-lined driveways
are fully as sumptuous.</p>

<p class='c008'>But, interesting as are all these places,
their attractions are fairly dimmed by Rio’s,
and especially by her gorgeous bay. From
<span class='pageno' title='161' id='Page_161'></span>the Guianas to its southernmost boundaries,
in fact, Brazil is one grand series of prismatic
forests, majestic rivers and cascades,
immense rolling plains and mountains—a
panorama that is matchless anywhere in the
world—but, if I were asked to point out
some one feature that was preëminent
among them all, I should not hesitate to select
that bay. The bay of Naples, the Golden
Horn of Constantinople, all those wonderful
aspects by the mention of which writers have
sought to impress those who have not seen
the Rio bay with its grandeur and beauty,
can but suffer by the comparison. “Extravagant
language must be used in writing of
it,” says Burton Holmes, “for there all is
extravagance—extravagance of color, extravagance
of form.” It is so incomparably sublime,
says the Rev. James C. Fletcher, the
author of one of the most noted of the descriptions—though
no pen or brush could
possibly do it justice—that “the first entrance
must mark an era in the life of any
one. I have seen the rude and ignorant Russian
sailor, the immoral and unreflecting
Australian adventurer, as well as the refined
and cultivated European gentleman, stand
<span class='pageno' title='162' id='Page_162'></span>silent on the deck, lost in admiration of the
gigantic avenue of mountains and palm-covered
isles, which, like the granite pillars of
the Temple of Luxor, form a fitting colonnade
to the portal of the finest bay in the
world.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Entering the outer bay, we see to the left
the huge, fantastic figure of Gavia looming
up from the shore, rock-capped and bald,
and, a little beyond, the more symmetrical
crests of the Three Brothers. Just distinguishable,
off behind where the city lies, the
summit of Corcovado (the Hunchback) appears.
On the right are mound-shaped
islands called the Father and Mother, that
protrude from the water like tops of mountains
partially submerged, and, off in the
distance, the pinnacles of the Organ group
mount higher than all. In the center, on a
point jutting out from the mainland, is an
isolated peak fifteen hundred feet high,
called the Sugar Loaf, that stands like a sentinel
guarding the narrow entrance to the
harbor. As we draw nearer, the coloring of
the mountain sides and shores, only a confusion
of vague tints before, grows more and
more vivid as the foliage begins to take form,
<span class='pageno' title='163' id='Page_163'></span>and we see that on the hills above the rocks
at the extremities of the peninsulas that extend
from either side to form the gateway,
are white-walled forts. These are known as
São João and Santa Cruz, and, passing
through, we are confronted by still another
called Lage, midway between but a little beyond.
It is steel-clad like a man of war, this
one, and frowns down from an island of big
rocks, dominating the passage. Once by
this, we are in the harbor itself.</p>

<div id='i162'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_162.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
</div>
<div class='twopageillo'>

<div class='lg-container-l'>
  <div class='linegroup'>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Copyright, 1911, by W. D. Boyce.</i></div>
    </div>
  </div>
</div>

<div class='nf-center-c1'>
  <div class='nf-center'>
    <div>BOTAFOGO BAY, HARBOR OF RIO DE JANEIRO.</div>
    <div class='c000'>Photograph used by courtesy of Mr. W. D. Boyce and the Pan American Union.</div>
  </div>
</div>

</div>

<p class='c008'>Just within are shapely arms of the bay,
Botafogo on the Rio side and Jurujuba on
the other, that sweep around in wide, graceful
curves to two other and much larger
peninsulas opposite, like those of São João
and Santa Cruz; and on one of them, the
one to the left, is the old or commercial district
of the national capital, on the other the
pretty little city of Nictheroy, the capital
of the State of Rio de Janeiro—for the city
of Rio is the national capital and located
in a separate federal district, like our city
of Washington. Above these larger peninsulas
the water broadens to a vast expanse, a
sort of inland sea. Inclosing it like a wall,
and on beyond as far as the eye can reach,
<span class='pageno' title='164' id='Page_164'></span>stretch the serried peaks of the Coast Range.</p>

<p class='c008'>Everywhere, bathed in the intense golden
sunlight, are the same gradations of green,
the same riot of brilliantly colored flowers,
that we saw on the Amazon—only here the
water is not muddy but deep blue, and the
beaches are lined with almost snow-white
sand. Then, as we steam slowly across to
the anchorage, which lies over between the
Villegagnon and Cobra islands near the quay,
we have the first view of the city, dense in the
center where it covers the peninsula, and
stretching along the shore and here and there
back between the foothills, for miles and
miles to the north and south. The roofs of
the houses are tiled in reds and browns; the
walls are cream or rose-tinted or else dazzling
white. “It looks like a fragment of fairy-land,”
as Curtis expresses it—“a cluster of
alabaster castles decorated with vines.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Perhaps I ought to give warning that some
of the writers on Brazil, after going into
raptures over the scene in the bay, express
themselves very differently respecting the
experience on entering the city. That same
Mr. Curtis, for instance, goes on to say that
“the streets are narrow, damp, dirty, reeking
<span class='pageno' title='165' id='Page_165'></span>with repulsive odors and filled with vermin-covered
beggars and wolfish-looking dogs.”
But he was writing of experiences encountered
many years ago, before the reforms
and improvements were undertaken, which,
when completed, will have cost some sixty
millions of dollars. It is still true, no doubt,
that in the commercial district several of
the ugly old sections remain, where there are
narrow, tortuous streets and dingy warehouses,
ship-chandleries, saloons and stores
that cater to the stevedore class of trade, such
as there are in all great shipping centers as
old and as busy as Rio, and of course there
are the districts in which the lowest classes
foregather. But since he and Dr. Fletcher
wrote their books, the old passenger landing
place called the Pharoux quay has been transformed
into a handsome square; adorned with
gardens and a big bronze fountain; hills have
been leveled to permit extensions and relieve
the congestion; literally thousands of marshy,
mosquito-breeding places have been filled in
and reclaimed; a fine drainage canal has been
constructed, an adequate sewerage system
installed, and a system of masonry docks is
nearing completion that will rival the celebrated
<span class='pageno' title='166' id='Page_166'></span>docks of Santos and Buenos Aires;
some of the streets have been broadened and
more have been repaved, and the sanitary
conditions and healthfulness generally have
been so improved that yellow fever is a thing
of the past.</p>

<p class='c008'>Besides all this, many magnificent new government
buildings have been erected, notably
the Congressional Palace on Tiradentes
Square. The estimated cost of this building
alone was $15,000,000 and it is proudly
claimed to be one of the finest in South
America; also the Palace of the Supreme
Court, of rose-tinted stone and marble, with
bronze ornamentations, and the Post Office
and Mint, National Printing Office and National
Library, all of great architectural
beauty, and the City Hall and Municipal
Theater. This last is an ornate, high-domed
marble and stone structure of Moorish design
that cost $5,000,000 to build. And, to facilitate
traffic, a superb hundred-and-fifty-foot
wide avenue, the Avenida Central, has been
constructed clear across the business section
of the city for a mile or more, opening a vista
from bay to bay. To do this more than six
hundred houses had to be purchased and torn
<span class='pageno' title='167' id='Page_167'></span>down; they have been replaced by others of
a pleasing general uniformity and elegance of
appearance, of which any city in Europe or
America might well be proud. The <i>Jornal
do Commercio</i> building, for example, looks
more like one of our fashionable metropolitan
hotels or apartment houses, than a business
establishment. The sidewalks are paved with
mosaics and kept perfectly clean.</p>

<div id='i166'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_166.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>BAY AND CITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO FROM SUMMIT OF CORCOVADO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Beginning at the southern end of this avenue
and following the contour of the shore
past the elegant residence districts of Gloria
and Flamengo, they have constructed an
esplanade a mile long, called the Avenida
Beira Mar, and, farther on, around the exquisite
inlet of Botafogo, where some of the
handsomest of the residences are, have converted
the semicircular beach into a still
lovelier avenue, adorned with alternate rows
of trees and arc lights like the other, and
flower beds and formal lawns. Unless it is
the more comprehensive one from the top of
Corcovado, there is no more enchanting view
than that of this whole ensemble from the
Morro da Viuva at the northern end of the
semicircle, especially looking straight across
at the hills on the opposite side, where the
<span class='pageno' title='168' id='Page_168'></span>rose-tinted buildings of the Military School
nestle in the green depths of a rocky cleft,
with the Sugar Loaf towering behind.</p>

<p class='c008'>And then, up near the business section
again, there is the Paseio Publico, with its
park and lakes and broad waterside terrace
overlooking the whole southern part of the
harbor, and the naval barracks and fortifications
on historic Villegagnon, quite close at
this point. It was here that the adventurer
for whom it is named made the first attempt
at colonizing the neighborhood: with
a party of Huguenots sent over by Admiral
Coligny to escape religious persecutions
in France and to found a place of refuge for
those of the Protestant faith. The Paseio
Publico is regarded by many as the most
charming of the parks, but there are lots
of these beautiful spots. One of them, the
Botanical Garden, which is larger and more
complete than the one in Belém, is known the
world over from the thousands of pictures
that have been published of its magnificent
avenue of royal palms. Few visit Rio without
going there; and now that a good cog-wheel
railroad has been built from one of the
trolley lines up to the summit of Corcovado,
<span class='pageno' title='169' id='Page_169'></span>the whole mountain side has become a wildwood
park. With reference to the view from
the summit, I cannot resist quoting from
Arthur Ruhl, who describes it so delightfully.</p>

<p class='c008'>“The Corcovado is a rock jutting over
the trees,” he says, “so sheer that you look
down on Rio and the blue harbor as from a
balloon—down two thousand feet of velvet
green descents to the terra cotta roofs and
sun-washed walls and the wheel-spoke streets
like lines on a map. Not one of our smoke
hives, but a city of villas and palms and showering
vines and flowers, meandering about
over the foothills, immersed in the blazing
sun. The cool, laughing sea envelops it—blue,
and bluer yet in the sun; and, all about
in it, islands—agate in turquoise—jut out
as though the gods had tossed a handful in
the water. It is, as I heard an American
say of the backward look toward Rio as the
train climbs to Petropolis, as though one had
been taken up into the mountains to see the
kingdoms of the world and the glory of
them.” Petropolis, though, is not simply
another viewpoint, but one of the loveliest of
the suburban mountain cities, where the late
Emperor lived, surrounded by the ambassadors
<span class='pageno' title='170' id='Page_170'></span>and ministers of the foreign countries
and the nobility and aristocracy of the old
régime. It is still the home of the diplomatic
corps, and the most fashionable of the
suburbs.</p>

<p class='c008'>Do not imagine for a moment, however,
that the pleasures of a visit to Rio are limited
to such things. Like all cities of its respectable
age and size—for it has almost, if not
quite, reached the million mark now—it has
its antiquities and places of historical interest,
its museums, art galleries, libraries, statues
and churches (the paintings and decorations
in the beautiful Candelaria Church are the
richest in South America), and its theaters
and amusement resorts of every description;
and, down town in that same commercial part
that Mr. Curtis scored so heavily, is the noisy,
vivacious old Rua do Ouvidor, of all things
Rio de Janeiran the one that possesses the
most individuality, the place where everybody
who is anybody is to be seen. It is only about
twenty feet wide—just think of it, the
“Broadway” of a great city like Rio!—so
narrow and crowded that vehicles are not
allowed to go through at certain hours of
the day, but most of the old somber Portuguese-style
<span class='pageno' title='171' id='Page_171'></span>buildings have been replaced by
modern ones, and what it lacks in width is
compensated for by the attractiveness of the
stores and cafés.</p>

<div id='i170a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_170_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>AVENUE OF ROYAL PALMS, RIO BOTANICAL GARDENS.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i170b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_170_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>These cafés, principally devoted to the
service of the <i>demi tasse</i>, are everywhere in
Brazil, but here particularly they are the rendezvous
for the official, military, professional
and more prosperous commercial classes, who
drop in at all hours to talk things over to
the music of the orchestra—everything from
business, religion and politics to the idlest society
gossip—only they sip coffee, for the
most part, instead of highballs and beer. And
such coffee! A North American never realizes
what a perfectly delectable flavor coffee
really is capable of, how deliciously rich
and sirupy it is when brewed by those who
know how, until he has drunk it in the Orient
or down there in Brazil.</p>

<p class='c008'>There was a time, and not so very long ago,
when these crowds along the Rua do Ouvidor
were all of one sex. The ladies of the upper
classes—when they went shopping at all, instead
of simply having samples sent to their
houses to choose from—remained in their
carriages while the shopkeepers brought out
<span class='pageno' title='172' id='Page_172'></span>to them for their inspection the various qualities
of such articles as were desired; but this
old world idea of seclusion, like many others
at the capital, has given way to more advanced
ones now. Brazilian metropolitan
womanhood is beginning to awaken and follow
the general trend toward emancipation.
In these days ladies not only appear on the
streets and go from shop to shop on foot,
as do the ladies of our cities, but drop in at
certain unexceptionable cafés for luncheon, or
perhaps at a matinée or some moving picture
show, unattended by their husbands or fathers
or brothers. The Avenida, Saturday afternoons
when the weather is pleasant, reminds
one of a Parisian boulevard, so densely is it
thronged with smartly gotten up promenaders
and so well patronized are the little
sidewalk tables under the awnings in front
of the cafés. Needless to say, on these occasions
the ladies do graciously suffer the attendance
of their admirers or the male members
of their families.</p>

<p class='c008'>“‘Superb’ is the word that best fits the
beautiful Brazilian woman,” no less an authority
than Burton Holmes enthusiastically
declares. “‘Striking’ is the word that best
<span class='pageno' title='173' id='Page_173'></span>describes her dress.” Then, referring to their
appearance at the opera: “The belles of Rio
seem to have taken the styles of Paris and
given to them a strange, exotic something
that makes the toilettes seen at the Municipal
Theater far more striking and effective
than those at the Paris opera,” he goes on.
“Mere man cannot say in what the difference
lies, but the fact remains that while the
gowns may have been made, or at least designed,
in Paris, they are not Parisian; they
are instead pronouncedly Brazilian. The men,
too, deserve a word of mention, for they are
very well-dressed men, much better dressed
than the men of Paris or of Lisbon—all of
course in evening dress, all looking as if they
were accustomed to wearing it. The women
in the boxes retain their hats. The men might
as well retain theirs, for they are quite invisible
behind the massed millinery of their
fair companions.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Rio, of course, has all the up-to-date public
utilities—electric street-car lines, lights, telephones,
taxicabs and the rest; but, as Arthur
Ruhl so aptly puts it, “Before the things seen
and heard and vaguely felt,” in this city of
such strange, peculiar charm, “the endless
<span class='pageno' title='174' id='Page_174'></span>procession of vague, unrelated things that
baffle and allure—semi-antique humans living
languidly in the midst of a sun-drenched
nature, which, by its very luxuriance, might
seem to have overpowered them—Latin sensibility
tinged with African superstition—negro
coachmen in top-boots, such as Puss-in-Boots
might have worn—dusky, velvet-eyed
<i>donzellas</i>—palms, blazing walls and
indigo sea—one loses interest in railroads and
power plants and the things we do better at
home. Brazilians must interest themselves
in such things, for therein lies their salvation.
If I seem to neglect them, it is because it
seems absurd to visit a conservatory full of
orchids and spend one’s time seeing how the
steam-pipes are put in. By the same token,”
he adds—</p>

<p class='c016'>“There is a certain mellowed dignity in the Brazilian
scene—the natural inheritance of the empire,
and doubtless, also, a reaction of race and climate—lacking
in the more energetic Argentina. It was only
in 1889 that good Dom Pedro—that kindly, cultured,
old-school gentleman—was dethroned and shipped off
to Portugal. It is only since 1887 that the negroes
ceased to be slaves. Brazil’s foremost statesman, the
big, able Minister of Foreign Affairs, who, as he
moved amongst his slender Caribbean brethren at the
<span class='pageno' title='175' id='Page_175'></span>1906 conference, looked like the senior partner of
some old firm of Wall Street bankers, is still called
‘Baron’ Rio Branco. You can still see in Petropolis
the house of the Princess Regent and her husband,
the Conde d’Eu, overgrown somewhat with vegetation
and buried in somber shades. Rio’s great
public library was started by King João VI himself
when the Portuguese court was transferred to
Brazil in 1808.</p>

<p class='c016'>“There is still a suggestion of the old world and
grand manner. They have their Academy of Forty
Immortals; their politicians are often pleased to practice
the politer arts. Senhor Joahim Nabuco, who
presided at the conference, has written his ‘<i>Pensées</i>.’
These littérateurs may be, as Senhor Bomfim
suggests in ‘<i>A America Latina</i>,’ ‘inveterate rhetoricians
whose abundant works are taken as a proof
of genius.’ Yet at least they have a certain way with
them. Pompous, grave, they go through the solemn
motions. In spite of the vast majority who neither
read nor write, Brazilians of the upper class are probably
more ‘cultured,’ in the narrow literary sense of
the word, than our average man of the same class at
home. They speak and write French as a matter of
course in addition to their own language, and most of
them make fair headway with English. They enjoy
and encourage music and painting and poetry.
Opera not only comes to Rio each winter as it does to
Buenos Aires, but they have their National Institute
of Music and their native composers, one of whom
especially, the late Carlos Gomez, has heard his operas
successfully produced in Europe. They have their
National Academy of Fine Arts and a gallery which,
I am sure, is visited and appreciated more than the
<span class='pageno' title='176' id='Page_176'></span>really excellent one tucked away upstairs in Buenos
Aires’ Calle Florida.”</p>

<h3 class='c014'>III</h3>

<p class='c015'>As already said, from Rio one may go to
São Paulo, the second largest—and, with the
exception of Rio, the most important—city in
the country, by railroad, and almost as comfortably,
too, as one may travel from New
York to Chicago. The city of São Paulo is
the capital of the State of that name, the
great land of coffee, the land in fact that
produces more than half of all the coffee
grown in Brazil, and Brazil as a whole produces
more than three-fourths of all that the
world consumes. The city has a population
of about 350,000, and is located in the mountains,
about forty miles back from the coast
and three thousand feet above the level of
the sea. It is connected by railroad with
Santos, its seaport, where the best docks in
the country are now. These two cities,
though founded in early colonial times, are
not quite as interestingly characteristic as Rio
and the others that have been mentioned, for
they are far enough south to be in the temperate
zone, and have, therefore, attracted a
<span class='pageno' title='177' id='Page_177'></span>very much larger foreign element, particularly
German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.
There are not so many negroes and
mixed breeds among the laboring classes, and
their institutions, business methods and social
life more nearly resemble our own; and, as
a consequence, they have certainly not been
behind the rest of Brazil in development. As
in Rio, enormous sums have recently been
spent for sanitation, public buildings, and improvements.</p>

<p class='c008'>São Paulo has thus been transformed into
one of the most healthful cities in the world,
and one of the handsomest. Its climate, uniformly
mild like that of southern Europe,
has never left anything to be desired—except,
perhaps, snow and ice, if there are among the
residents there any homesick northerners who
prefer the sharper seasonal contrasts to which
they are accustomed. The site is too near the
tropics and the mountains are not high
enough for freezing cold, yet so high that
the air has a bracing, invigorating quality.
As Senator Root declared when he was visiting
the country: “There is something in the
air of São Paulo that makes strong and vigorous
men.” Their strength and vigor are not
<span class='pageno' title='178' id='Page_178'></span>attributable, however, to the climate alone. It
is an inheritance. The early Paulistas were
of the sturdiest type, men who were compelled
to maintain themselves and extend and
defend their possessions by fighting and the
hardest kind of work—an instance, they were,
of the survival of the fittest. It is small
wonder that their descendants, with their
rich heritage of health and vitality and traditions,
and their enormously productive
lands, should be distinguished for their enterprise
as well as for their wealth and social
and intellectual culture. In political and educational
progress they have always been
prominent.</p>

<p class='c008'>A splendid monument to their patriotism
and enterprise is Ypiranga, a great building
of classic design, erected on the site
of the proclamation of independence on a
hill overlooking the city, and intended both
to commemorate the event and to be used
as an institution of learning. Among other
interesting things, it contains a remarkable
museum. They have a polytechnic school in
the city that is the pride of the whole country,
and the graduates of which are in demand
everywhere because of the particularly
<span class='pageno' title='179' id='Page_179'></span>efficient system of training; an institution
known as the Lyceum of Arts and Crafts,
devoted to the practical instruction of the
artisan classes, which graduates skilled workmen
by the hundreds every year; and an excellently
equipped normal school that occupies
a whole square, facing the Praca de Republica—these
in addition to primary institutions
and conventional colleges and law and medical
schools, that are attended by students
from all over Brazil.</p>

<p class='c008'>There is even a well-patronized non-sectarian
North American institution, known as
the Mackenzie College, which has been in
existence for thirty-five years or more, and,
of all surprising things—and this is only one
of many indications of the liberal catholicism
of their views respecting other religious
beliefs, notwithstanding the fact that, as
everywhere else in South America, Roman
Catholicism is the religion of the state—an
Episcopal seminary, conspicuously located in
a beautiful building opposite the Jardim
Publico. By mentioning particularly these
institutions, I do not mean to imply that
there are not excellent educational facilities
elsewhere in Brazil—especially, of course, in
<span class='pageno' title='180' id='Page_180'></span>Rio—but the people of São Paulo seem to
devote more attention to education than in
the other parts of the country and the percentage
of illiteracy there, among the people
as a whole, appears to be much smaller.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Governor’s Palace and the principal
office buildings of the administration are located
around two large squares, one called
the Largo de Palacio, the other the Praca
Municipal, in the heart of the city. Several
of them are spacious, imposing-looking buildings
of stone and marble that compare favorably
with those of the national government
at Rio; all are in keeping with the importance
of the city and State—particularly their
superb big theater, which is another of those
surprisingly costly and attractive places of
amusement maintained by the municipality
that one sees so many of in South America.
The streets in the Triangle, as the commercial
district is called, are crowded and
busy. There is an air of briskness about
them that is refreshing—although many of
the busiest are narrow and unattractive in
appearance, this being the old part of the
town.</p>

<p class='c008'>Even the Rua São Bento, the principal
<span class='pageno' title='181' id='Page_181'></span>shopping street, is not much wider than
the Rua do Ouvidor in Rio; but from this
district a viaduct eight hundred feet long and
fifty wide leads to the new parts, where there
are broad, handsomely built-up avenues and
shaded promenades, detached houses of modern
type, surrounded by gardens, and an
atmosphere of ease as well as luxury, as in
the less bustling cities to the north. The
Avenida Paulista is charming. There are
few handsomer thoroughfares in America,
either North or South, than this—and it is
the common boast that along the Rua des
Palmeiras, their most fashionable residence
street, and in certain of the suburbs, the
palatial homes of their millionaires are unrivaled
in Brazil.</p>

<p class='c008'>The great coffee port of Santos, once
numbered among the dread homes of Yellow
Jack, but now as healthful as any port in
the tropics, is only sixty or seventy miles
away by railroad—an excellently equipped
road that runs down the slope from the
mountain range to the coast over a route
strikingly rich in scenic effects and grand
views. The city, which has a population of
about sixty thousand, is situated on the western
<span class='pageno' title='182' id='Page_182'></span>shore of a landlocked bay connected with
the ocean by a narrow but deep riverlike
channel, ten miles long and flanked, like the
city itself, by picturesque hills. The streets
are well paved and clean, the residence section
and suburbs attractive, and a narrow-gauge
railroad affords an opportunity for an
enjoyable trip to a seaside resort near by,
where there are good surf-bathing and plenty
of places of amusement.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is said that more than 10,000,000 bags
of coffee, each weighing 132 pounds, are
shipped from this port every year. The extensive
system of masonry docks and cranes
is famous for its efficiency and is the best
in South America next to that in Buenos
Aires. The big steamers and sailing vessels
lying broadside to these docks and anchored
in the broad harbor, the custom house
and warehouses facing the quay, the groups
of dealers and agents standing bargaining
out in front, the sailors scurrying about, the
heavy teams heaped up with sacks of coffee,
the long lines of negro stevedores, each with
a bag or two balanced on his head, carrying
them aboard the ships, all working in the
blazing sun in this labyrinth of white-walled
<span class='pageno' title='183' id='Page_183'></span>streets, with their background of green hills
and blue water, make up a scene that is both
lively and bizarre.</p>

<p class='c008'>The custom of coffee drinking is relatively
of rather recent development among peoples
of Europe and their descendants in America.
For some reason, for a long time after it made
its way west from Arabia and Turkey, it
was under the ban of the church. Maybe this
was because of its Mohammedan origin. It
was not until 1652 that the first house that
made a specialty of serving coffee was opened
in London, and about the same time it was
introduced in France. From then on it has
spread until the amount now consumed the
world over is simply enormous, especially in
the United States, where we take somewhere
near half of all that is grown. At first it
came only from northern Africa, Arabia,
and Turkey; then the Dutch began experimenting
and succeeded in cultivating it in
Java, and the French in the West Indies.
For a while these were the principal sources
of supply. The story goes that in 1760 a
Portuguese, João Alberto Castello Branco,
planted a bush in Rio, and from that small
start, thanks to her peculiarly favorable soil
<span class='pageno' title='184' id='Page_184'></span>and climate, Brazil soon outstripped the
others and took the lead. And it is in these
uplands of the State of São Paulo that more
than half of all of this enormous amount of
coffee that is consumed in the world to-day
is produced. There are between fifteen and
twenty thousand cafezals, or plantations, employing
hundreds of thousands of laborers,
and some of the plantations are so vast that
they grow millions of trees. Here it is that
most of the immigrants flock. There is a
million of Italians alone.</p>

<div id='i184'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_184.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>COFFEE PLANTATION, BRAZIL.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>The general contour of the country is not
flat but rolling. In great patches the bushy
little trees cover the hills and valleys in long,
parallel rows, from six to eight feet high, for
they are kept pruned to a certain height to
facilitate cultivation. The leaves are dark
green and glossy, somewhat resembling
myrtle, only not so dry and thick; the flowers
are white and grow in clusters from the axils
of the branches; the fruit, when ripe, is about
the size of and resembles a dark red cherry,
and grows in clusters, like the flowers, and
the air is fragrant with perfume. No more
beautiful sight could be imagined than one
of these plantations in full bloom. Each of
<span class='pageno' title='185' id='Page_185'></span>the red berries contains two coffee beans, embedded
in a yellowish, sweetish pulp. The
bean, in its natural shape, is convex on one
side and flat on the other. As sold on the
market, with the shell, pulp and skin removed
by a mechanical process that requires an
expensive outfit of machinery, the product is
the result of a development in agricultural
methods that is not surpassed in the wheat
industry of Argentina or our own country,
and which is very far ahead of that of the
rubber industry in the north. It is said that
no new trees have been planted since 1903
because the production has been so great
that the government has thought best to
restrict it until the demand shall once more
have equaled the supply. The reverse of this
condition has existed for several years.</p>

<p class='c008'>The neighbors of the Paulistas in the State
of Rio Grande do Sul are principally engaged
(with Paraguay) in supplying the
twenty or more millions of consumers in
South America and growing numbers elsewhere,
with the leaves from which the beverage
is made that is known as <i>yerba maté</i>,
or Paraguay tea, which those who drink it
contend has all the stimulating and nourishing
<span class='pageno' title='186' id='Page_186'></span>qualities of the tea we use, but none of
its injurious effects. Next to coffee and
rubber, this is the greatest of Brazil’s sources
of revenue. These southerners also raise
cattle and sheep on a large scale—though not
yet sufficiently large for export—and do a
good deal of canning and manufacturing.
Their principal seaport, Porto Alegre (Smiling
Port), has a population of nearly 150,000,
and, as in Pernambuco and Rio, and
all the big coast cities in fact, extensive harbor
improvements are under way. This city
too is to have a system of masonry docks
and hoisting machinery and new warehouses
along the quay. A few miles north, and
connected with Porto Alegre by railroad, is
São Leopoldo, the port of a large German
colony that was founded in the State nearly
a hundred years ago.</p>

<p class='c008'>From Rio it is possible also to go by railroad
to Bello Horizonte, the remarkable capital
of Minas Geraes, the most densely populated
of all the Brazilian States. This city is
unique in that it did not have its beginning in
the usual way and get itself chosen as the
capital; it was built only a few years ago
on a previously unoccupied site <i>for the very
<span class='pageno' title='187' id='Page_187'></span>purpose</i>, and at a cost, for only the buildings
owned by the government, of more than $30,000,000.
It is located in a lovely, wooded,
farm-dotted valley, through the length of
which flows a river, interrupted at intervals
by cascades. Near the city, both sides
of the stream have been converted into a
delightful park. One of the avenues that
run through the center of the city is named
for its founder, Affonso Penna, and is a
hundred and fifty feet wide and shaded by
three rows of trees. The hotels are comfortable,
train service good, and the journey
through a country of beautiful scenery and
interesting people and towns.</p>

<p class='c008'>This is the great mining State of Brazil.
Of it Marie Robinson Wright says: “Few
countries can boast of such an abundance and
variety of mineral resources as Minas Geraes,
which derives its name, signifying General
Mines, from the industry that gave it existence,
and which owes to this principal
attraction the preponderance of its population.”
Gold was not discovered during the
first two hundred years after settlement had
been begun by the Portuguese, but, when it
was at last discovered, the yield was very
<span class='pageno' title='188' id='Page_188'></span>great. In 1792 the amount registered in Rio—and
this record, of course, was incomplete—was
360,000 pounds in weight. An English
authority has estimated the total output up
to within recent years at £200,000,000 sterling.
“Of all the fabulous tales related of
bonanza princes,” Mrs. Wright goes on to
say, “the palm for extravagance belongs to
the history of the early mining days in Brazil,
when horses were shod with gold, when lawyers
supported their pleadings before judges
with gifts of what appeared at first sight to
be the choicest oranges and bananas, but
proved to be solid gold imitations, when
guests were entertained at dinner by the discovery
of gold pebbles in their soup instead
of grains of corn, when nuggets were the
most convenient means of exchange in the
money market;” but here, as in some of our
own mining regions, with the gradual exhaustion
of the surface deposits and the impossibility
of continuing by primitive methods,
mining came to be more and more
neglected. Modern methods and machinery
are once more bringing the industry into
prominence, and a considerable amount of
gold is even now being taken out by the
<span class='pageno' title='189' id='Page_189'></span>few companies that have already installed
up-to-date plants.</p>

<p class='c008'>The diamond mines in the neighborhood of
the old town of Diamantina (also easily accessible
by rail) have been famous since the
first discoveries were made in 1727. In these
parts several of the most valuable gems in the
world are said to have been found—for
instance, the Braganza, the richest of the
Crown jewels of Portugal, the Regent,
named in honor of Dom João VI, the
<i>Estrella do Sul</i> (Star of the South), that
weighed a hundred and twenty-five carats
after lapidation and was purchased by the
Rajah of Baroda, it is said, for $15,000,000,
and the Dresden, which weighed sixty-five
carats after lapidation and was also bought
by an Indian prince. For many years, until
the South African mines came into competition,
this was the chief source of the world’s
supply. The country is also rich in amethysts,
tourmalines, topazes and aquamarines.
The State of Bahia is still the principal source
of the black diamond, known as the <i>carbonado</i>.
The largest <i>carbonado</i> known was
found there in 1835. It weighed 3150 carats.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='190' id='Page_190'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>III<br /> <br />ARGENTINA</h2>
</div>

<h3 class='c014'>I</h3>

<p class='c015'>No nation of the southern continent is
better qualified than Argentina to rebuke
the stupid jest that refers to the
Latin-American countries as opera bouffe republics.
It has a domain one-third the size
of the United States, or as large as the territory
lying east of the Mississippi, with
Texas added, stretching from tropic heat to
antarctic cold, and possessing a frontage on
the Atlantic as extensive as our own coast line
from Portland, Maine, to Key West, Florida.
It has over 500,000,000 acres of its
1,135,840 square miles of area available for
the cultivation of life-sustaining products and
distributed over vast, treeless, well-watered
plains, every one of which is easily accessible
to the seaboard with the simplest of railway
construction. These plains have no such
<span class='pageno' title='191' id='Page_191'></span>natural obstructions to transportation as our
Alleghanies or Rockies, and have for their
produce a much shorter haul to the European
world of consumers.</p>

<p class='c008'>Argentina has the further advantage of
over 18,000 miles of up-to-date railways radiating
from its port cities, and five river systems,
one of which, La Plata, the outlet for
the waters of the Paraná and Uruguay, is
second only to the Amazon among the world’s
great rivers. It is 180 miles wide at its
mouth, and pours into the Atlantic a flood
greater by eighty per cent. than that cast by
the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico.</p>

<p class='c008'>The timber regions of the country are rich
in structural and cabinet woods. It has a
grazing industry that ranks second only to
Australia in sheep, second only to the United
States in cattle, and second only to the United
States and Russia in horses. In 1910 it exported
to Europe 190,430 live animals and
$130,000,000 worth of frozen beef, mutton,
pork, hides, and other animal products. Its
total foreign commerce amounted to $702,664,810
in value. It has an agricultural
output that places it in the first rank of exporters
of maize and linseed, second to Russia
<span class='pageno' title='192' id='Page_192'></span>in the export of wheat, and among the
leaders in corn, a soil that can grow still
greater quantities of sugar, tobacco, rice, alfalfa,
grapes, fruits, <i>yerba maté</i> (Paraguay
tea), olives, corn, barley, and oats, besides
medicinal, textile, and tinctorial plants, enabling
her to export more foodstuffs, including
meats and grains, than any other nation
on the globe—a productiveness so great that
farms are measured in some sections by the
square league, instead of by the paltry acre,
as with us, and grains are sold by the metric
ton of 2205 pounds, instead of by the bushel.
Its mountains contain profitably workable deposits
of gold, silver, and copper, and oil has
been found in paying quantities.</p>

<p class='c008'>It has a metropolis and seaport (its capital,
Buenos Aires) reckoned as the second
Latin city in the world, possessing a population
of over a million and a quarter, and
adorned with buildings, parks, surface improvements,
and evidences of wealth and
culture that stamp it as one of the finest cities
of the Western Hemisphere.</p>

<p class='c008'>It has a stable and enlightened government,
constituted on the same general plan as our
own, and advancing rapidly to a near approximation
<span class='pageno' title='193' id='Page_193'></span>to our own in efficiency. It has
a history rich, in its later years, in traditions
of statesmanship and patriotism, bearing on
its roll of honor the names of such statesmen,
soldiers, educators, and executives as Belgrano,
San Martín, Alvear, Puyrredón, Rivadavia,
Mitré, and Sarmiento, names worthy
of special reverence among a people familiar
with the standards set by Washington and
Lincoln. In a word, with all this material
greatness, and such a record of energetic and
enlightened adaptation to world progress,
Argentina may, in the not distant future,
turn the jest against its northern perpetrators;
for a country with a population of
seven millions, which could feed two hundred
million people and give lodging to half that
number, is a competitor to be reckoned with
seriously in the struggle for commercial supremacy.</p>

<p class='c008'>Such, then, is the country of superlatives
that opens up before the visitor who enters
at its gateway, Buenos Aires, and breathes
in the wholesome, equable breezes from the
pampas—the vast green plains that stretch
away for hundreds of miles in three directions;
he agrees at once that the City of
<span class='pageno' title='194' id='Page_194'></span>Good Airs was well named by Pedro de
Mendoza when he planted his ill-fated settlement
on its site in 1535.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is to be regretted that this wide-awake,
rapidly growing community buys so much
more largely in the European markets than
ours. In 1910, of the total amount they paid
for imports ($351,770,056), our share was
only $48,418,892. But then, as they point
out, they are our competitors in the markets
of Europe. Their cereals and beef and hides
and wool have no place in the United States,
a country that produces and exports the same
things, and they manufacture no articles that
we want; so it is only fair that they should
deal with those who buy of them. When it
came to a question of who should build their
last two big battleships, however, they did favor
our shipyards with the contracts. Both
of these are of the super-dreadnought type
and have already been launched.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Parisian is pleased to say, “Paris is
France”; with even greater significance may
the Buenos Airean say that Buenos Aires is
Argentina. Out of his pride in his great city,
the <i>Porteño</i> will tell one that Argentina really
has but two parts, as a matter of fact: the
<span class='pageno' title='195' id='Page_195'></span>one, Buenos Aires; the other—all the rest of
the country—called <i>El Campo</i> (the Camp),
regardless that he includes in this sweeping
assertion such other railroad centers and
ports as Rosario, La Plata, Paraná, Tucumán,
Córdoba, or Bahia Blanca—all of them
cities exceeding fifty thousand in population
and one of them, Rosario, exceeding one hundred
thousand. And, indeed, the Bonarenses
may well be proud of their metropolis. One-fifth
of the country’s inhabitants is absorbed
into its teeming life of industry and luxury;
it is the crystallization of all that this modernized
young giant stands for in the world
of commerce; it is the greatest Spanish-speaking
city in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>Its dominant position was not achieved,
however, without years of contention with
other centers of industry in the country. During
the three hundred years of Spain’s stifling
economic policies in this, once the agricultural
unit of her golden empire, Argentina
made small progress. The settlements
founded in Santiago (1553), in Tucumán
(1565), and in Córdoba and Santa Fé
(1573), by the immigration of Spaniards
from Peru, Chile, and the early settlement
<span class='pageno' title='196' id='Page_196'></span>of Buenos Aires, all led an isolated and
neglected existence during the colonial period
up to the year 1776, when Spain, awakened
from her dream of endless mineral riches in
South America to a realization of the importance
of the fertile country of La Plata,
and erected it into a separate viceroyalty, independent
of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The
viceroys, freed from the poisoning influence
of Andean gold lust, did much to develop a
sense of nationalism among the scattered agricultural
centers. With the growth of this
nationalism, the protests against Spain’s repression
increased until 1810, when the people
asserted their right to an unrestricted,
independent national life. May twenty-fifth
of that year is their Fourth of July, and is
perpetuated to-day in the name of the superb
Avenida de Mayo in their capital city.</p>

<p class='c008'>During the formative period that followed,
Argentine politics revolved chiefly about the
question of Unitarianism or Federalism—whether
the rich and progressive province at
the gateway of the nation (Buenos Aires)
should form a separate unit of government,
or remain part of a confederation and be accorded
the leading rôle in national affairs
<span class='pageno' title='197' id='Page_197'></span>that its importance merited. In 1862 federalism
prevailed and the integrity of the
Argentine Republic was assured, under the
presidency of General Mitré. The capital
was later removed from Santa Fé to Buenos
Aires and the latter city erected into a federal
district (of some seventy square miles)
somewhat similar to our own District of Columbia.
The capital of the Province of Buenos
Aires, however, is La Plata, a few miles
distant from the national capital, on the
shores of the great river.</p>

<p class='c008'>This period marks the beginning of the
real history of the Argentine nation. Under
the enlightened statesmanship of Bartolomé
Mitré and Sarmiento, the two chief figures
in Argentina’s rapid development from this
point, the great influx of British and German
capital began. Immigration was encouraged
for the working of the fields; a solid foundation
was given to educational development;
railroads were constructed, and the machinery
of government made adequate to the vigorous
strides of the solidified nation. In the
short space of time that has passed since
1881, over two billions of dollars of British
and German gold have been invested; some
<span class='pageno' title='198' id='Page_198'></span>eighteen thousand miles of well-equipped railways
have been constructed, almost wholly
by English capital; immigration has doubled
the population of the country so that now
half its present inhabitants are foreign-born—during
the last ten years alone two millions
have come in—and a thorough system
of education has been perfected, embracing,
among all sorts of primary, military, and industrial
institutions, three great universities,
one of which, at Buenos Aires, graduated
over five thousand young men last year and,
with the University of Córdoba (founded in
1613), ranks with Harvard and Yale. In
1910 they celebrated the centennial anniversary
of their independence with a superb
industrial exposition that was a revelation
even to themselves, and festivities that are
said to have cost $20,000,000.</p>

<p class='c008'>The city of Buenos Aires has not the
picturesque environment that adds so much
to the natural beauty of the cities of Rio de
Janeiro and Mexico, nor the harbor capacity
of New York; nor are its culture and
civic personality, perhaps, as deep-rooted as
in Boston; it makes little pretension to the
aristocracy of blood boasted by the still essentially
<span class='pageno' title='199' id='Page_199'></span>Spanish Lima; nor has it yet attained
such distinction as a national center
of art, literature, and music as has the Brazilian
capital. It may be best compared with
Chicago, for it is conspicuously modern, its
present development having been begun and
achieved within the last quarter of a century,
although the city itself is nearly four
hundred years old, and is the industrial complement
of an agricultural and pastoral activity
even greater than that of our Middle
West. Indeed, its banks and clearing houses
are said to transact quite as much business
as those of Chicago.</p>

<p class='c008'>The docks of Buenos Aires, like those of
our great lake city, are most impressive; they
represent an outlay of $50,000,000. Only
fifteen years ago the visitor was bundled
ashore in a rowboat and deposited on a
marshy beach. Now his vessel enters one of
the numerous basins of the vast dock system
and confronts row upon row of massive
masonry and cement wharves, behind which
spreads a network of railway lines. In the
background are public gardens with flowering
bushes and statuary to beautify the approach
to the city. For mile after mile, flanked by
<span class='pageno' title='200' id='Page_200'></span>a seemingly endless procession of great trans-Atlantic
ships and up-river produce boats,
these docks stretch their length, not in a series
of slips, as along the congested waterfront
in New York, but so arranged that the
vessels can moor broadside to them and have
their cargoes loaded or unloaded by enormous
traveling cranes; and, without, lying at
anchor in the river awaiting their turn for
a berth, are many more—for this giant enterprise,
with towering grain elevators and a
veritable forest of powerful cranes, already
fails entirely to satisfy present needs. They
are not only to be extended but so enlarged
that they will accommodate vessels of the
heaviest draft.</p>

<p class='c008'>Not even the New York wharves with
their vast commerce give such a picture of
vivid bustle. The big German “Cap” boats—<i>Cap
Ortegal</i>, <i>Cap Frio</i>, and the rest;
French, Spanish, and Italian liners with
champagne, aperitives, opera companies, automobiles
and immigrants—always immigrants;
Newcastle freighters unloading bolted sections
of steel bridges; up-river boats laden
with <i>yerba maté</i> or fragrant oranges from
Paraguay, and the aristocrats of these seas,
<span class='pageno' title='201' id='Page_201'></span>the Royal Mails from England—all contribute
to the pell-mell, reminding one of the
blurred babel of tongues that whispers across
the decks of the world’s ships in the drowsy
passage through the Suez Canal.</p>

<p class='c008'>And, parenthetically, a most telling commentary
on our indifference to Argentine
possibilities lies in the fact that of the many
thousand vessels that transferred cargoes at
these docks in 1910, only four bore the stars
and stripes; whereas, prior to our Civil War
(which, of course, absorbed our merchant marine)—in
1852—there were in the harbor of
Buenos Aires six hundred vessels flying our
flag, or more than double the number from
all other nations combined. In those days the
influence of our people over the commerce
of the southern half of South America was
predominant. A Pennsylvanian, William
Wheelright, was looked upon as its father.</p>

<p class='c008'>On leaving the docks and driving up into
the city, the visitor is at once impressed with
the fact that Buenos Aires is not so wholly
wrapped up in the purely material as is our
commercial center on Lake Michigan. It has
broadened along more æsthetic lines and is
cultivating the graces, not alone the sordid
<span class='pageno' title='202' id='Page_202'></span>features, of cosmopolitanism. In the newer
parts, particularly in the fashionable suburb
of Belgrano, the buildings and shaded boulevards
and beautifully landscaped parks resemble
rather those of Paris; although it is
not behind our own big cities in public utilities.
Even in the business district there are
no skyscrapers or elevated railroads to disturb
the harmony of the architectural scheme;
not even the usual promiscuous, blatant advertising
posters are permitted to be displayed
until they have been censored by the
proper official, and when approved they are
affixed to ornamentally tinted and paneled
billboards, erected for the purpose. So keen,
indeed, are the Bonarenses to enhance the
beauty of their city that a prize is offered
each year for the handsomest structure to be
erected. And yet there is much that is possessed
of the charm of antiquity. The occasional
glimpses of blossoms and foliage one
gets through doorways opening into the courtyards,
or <i>patios</i>, of the old Spanish houses
is most refreshing in the midst of so much
that is modern.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is from Paris, too, that they have acquired
their culture, and their taste in dress
<span class='pageno' title='203' id='Page_203'></span>and amusements and in literature and art.
They buy their clothes in Paris and sip their
French liqueurs in the cafés in true Parisian
style, and they are entertained by opera and
comedy companies from the best Parisian
theaters. They have absorbed into their city
life an Italian colony that exceeds in numbers
the population of Genoa, and more
Spaniards than could be crowded into Toledo,
besides a multitude of British and Germans
and a goodly sprinkling from the rest
of Europe, and even Asia. Having taken so
much from France and Italy, and being
Spanish in descent and in speech, the overtone
of the city is distinctly Latin, while
their industrial and governmental institutions
bear the mark of the Anglo-Saxon. Next to
the Italian and Spanish, the British colony is
the largest. Then follow the German and
the French. The North Americans are small
in number; less than three hundred responded
to a recent effort to organize a North American
Society.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Bonarenses, however, like the denizens
of the Camp, are intensely patriotic and
passionately insist upon a recognition of their
own distinct personalities. They are the <i>Porteños</i>
<span class='pageno' title='204' id='Page_204'></span>of the great Argentine nation. Nor
do they and their compatriots throughout
the country welcome the inference that they
are Spanish; they are Argentine. One asks
a child of the streets whether he speaks Spanish
or Italian. He answers haughtily (in the
former language): “At home we all talk Argentine.”
Strangely enough, their jingoism
is not offensive; it is displayed with an
amiable candor that is quite disarming. Not
satisfied with being Argentine from top to
toe, they seek to Argentinize even the transient
guest. The rabid Argentinism of the
<i>Porteño</i>, and his success in amalgamating the
kaleidoscopic horde of Europeans and Asiatics
living in his city, is illustrated by the answer
of another youthful immigrant who,
unable to deny that he was born in Genoa,
murmured apologetically, “I was so little.”</p>

<div id='i204a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_204_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>COLÓN THEATER, BUENOS AIRES.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i204b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_204_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>FEDERAL CAPITOL, BUENOS AIRES.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>One of their leading daily newspapers,
<i>La Prensa</i>, which has the handsomest newspaper
building in existence, displays its
patriotism by devoting a large part of its
home to public uses. At its own expense it
provides physicians and a consulting room,
where the poor can have medical attention
free, a law office where those who cannot afford
<span class='pageno' title='205' id='Page_205'></span>to pay for it can have legal advice, an
excellent museum of the manufactures and
products of the country, a free technical library
for the use of students, a large hall
for public meetings, a charming <i>salon des
fêtes</i>, in which literary, scientific, and charitable
entertainments are given. This paper
has a circulation of more than 150,000. So
have <i>La Nación</i> and <i>La Argentina</i>, the two
other big morning dailies. There are 225
periodicals published in the capital all together.</p>

<p class='c008'>In this most cosmopolitan of cities the foreigners
foregather in little worlds of their
own. Most are represented by newspapers
published in their own languages, most have
clubhouses, more or less pretentious. On
the same evening one season recently “The
Merry Widow” was produced in Spanish,
French, and Italian in as many different
theaters; and there are all sorts of places of
amusement where foreigners can enjoy themselves,
each after his own fashion—from an
immense artificial ice skating rink (a very
fashionable resort, by the way) to a tropical
coffee house, from a golf or race course to
a pool room or bowling alley, from the most
<span class='pageno' title='206' id='Page_206'></span>attractive and elegantly equipped of modern
cafés to a little French domino parlor or
German beer saloon, from a magnificent
opera house to a cheap vaudeville or moving-picture
theater. It is said that the foremost
European artists are as likely to visit
Argentina as the United States, and often
do, and that many, of all but the first rank
in their own countries and who do not come
to North America at all, visit Buenos Aires
regularly and present European successes
long before they are seen in New York.</p>

<p class='c008'>Their great opera house, the Colón, that
cost $10,000,000 and occupies a whole square,
is one of the most beautiful in the world.
There is none in New York or Chicago, or
any of our cities, to compare with it. It is of
French design and built of stone, and the interior
is finished in white marble, gold-bronze
ornamentations and rich red drapery and upholstery.
It is not quite as large as the
Metropolitan in New York, but, as in the
Metropolitan, the two lower tiers of boxes
are occupied by the families of the “Four
Hundred,” for their <i>grand</i> opera down there
is just as much of a social function with
them as it is with the smart set in our greatest
<span class='pageno' title='207' id='Page_207'></span>city; and, as their season is in July and
August—winter months with them—not a
few of the singers that are heard at the Metropolitan
later on are heard there in their
season. Above the boxes are two balconies
and a gallery where the gods congregate
and howl for <i>encores</i> for all the world like
our own. It appears that they are not very
fond of Wagner and the German music, these
Bonarenses, but are keen for the Italian and
French; so, aside from <i>the</i> opera, competent
French and Italian companies are brought
over every year for long engagements at
other theaters. Also there are French opera
comique, Italian farce, and English musical
comedy companies, French <i>café chantant</i>,
English music hall and our own vaudeville
entertainers without end, and dramas, even
Shakespearean occasionally, and the other
classes of performances, following each other
at the many theaters continually.</p>

<p class='c008'>Club life is one of the most attractive
features. The Britishers (the heaviest investors
of foreign capital), of course, have
their inevitable cricket, polo, and races—at
Hurlingham, near the city—and have erected
a substantial country clubhouse, devoted
<span class='pageno' title='208' id='Page_208'></span>largely to the ritualistic five o’clock tea. The
scene on the broad verandas and well-kept
lawns is brilliant in the afternoon, with the
white lace gowns of the women and the white
flannel and broadside panamas of the men.
As the guest looks on at the leisurely game
of cricket and tea—for these rites are solemnized
together by the comfortable Briton—he
can easily imagine himself at Shanghai,
Hong Kong, Singapore, or Cape Town,
where the same function is taking place at the
same hour of the day, on club grounds almost
identically the same, and to the accompaniment
of the same elaborate conversation:
“Well played, old chap.” The Germans,
Italians, and Spanish also have luxurious
clubhouses, and for the transient visitor the
<i>Club de Residentes Estranjeros</i> affords a
delightful retreat. There is even a big, handsome
building for the Y.M.C.A.</p>

<p class='c008'>Among the fifty or more social organizations
in Buenos Aires, the Jockey Club is the
Argentine <i>cercle par excellence</i>. Its home
on Calle Florida is of a splendor unsurpassed
in clubdom. The guest who is fortunate
enough to enjoy its courtesies will be impressed
by the perfect taste and sumptuousness
<span class='pageno' title='209' id='Page_209'></span>of its appointments; the superb marble
stairway, the banquet hall, and the famous
pictures and sculptures are equaled in but
few of the palaces of Europe. Its wealth,
derived from an initiation fee of $4000 and
annual dues of $1500 for each member, and
a “rake-off” of ten per cent. of the amounts
wagered at its racetrack, together with gate
receipts, accumulate so rapidly that it is a
source of genuine embarrassment to the governing
board.</p>

<p class='c008'>A short time ago the club voted to devote
its surplus to the purchase of a dozen
blocks in the heart of the city, the idea being
to transform the tract into a beautiful
boulevard. It would have cost nearly $14,000,000
in our money. The project was
abandoned, not because of the cost, but on
the ground of impracticability. During the
racing season, held under the auspices of the
Club at Palermo Park, the <i>Porteño</i> is seen at
his best. Paris gowns and picture hats are
displayed in profusion in the grandstand,
lawns, and luxurious victorias and automobiles
that line the course, and with the correct
dress and animation of the men, and the
prodigality everywhere in evidence (last season
<span class='pageno' title='210' id='Page_210'></span>$25,000,000 was placed on the horses),
the scene takes on an aspect truly Parisian.</p>

<p class='c008'>As might be expected in such a vigorously
modern city, the severest of the restrictions
on social intercourse familiar in Latin capitals
are here impatiently thrust aside. In the five
o’clock parade of the fashionables that wends
its way toward the beautiful Palermo Park
on Sundays, there are no closed carriages or
dark mantillas to conceal the allurements of
the señoritas, although many may still huddle
demurely at the sides of their dueñas
while they distribute the most decorous of
smiles among their eager acquaintances of
the opposite sex. Here palm-bordered Sarmiento
Avenue is crowded with carriages and
motor cars six, often eight, rows deep, two
stationary in the center and two moving on
either side, in which ride as smartly gowned
women as may be seen anywhere in America.
In the same throng glimpses may be caught
of reigning music-hall favorites, at whose
sides are usually to be found care-free horsemen
just in from the Camp, mounted on
superb stallions heavy with silver trappings,
and generally with an air of somewhat less
sophisticated enjoyment of the event.</p>

<div id='i210'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_210.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>JOCKEY CLUB’S GRANDSTAND AT THE RACE TRACK.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='211' id='Page_211'></span>There is a prodigality about the <i>Porteño</i>
in his pleasures that staggers the visitor from
the North. Backed by an almost limitless
wealth from cattle ranch or plantation, he
scatters his <i>pesos</i> with a princely hand. And,
of course, there is the obverse of the picture.
There is the under world here, peopled
largely by immigration from the centers of
European unrest, in which there is to be
found an extreme of destitution. This is the
breeding place of anarchistic ideas, that frequently
find expression in violence and that
are surely becoming one of the city’s most
serious problems.</p>

<p class='c008'>The zest for amusement among all classes
finds many outlets. Strolling along the Calle
Florida, or the Calles Cangallo, Esmeralda,
Cuyo, Maipó, and other well-paved, brilliantly
illuminated streets of the theater district,
after the fever of the business day has subsided,
one drops in at the “English Bar,” the
“Bierhalle,” “Confiteria,” or “Café Parisien,”
and is sure to find a compatriot to join him
in the refreshment of his predilection. Or,
for the more solid enjoyment of dinner, the
visitor, whether French, North American,
Briton, or Turk, can find his favorite national
<span class='pageno' title='212' id='Page_212'></span>dishes excellently served—at the Restaurant
Charpentier, where an orchestra, really good,
will for the moment take the homesick
Parisian back to his native boulevards; or
at the “Sportsman,” where the North American
is beguiled from his nostalgia by
Sousa’s marches, perhaps, or by biograph
pictures of steeple-chasers and Oriental
dancers; or at Monsch’s Restaurant, which
specializes in the Briton’s needs—where, with
a look of acute understanding, the head waiter
will permit the guest to select his own English
mutton chop or steak from the glass-doored
ice chest.</p>

<p class='c008'>The outdoor café life is not as well known,
so narrow are the streets; even Calle Florida,
which is the essentially fashionable shopping
street of the central town, is lamentably
narrow. With the exception of the Avenida
de Mayo, which runs from the plaza containing
the Cathedral and President’s palace
to the new chambers of Congress, and divides
the city into its northern and southern sections,
and the Avenida Alvear, which leads
from the main part of the city to Palermo
Park, flanked with costly homes and interspersed
with gardens and plazas that lend a
<span class='pageno' title='213' id='Page_213'></span>wealth of verdure and flowers to the broad
avenue, the streets are so narrow that in the
business section vehicles are required by city
ordinances to move in the same direction,
down one street and up the next. But in this
splendid, stately Avenida de Mayo of hers,
which, except in appearance, has the characteristics
of the business part of New York’s
Fifth Avenue from Madison Square to the
Park, Buenos Aires has a thoroughfare that
rivals Rio’s Avenida Central in beauty, and,
with its finer hotels and cafés and French
architecture, possesses even more of the attractions
of a Parisian boulevard.</p>

<p class='c008'>Buenos Aires is not a city that calls for
the usual precautions taken by travelers. All
the creature comforts may be had here, although,
it must be confessed, at a cost greatly
in excess of prices familiar to North Americans.
There are good physicians and dentists,
and no less than sixteen hospitals—one
of which, the British Hospital, is a magnificently
equipped institution, and the one
patronized by the American colony. There
are electric street cars (which carried 125,000,000
passengers last year), splendid trains
that carry passengers in thoroughly modern
<span class='pageno' title='214' id='Page_214'></span>and well-served coaches to almost every part
of the settled country, first-class carriages,
taxicabs, hotels, department stores, and shops
of every description.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>II</h3>

<p class='c015'>Leaving the capital for a general tour
through Argentina, the visitor will soon come
to appreciate the <i>Porteño’s</i> division of the
republic into the two parts: Buenos Aires and
<i>El Campo</i>. For the greater part, the Camp
is a vast plain, covering five hundred million
acres of flat, fertile soil, with scarcely a natural
hillock higher than those thrown up by
the ants, and no depression more marked
than those which the cartwheels have plowed—stretching
from horizon to horizon, north,
west, and south—vast, silent, and awe-inspiring
in the majesty of its enormous extent
and productiveness—the calm, inexhaustible
bosom which suckles the prodigious infant on
the Plata.</p>

<p class='c008'>These pampas are the homes of the <i>estancieros</i>,
the name given to the masters of
the great breeding ranches and plantations.
Some possess <i>estancias</i> that are really feudal
<span class='pageno' title='215' id='Page_215'></span>in extent; one, in Patagonia, is as large as
the State of Rhode Island. Their homes and
outbuildings are about the only objects that
give a human touch to the mile upon mile
of cattle ranges, of green maize and golden
wheat, of purple alfalfa and vivid blue linseed
flower, unless one comes upon the black
mud hut of the <i>colono</i>, or small farmer who
works the field on shares. An occasional
clump of man-planted trees may also be met
with, and on the fringe of the pampas are a
few widely scattered Indian settlements; but
there is little to modify the metaphor of the
ocean so universally used to describe these
almost limitless plains. Even the seagulls
sweep inland for hundreds of miles to add to
its effectiveness. When the very heart of the
country is reached, the traveler may scan the
horizon from every point of the compass and
know that in every direction what lies beyond
is exactly the same.</p>

<p class='c008'>The seasons, which are much like our own,
although exactly the reverse in their occurrence,
bring their appropriate activities. During
the busy harvest period the Camp takes
on an aspect of bustle which convinces the
traveler that this great business republic has
<span class='pageno' title='216' id='Page_216'></span>cast the word “<i>mañana</i>” (to-morrow) forever
from its “bright lexicon of youth.” Harvesting
machines cutting a swath, not four
or six, but fourteen feet in width through
the wheat fields, threshers with powerful
blasts that pile the straw in great stacks,
and on the ranches the great armies of
horned cattle add the convincing touch to the
scene of prosperity.</p>

<p class='c008'>“A recent census,” says the Bulletin of the
Pan American Union (July, 1911), “shows
that in Argentina there are over 29,000,000
bovine cattle, 7,500,000 horses, about 500,000
mules and 300,000 asses, over 67,000,000
sheep, almost 4,000,000 goats and 1,403,591
pigs, with a total value of about $700,000,000,
gold.... It is an interesting fact
that all the animal food so abundantly supplied
by this country is the result of stocking
this incomparably rich land with animals
introduced from European sources. In pre-Columbian
times the only domestic animals
possessed by the natives were the alpaca and
llama. The alpaca was grown for its flesh and
its fleece, while the llama was used as a beast
of burden. In 1535 the Spaniards brought
in horses and asses, and, shortly afterward,
<span class='pageno' title='217' id='Page_217'></span>bovine cattle were taken to Asunción (Paraguay)
by a Portuguese. In 1569 four thousand
head were distributed along the regions
of the Rio de la Plata. Sheep came later.
At one time, when the natives were exceedingly
hostile, a few horses and asses were
abandoned on the pampas, and from that
stock have descended the innumerable herds
which to-day cover the almost limitless plains;
... but during recent years Argentina
has imported the best animals obtainable and
has bred with the direct intention of improving
the stock as much as possible.”</p>

<div id='i216'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_216.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>PRIZE WINNERS FROM “THE CAMP.”</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>With the cattle rides the <i>gaucho</i>, the cowboy
of the pampas. Dressed in smart <i>poncho</i>
(a sort of cape, with a hole for the head to
go through), and bright-hued <i>zombachos</i>, or
wide Turkish trousers, tight-fitting boots,
and <i>sombrero</i>, and sitting astride his saddle,
richly ornamented with silver, he presents
a sight worth seeing. To the <i>gaucho</i>
the Camp is indebted for its only romance
and picturesqueness; he has given to it its
songs and tales of adventure, its tragedies
and the brightness of its life. Lithe and
graceful, he is a consummate horseman and
rivals his Texan counterpart in feats of
<span class='pageno' title='218' id='Page_218'></span>horsemanship and skill with the lasso. He
is proud, simple-minded, and faithful in his
friendships, but when aroused to anger by a
slight or by deceit, he is as elemental in his
vengefulness—for there is a strain of the old
fierce Tupi-Guarany in the blood of most of
them—as the early types of his race who
ranged the pampas during the so-called mediæval
period of Argentine history. Needless
to say, he has contributed his quota in the
wars of the republic and has furnished the
inspiration for many a stirring drama in the
literature of the country.</p>

<p class='c008'>The story of the pampas and the life and
habits of their workers and of the denizens
nature has sent to share in their richness, has
been told by many writers of our day, notably
by W. H. Koebel, an Englishman, in his recently
published “Modern Argentina.” It
is the story of a great country and a great
business enterprise that is fast spreading its
activity farther and farther north, west, and
south—to the north, toward the still savage
Chaco country and the mountainous provinces
of Jujuy, Salta, and Catamarca; to the west,
toward the Andean uplands, and southward
to the federal territories in the region that
<span class='pageno' title='219' id='Page_219'></span>was once referred to on the maps as Patagonia.
Gradually the cattle ranch is being
pushed farther afield to give way to agriculture,
while the ranchmen in their turn are
penetrating the field of the timber industry.</p>

<p class='c008'>There is practically no village life in Argentina;
there is no middle class between the
lordly <i>estanciero</i> and the laborer. The very
necessary element of the small farmer, working
his own independent property, is gradually
being introduced, as the owners of the
great estates are beginning to subdivide their
holdings. When this new element shall have
been thoroughly absorbed into the commonwealth,
and the nation shall have acquired
a “<i>volk</i>,” the prosperity of Argentina will
be assured for all time. The development
of the country is still in its infancy; for
years to come there will be room for an
increasing influx of capital and men who
can take part in the most modern and greatest
wealth-producing enterprise on the globe.
So far the English and Germans are the
chief among the foreign capitalists who have
sought out this present-day Eldorado. The
better acquaintance with Argentina and the
other countries to the south of us, so intelligently
<span class='pageno' title='220' id='Page_220'></span>and industriously fostered by the Pan
American Union at Washington, will, it is to
be hoped, induce a North American financial
invasion of Argentina, an invasion that will
be more than welcomed by the “<i>Yankis</i>” of
the South.</p>

<p class='c008'>The traveler who takes the seven-hundred-mile
journey westward through the Camp,
luxuriously housed in the coaches of the
Great Western Railroad, comes upon a different
scene and a different life when he
reaches the ancient city of Mendoza in the
foothills of the Andes. Here it was that San
Martín recruited and organized his Army of
Liberation, the army with which, emerging
suddenly from its isolated hiding place, he
startled the world by his crossing of the
Andes to fall upon the unsuspecting Spanish.
Mendoza is now the center of the wine
and fruit industry. It is a thriving, well-supplied
little city, with a population of between
thirty and forty thousand, comfortable
hotels, a theater, and a broad boulevard of
its own, overhung with trees and named for
the great revolutionary leader, where they
have their band concerts and afternoon carriage
parade just as they do in Buenos Aires.
<span class='pageno' title='221' id='Page_221'></span>Only here, in their rather more dusky complexions,
lots of the raven-haired, black-eyed
occupants of the carriages show traces of Indian
descent.</p>

<p class='c008'>The development of the wine trade is in
keeping with the phenomenal progress of the
rest of the country. Although the great bulk
of the product is not of the highest quality,
the presses turn out each year enormous
quantities that bear the labels of Bordeaux,
Burgundy, Moselle, and Muscatel, produced
from the very best imported vines. Other
fruits have been found to grow equally well
in this section: peaches, pears, and plums
reach a high state of culture, while apples,
quinces, and cherries do very well. It is the
boast of the Argentino that his country is
capable of producing every conceivable kind
of fruit, and it is not an idle boast.</p>

<p class='c008'>At this point—Mendoza—a change of car
is made to the less comfortable narrow-gauge
road that takes the traveler through the
fastnesses of the Andes. The route leads
first through the peach orchards and vineyards,
with the snow peaks easily distinguishable
in the background. The Mendoza
River, fed by the melting snows on the mountain
<span class='pageno' title='222' id='Page_222'></span>tops, tumbles along its way and is
crossed and re-crossed many times en route.
Distant about one hundred miles, one comes
to the Puente del Inca, the famous natural
bridge spanning a chasm one hundred and
fifty feet in width, about which are many native
legends of Incarial times, for the bridge
formed part of the great system of roads
built by the Incas. A little farther on, mounting
to a still higher altitude, the station of
Las Cuevas is reached, the last stop in Argentine
territory, and the entrance to the
tunnel through the mountain, half a mile below
the Uspallata Pass—an engineering feat
deserving of a chapter by itself. The elevation
here is in excess of ten thousand feet,
and the scene one of impressive grandeur,
fascinating in the kaleidoscope of color that
floods the gorges and the giant peaks.</p>

<div id='i222'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_222.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>THE USPALLATA PASS.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Above, at the Cumbre, as the pass at the
top is called, if one forsakes the comforts of
the passenger coach for mule-back, he can
view the now world-famous “Christ of the
Andes,” a bronze figure of the Prince of
Peace rising to a height of twenty-six feet
above its massive granite pedestal. It was
erected to commemorate the peace treaty that
<span class='pageno' title='223' id='Page_223'></span>brought to an end the long-continued differences
between Chile and Argentina. Growing
out of the boundary dispute, this controversy
had become more and more acute as
the long-neglected Patagonian territory increased
in promise. The boundary, finally
fixed in 1902, by Sir Thomas Holdich’s commission,
runs along the summit of the Andean
ridge. On the base of the monument
a tablet bears the words: “Sooner shall
these mountains crumble to dust than the
people of Argentina and Chile break the
peace to which they have pledged themselves
at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.”</p>

<p class='c008'>From Carácoles, the Chilean terminus of
the tunnel, the Transandino-Chileno carries
the traveler to the station of Los Andes.
From here to the port city of Valparaiso,
Chile, the route is over the Chilean State
Railroad, which is of standard gauge and
passes through some rich and fertile valleys
on its way toward the Pacific.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>III</h3>

<p class='c015'>To the east of the Cordilleras, and south
of the river Negro, stretches the territory
<span class='pageno' title='224' id='Page_224'></span>long known as Patagonia, first in swelling
plateaux and then flattening out into a continuation
of the upper level pampas. This
is now the scene of Argentina’s advancing
sheep industry. For Patagonia, east of the
Andean summits, and the east half of Tierra
del Fuego were awarded to Argentina by
the boundary arbitrator, King Edward VII,
following the report of Sir Thomas Holdich’s
commission, and is now divided into the Federal
Territories of Rio Negro, Chubut, and
Santa Cruz. The land of Patagonia, so
named by the early explorers from the big
feet (<i>pata goas</i>) of the Tehuelche Indians,
is now reached by steamer to Punta Arenas
in Magellan Strait, the southernmost city
on the globe, for the railways of Argentina
have not yet penetrated this country to any
considerable extent. In climate it ranges
from the temperate to extreme cold, like that
of northern Michigan in the winter months.
From the time of Darwin, who first took
the country out of the category of <i>terras
incognitas</i>, Patagonia has lost most of its
mystery and is now being settled by the diverted
immigration from Buenos Aires. The
Scots, English, and Germans have taken up
<span class='pageno' title='225' id='Page_225'></span>large allotments of land, and many New Zealand
sheep men have come over to add their
skill to the leading industry. There are also
colonies of Boers and Jews.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Fuegian Archipelago, at the southern
extremity of South America, covers a
territory as large as Nebraska. A tortuous,
wind-swept labyrinth of waterways separates
the hundreds of islands that constitute this
group. The largest is Tierra del Fuego,
half as large as Illinois. It is divided longitudinally
between Chile and Argentina, by
far the larger and more valuable portion having
been awarded to the former by the Royal
Arbitrator. The name was given to the archipelago
by Magellan, when he saw the trails
of smoke from the signal fires of the natives
who followed his epoch-making course through
the strait that now bears his name. Very little
of the Fuegian country is under cultivation,
although thousands of sheep graze over
its rich valleys and verdant plains. The
southernmost point, Cape Horn (in Chilean
territory), is a monster rock, bleak and forbidding,
against which the antarctic storms
beat with such terrific force that, in the old
days of sailing vessels, it was called the headstone
<span class='pageno' title='226' id='Page_226'></span>of the mariners’ most populous graveyard.</p>

<p class='c008'>A vastly different scene awaits the traveler
who penetrates into the tropical wilds of the
northern territories of Argentina. Going
aboard one of the fine steamers of Nicholas
Mihanovitch—the kings of the river traffic—at
Buenos Aires, the traveler follows the
course of the Paraná, which is the main water
highway of Argentina. The trip will take
him through the richest provinces of the
Camp, past the busy miniature Buenos Aires,
the city of Rosario, which is the port of
shipment for the grain of this region, and
up into the tropical scenery and mystery of
the Chaco and Misiones territories, opening
up vistas of prodigious natural growths and
riotous beauty, differing in every way from
the somber majesty of the Fuegian country.
The Chaco and the territory of Formosa,
adjoining it on the north, are still almost
wholly occupied by uncivilized Indians. Up
to the present time this region has been exploited
chiefly for the wood of the <i>quebracho</i>
(<i>qui-bra-hacha</i>—axe-breaker) tree, which
yields the best quality of tannin and timber
<span class='pageno' title='227' id='Page_227'></span>for railroad ties; it is richer in the former
product than any other tree yet discovered.</p>

<div id='i226'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_226.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>IGUAZÚ FALLS, WHERE BRAZIL, PARAGUAY, AND ARGENTINA MEET.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>The picturesqueness of the Paraná River
scenery along its upper courses has excited
enthusiastic descriptions from all the travelers
who have penetrated this marvelous
country. A thousand miles up the river, in
Misiones, near the point where Argentina,
Paraguay, and Brazil meet, are located the
famous Iguazú Falls. The great cascade,
fifty feet higher and with a lateral extent
1250 feet greater than Niagara, lies in the
midst of a primeval forest. The enormous
volume of water bursts through a series of
thickly wooded islands with a roar that is all
the more impressive to the spectator because
of the solitude that reigns throughout this
scantily populated region. The hand of man
has done nothing here—no attempt has been
made to harness the mighty power; nature
has been left alone to revel in utter abandon.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='228' id='Page_228'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>IV<br /> <br />URUGUAY</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>One of the first inquiries that engages
the mind of the visitor to Uruguay
and Argentina is why the great body
of water that separates the two countries—apparently
an arm of the sea—should not be
called the <i>Gulf</i> of La Plata. After a brief
stay in this region of great cities, great productiveness,
and great opportunities, it will
probably occur to him that dwellers among
such great things could be satisfied with nothing
less than an estuary of the broad Atlantic
to serve as a river for their capitals. If
the Paraná and Uruguay—mighty rivers
which rank in size immediately behind the
Mississippi—had joined their floods some
miles above Buenos Aires, instead of flowing
separately into La Plata, a stream of unquestionable
status might have satisfied their
demands; but the God of Waters willed otherwise,
evidently not anticipating the greatness
<span class='pageno' title='229' id='Page_229'></span>of these people and their illimitable ambition.</p>

<p class='c008'>The exact point at which La Plata River
merges with the Atlantic is also a matter of
speculation among geographers. For all
practical purposes, however, Montevideo, the
capital, metropolis, and chief port of Uruguay,
lies just beside this phenomenon. One
can say, therefore, that the eastern side of the
little peninsula on which the main city is built
faces the ocean, while the southern and western
fronts, bordering the bay of the actual
port, look upon the river Plata.</p>

<p class='c008'>Taking the night boat at Buenos Aires,
one arrives in Montevideo in the early morning
after a pleasant ride of just a hundred
miles diagonally across the river, and is immediately
impressed with the picturesqueness
of El Cerro, an ancient fortress that still
poses as the guardian of the entrance of the
river. Much more important to-day, however,
is the lighthouse that rises from this
height. Entering the port the visitor comes
upon a modern city of almost four hundred
thousand inhabitants, possessed of all the attributes
of the present-day metropolis; an
adequate and up-to-date system of docks,
<span class='pageno' title='230' id='Page_230'></span>fine business blocks, public buildings, plazas,
boulevards, and broad streets laid out on the
checkerboard scheme, sewer, water, and lighting
systems, and extensive and well-managed
electric tramway lines.</p>

<p class='c008'>To the Buenos Airean, naturally enough,
Montevideo is a second Brooklyn, for the
“ferry” trip of a hundred miles is not incongruous
where people think in superlatives.
Here the Buenos Airean may come,
after a period of consuming activity in his
own more closely built city, for rest and soul
expansion among the leisurely and dignified
Montevideans, and, at the expense of his
neighbor, even permit himself a bit of friendly
chaff in which he might venture to use the
word “soporific.” The Montevidean by no
means resents the imputation. There is no
resentment because, although a restful atmosphere
does pervade the city, there is not
the slightest taint of stagnation. The Montevidean
is conscious that his sturdy, vigorous,
and even bellicose race has built up a
nation unique in South America in its promise
of material prosperity; that his country
is among the richest in the quality and varied
productiveness of its soil of any on the continent,
<span class='pageno' title='231' id='Page_231'></span>and that his city, housing a third of
the country’s population, is the pivot of the
nation’s astonishing commercial activity and
one of the most healthful and delightful residence
cities in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>Montevideo was founded in 1726, but remained
a comparatively unimportant way station
until some thirty years ago, when it
began to imbibe the modernism of its big
rivals in Brazil and Argentina. To-day it is
almost as cosmopolitan as Buenos Aires, the
Italian element predominating among the
foreigners, with the British preëminent as
investors of capital, as in the latter city. To
the superb Solis Theater come all the European
companies that appear in Buenos Aires;
club life is best represented in the Club Uruguay
and the English Club, situated on opposite
sides of the Plaza Matriz; and afternoon
tea has come to be an important feature of the
social life, several tea houses being now distributed
over the leisure sections of the city.</p>

<p class='c008'>The pride of the Montevidean is Prado
Park. He has made of it one of the fairest
gardens imaginable—its lakes and rolling
lawns and great variety of trees and flowering
bushes, its intersecting avenues of towering
<span class='pageno' title='232' id='Page_232'></span>eucalyptus trees rivaling Japan’s famous
avenue of cryptomerias, on the road to
Nikko, all give pleasure to the city’s thousands,
who, like Parisians, seek the country
scenes for their holiday amusements. Driving
along Agraciado Road and other plane-tree-shaded
avenues, the visitor reaches either of
the pleasure suburbs of Colón or Pocítos.</p>

<p class='c008'>In these excursions he has an excellent opportunity
to note the varied styles of architecture
coming into vogue in the more progressive
cities of South America; they range from
the comfortable bungalow of the British residents,
to that strange development of the
old Spanish home (the <i>quinta</i>) in which the
wealthy Spanish-Americans love to house
themselves on the outskirts of the cities. Until
recent years the Spanish house in town
and country was bare and unlovely on the
outside; its beauty and richness were confined
to the interior surroundings of the
<i>patio</i>; where, in feudal privacy, the family
secluded itself. To-day, in the new era of
civic pride and the freer association of society
in the modern boulevard and café life, the
adornment is extended to the outside, and
the effort made, by the addition of pinnacles
<span class='pageno' title='233' id='Page_233'></span>and towers and much delicate tinting, to add
to the attractiveness of the “city beautiful.”
In the business sections, of course, the modern
architecture corresponds for the most
part with the type seen in the great cities of
Europe and North America.</p>

<div id='i232a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_232_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>SOLIS THEATER, MONTEVIDEO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i232b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_232_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CAGANCHA PLAZA, MONTEVIDEO.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>In October, when the summer comes into
these latitudes south of the Equator, the
<i>quintas</i> assume a most entrancing aspect.
Some of them, set in the midst of gardens
many acres in extent, are veritable haunts of
delight. Toll has been levied upon every
resource to add to their charm. The gardens
are inclosed within hedges that blaze with
the color of the hedge-rose, honeysuckle,
bougainvillea, wistaria, and other creeping
vines. Inside, forming a background, may
be seen a goodly growth of ivy-covered oaks
or chestnut trees. Within, nearer the fairy-like
home, and in the random of artistic disorder,
are many flowering bushes and trees—lilacs
mingling their scent with magnolia,
orange, myrtle, and mimosa—while the lawns
are carpeted with a brilliant profusion of
periwinkles, pansies, marigolds, arum lilies,
and carnations, the whole yielding up the delights
of its ever changing fragrance as the
<span class='pageno' title='234' id='Page_234'></span>wondering guest wanders about in company
with his courtly host and hostess.</p>

<p class='c008'>In entire harmony with this perfection of
nature is the beauty of the women. They are
justly famous. To the far-famed grace and
natural Spanish stateliness of her sisters
throughout South America, the Uruguayan
señorita adds a freshness of complexion and
sprightliness of temperament that go to make
a most bewitching consummation of feminine
charm. Her praises are sung by all visitors;
not less appreciative, her own kith and kin
liken her, in their poetic way, to all pleasant
things from a dove to the moon.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is with genuine regret that the traveler
leaves the hospitable capital for a trip
through the country; but he will soon discover
that the delightful climate (like that of
Tennessee, but without the snows of winter)
is characteristic of Uruguay as a whole.
From the capital radiate some fifteen hundred
miles of good railways penetrating Brazil
at several points, and also tapping the
commerce along the Uruguay River.</p>

<p class='c008'>The country he will see is one great rolling
pasture as large as all New England,
and with occasional ridges of mountains.
<span class='pageno' title='235' id='Page_235'></span>None of these, however, exceeds two thousand
feet in height. Until recently Uruguay
was given over almost entirely to the raising
of cattle and sheep; now it promises great
strides in products of the soil. Indeed, it is
the boast of the Uruguayan that not an acre
of his country’s 72,000 square miles of territory
is unproductive. Here can be seen
growing corn, wheat, and potatoes, and a
great impetus has of late been given to viticulture—and
there is no fear of either drought
or frost. So far, however, only about three
per cent. of the territory is under cultivation
in foodstuffs. In 1909 Montevideo handled
imports to the value of $35,000,000 and exports
amounting to $32,000,000, while the
ports of Rocha, Maldonado, and Colonia, on
the south coast, and Salto, Paysandú, Fray
Bentos, Mercédes, and others on the Uruguay,
handled three millions more of imports and
exports. Her production in cattle in that
year amounted to 6,827,428, in sheep 16,608,717,
and in pigs, horses, mules, and goats
700,000.</p>

<p class='c008'>At Fray Bentos, on the Uruguay River,
the Liebig Company has located a great
plant, slaughters over three hundred thousand
<span class='pageno' title='236' id='Page_236'></span>head of cattle a year, and does an enormous
business in extract of beef, canned meats,
hides, tallow, hair, horn, and other by-products.
A day’s sojourn in the prosperous,
if soup-laden, atmosphere will give one
a proper appreciation of the rest of the
country, for nowhere has Nature been more
lavish with her favors, nowhere has she distributed
more favorable conditions for life and
national prosperity—everything man needs
for food or clothing is here capable of being
raised. Every section is reached by navigable
rivers, which also furnish abundant
water for irrigation and mechanical purposes.
The country being on a gold basis, its credit
in the European money markets is excellent.</p>

<p class='c008'>Uruguay, as one historian expresses it, has
always been the cockpit of the southern half
of the continent. From the time of the appearance
of the first whites in the Plata
region—Diaz de Solis in 1515, and ten years
later Sebastien Cabot—down to the period
of Hernando Arias and Garay, who, in about
1580, permanently established the power of
Spain on the river Plata, the Spanish and
Portuguese settlements on the Plata and
Uruguay had to contend with the incessant
<span class='pageno' title='237' id='Page_237'></span>hostilities of a race of Indians—the Charrúas,
who, next to the Araucanians of Chile, had
the distinction of offering the most vigorous
and successful opposition to the dominion of
the Europeans in South America.</p>

<p class='c008'>Throughout the colonial régime, Uruguay
constituted the eastern border province (<i>Banda
Oriental</i>) of Spain’s La Plata colony,
and was the storm center of the Spanish
and Portuguese strife for territorial control.
Following this period came the abortive invasion
of the English in 1806, and, a few
years later, the wars of independence. When
Spanish rule came to an end in the Plata
country, the <i>Banda Oriental</i> became the bone
of contention between Brazil and the newly
born state that is now Argentina—a veritable
new-world Flanders and the theater of many
fierce battles. Brazil held the province from
1817 to 1829, and called it her Cis-platine
Province. Finally, on May 1, 1829, Uruguay
achieved her independence and set up
a government of her own under the style of
the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.</p>

<p class='c008'>There is good reason, then, why the Uruguayans
should have emerged from these
three hundred years of turbulent character
<span class='pageno' title='238' id='Page_238'></span>building into independence with a bellicose
personality exactly suited to the Montague-and-Capulet
existence that prevails in her
politics between the <i>Blancos</i>, or reactionists,
and the <i>Colorados</i>, who now hold the political
power and stand for progress. The forcefulness
of the nation is now finding its expression
in industrial and commercial enterprises
and has made of her chief port a powerful
commercial rival of the busy mart across
the Plata.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='239' id='Page_239'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>V<br /> <br />PARAGUAY</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>Paraguay is in the longitudinal center
of South America, and, with the
exception of Bolivia, is the only country
on the continent that does not border on
the sea. Next to Uruguay it is the smallest
of the South American republics, possessing
a territory of 196,000 square miles. Until
the break with Spain, in 1813, it was, like
Uruguay, part and parcel of La Plata colony,
under the jurisdiction of the Viceroy
of Buenos Aires, and was known as the
Province of Paraguay. As will be observed
from a glance at the map, it is hedged in by
Bolivia, Brazil, and Argentina, and is separated
from its twin sister, Uruguay, by an
arm of the mother country (Misiones Territory)
that reaches up into Brazil between
the Paraná and Uruguay rivers.</p>

<p class='c008'>For a proper acquaintance with the country
it must be conceived as a dual personality,
<span class='pageno' title='240' id='Page_240'></span>for it is divided longitudinally by the river
Paraguay into western Paraguay, or the
Chaco, and eastern Paraguay, or Paraguay
proper. It is in the latter region that the
republic has its being and in which the visitor’s
interest is naturally centered. El
Chaco is a vast, thickly wooded, and, for the
most part, savage and unexplored section
that was awarded to Paraguay by our President
Hayes as arbitrator of its boundary
dispute with Argentina; in gratitude the government
named the chief settlement in the
territory Villa Hayes. The region is now
given over almost wholly to the immigrant
Swiss, German, Italian and other communities
that have been started on the west bank
of the river, and to nomadic bands of still
uncivilized Indians.</p>

<p class='c008'>With a climate similar to that of southern
California, Paraguay, throughout its entire
extent, is blessed with abundant rain the
year round. It is well watered and quite
thickly wooded, and thus protected from the
intense heat usual in low-lying countries.</p>

<p class='c008'>Eastern Paraguay resembles Uruguay in
its rolling, fertile areas, but is more mountainous.
On the northern frontier is the
<span class='pageno' title='241' id='Page_241'></span>range known as the Quinze Puntas. Inclosing
the country on the east are the Cordilleras
of Amambay and Mbaracayú, while
down the center, from north to south, run
a broken series of lesser sierras and the range
called Caaguazú, forming a ridge or backbone
that subdivides this half of Paraguay into
the two great basins drained by the Paraná
River on the east and the Paraguay on the
west.</p>

<p class='c008'>Almost the whole of Paraguay proper has
forests of valuable woods with occasional
clear places, where settlers have made serviceable
the marvelous fertility and luxuriance
of the soil. For centuries this region has
been the barrier between the two distinct
phases of Spanish civilization in South America—the
golden empire of Peru and the
agricultural colonies on the Plata and its
tributaries—just as Uruguay has been the
buffer state between the Portuguese and
Spanish peoples. These phases have merged
but little and to-day present a most interesting
contrast.</p>

<p class='c008'>From the time of Cabot’s fortified settlement
of Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay)
at the junction of the Paraguay and
<span class='pageno' title='242' id='Page_242'></span>Pilcomayo rivers, in 1536, whence his lieutenant,
Domingo Irala, made his vain attempt
to penetrate into Peru, down to the present,
Paraguay has been isolated to a considerable
degree from the march of progress. The six
hundred adventurers who followed the fortunes
of Irala stayed on the land, intermarried
with the Guarany Indians and bred
the mixed race that was the foundation of the
nation of to-day; and the Indians developed,
along with the mestizos, to a status unique in
South America. Evading the abject slavery
that decimated the aboriginal races throughout
the Andean region, the Guaranies were
taught the arts of the soil and war by the
Jesuits, and, during the hundred and fifty
years of the latter’s sway, achieved a stage of
development corresponding to that of the
peasantry of France.</p>

<div id='i242a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_242_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>GOVERNMENT PALACE, ASUNCIÓN.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i242b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_242_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>VIEW OF ASUNCIÓN AND RIVER PARAGUAY FROM ROOF OF THE CENTRAL RAILROAD STATION.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>The story of the Jesuit missions which occupied
the Paraná basin, is an important and
thrilling chapter in Latin-American history.
Early in its life, the Society turned its attention
to the evangelization of South
America; it was the genius of its founder,
Ignatius Loyola, that perfected the organization
to accomplish this. In 1550 the Jesuit
<span class='pageno' title='243' id='Page_243'></span>Fathers began their work on the Brazilian
coast settlements, but were driven farther
and farther inland by the Portuguese as it
became apparent that their policy of education
and uplift would put an end to the
enslavement of the natives which was the
basis of the economic scheme of the colonists.
Eventually, some time about 1586, the Jesuits
entered the Paraguay region, won the confidence
of the Guaranies and purposed to
“reduce” the tribes of the whole Plata country.
They met with the same opposition
from the Spanish colonists and their stronghold
became restricted to the secluded and
isolated region mentioned—the Paraná basin
and Misiones territory of Argentina.</p>

<p class='c008'>Here, for over a hundred years, under the
protection of the official sanction won from
the Spanish King, Philip III, they worked
among their proselytes. They learned and
perfected the native dialects; taught the men
to cultivate the soil, and the women to spin
and weave cotton; induced them to clear
the forests and to build and live in towns,
and even organized them into an effective
militia, which more than once enabled them
to preserve the integrity of the remarkable
<span class='pageno' title='244' id='Page_244'></span>state—a state unique in a way, since it was
virtually under the direct control of the General
of the Order, although within the territorial
sovereignty of Spain. This “republic”
lasted until 1769, when the famous decree of
the King of Spain banished the Jesuits from
all his dominions; but the effects of their
presence are still noticeable throughout Paraguay
and Misiones.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is a matter of wonder to this day how the
Jesuit Fathers, even taking into consideration
their unquenchable zeal and marvelous energy
and determination, ever succeeded in reaching
so isolated a territory and in traversing
it in every direction, as they did, in pursuit
of their campaign. Even to-day it is well-nigh
impossible to reach the heart of the
region—the great cataract of Guayra, which,
hundreds of miles from the habitations of
man, isolated by jagged mountains, fiercely
swirling waters and the wild tangle of underbrush
that make headway through the awesome
tropical forest very difficult, constitutes
one of the most majestic of nature’s wonder-works
in South America. Situated about a
hundred miles up the Paraná River from the
better known Iguazú Falls, the Guayra cataract
<span class='pageno' title='245' id='Page_245'></span>lies on the frontier with Brazil. A volume
of water twice as large as that which
thunders over Niagara is forced through a
gorge two hundred feet wide from a stream
two and a half miles in width. The roar of
its plunge of fifty-six feet to the lower levels,
adds the essential note to this tremendous
symphony of primeval nature. Outside the
Arctic regions, one explorer declares, no part
of the world is less accessible than the Paraná
above the Great Cataract.</p>

<p class='c008'>After the expulsion of the Jesuits the
Paraná basin reverted to forest and the
nation pursued its checkered career in the
section drained by the Paraguay. This river
intersects the republic from north to south
and is navigable through its entire course by
ocean steamers, which pass up from Buenos
Aires through the Paraná, and past Corrientes,
where the two great streams join
forces.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the left bank of the Paraguay, at the
point of its confluence with the equally great
Pilcomayo, the traveler comes to the ancient
city of Asunción, the capital of the country.
Here was the seat of the colonial authority
over Plata settlements until Buenos Aires
<span class='pageno' title='246' id='Page_246'></span>grew into importance. It has a population
of 52,000, and is now thriving and prosperous,
rapidly taking on the cosmopolitanism that
characterizes the other ports of South
America. The capital, and indeed the whole
country has but recently entered into a new
life, a life as sharply contrasted with its period
of political storm and stress as the transition
was sudden.</p>

<p class='c008'>For, during the first sixty years after the
country had attained its freedom from Spain,
Paraguay’s progress was stifled by a succession
of tyrants—remarkable men, all three of
them, but men who, as a result of their rule,
well-nigh cost her her national existence. The
first of these, Dr. José Rodríguez Gaspar
Francia, had been the dominating figure in
the revolutionary junta, and afterward, with
his confrère, General Yegros, had been appointed
Consul and invested with the supreme
power. “He was a lawyer,” Dawson tells
us, “who had become a sort of demigod to
the lower classes by his fearless advocacy of
their rights, and inspired almost superstitious
reverence by his reputation for learning and
disinterestedness.” A year later, the historian
continues—</p>

<p class='c016'><span class='pageno' title='247' id='Page_247'></span>“He forced Yegros out, and, with general consent,
assumed the position of sole executive, and, in 1816,
was formally declared supreme and perpetual dictator.
For the next twenty-five years he was the government
of Paraguay. History does not record
another instance in which a single man so dominated
and controlled a people. A solitary, mysterious figure,
of whose thoughts, purposes, and real character
little is known, the worst acts of his life were the most
picturesque and alone have been recorded. Although
the great Carlyle includes him among the heroes
whose memory mankind should worship, the opinion
of his detractors is likely to triumph. Francia will
go down to history as a bloody-minded, implacable
despot, whose influences and purposes were wholly
evil. After reading all that has been written about
this singular character, my mind inclines more to
the judgment of Carlyle. I feel that the vivid imagination
of the great Scotchman has pierced the clouds
which enshrouded the spirit of a great and lonely
man, and has seen the soul of Francia as he was.
Cruel, suspicious, ruthless, heartless as he undeniably
became, his acts will not bear the interpretation that
his purposes were selfish or that he was animated by
mere vulgar ambition....</p>

<p class='c016'>“He absorbed in his own person all the functions of
government; he had no confidants and no assistants;
he allowed no Paraguayan to approach him on terms
of equality. When he died, a careful search failed
to reveal any records of the immense amount of
governmental business he had transacted during
thirty years. The orders for executions were simply
messages signed by him and returned to be destroyed
as soon as they had been carried out. The longer
<span class='pageno' title='248' id='Page_248'></span>he lived, the more completely did he apply his system
of absolutism, the more confident he became that he
alone could govern the people for their good. He
adopted a policy of commercial isolation, and intercourse
with the outside world was absolutely forbidden.
He neither sent nor received consuls nor
ministers to foreign nations. Foreign vessels were
excluded from the Paraguay River and allowed to
visit only one port in the southeastern corner of the
country. He was the sole foreign merchant. The
communistic system inherited from the Jesuits was
developed and extended to the secular parts of the
country.... Dreading interference by Spain,
Brazil, or Buenos Aires, he improved the military
forces and began the organization of the whole population
into a militia. His policy, however, was peaceful....</p>

<p class='c016'>“As he grew older he became more solitary and
ferocious. Always a gloomy and peculiar man, absorbed
in his studies and making no account of the
ordinary pleasures and interests of mankind, he had
reached the age of fifty-five and assumed supreme
power without marrying.... His severities against
the educated classes increased; he ordered wholesale
executions and seven hundred political prisoners filled
the jails when he died. He feared assassination and
occupied several houses, letting no one know where
he was going to sleep from one night to another, and,
when walking the streets, kept his guards at a distance
before and behind him. Woe to the enemy or
suspect who attracted his attention! Such was the
terror inspired by this dreadful old man that the news
that he was out would clear the streets. A white
Paraguayan literally dared not utter his name. During
<span class='pageno' title='249' id='Page_249'></span>his lifetime he was ‘<i>El Supremo</i>,’ and, after he
was dead, for generations he was referred to simply
as ‘<i>El Defunto</i>.’... He did not rise by any
sycophantic arts. Indeed, he never veiled the contempt
he felt for the party schemers and officials
around him. When he had supreme power in his
hands, he used it for no selfish indulgences. His life
was austere and abstemious; but, though parsimonious
for himself, he was lavish for the public....
In his manners and life, he was absolutely modest; he
received any one who chose to see him. If he was
terrible, it was to the wealthy and powerful; the
humblest Indian received a hearing and justice. During
his reign Paraguay remained undisturbed,
wrapped in a profound peace; the population rapidly
increased, and, though commerce and manufactures
did not flourish, nor the new ideas that were transforming
the face of the civilized world penetrate,
food and clothing were plentiful and cheap and the
Paraguayans prospered in their own humble fashion.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Following the reign of Francia came a long
period of open intercourse with the neighboring
states and foreign countries under the
dictatorship of Carlos Antonio Lopez, and
some measure of progress was made, but still
there was no development of republican institutions.
His death made room for his son
Francisco, who was a man of thirty-five at the
time of his accession, and, having spent some
time in Europe, had returned permeated with
<span class='pageno' title='250' id='Page_250'></span>the vices of the great capitals and a consuming
ambition for military renown. A very
different character of man morally, he is said
to have been, from the first of his line. He
is described as vain, licentious, gluttonous, and
unscrupulous to the last degree, though good-looking
and an eloquent speaker. “He began
his reign like a Mohammedan sultan,” says
Dawson, “ridding himself of his father’s most
trusted counselors, imprisoning and executing
the most intelligent and powerful citizens....
He ordered his best friends to execution;
he tortured his mother and sisters and murdered
his brothers. The only natural affection
he ever evinced was a fondness for a
woman he had picked up in Paris, and for her
children. He seems to have treated her well
to the last, but his numerous other mistresses
and their children he heartlessly abandoned.”</p>

<p class='c008'>He soon raised an army of more than
eighty thousand, the largest that had ever
been assembled since the conquest, and, by
assuming the aggressive in certain boundary
disputes with Brazil and Argentina and interfering
in civil disturbances that were going
on in Uruguay, involved the country in war
with these three powers, which, alarmed at
<span class='pageno' title='251' id='Page_251'></span>his Napoleonic aspirations, promptly formed
an alliance for the purpose of resisting him.
This war lasted five years and for Paraguay
was one long succession of appalling disasters.
Before the first battle was fought her population
numbered more than 1,300,000; when
Lopez was finally defeated and killed in 1870,
but 221,079 remained, of whom only 28,746
were men. “No modern nation has ever come
so near to complete annihilation,” says Dawson.
“Not less than 225,000 Paraguayan men—the
fathers and bread-winners, the farmers
and laborers—had perished in battle, by disease
or exposure or starvation. One hundred
thousand adult women had died of hardship
and hunger, and there were less than 90,000
children under fifteen in the country. The
surviving women outnumbered the men five
to one; ... but the integrity of Paraguay
and her continuance as an independent power
had been mutually guaranteed by Brazil and
Argentina when they began the war against
Lopez, and neither of them could afford to
let the other take possession of her territory,
so the country was left substantially intact.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Asunción shows on its face the two phases—the
modern business houses, residences and
<span class='pageno' title='252' id='Page_252'></span>public service improvements of the new era,
and the ruined districts and wrecks such as
those of cathedral, presidential palace and old
public buildings that emphasize the lessons
of the old. To-day the visitor looks with a
shudder at the ruins of the uncompleted
mausoleum in which the last tyrant expected
his remains to rest and at the two-million-dollar
palace where, in rooms hung with rare
laces and crimson satin, his unspeakable orgies
were held; he turns with relief toward the
modernism now beginning to be apparent
which proves the substantial worth of a
people which can arise from such a past and
prosper. The survivors of the old régime
have been severely tested for fitness to enjoy
the fruits of their well-favored country.</p>

<p class='c008'>The republic—no longer such in name
only—is governed under an enlightened constitution
modeled after our own. The present
administration has opened wide the doors to
immigration and foreign capital, and the artificial
barrier erected by her political system of
the nineteenth century no longer exists as the
complement to the natural barriers that have
stood for four centuries between the northern
and southern countries of South America.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='253' id='Page_253'></span>Those who may be so fortunate as to obtain
control of Paraguay’s highways, the Paraguay
and Pilcomayo, and supplement them
by extending its 155 miles of railway into a
system that will develop the vast agricultural
and mineral empire of central and southern
Brazil and Bolivia, and carry the produce to
the Argentine seaboard, will gain a prize
unequaled in the railroad world, and make
of Paraguay a country of first importance on
the continent.</p>

<p class='c008'>Throughout the country the forests are
being cleared to make room for <i>potreros</i>
(cattle ranches) and the growing agricultural
industries. <i>Yerbales</i> are coming more and
more under the scientific culture which
greatly enhances the value of the country’s
leading product, <i>yerba maté</i>, or Paraguay
tea.</p>

<p class='c008'>Paraguay is the namesake and chief producer
of the famous <i>yerba maté</i> or Paraguay
tea, which is the national drink—the cup of
ceremony and popular tipple throughout
the central part of South America below the
coffee belt; that is, on the Argentine <i>Campo</i>,
in Uruguay, Paraguay, the lower part of
Brazil, Bolivia and Chile. So well adapted
<span class='pageno' title='254' id='Page_254'></span>is the beverage to the climate that the German
colonists forsake their beer and the European-Latins
their sweet cordials for the stimulating
and non-alcoholic native product.</p>

<p class='c008'>The <i>yerba</i> leaf is prepared by steeping in
boiling water, as in the case of the tea with
which the rest of the world is familiar. The
<i>maté</i> is the dried gourd in which the tea is
brewed. Into the aperture left by removing
the stem, a tube (the <i>bombilla</i>), made of reed
or bone, is inserted and through this the
drinker sucks the refreshing brew. Whenever
the occasion offers “<i>Toma usted maté?</i>”
is almost a form of greeting in the <i>yerba
maté</i> countries, so universal is its popularity.
Among the rich the <i>maté</i> and <i>bombilla</i> are
fashioned in costly metals, but elsewhere the
gourd and reed serve their purpose with
equal, if not greater, satisfaction.</p>

<p class='c008'>The <i>ilex paraguayensis</i>, to give the herb
its botanical name, is an evergreen tree or
shrub from twelve to twenty-five feet high,
with bright green leaves clustered in a bushy
mass that cause it from a distance to resemble
the orange tree. Although much of
the <i>yerba maté</i> is still obtained from the
immense natural forests, the ever-increasing
<span class='pageno' title='255' id='Page_255'></span>demand has made cultivation a necessity.
Many plantations have been successfully laid
out, and crops of leaves have recently been
gathered with commercially profitable results.
The scientific methods now being adopted in
the <i>yerbales</i> (<i>yerba</i> plantations) of Paraguay
to supplant the destructive system of
the past will insure for this growing industry
a rich return to the owners.</p>

<p class='c008'>The drink is taken without the addition of
condiment and for the most part hot, like the
Japanese <i>sake</i>. It is stimulating and sustaining,
and soothes instead of irritating the
nervous system. Unlike the concoctions made
from the coca leaf (cocaine), sugar cane
(rum), pulque, sake, vodka and other stimulants
stumbled upon by native peoples and
become destructive habits, <i>yerba maté</i> has no
deleterious effects either immediate or after
prolonged use.</p>

<p class='c008'>Dr. Lenglet, President of the International
League of Pure Food, says of it:</p>

<p class='c016'>“The noteworthy point of the effect of <i>maté</i> on
the system is its stimulating action on the cerebro-spinal
organs. Taken with sugar the first thing in
the morning it is very wholesome. It gives great
capacity to undergo fatigue and invigorates the
<span class='pageno' title='256' id='Page_256'></span>brain, and although it prevents feeling hungry, one
does not enjoy one’s meals any the less. It does not
appear to affect the intestinal organs; the nervous
system is, nevertheless, insensible to the organic losses
caused by the want of nourishment which are made
known by hunger.</p>

<p class='c016'>“In <i>maté</i> is found one of the most important means
to obtain a maximum of strength and energy. It can
be compared to a reservoir of vitality.”</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='257' id='Page_257'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>VI<br /> <br />BOLIVIA</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>In the heart of the continent a vast table
of land as large as all our Middle States
has been crowded up into the air by some
titanic convulsion to a height of more than
two miles, or fourteen thousand feet. The
surface in many places is deeply encrusted
with salt, suggesting the upheaval of a great
mediterranean sea and a spilling of its waters
over the succession of terraced slopes that
finally break off abruptly and merge in the
summer valleys of Brazil and Paraguay; for
from these heights innumerable streams shimmer
off toward the distant Amazon.</p>

<p class='c008'>The plateau is hemmed in by the <i>Cordillera
de la Costa</i> (the coast range) and the <i>Cordillera
Real</i>, the main range, on the east, and
is intersected in various directions by cross-sections,
the whole producing a topography
of a grandeur that makes all attempts at
description pitifully inadequate. The majestic
snow-clad peaks of Guallatiri and Miniquis
<span class='pageno' title='258' id='Page_258'></span>in the coast range, and Illampú (Sorata),
Illimani, Chachacomani, and Karkaake in the
<i>Cordillera Real</i> rise to a height of over 22,000
feet. A dozen more in both ranges exceed
20,000. On the northwestern border along
the Peruvian frontier, lies Lake Titicaca,
unique also in that it is the highest navigated
body of water on the globe. It is 160 miles
long by thirty wide and is fed by the melting
Andean snows.</p>

<p class='c008'>This plateau is the center of Bolivia’s life
to-day, as it was the cradle of successive aboriginal
civilizations that finally culminated
many centuries ago in the Inca empire. It is
the highest inhabited land on the face of the
earth, with the possible exception of Tibet.
The evidence at every hand of nature’s tremendous
activities must have left its impress
on the races that formerly had their being
here. The gigantic relics which are now the
enduring monuments of these peoples are
proof of the bigness of their point of view.
They saw largely and the range of their
vision embraced great distances, great altitudes,
and great depths. There is evidence
also that the newly awakened present race will
prove worthy of its surroundings.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='259' id='Page_259'></span>The people now inhabiting this great Andean
<i>Massif</i> have in their veins the blood of
both the intrepid Conquistadores and the
hardy Aymara and Inca stock, and it is in the
nature of things that the present-day Bolivian,
now that his republicanism is established after
a century of turbulent assimilation, will make
great strides in industrial progress in justification
of the spirit that is his birthright.
In this altitude, so high that at first most
foreigners suffer from its effects, the Bolivians
have built their capital and chief cities.
Here the first blow was struck against the
oppression of Spain, and in the mountain defiles
of the Peruvian Andes leading down to
the Pacific coast the last shot was fired that
drove the viceregal army to its transports.
With the departure of the Spanish came the
establishment, in 1825, of the Republic of
Bolivia, the name given to the old Buenos
Airean province of Alto-Peru by its first
president, Bolívar’s famous lieutenant, General
Sucré, in honor of his chief.</p>

<p class='c008'>Bolivia is fourth in size among the South
American republics. It covers 708,195
square miles, and could include within its
limits the combined areas of California,
<span class='pageno' title='260' id='Page_260'></span>Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Oregon, and
Washington. The republic lies wholly within
the torrid zone, but the gradation of its
topography extends from the <i>yungas</i> (“hot
valleys”) at the border of the Amazon basin
to the <i>punas</i>, or high table-lands, ranging
from four to fourteen thousand feet, so that
animal and vegetable life of every clime is
represented—from the brilliantly colored flamingo
and butterfly of the Amazon plains to
the dread condor of the Andes; from the
rubber tree, through all stages of arborial
and plant life, to the little yellow bitter potato,
grown near the point at which vegetation
vanishes in the Arctic cold of the higher
peaks.</p>

<p class='c008'>Of course, the shortest and most direct
route to Bolivia’s capital and chief cities is
by rail from either of the Pacific ports of
Mollendo, in Peru, or Arica or Antofagasta,
in Chile. The quick change of view from
the arid coast to the grandeur of Andean
mountain scenery, and the familiar comforts
of railway travel incline most visitors to the
approach from one of those points. But, as
the greater part of Bolivia’s territory is that
which falls away from the plateau, like a
<span class='pageno' title='261' id='Page_261'></span>lady’s train, northward and eastward to the
frontiers of Brazil and Paraguay, a more
comprehensive and impressive acquaintance
with the country can be had by entering
either from the north, via the Amazon and
Maderia rivers to Villa Bella on the Brazilian
frontier, and thence over a thousand
miles on horseback to La Paz, or from the
east, starting from our last resting place at
Asunción in Paraguay. From Asunción one
travels up the Paraguay River to Corumbá in
Brazil, thence, by a small affluent to Puerto
Suárez, eighty-one miles distant on the frontier,
thence by a zigzag course of eight hundred
miles up the rising elevation to Santa
Cruz, a thriving city of 20,000 population,
and thence to Cochabamba, still larger and
8000 feet in altitude. From here there is a
stage line over one hundred and ten miles of
mountainous country to Oruro, where connection
is made with the Antofagasta-La Paz
railway to the capital.</p>

<p class='c008'>Or one may go by railroad from Buenos
Aires via Rosario, Cordoba and Tucumán to
La Quiaca on the frontier and then north for
only two hundred miles by stage-coach to
Uyuni, through which the Antofagasta-La
<span class='pageno' title='262' id='Page_262'></span>Paz line passes on its way to the capital.
But, in any event, the approach from the east
or north richly repays the visitor for the time
consumed and discomfort he may have to
undergo on the way. The noted naturalist,
D’Aubigny, says of the <i>yungas</i> region,
through which one must first make his way
on leaving the Paraguay: “If tradition has
lost the records of the place where Paradise
is situated, the traveler who visits these regions
of Bolivia feels at once the impulse to
exclaim, ‘Here is the lost Eden.’”</p>

<p class='c008'>Leaving the dense and weirdly impressive
tropical forests of the hinterland, the rolling
areas of the <i>yungas</i> ascend toward the
plateau—a succession of vast gardens delicately
scented and brilliant with color. As
the country is coming more under cultivation
each year the traveler’s eye rests frequently
upon plantations of coffee, cacao, and coca,
the plant from which we get cocaine. The
coca leaf is highly prized by the native as a
stimulant; he chews it as a Northerner would
chew tobacco but with a better excuse, since
by its use he can perform great feats of endurance
and go many hours without food.
With his pouch filled with coca leaves and a
<span class='pageno' title='263' id='Page_263'></span>small supply of parched Indian corn, he can
run fifty miles a day, for these fleet-footed
Indians constitute the telegraph system of
this region. The output of the <i>cocales</i>, or
coca plantations, was nearly nine million
pounds last year.</p>

<p class='c008'>This is also the home of the highly nutritious
if impossibly named <i>jamacch’ppeke</i>
plant, which, when dried and powdered and
mixed with water, produces a delicately flavored
milk much used in hospitals and even
for babies. Higher up in the <i>valle</i> zone wheat
and corn fields may be seen as well as the famous
<i>chincona</i> tree, so named because, in
1638, the Condesa de Chinchon (wife of the
Peruvian Viceroy) wrote of her wonderful
cure from malaria by an Indian draught prepared
from the bark of this tree. It has been
known since as chincona or Peruvian bark,
but it was not until 1820 that the French
chemist, Pelletier, extracted from the tree
the calisaya or quinine with which we are
now familiar, and which, by the way, is said
to be one of the two or three natural specifics
ever yet discovered for disease.</p>

<p class='c008'>On these slopes also grows the new substitute
for wheat, <i>quinua</i>, a grain more nutritious
<span class='pageno' title='264' id='Page_264'></span>and more cheaply produced than its
northern prototype, also the delicious <i>camote</i>,
a delicately flavored type of sweet potato,
the <i>palta</i>, known in Cuba and Mexico as the
<i>aguacate</i> and in Florida as the alligator pear,
which makes the rich salad, and all variations
of the sweet, pulpy fruits like the
pomegranate, <i>granadilla</i>, <i>capote</i>, etc. This
is also one of the homes of the nutmeg, olive,
and castor bean, and of sugar, cotton, oranges,
cinnamon, vanilla, saffron, indigo, and ginger;
also of a remarkable variety of medicinal
plants: for instance, those from which are
derived aconite, arnica, absinthe, belladonna,
camphor, quassia, cocaine, digitalis, gentian,
ginger, ipecaque, jalap, opium, sarsaparilla,
tamarind, tolu and valerian. The Indians of
this belt are the most artistic leather workers
in the world, and their beautiful <i>ponchos</i> (a
sort of circular cape the mountaineers wear,
with a hole in the center for the head to go
through), woven from native silk, are eagerly
sought by all visitors.</p>

<p class='c008'>Leaving this richly endowed agricultural
region for the still richer location of Bolivia’s
mineral wealth, the traveler ascends to
the great plateau on which the capital and
<span class='pageno' title='265' id='Page_265'></span>important cities are built. At Potosí one is
in the heart of the great silver country. From
one mountain here, the Cerro de Potosí itself,
over three billion dollars’ worth of silver
has been taken since its discovery in
1545. The luxury and almost unbelievable
extravagance told of in the annals
of this city have given it a world-wide fame.
Its principal building, the mint, cost the then
unprecedented sum of two million dollars, an
expenditure that brought many qualms to
the miserly ascetic, Philip II, who would
have preferred to pour the flood of wealth
into the coffers of the church. The author
of “Don Quixote” refers to Potosí as the
synonym for fabulous wealth, and there is
hardly a writer of the early days of the colony
who did not mention the silver mountain
to illustrate the idea of lavish abundance. In
those days silver was regarded as equally
valuable with gold.</p>

<p class='c008'>Bolivia’s marvelous wealth in tin is unexcelled
even in the Malay Peninsula. Already
one of the chief centers of the tin industry,
this metal promises to bring to the
twentieth-century Bolivia as much commercial
fame as the gold mines brought Alto-Peru
<span class='pageno' title='266' id='Page_266'></span>in the sixteenth century. Copper, iron, lead
and bismuth, as well as topazes, emeralds,
opals, jasper, and marble, are also present in
large quantities throughout the plateau.</p>

<p class='c008'>After descending from Potosí, which is at
an altitude of 15,380 feet, one should visit
the white city of Sucré before proceeding to
the present seat of government, La Paz. In
Bolivia the name of Sucré is as omnipresent
as Bolívar’s in Venezuela and Colombia, and
most naturally when the new republic was
formed the name of its chief city, Charcas,
was changed to Sucré to honor the hero of
Ayacucho—Antonio José de Sucré—when
this “right hand” of Bolívar became its first
president. The city is ancient, kindly, and
romantically beautiful in its setting on the
eastern slope of the royal range, and once,
under a law enacted some eighty years ago,
it was the capital.</p>

<div id='i266a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_266_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>SHRINE OF OUR LADY OF CAPACABANA, ON BOLIVIAN SHORE OF LAKE TITICACA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i266b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_266_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>TOWN AND MOUNTAIN OF POTOSÍ, BOLIVIA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Its extreme altitude, however, made impossible
the cosmopolitanism that must pertain
to a capital city—the foreign diplomats
in most cases refused to reside there because
of the severity of the <i>siroche</i>, or
mountain sickness, that nearly always assails
the newcomer to these altitudes. So
<span class='pageno' title='267' id='Page_267'></span>the seat of government was removed to
La Paz, and now it is the tribunal of the
Supreme Court and Archiepiscopal see only.
Here also are located the University of San
Francisco Xavier and the homes of many of
Bolivia’s most aristocratic families. Thus
far, modernism has had a beneficial influence
on the city in many respects, but has not
changed its appearance. Its public works
have made it healthful and comfortable, but
its stately old dwellings and public buildings
preserve their peculiar charm unaltered to
suit the modern architectural taste.</p>

<p class='c008'>Farther north, and not yet connected by
rail with Sucré, lies the present capital, La
Paz, the actual seat of government. There
for many years have resided the president,
the congress, and the representatives of the
foreign governments, so that the <i>Paceño</i> is
justified in looking upon his city as the
metropolis. Like its predecessor in this
distinction, it was rechristened when the
Spanish régime came to an end. When the
Conquistadores exterminated the Indians resident
on its site and built the present city,
for some occult reason they named it <i>La
Ciudad de Nuestra Señora de la Paz</i>! Our
<span class='pageno' title='268' id='Page_268'></span>Lady of Peace clung to the name, no doubt,
with grim humor during the turbulent times
that followed, until the decisive battle of
Ayacucho brought to the nation a more
effective peace from Spanish oppression, and
to-day <i>La Paz de Ayacucho</i> is the official
name of the seat of government.</p>

<p class='c008'>La Paz, Quito, Bogotá, Caracas, and Mexico
are the five highest capitals in the world,
but the first-named is loftier by half a mile
than any of its rivals. The visitor is always
surprised at the location of La Paz. Having
been told of its great elevation—12,300
feet above the sea level, he naturally expects
to see a city perched on a high mountain;
in fact, it is at the bottom of a deep
canyon, backed, however, by the giant peak
Illimani, which towers above, to a height of
22,500 feet. Its startling location results in
daily variations in temperature that greatly
incommode the stranger; frequently the thermometer
drops from 80° F. at noon to below
zero at night, although generally these extremes
vary but little during the year.</p>

<p class='c008'>Winding cautiously down the canyon to a
depth of some 1500 feet, the train comes to
a terrace overlooking the city and then unfolds
<span class='pageno' title='269' id='Page_269'></span>before the traveler one of the most remarkable
and picturesque scenes in South
America. The reds of the roofs of the flat,
two-story houses and the softer tints of the
walls that make Caracas so alluring are here
given a more brilliant and positive tone. The
Oriental atmosphere is tempered by the
rugged surroundings and the crisper, clearer
air of the higher altitude. Everywhere the
bright, elemental colors—red, green, and
yellow—worn by the Indians, add to the
brilliant scenes of outdoor life. The streets of
the city are a series of steep ascents, admirable
for drainage, no doubt, but affording little
pleasure to the visitor who is fond of walking,
for to the newcomer the rarified atmosphere
makes exercise a trial. Surpassing
Rome in one respect, La Paz seems to be
built upon at least fifty hills, but many level
areas are laid off in beautiful parks, a dozen
or more in number, and here the <i>Paceño</i>
brings his guests for the delightful social
intercourse—perfected here for long centuries
for want of many of the other amusements—that
makes his city memorable to the
visitor.</p>

<p class='c008'>One of the most attractive parks, the
<span class='pageno' title='270' id='Page_270'></span>Plaza Murillo, is named to commemorate the
inspiring genius of the revolution against
Spain: Pedro Domingo Murillo. The Alameda
is a broad driveway of five parallel
avenues that run for over half a mile through
rows of fine shade trees. At night it is
lighted with electricity and makes a delightful
pleasure ground for the people. An extension
of this boulevard, the Avenida Doce de
Deciembre, leads to Obrajes, about three
miles distant.</p>

<p class='c008'>The most notable building in the city
is the great cathedral. For more than seventy
years it has been in course of construction
and when completed will be the largest
and most impressive church erected in Latin
America since the war of independence. In
style it is Greco-Roman, with a central cupola
150 feet high and two towers that rise to a
height of 200 feet. The interior work is of
exceptional magnificence. Like many of the
old cathedrals of Spanish origin, its altar is
of wonderfully carved wood. Besides the
cathedral, La Paz can boast more than a
dozen places of worship that compare favorably
with the churches of other South
American capitals.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='271' id='Page_271'></span>Only a short distance from La Paz by
railroad are the prehistoric ruins of Tiahuanaco,
which Squier tells us</p>

<p class='c016'>“Have been regarded by all students of American
antiquities as in many respects the most interesting,
important and at the same time the most enigmatical,
of any on the continent. They have excited the wonder
and admiration alike of the earliest and latest
travelers, most of whom, vanquished in their attempts
to penetrate the mystery of their origin, have been
content to assign them an antiquity beyond that of
the other monuments of America and to regard them
as the solitary remains of a civilization that disappeared
before that of the Incas began, and contemporaneous
with that of Egypt and the East....
Tradition, which mumbles more or less intelligibly
of the origin of many other American monuments, is
dumb concerning these.”</p>

<p class='c008'>They are on a broad, arid plain, overlooking
Lake Titicaca, about twelve miles from
the shore, and occupy about a square mile.
In his description of them Mozans says: “In
addition to a number of shapeless mounds, of
earth, there are remarkable traces of five
different stone structures, which writers, for
the purpose of classification” (and because
of their resemblance to plans of such buildings
elsewhere), “have agreed to call the
<span class='pageno' title='272' id='Page_272'></span>fortress, the palace, the temple, the sanctuary,
and the hall of justice.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“The materials used in their construction,”
he goes on,</p>

<p class='c016'>“Are trachyte, basalt, and red sandstone. The
fortress, to judge from its present condition, originally
resembled a Mexican <i>teocalli</i>, or the pyramid of
Sakkarah in Egypt, and must, when first erected,
have presented a very imposing appearance. It is
a great, terraced mound of earth, supported by stone
walls, is 50 feet high, 620 feet long, and 450 in
width. It is, however, in a very dilapidated condition,
owing to the depredations of treasure-seekers
and to its having been for centuries used as a quarry
whence material was obtained for buildings in the
neighboring towns, for the railroad and for structures
in La Paz. The temple is in the form of a
rectangle, 388 by 445 feet. It has been very appropriately
called the American Stonehenge, to which,
at least in some of its monoliths, it bears a striking
resemblance.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The other three edifices, especially at the hall of
justice, are likewise remarkable for the area they
occupy and for the cyclopean masses of stone that still
remain to attest the extraordinary character of their
construction. It is these wonderful megaliths, rivaling
anything found in Italy, Greece, or Asia Minor,
that have excited the astonishment of travelers since
the time of the conquest. The platform, for instance,
in the hall of justice, is paved with immense slabs,
some of which are 25 feet long, 14 feet broad, and
nearly 7 feet thick. But the most remarkable feature
<span class='pageno' title='273' id='Page_273'></span>in these cyclopean structures is the great monolithic
gateway, of very hard trachyte, ornamented
with numerous well-executed sculptures, apparently
of a symbolical character. This is more than 13 feet
long, 7 feet above ground, and 18 inches thick. Some
of the stones are in a rough, unhewn condition, but
most of them are cut and fashioned in a most remarkable
manner. Squier, in referring to this feature
of these extraordinary ruins, writes: ‘Remove the
superstructures of the best-built edifices of our cities,
and few, if any, would expose foundations laid with
equal care and none of them stones cut with such
accuracy.’”</p>

<div id='i272a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_272_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CHURCH OF THE CONSERVIDAS, LA PAZ.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i272b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_272_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>OLD SPANISH RESIDENCE, LA PAZ.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>In a short time the new home of the
president and national congress will be finished
and occupied, and the stately old palace
where the president now resides will be
devoted to other uses. The city is well endowed
with public service conveniences, electricity,
telephones, and handsome public
buildings, and its hotels are among the best
to be found anywhere on the continent outside
of Buenos Aires, Rio and Valparaiso.</p>

<p class='c008'>Of the 80,000 inhabitants, but one thousand
are foreigners. As soon as the railways
now projected to radiate from this center
are completed, the city will be thrown
open to all the bustle of cosmopolitanism, and
much of the charm given it by the old
<span class='pageno' title='274' id='Page_274'></span>Spanish characteristics will be swept away.
But the nation will profit vastly by the
change. The development of its agricultural
and mineral resources should multiply its
population of 2,500,000 by ten, and make
of the country a Mecca for the capitalist from
the North as well as the tourist in search of
nature’s wonders and beauties.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='275' id='Page_275'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>VII<br /> <br />CHILE</h2>
</div>

<h3 class='c014'>I</h3>

<p class='c015'>“Chile,” which, by a curious coincidence,
had about the same significance
in the Inca language that our
word “chilly” has in English, is the name that
was originally given by the Incas to that part
of the Pacific slope of the Andes which lies
beyond the river Maule, the southern boundary
of their great empire. At the time of
the Spanish conquest, the first Governor,
Pedro de Valdivia, dubbed it “Nueva Estremadura,”
after his native province in
Spain, and so called it in his official communications,
yet not only did the Inca name
cling to the country south of the Maule but
soon it was popularly applied to that in the
north as well, as far up as Peru. And so
when, some years afterward (says the historian
Rosales), the Emperor Charles V of
<span class='pageno' title='276' id='Page_276'></span>Germany, who was also King of Spain, was
negotiating the marriage of his son Philip
with Mary, Queen of England, and was told
that, being a sovereign in her own right, she
would enter into such an alliance only with
a reigning monarch, he caused Philip to be
crowned King of Chile and Naples, and thus
incidentally, in distinguishing the province
above his other American possessions, confirmed
its original name, and Chile it has
been called ever since.</p>

<p class='c008'>The territory of the present republic consists
of a strip of land of most extraordinary
conformation lying between the main Cordillera
of the Andes and the sea. It has an
average width of less than a hundred miles,
yet stretches for nearly three thousand miles
from a point in the tropics considerably above
the center of the continent, clear down to
Cape Horn, crossing thirty-eight degrees of
latitude and embracing an area of nearly
291,500 square miles. A strip of the same
length in North America would reach from
Key West to northern Labrador, or, if
measured along the Rocky Mountains, from
Mexico to the Yukon in Alaska. Reckoned
in square miles, it is larger than any country
<span class='pageno' title='277' id='Page_277'></span>in Europe except Russia, though it has a
population, according to the last census
(1907), of only 3,254,451—less than that of
the city and suburbs of Paris or of New
York. In foreign commerce Chile ranks third
among the South American republics. In
1910 it amounted in value to $228,604,198.64.
The principal exports are silver, copper, nitrates,
borax, sulphur, vegetable products,
wines and liquors. Her exchange of commerce
with the United States amounted to
$38,050,652.</p>

<p class='c008'>On ordinary maps this narrow Chilean half
of the Andean region looks like a mere strip
of coast traversed by a single range. As a
consequence, it is not generally understood
by those who have not visited the country
that there is really here, as in Bolivia, Peru
and Ecuador, a double formation, connected
by transverse ridges in places, but perfectly
distinct, known as the Andes proper, or main
Cordillera, and the coast range, or western
Cordillera. Between the two systems is a vast
plateau, called the central valley, which begins
in the northern Province of Atacama,
and, gradually decreasing in height, extends
south for seven hundred miles, with an average
<span class='pageno' title='278' id='Page_278'></span>width of from fifty to sixty miles,
through the Province of Llanquihue, about
two-thirds of the way down the coast, where
it disappears, with the coast range itself, in
the long series of groups of islands into
which the shore line is broken up. From its
culminating point back of Santiago, the main
Cordillera also decreases in height toward
the south, but, instead of disappearing with
the coast range, extends throughout the whole
length of the country, from Peru to the
southernmost islands of the Fuegian archipelago,
forming the most magnificent background
imaginable to the view from the sea.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the northern section, between the Bolivian
frontier and Coquimbo, there are more
than thirty extinct or dormant volcanoes of
great altitude—Toroni (21,340 feet, or about
four miles, high), Pular (21,325 feet high),
Iquima (20,275 feet), Aucasquilucha (20,260
feet), Llulaillaco (20,253 feet), San José
(20,020 feet), Socompa (19,940 feet), and
many others over 17,000 feet. Imagine these
in contrast with Etna (10,875 feet) and Vesuvius,
which is only 3800 feet, not as high
as the cones of some of them alone. South
of the Province of Copaibo, the main range
<span class='pageno' title='279' id='Page_279'></span>itself develops a plateau formation that is
crossed by several relatively low passes, such
as the Portezuelo de Come Caballo (14,530
feet), Los Patos (11,700 feet), and, farther
south, on a line with Valparaiso, the Uspallata
Cumbre (12,795 feet). Although little
used even now because of its extremely rugged
character, Los Patos is associated with
perhaps the most memorable event in the war
of independence. It was there that, in the
execution of that strategic movement which
South American historians say excelled that
of Hannibal in the Pyrenees and Napoleon’s
crossing of the Alps, the Liberator San
Martín safely made his way through with
his whole army in 1817—artillery, impedimenta,
and all—and, within five days, joined
forces with the Chilean hero, O’Higgins, surprised
the Royalist army awaiting him on
the plain opposite the Cumbre below, fought
the great battle of Chacabuco, and entered
Santiago in triumph.</p>

<p class='c008'>But this lower Uspallata Pass, which has
always been the principal means of land communication
with Argentina, was destined to
become famous in another way, because (as
already mentioned in the chapter on Argentina),
<span class='pageno' title='280' id='Page_280'></span>it was the place chosen as the most
suitable for the route of the Chilean-Argentine
transcontinental railroad, connection between
the eastern and western sections of
which was established in April, 1910, by
completion of a tunnel through the mountain
two miles long and half a mile beneath the
Cumbre—a work of the utmost importance,
for, aside from the matter of comfort and
saving of time, it has made it possible to go
from one country to the other by the land
route in winter, when the pass above is covered
with drifts and the deadly winds and
snowstorms are so likely to whirl down on
the traveler at any moment that few except
the hardy mail-carriers ever dared attempt it.</p>

<p class='c008'>In this neighborhood the mountains attain
their greatest altitude. A few miles to
the north and visible a little distance from
the Cumbre is the “Monarch of the Andes,”
Aconcagua, which, according to the record
at the Harvard University Observatory in
Arequipa (Peru), is 24,760 feet (more than
four miles and a half) high—the highest in
the world, it is now regarded, next to Mt.
Everest in the Himalayas. In his interesting
story of the ascent of Aconcagua, Sir Martin
<span class='pageno' title='281' id='Page_281'></span>Conway, one of the very few who ever succeeded
in accomplishing it, gives a good idea
of the region, viewed from a point near the
lesser of the two summits. “At last I heard
a shout and looked up and saw Maquignaz a
yard or two above my head,” he says,</p>

<p class='c016'>“Standing on the crest of the bed of snow that
crowned the <i>arête</i>. In a moment I was beside him and
Argentina lay at our feet. The southern snow face,
delusively precipitous though actually as steep as
snow can lie, dropped in a single fall to the glacier
two miles below. To the right and left for over a
mile there stretched, like the fine edge of an incurved
blade, the sharp snow <i>arête</i> that reaches from the
slightly lower southern summit to the northern. It
forms the top edge of the great snow slope down
which we were looking, and is only visible from the
Horcones valley side as a delicate silver crest, edging
the rocks. At many points it overhung in big cornices,
like frozen waves about to break. The day
had thus far been fine, but clouds were now gathering
in the east. Fearful lest the view might soon be
blotted out, I took a few photographs before moving
on. The view abroad from this point differed little
from that which we finally obtained. To the south
was Tupungato (22,408 feet), a majestic pile of
snow, over which even more majestic clouds were presently
to mount aloft. To the north was the still
grander Mercedario (22,315 feet), beheld around
the flank of the final rocks. In the west were the
hills, dropping lower and lower to the Chilean shore,
and then the purple ocean. To the northeast, like
<span class='pageno' title='282' id='Page_282'></span>another ocean, lay the flat surface of the Argentine
pampas. Elsewhere the Cordillera, in long parallel
ridges running roughly north and south, stretched
its great length along, crowding together into an
inextricable tangle the distant peaks, partly hidden
by the near summits, which alone interrupted the
completeness of the panorama.”</p>

<p class='c008'>All the high peaks are said to be of volcanic
origin. Those from Mercedario to
Tupungato are precipitous and craggy and
decked with great glaciers. The sky line is
jagged, like the walls of a ruined castle. Below
the snow, the rocks are richly colored.
There are vast palisades of dark reds and
browns, slopes of purple streaked with yellow,
and all sorts of other gorgeous combinations,
and, down in the lower valleys, brilliant
greens. The streams of melting snow pouring
down the sides seem to take on tints that
correspond. In some places they flow red, as
with blood from the breast of a giant; in others,
with the sun gleaming on them, they look
like molten gold. The main branch of the
Rio Mendoza, for instance, above Cuevas on
the Argentine side, seems pink at first, and,
lower down, after mixing with the waters of
its tributaries, changes to a golden brown. It
<span class='pageno' title='283' id='Page_283'></span>is one of those scenes that artists are always
accused of exaggerating and adding fanciful
touches to when they attempt the poor reproductions
that the greatest only can give, so
far are they beyond human skill to portray—one
of those scenes that few mortals are gifted
enough to comprehend the unutterable majesty
and magnificence of even when they have
an opportunity to view the originals. Even
Burton Holmes, the great globe-trotter and
lecturer, in relating his impression in a recent
article, confesses that he could not appreciate
it at first.</p>

<p class='c008'>“Naturally, we were eager at least to see
this monarch mountain—Aconcagua, the
King of the Cordillera,” he says.</p>

<p class='c016'>“Accordingly, we organized a little expedition,
and, under the guidance of the capable young Britisher
who is in charge of the livestock of the camp
at Puente del Inca, and his Chilean ‘<i>Capitaz</i>,’ or chief
man, we rode away up a lateral valley toward a well-known
point of view, whence Aconcagua could be
clearly seen. A snow-clad mountain looms up at the
end of that barren valley. ‘That’s a rather fine peak,’
I remarked. ‘Well, rather,’ replied the Englishman.
‘That’s the one you have come to see; that’s Aconcagua.’
We were astounded, for the mountain seemed
no huger than the Jungfrau, as viewed from Interlaken.
In fact, it greatly resembles the Jungfrau in
<span class='pageno' title='284' id='Page_284'></span>form and outline, and its setting, from this point of
view, is similar. We had expected to be overwhelmed
at sight of some sharp, tremendous, towering shape—some
magnified Matterhorn. What we beheld was
like a section of a snowy range—a culminating section
of that range, perhaps—but not a sharply defined
peak. Yet we were looking at the highest crest
of the Western Hemisphere. Everything about us
was on a scale so vast that even Aconcagua was
dwarfed by the tremendous setting.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The next great division of the range is
defined on the north by the Maipo Pass and
by Las Demas Pass on the south. Its principal
heights are between 16,000 and 17,000
feet. From Las Demas on, few are over
10,000 feet, and, beyond Copahue, near the
source of the Bio-bio River, the average is
about 9000. Beyond the volcano Tronador
(the Thunderer), in the latitude of Lake
Llanquihue, and as far as Lake Buenos Aires,
it consists of a series of Swisslike mountains,
still decreasing in height, but with an occasional
high peak, such as San Valentín
(12,720 feet), and glaciers growing ever
larger and more numerous. San Valentín
towers in the midst of an elevated ice field
eighty miles long and thirty wide and sends
down two great glacial streams, one to the
<span class='pageno' title='285' id='Page_285'></span>south and the other into the San Rafael Lake,
where the ice glides along the bottom until it
breaks into fragments that drift away in the
channel of Morelada. All these places can
now be reached by railroad or steamer.</p>

<p class='c008'>No conception of the Chilean country as
a whole can be formed, however, unless it is
understood that it is naturally divided into
zones, as characteristically dissimilar as are the
various grand divisions of the United States.
For instance, there is the Magellan and
Fuegian region, where, to the east of the
mountain ranges, the great Argentine pampa
extends clear down through Tierra del Fuego,
and where, as the climate is too rigorous to
invite agricultural pursuits, the principal industry,
and the only important one, aside
from a small amount of lumbering and gold
mining, is the raising of herds of sheep and
cattle. With the exception of the ranchers
and the ten or twelve thousand people of
Punta Arenas—which is the only port of call
in these parts, and is, therefore, the distributing
and shipping point for all the enormous
expanse of country round about, including
the southern section of Argentine Patagonia—the
inhabitants are of the lower order
<span class='pageno' title='286' id='Page_286'></span>of Indians and live in the forests, supporting
themselves by hunting and fishing, just as
they did before they ever saw or heard of a
white man.</p>

<p class='c008'>Then there is the island, lake, and forest
region between Smyth Channel, say, and
Valdivia. In the southern part, the principal
industries are lumbering and fishing, but
in the north, especially in the Province of
Chiloé (both the island and mainland) and in
Llanquihue, there are also wheat and barley
fields, and the fruit, dairy, and cattle-raising
industries rank ahead of the timber and fishing,
though in Chiloé this last is among the
most important. The inhabitants are mostly
immigrants, <i>mestizos</i>, and Indians, though of
a better and far more amenable class than the
races farther south. Most of them are descendants
of those famous Araucanians, whom
it took nearly four hundred years to subdue.
Here, throughout nearly the whole of the
country, in the uplands as well as near the
coast, is the towering <i>alerce</i> (the Chilean
pine), often two hundred feet high, sometimes
two hundred and fifty, which has a superb
white trunk, varying from ten to fifteen feet
in diameter, according to height—the rival of
<span class='pageno' title='287' id='Page_287'></span>the California giant redwoods—and here is the
<i>dingue</i>, that resembles the mighty German
oak, and supplies wood for railroad cars,
carriages, casks, and ship-building, of wonderful
toughness and durability. There are
cypress, walnut, cedar, ash, beech, and others
excellent for general building and cabinet
purposes, too, and other species of value for
their barks.</p>

<p class='c008'>Then, from Valdivia north through the
Province of Coquimbo, comes the great central
valley, which is excelled by few, if any,
of the temperate agricultural regions of the
world. It is here, of course, that the principal
centers of population are located—Valparaiso,
the most important seaport south of
San Francisco, and Santiago, the capital, and
the ports of Concepción and La Serena, or Coquimbo.
In this region all the cereals, fruits,
and vegetables are produced in abundance.
There are immense vineyards and sugar-beet
and tobacco plantations, stock and dairy farms,
copper, silver, and coal mines, and factories
of almost every description.</p>

<p class='c008'>North of Coquimbo are the desert provinces
of Atacama, Antofagasta, Tarapacá, and
Tacna, where the rain so seldom falls that no
<span class='pageno' title='288' id='Page_288'></span>useful vegetation can thrive except in a few
places where irrigation is possible, yet which
are the chief source of Chile’s revenue and
wealth. These constitute the fourth, or almost
exclusively mineral zone, and, aside from
their gold and silver and copper, contain the
famous nitrate of soda beds, the only known
extensive deposit of the kind in the world,
though here they are found thickly scattered
over a strip four hundred and sixty miles
long, averaging about three miles in width.
Every year more than 2,000,000 tons (in 1910
it was 2,367,000 tons, worth $86,018,000) are
exported to fertilize the fields and make the
gunpowder of Europe and the United States,
to say nothing of the iodine and other by-products
extracted in the process of preparation.
“Plants make use of nitrogen only
when it is present in the soil in the form of
nitrates,” says the <i>Pan American Bulletin</i>
(Review Number, August, 1911)—</p>

<p class='c016'>“And nitrate of soda is the only fertilizer that contains
this food in a suitable and available form. The
manner of using it, once it is applied, is the subject
of technical, agricultural chemistry, but every year
it is better understood and results are more satisfactory.
On the first discovery of the value of nitrate,
it was scattered promiscuously in the soil in its crude
<span class='pageno' title='289' id='Page_289'></span>form, just as it was taken from the beds in Chile.
As the industry advanced, it was found that it was
more economical to export a purer mineral, and that,
also, the purer the mineral, the more plant nourishment
it offered, provided that the need of the plant
was carefully investigated. The results have been a
more highly developed agriculture and the saving of
certain by-products, of which iodine is one, the profit
from which aids the manufacture. Another use for
nitrate is in the manufacture of nitric acid, and, ultimately,
of many kinds of explosives....</p>

<p class='c016'>“Saltpeter, or nitrate of soda, is found mixed with
other substances. The beds contain four layers of
material, the next lowest being that of the nitrate
itself. Above this are the <i>chuca</i>, on the surface,
which is nothing more than the accumulation of ages;
the <i>costra</i> beneath, a harder and older mass, but still
a somewhat worthless débris; the <i>caliche</i>, the real
nitrate of soda, and, finally, the stratum of bed rock
called <i>gova</i>. To obtain the nitrate, a shaft is sunk
to the <i>gova</i>, on which powder is placed and exploded;
the overlying mass is thrown up and the <i>caliche</i> containing
the nitrate scattered over the ground. This
is then collected and taken to the refining works for
preparation into refined or almost pure nitrate of
soda, ready for export. In the <i>oficinas</i>” (refining
works) “machinery of the most economical and effective
pattern is used, and the methods of refining the
salt are according to the best researches of industrial
chemistry. The same is true of the facilities for
transportation to the steamer. Many small but well-equipped
railways are in operation in the fields, and
they carry the product to the coast towns, from which
they are finally shipped abroad.... Great Britain
<span class='pageno' title='290' id='Page_290'></span>takes about forty per cent., Germany and the United
States each about twenty per cent., France about ten
per cent., and the remainder goes to such far-away
places as Egypt, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, and
Australia. <i>In fact, without nitrate the great agricultural
producers cannot advance.</i>”</p>

<p class='c008'>And it is well for Chile that these nitrate
deposits have proven of such great value—they
were acquired only at the cost of a long
and expensive war. Formerly the Province
of Antofagasta belonged to Bolivia and the
Provinces of Tarapacá and Tacna to Peru.
The dividing line between Chile and Bolivia,
it appears, had always been a bone of contention,
and, in 1866, while these republics were
allied in a war with Spain, a treaty had been
entered into between them, fixing a boundary
and agreeing that the citizens of either should
have the right to engage in mining operations
in the territory of the other, and export the
products free of all taxation, within a certain
limited area. It appears also that in 1870
Bolivia, for a money consideration, granted
to a company composed of Chileans and Englishmen
the right to work the nitrate beds
both in and north of the treaty area, also to
construct a mole at the port of Antofagasta
<span class='pageno' title='291' id='Page_291'></span>and a road to Carácoles, where rich silver
mines had been discovered. The mole was
constructed and not only a road but a railroad,
and the company is said to have invested
heavily in various plants for the preparation
of the nitrate and the reduction of the silver
ore. As a result, as it was contended, it was
Chilean and British capital, and principally
Chilean energy and labor that developed the
wealth of the region.</p>

<p class='c008'>It further appears that, in 1873, Bolivia and
Peru had entered into a secret alliance, by the
terms of which each was to protect the others
independence and territorial integrity from
foreign aggression, and that in 1874 another
treaty between Chile and Bolivia was negotiated,
having in view the settlement of certain
differences, but which the Bolivian Congress
had refused to ratify except on condition that
an export duty on nitrates should thereafter
be paid. Chile remonstrated, contending that
such a tax would be in violation of the treaty
of 1866. Bolivia, it was charged, sought to
impose it nevertheless and seized the property
of the Chileno-British company on default in
payment. The situation having thus become
acute, Chile sent a fleet to protect the interests
<span class='pageno' title='292' id='Page_292'></span>of her citizens and blockaded the port
of Antofagasta. At this stage Peru, doubly
concerned because of her secret alliance and
because Chileans had acquired rights in her
own nitrate fields in Tarapacá, offered her
services as mediator, but no agreement could
be reached and she became involved in the
dispute herself, and, because of her more accessible
situation, it fell to her lot to bear the
chief burden of the defence in the war that
followed.</p>

<p class='c008'>In spite of the heroic sacrifices of her officers
and the desperate courage with which
her soldiers fought, especially toward the last,
in nearly every battle, on both land and sea,
the Chileans were successful, and at last,
when they had taken Lima itself and made
their victory complete, the provinces in question
were ceded to her provisionally and have
been developed to their present importance
under her protection. The half-breed descendants
of the Aymaras and Incas, of which
the rank and file of the Peruvian and Bolivian
armies were composed, were no match
for the virile <i>roto</i>, in whose veins flowed the
fiery blood of the Basque and Biscayan
pioneers, mingled with that of the spirited,
warlike aborigines of Chile.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='293' id='Page_293'></span>If, in making the grand tour of the continent
one goes first to Bolivia and visits Chile
by way of the railroad from La Paz instead
of going directly from Argentina over the
transandean road or by steamer through the
Strait of Magellan, one comes to the end of
the trip at this very port of Antofagasta,
which lies basking in the tropical sun on a
strip of coast at the foot of a low table-land,
seven hundred miles north of Valparaiso, in
the heart of the rainless desert. It is very
different, this region, from the bleak plateau
up the twelve-thousand-foot slope, with its
llama trains and poncho-clad natives. Antofagasta
has a population of about 20,000, good
broad streets, and a very businesslike appearance.
It is a city that looks like one of our
Western mining towns, and impresses one at
first glance with its evidences of a more vigorous
and ambitious civilization. There is a
large <i>oficina</i> for the preparation of nitrate,
steam tramcar lines, smelters for the treatment
of copper and silver ores, long rows of
barracks for the housing of the laborers, corrugated
iron warehouses, crowds of ships in
the offing taking on cargoes of nitrate and
metals or unloading supplies; yet there are
a plaza and promenade and hotels, and most
<span class='pageno' title='294' id='Page_294'></span>of the residences of the officers of the companies
are decidedly attractive.</p>

<p class='c008'>For, in addition to being a nitrate and mining
port, this is one of the principal gateways
through which Bolivia’s commodities still come
and her own products are sent out, and is the
distributing center for the Chilean province
besides, where the land is so barren that the
inhabitants are dependent on the outside world
for almost everything. There was a time
when even water had to be imported into the
city itself—it used to be said that they drank
champagne because water was too expensive—but
not long ago a conduit was constructed
and now it is piped from the mountains, 250
miles away; and they have even brought soil
from the south with which to make gardens to
adorn their plaza and promenade and the
grounds near the club where the Britishers
have their tennis courts and five o’clock teas.
It is said that of the $127,000,000 invested
in the hundred or more <i>oficinas</i> generally
throughout the region, $53,500,000 are English,
$52,500,000 Chilean, and the rest German;
so here, of course, as in the greater port
of Iquique in the Province of Tarapacá, a
large proportion of the people, other than the
<span class='pageno' title='295' id='Page_295'></span>laboring class, is English, and certain it is
that the brisk, clean-cut Anglo-Saxon is very
much in evidence, both in town and out along
the plants lining the railroad.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>II</h3>

<p class='c015'>As Antofagasta is not connected with
Valparaiso by railroad, the only practicable
way of getting there is by steamer. This is
rather unfortunate for the tourist, because,
although the accommodations are comfortable
enough, the progress is slower and what
is to be seen along the coast is nowhere near as
interesting and attractive as in the central valley.
Except at widely separated intervals,
where the hills part at the mouths of the few
shallow rivers or about the bays, the shore all
the way down is dominated by steep, rocky
cliffs, so high, when the ship’s course is near
the coast, as to conceal the country behind.
The only signs of life are where little
ports, usually mere clusters of tin-roofed
huts, are huddled on the beach, sometimes
with a railroad climbing up the cliffs and
back into the mining country beyond. Occasionally
there is a city, such as La Serena;
<span class='pageno' title='296' id='Page_296'></span>but, unless one has plenty of time to spare,
these do not repay a stopover until the next
boat.</p>

<p class='c008'>Valparaiso (Vale of Paradise) is built at
the foot of a mountain ridge, divided by deep
ravines into nineteen separate <i>cerros</i>, or hills,
that slope down to a wide bay, opening into
the sea on the north. Encircling the beach is
an embankment of masonry, called the Malecon,
which considerably broadens the water
front and serves as a protection—though
there have been occasions when it has not
proven a very effective one—from the heavy
seas that are driven in by the “northers” during
the two stormy winter months. The principal
streets run parallel with the embankment
and increase in number in the sections
where the <i>cerros</i> recede, diminishing again
where they extend almost to the water’s edge.
In one section, away around near the end,
there is scarcely room enough for the tracks of
the railroad that connects the city with its
beautiful, fashionable suburb, Viña del Mar.
Many have their homes on the terraced sides
and tops of the <i>cerros</i>, which are connected
one with another by handsome bridges and
made accessible from the streets below by
<span class='pageno' title='297' id='Page_297'></span>inclined railways and elevators, so that, viewed
from the entrance to the bay, the city has the
appearance of a huge amphitheater.</p>

<p class='c008'>The city has a population of nearly 250,000,
but, as some one else has remarked, “As
the principal port of the west coast, and, in a
way, the ‘downtown’ for the capital and the
rest of Chile, Valparaiso seems more important
than its mere population would indicate,
and, although the newspapers and street
signs are in Spanish and Spanish is the language
generally spoken, it has little of the
look of the old Spanish-American town.” A
large element of the population is foreign.
The Germans are said to have the largest
colony and the Italians and French to come
next in order. These are mostly retail merchants
of the better class; but it is here also
that the men live who design and control the
vast nitrate and mining enterprises in the
north and the capitalists who finance the big
industrial projects and railway development,
the exporters and importers, bankers, brokers,
and insurance men, and among these the ten
or twelve thousand English in the city predominate.
The better-educated class of Chileans
speak English as well as Spanish and
<span class='pageno' title='298' id='Page_298'></span>French. The French have almost a monopoly
of the retail trade having to do with fashionable
apparel and luxuries, for Paris has
always been the Mecca of the smart set here
and in Santiago, just as it has in Rio de
Janeiro and Buenos Aires.</p>

<p class='c008'>Although there are parts of the city that
still retain something of the old-world aspect,
the buildings generally are modern—many of
them new, since it had to be largely rebuilt
after the great earthquake in 1906, which was
relatively as disastrous there as the one in San
Francisco of the same year was to our principal
Pacific port. There are few tall buildings
and no skyscrapers, yet the main business
street, the Calle Victoria, which parallels
the Malecon almost the entire length, presents
an array of government buildings,
banks, hotels, theaters, cafés, retail shops, and
office buildings larger and more substantial
and elaborate than can be seen almost anywhere
in cities of that size. The shops are of
good size, and leave nothing to be desired in
the way of assortment and quality of their
stocks. Probably the most attractive of all
the streets is the Avenida Brazil, which is
at once a shaded boulevard, business thoroughfare,
<span class='pageno' title='299' id='Page_299'></span>and fashionable promenade. There
are trolley cars—with women conductors—and
arc lights, libraries, first-class educational
institutions, beautiful parks and plazas where
they have public band concerts in the evenings,
attractive residence districts, and near
by, at Viña del Mar, there are sea bathing,
tennis, racing, football, golf, country clubs,
and a first-class hotel for those who are not
so fortunate as to have their own houses.
Only about sixty miles away (though it is
farther by the railroad, which has to make a
détour to get through the coast range) is
the capital, Santiago, the real metropolis of
the country.</p>

<p class='c008'>“Santiago, the Andean city of the snow
white crown,” as Marie Robinson Wright
was moved to describe it—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Is unique in the charm of her unconventional
beauty and the rugged splendor of her surroundings.
Like a queen in the giant castle that nature has given
her, with walls of the imperishable granites of the
Cordilleras and towers reaching to the skies, she seems
created for the homage of those who gaze upon her.
Her face is toward the sunset, as if in expectation
of the high destiny that awaits this land of promise in
the golden west of South America; and, from the
snowy peaks behind her, marked clear against the
<span class='pageno' title='300' id='Page_300'></span>blue sky, to the farthest limit westward, bordered by
the boundless Pacific, there is no alien territory to
limit the prospect of her fair domain. Her jewels,
rare and resplendent, are the rich emerald of the
Andean valleys, the matchless sapphire of Andean
skies, the pure diamonds of Andean streams. Her
royal robes are woven of the marvelous purple and
gold of Andean sunsets, unrivaled in brilliancy, and
imparting to her gracious beauty the glow of infinite
loveliness, as they envelop her utterly, catching even
the snowy peaks of her sovereign diadem in their
magic folds.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Nor is this in the least overdrawn. No city
could be more delightfully situated. It lies
in the great central valley, on a plateau forty
miles long and about twenty wide, nearly
two thousand feet above the level of the sea,
where the climate is as perfect as that in the
Pyrenees, and is almost completely enclosed
by a magnificent border of mountains. Luzerne
and other show places in Switzerland
are mere miniatures compared with it. The
level portion of the ground is highly cultivated
with all sorts of fruits and crops that
grow in the temperate zone and is divided
into large <i>haciendas</i> or plantations, nearly
all with fine cattle and horse-breeding farms
attached, and princely mansions as of feudal
<span class='pageno' title='301' id='Page_301'></span>lords, and there are splendid avenues of
giant eucalyptus along the roads and separating
the fields. In the heart of the city
itself is a hill called El Cerro de Santa Lucia,
that rises to a height of three hundred feet
and is half as big around as Central Park in
New York, a spot which such a connoisseur
as William E. Curtis declared he had
“long held to be the prettiest place in the
world.” The summit is reached by a number
of winding driveways and walks, lined
with trees, flowering shrubs and overhanging
vines and flanked by battlemented walls and
towers, picturesque beyond description; there
are terraces ornamented with flower beds and
fountains, and grottos, balconies, and rustic
seats; all along, at intervals, are kiosks for
music and refreshments; half way up is a
theater where light opera and vaudeville performances
are given both afternoons and
evenings; a little farther on is a restaurant
that is a favorite resort for breakfasting and
dining out, and, best of all, from the summit
there is a glorious view of the whole country
around.</p>

<p class='c008'>Across the city from Santa Lucia to the
Central Railroad depot, an avenue called the
<span class='pageno' title='302' id='Page_302'></span>Alameda de las Delicias extends for a distance
of three miles. It is three hundred and
fifty feet wide and all down the center is a
beautiful park containing statues and monuments
to Chile’s heroes. It is her hall of
fame, not shut in by four walls, but placed
in the midst of this most frequented of her
promenades, among the trees and flowers
and the fountains and lakes, where “the
stories told in marble and bronze may inspire
the multitude to patriotism and courage;”
and, facing the driveways along the sides, are
many of the handsomest of the residences.
The old center of the city is marked by the
famous Plaza de Armas, with a marble monument
representing South America receiving
her baptism of fire in the war of independence.
On one side are the Cathedral and
Bishop’s Palace, on another the splendid
Municipal and Intendencia Buildings, low
and massive, and Government Telegraph Office;
on another, two long series of shops
opening out on fine arcades that extend the
whole length of the sidewalks from corner to
corner.</p>

<p class='c008'>Opposite the Plaza O’Higgins, a few
blocks away, is the Congressional Palace,
<span class='pageno' title='303' id='Page_303'></span>which occupies the whole square and is one
of the largest and handsomest buildings in
South America. In architectural design it
looks somewhat like the Senate and House
wings of our Capitol at Washington, only of
course it is much larger than either mere
wing; and in the same district is the Casa de
Moneda (the Mint), in which the President
and Cabinet have their offices, a massive structure
as big as our Washington Treasury, and
the beautiful Palace of Fine Arts.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is around the plaza that society takes its
customary stroll in the evenings and the
dusky-eyed, black-haired <i>señoritas</i>, according
to the Latin custom, flirt as much as they dare
with the young exquisites, who frankly and
boldly admire with glances more eloquent
than words. Writing of this custom, which
would not be tolerated in our cities, Arthur
Ruhl says that—</p>

<p class='c016'>“They are dapper and very confident young men”
(these oglers), “combining in their demeanor the gallantry
of their Spanish inheritance with a certain
bumptiousness rather characteristically Chilean.
They stare at those who pass—some in <i>mantos</i>, some
in French dresses with Paris hats—and in Spanish
murmur, half audibly, such observations as, ‘I like
the blonde best,’ or ‘Give me the little one.’ And, as
<span class='pageno' title='304' id='Page_304'></span>they still retain some of that simplicity which in the
interior causes a stranger to be watched as though
he were a camel or a calliope, they will stare even at
the <i>gringo</i>, comment on the cut of his clothes or
facetiously compare his blunt walking boots with
their long, thin ones. They are rather irritating
sometimes, especially the young officers in their smart
German uniforms, and one dreams of home and a
Broadway policeman marching down upon them
leisurely with a night-stick and fanning them away.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Though why he should have mentioned
a “blonde” in illustrating their comments, one
must wonder. Maybe it was because there
are so few. As a rule their hair and eyes, if
not black, are a dark, rich brown, and their
complexion of the clear, cream-tinted, brunette
type. “But,” he continues—</p>

<p class='c016'>“The young women do not mind it at all....
And you will not make yourself at all popular by
sympathizing, for they would only laugh and say:
‘Oh, they’re all right. That’s only their way of beginning.
They’re quite sensible and nice when you
come to know them.’ There are ways and ways, and
in South America a girl who may not receive a formal
call from a man without having her mother and half
the family in the room at the same time may blandly
listen to repartee that would make our maidens gasp
for breath.... It is at dusk, particularly if the
band is playing, or if it is Sunday, that the promenade
begins round the Plaza—a row of spectators
<span class='pageno' title='305' id='Page_305'></span>on the inside benches, on the outside young idlers and
officers two or three deep—between two shuffling concentric
circles, in one of which are the men, in the
other the shrinking <i>señoritas</i>, two by two, or hanging
on the arm of a protector. Every man who can
sport a top-hat and a pair of saffron gloves, if it
is Sunday, and all the women except the very austere
ones, gather here and circle round in that armed
neutrality of the sexes which is the tradition of their
blood.”</p>

<p class='c008'>In general style Santiago is not as modern
as Valparaiso, though it is far more interesting
and attractive, and is not behind
in public utilities, educational facilities, and
energy—or in the attractiveness of their
street-car service, for here, too, the conductors
are neatly uniformed women, lots of
them young and good-looking. Many of the
more pretentious residences are old family
mansions of the Moorish, characteristically
Spanish colonial type and, therefore, charming
to a stranger from the north. Most of
them are like those described in the chapter on
Uruguay—built around a large square central
court or <i>patio</i>, filled with flower-beds and
palms and with galleries around the sides onto
which the rooms of the upper stories open.
These galleries serve the same purpose as our
<span class='pageno' title='306' id='Page_306'></span>interior hallways. They are usually supported
by substantial but graceful stone
arches and piers, and are reached by handsome
stairways, also of stone, leading up from the
court. Very often there is a fountain and
sometimes statuary, and through the big gateways
when the ponderous iron-studded doors
happen to be open, delicious glimpses may be
caught in passing. The windows opening on
the streets are usually heavily barred, and the
outer walls are in many cases frescoed and
tinted and ornamented with wreaths and vases
of stucco. Some few of the great houses are
massive stone affairs of modern construction
that resemble the mansions on the fashionable
residence streets of our principal northern
cities.</p>

<p class='c008'>Like all the greater South American towns,
Santiago has her museums, libraries, magnificent
municipal theater and places of popular
amusement; and she has her clubs and racecourse
and public gatherings of the fashionables,
who are as elegantly dressed and smart-looking
as those of Buenos Aires—though she
still has her religious processions too on the
great feast days, and all the ladies still wear
their black, shroudlike <i>mantos</i> to church.
<span class='pageno' title='307' id='Page_307'></span>Disfiguring and funereal as it is, this is an
observance that is still insisted on by the
priests. In short, though differing from our
capitals in many respects, this greatest city in
Chile is obviously a metropolis and offers opportunities
for sightseeing and amusements
of every description that few cities in the
world can surpass. And, as in Lima, there
is an aristocracy here, descended directly from
the old Conquistadore stock, that has retained
its wealth and power in the land through all
the vicissitudes of both the colonial and republican
régimes.</p>

<h3 class='c014'>III</h3>

<p class='c015'>The long series of groups of islands beginning
with Chiloé, about two-thirds of the
way down the coast, is said to be nothing
more than a partly submerged section of the
Western Cordillera. Above the surface of
the water, for a distance of about eighty
miles, they still have an average elevation of
about two thousand feet. Embraced in the
Chonos Archipelago, between Chiloé and the
Taytao Peninsula, are more than a thousand
small islands, rocks, and reefs, and then
come the large islands of Wellington, Madre
<span class='pageno' title='308' id='Page_308'></span>de Dios, Chatham, Hanover, Queen Adelaide,
King William’s Land, etc., each fringed
by groups of little ones and all following the
mainland in a graceful curve and separated
from it by the Messier, Sarmiento, and
Smyth Channels, which, together, extend for
three hundred and sixty miles, from the
Penas Gulf to the Strait of Magellan. As
the steamer glides through, at times so
straight are they and such is the uniformity
of the shore line on either side, one fancies
one’s self in a wide river in the interior of the
continent; at others, when openings among
the islands appear and the water stretches
for miles toward the sea or far into the recesses
of the Cordillera, it seems more like a
great lake.</p>

<p class='c008'>The fjordlike formations recall the more
celebrated channel off the coast of Norway
leading to the North Cape. Indeed, it is
generally agreed by those who have seen both
that there is little to choose between them,
for, in both, the indentations and mountains
of the coast and islands are similar in character;
if there is less variety in the Chilean one,
if the rainstorms are more frequent, to compensate
for it there is a much greater and
<span class='pageno' title='309' id='Page_309'></span>more attractive wealth of vegetation. From
the water’s edge to a height of fourteen or
fifteen hundred feet, the slopes, and even the
smaller islands, are covered with an unbroken
mantle of beautiful, dense, green forest that
presents an astonishing contrast, in this inhospitable
region, to the bleak, gray rocks
and bluish-tinted ice sheets above and the
pure white snow caps on the summits beyond.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the country from Valdivia south to
Smyth Channel, many of the trees, particularly
in the ravines and sheltered places, are
tall and shapely and their trunks and lower
branches are incrusted with mosses and entwined
with flowering creepers and vines,
many with a sort of mistletoe that has clusters
of dark-red blossoms; one of the creepers,
called angel’s hair, is delicate and filmy
and hangs from the branches like threads of
lace, and there is an undergrowth of ferns
and shrubs and bamboo. These last often
shoot up as far as the tops of the trees and
seem to mat them together so that they form
arbors over the pathways between. Farther
south and in the region of the Strait, these
woods lose something of their mysterious
<span class='pageno' title='310' id='Page_310'></span>beauty; here they are composed principally
of antarctic beech, gnarled and bent by the
winds, and the thicketlike undergrowth is
somber and forbidding.</p>

<p class='c008'>Emerging from the channel, for the first
time the steamer encounters heavy rollers,
which come dashing in through the broad
gateway to the Pacific, not far to the west.
Here, even in summer, it is seldom that there
is neither storm nor fog, but, when it is clear
enough, one can see the tempest-torn promontory
of Cape Pillar, at the end of Desolation
Island, the southwestern portal of the Strait.
Eastward the conditions improve; the water
grows smooth again and the clouds are usually
lifted above the lower mountain tops; the
scenery grows still more impressive than in
the channel—only it is solemnly impressive
now—at least, so it strikes most travelers.
The Strait is much wider; the steamer is far
enough away from the shore to enable one
to see above the shoulders of the mountains
to their summits, yet not so far that the distance
renders them too indistinct; the water
is steel gray, the bases and buttresses of the
mountains take on a shade of purple, the
summits seem whiter than ever, and over all,
<span class='pageno' title='311' id='Page_311'></span>except during the comparatively rare intervals
when the sun shines, are leaden clouds.
In the center of the Strait, where the continent
proper comes to a wedge-shaped point
known as Cape Froward, and up to the eastern
arm, only a few miles away, lies Punta
Arenas, the southernmost city in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the jumble of ranges forming the
transmagellan continuation of the great Cordillera
of the Andes, the most important is
that named after the scientist, Charles Darwin,
who was the first to explore it, on the
long western arm of the Island of Tierra
del Fuego. The highest and most conspicuous
happens to be the nearest to this remarkable
port, and, as no better idea of the region
in general could be conveyed, it seems to me,
I quote from the story of a visit to Mt. Sarmiento,
made by Sir Martin Conway the
same summer he climbed Aconcagua, rather
than attempt a description myself. He says:</p>

<p class='c016'>“The sun was shining quite hotly and the ice was
almost dazzlingly brilliant. After scrambling with
difficulty onto the glacier and wandering about the
moraine area, we returned toward the shore, finding
an exit through the forest at a much narrower place.
The air was cool, the sun bright; there were little
<span class='pageno' title='312' id='Page_312'></span>puffs of breeze; it was the very perfection of a day
for active open-air life. Yet the clouds still hung
stationary on the summit of Sarmiento. We lay
awhile on the shore beside the rippling waters; then
rowed away in hopes of seeing our mountain’s misty
veil lifted if only for a moment. The long,  late midsummer
sunset was at hand. A tender pink light,
far fainter than the rich radiance of the Alpine glow,
lay upon the surface of the glacier and empurpled its
crevasses; it permeated the mist aloft. The cruel
rocks, incrusted with ice, and the roof of the final
precipice, with its steep ridges and icy <i>couloirs</i>, were
all that could be seen. The graceful, ice-rounded
foundation rocks of this and all the other mountains
around slope up to the cliff and jagged <i>arêtes</i> above
and make each peak beautiful with contrasted forms,
massive, yet suave of outline beneath, splintered and
aspiring above. In one direction we looked along the
channel of our approach, in another, for twenty miles
or so, along Cockburn Channel, with a fine range of
snowy peaks beside it, prolonging Sarmiento’s western
range.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The water was absolutely still; we floated with
oars drawn in. Looking once more aloft, I found
the mist grown thinner. The pink light crept higher
and higher as the cloud dissolved. Suddenly—so
suddenly that all who saw it cried out—far above this
cloud, surprisingly, incredibly high, appeared a point
of light like a glowing coal drawn from a furnace.
The fiery glow crept down and down as though driving
the mist away, till there stood before us, as it
were, a mighty pillar of fire, with a wreath of mist
around the base, and, down through all the wonderful
pink wall and cataract of ice to the black forest and
<span class='pageno' title='313' id='Page_313'></span>reflecting water. We had seen the final peak now—a
tower of ice-crusted rock, utterly inaccessible from
the western side. A little while later, the fair <i>couloir</i>
had faded away, mists had gathered and night was
coming on apace. We rowed away for the steamer,
but had not gone very far before a faint silver point
appeared above the mist where the glowing tower had
stood. The cloud curtain rolled slowly down again
and all the summit crest was revealed, cold and pure.
Then the southwest ridge appeared, and finally the
entire mountain, like a pale ghost, illuminated by
some unearthly light. A moment later the clouds
rolled together once more and solid night came on;
we hastened to the steamer for warmth, food, and
sleep.”</p>

<div id='i312'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_312.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>PUNTA ARENAS, THE SOUTHERNMOST CITY ON THE GLOBE.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='314' id='Page_314'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>VIII<br /> <br />PERU</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>Northward bound from Valparaiso
to Callao, the traveler leaves behind
him the last of those south temperate
zone Latins who contend for the title of
“Yankees of South America.” (And there
is flattery in that pretension if they but knew
it, for in the old strongholds of our vaunted
Yankeeism much of the feverish progressiveness
has subsided; in these days the title
“Argentino” or “Chileno” would confer a
real distinction on some of us of the North.)
In Chile one leaves triumphant modernism
and now enters the realm of antiquity and
romance, the home of Spanish tradition and
old-world stateliness. Not even on the Peninsula
have the Spanish tongue, the Spanish
dignity and the old Castilian ideals been
preserved in their pristine charm and perfection
as they have in Lima, and the three
ancient seats of colonial splendor hidden away
<span class='pageno' title='315' id='Page_315'></span>in the fastnesses of the northern Andes—Quito,
Bogotá and Caracas, the capitals of
the countries next in order.</p>

<p class='c008'>Not that romance and antiquity are all
that Peru and her sister republics to the
north stand for to-day. If Argentina, Uruguay,
and Paraguay, which constitute the
agricultural empire spurned by Spain in
her days of prosperity, are, as John Barrett
says in the <i>Independent</i> for March 11,
1909, destined, with Brazil, “to become
deciding factors in the food supply of mankind,”
Peru and the other Andean republics
have also their part to play in furnishing
elements necessary for the growing commerce
of the twentieth century. “The complicated
social and financial life of the world,” Mr.
Barrett goes on, “must have something besides
food and drink. Gold and silver as
a medium of exchange, and, in the arts,
copper and tin as essentials in so many
phases of industrial development, the other
metals useful in a thousand ways in applied
science, the nitrate salts for prime necessities
in both peace and war—all these and much
more are to-day supplied in high proportion
from this part of South America.” Deprive
<span class='pageno' title='316' id='Page_316'></span>the world of the nitrate of Chile, the copper,
gold, and guano of Peru, and the silver and tin
of Bolivia, and “there would occur a disturbance
in our business machinery which
might have very serious consequences.”</p>

<p class='c008'>In preference to the more direct German
line, the visitor should by all means make the
trip northward by a “west coaster,” that cross
between an Atlantic liner and a river steamboat
which meanders leisurely in and out
among the Pacific ports and carries a conglomerate
of all types of the genus Latin
American, and of all the products of his
infinitely varied soil. As one writer whimsically
describes it, it has all the characteristics
of a house-boat, freight carrier, village
gossip and market gardener. With no cause
to fear rain or rough weather, the ocean here
being truly “pacific,” the builders of these
boats have placed all cabins on deck, and even
thus they seem superfluous except as lockers
for luggage, for the heat keeps one always in
the open.</p>

<p class='c008'>Here the newcomer to these shores talks
politics or crops or railroad concessions with
the substantial <i>hacendado</i> returning to his
plantation, or haggles interminably with the
<span class='pageno' title='317' id='Page_317'></span><i>cholo</i> woman who offers for sale woven hats
of <i>jipi-japa</i> straw (known commercially as
Panamas), little golden images unearthed
from Inca ruins, or imitations of them fashioned
from vegetable ivory, great white-pulped,
juicy pineapples, leather belts of
exquisite workmanship, brilliantly colored
ponchos, and the inevitable convent embroideries
and laces. These women spend much
of their lives on board, traveling back and
forth between Valparaiso and Panamá, and
in their allotted corners sell everything from
candied sugar cane wrapped in banana leaves
to emerald necklaces. It is said that one
old woman on a recent trip actually had
hoisted aboard a live cow, which she would
have sold piecemeal, in steaks, if the long-suffering
captain had not protested that his
ship was no slaughter-house.</p>

<p class='c008'>And, besides the surfeit of “local color” one
gets on the ship, the traveler has an excellent
opportunity to study that vague institution
known as international trade, at a familiarly
close range. The terms “exports” and “imports”
mean little to him until he sees huge
cases of sewing machines marked “Hamburg—fragile,”
or sections of milling machinery
<span class='pageno' title='318' id='Page_318'></span>from Chicago, or something of the sort,
swung over the side into the lighters, and
later sees other lighters towed from shore
laden with curious little bales of Panama
hats, or cotton, or casks of rum, and all the,
to him, exotic products of a different world.</p>

<p class='c008'>Always wonderful, the mighty ramparts of
the Andes rise tier upon tier from the reddish
strip of desert shore, first in solid black, then
in slaten pallor to the misty heights of inland
distance where the peaks are ill-defined
against the sky, except when the sun burns
through the haze and makes brilliant for a
moment some snow-capped summit floating
apparently in mid-air four miles above. Ever
northward the lazy coaster dozes on her
course, dropping in at Iquique, parched and
stifling, or Arica where the sun-baked nitrate
lies piled for shipment in such
quantities as fairly to blister the imagination,
or Mollendo, the other open door to
Bolivia’s wealth; and, finally, after a fortnight
of such coasting, one enters Callao, the
port of Lima, which is only nine miles away,
up the valley. Situated in the center of
Peru’s coast line, Callao is the busy exchange
for the bulk of the country’s commerce. Its
<span class='pageno' title='319' id='Page_319'></span>population is about 35,000. Most of its business
men, however, live in Lima and look
upon the port city as the Chileans do on Valparaiso,
merely as the “down town” district
of the capital.</p>

<p class='c008'>Arriving in port the traveler’s thoughts
instinctively turn back through the four centuries
of white dominion over the country;
and he pictures in his mind the stirring tragedies
of Spanish conquest and the colonial
régime in this dazzling colonial empire won
from the Incas. Until 1717 the Viceroy of
Peru held sway over the whole of South
America except the then Portuguese Colony
of Brazil. On that date the Viceroyalty
of Santa Fé or New Granada (embracing
what is now Colombia and Ecuador) and the
Captaincy-General of Venezuela were created
and severed from his jurisdiction; and in 1776
it was reduced to the dimensions occupied
by the present Republic, by the creation of
the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, which included
territory now occupied by Argentina,
Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia (then known
as the Province of Alto Peru). The Captaincy-General
of Chile had always enjoyed
a high degree of autonomy and retained it
<span class='pageno' title='320' id='Page_320'></span>until complete independence was gained by
the revolution.</p>

<p class='c008'>Although mightily shrunken from its
former imperial estate, Peru is still a magnificent
domain. Its area of 680,000 square
miles is equal to the combined areas of Texas,
Nevada, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico;
its coast-line of 1500 miles is as extensive
as our Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia.
The country is divided longitudinally into
three distinct regions: the coast, the cordillera,
and the so-called Montaña, or wooded
slopes, the latter stretching away into the
Amazon valley. Along the Pacific coast is
a ribbon of dry, tropical lowland, varying in
width from twenty to eighty miles, and reaching
up to the foothills of the coast range. On
these foothills, and increasing gradually in
number, through the extension of the irrigating
systems toward the sea, lie extensive
plantations of cotton and sugar, which form a
large part of Peru’s exports. But the coastal
stretches are, for the most part, still unreclaimed
desert, for, as in the nitrate region
of Chile, the rain falls so seldom that, without
irrigation, nothing can grow. The explanation
given by the scientists is that the
<span class='pageno' title='321' id='Page_321'></span>moisture from the Atlantic, swept across the
continent by the African trade winds, lodges
finally in the Andes and flows back over the
continental valleys in the great rivers confluent
with the Amazon, while that from the
Pacific is diverted in some other direction. It
has been demonstrated by experiment, however,
that these arid parts need only irrigation
to make them luxuriantly fertile.</p>

<p class='c008'>Back of the coast the country is cast in a
mold of heroic dimensions. Here the Andes
spread out into separate cordilleras which are
joined at intervals by transverse ranges, forming
great <i>nudos</i> (knots), with high plateaux
between, surrounded by lofty snow-covered
peaks. This mountainous area approximates
three hundred miles in width. In these
heights lay the wealth that made of Peru a
fabulous treasure land, and in the lower valleys
the cereals and fruits of the temperate
zone, as well as cattle, provide in great abundance
for the Peruvian of to-day. In her extensive
guano deposits, too, Peru has another
great source of wealth.</p>

<p class='c008'>Descending the eastern slopes of the Cordillera,
the Montaña region stretches away
gradually into the Amazon valley, covering
<span class='pageno' title='322' id='Page_322'></span>an immense area. This Montaña country
comprises more than two-thirds of the total
area, and lies wholly within the Torrid
Zone. Watered by mighty rivers that have
their source in the Andean snows, and graded
in elevation, its varied productiveness and
fertility are phenomenal. It is in the Peruvian
Andes that the Amazon begins its long
course to the Atlantic; the river, however,
goes by the name of Marañon throughout its
length in Peru. In the beginning it is augmented
by the Huallaga, Ucayali, and Yavarí
and a dozen more mighty streams having their
sources in the same heights or in the foothills
on the eastern slopes, and, while still
within Peruvian territory, becomes a river
of such immense depth that ocean liners steam
clear across the continent to Iquitos, thus
giving to Peru a port accessible from the
Atlantic for her shipments of rubber and
other tropical products.</p>

<p class='c008'>The disposition of the country’s population
of 4,500,000 inhabitants is significant of the
history of the nation’s development and suggestive
of the prosperity that awaits her when
the Andean barriers shall have been gridironed
with the railroads that will open up the
<span class='pageno' title='323' id='Page_323'></span>Amazon region to colonization some day.
The coast areas now support a fourth of the
total population, the cordilleras two-thirds,
while the rich forests and fertile plains of the
Montaña—the country of Peru’s present-day
opportunity—support but half a million.
The bulk of these inhabitants are of Indian
and mixed Indian and Spanish descent. But
little impression has yet been made by European
immigration, as in the established
agricultural republics of the Atlantic seaboard.
It is confidently expected that the
birth of the New Peru—the Peru of railroads,
colonization, and great agricultural and mining
activity—will reverse this disparity in
distribution and increase the population to
many times its present numbers, for now it is
less than that of Holland, although Peru is
three times the size of France.</p>

<p class='c008'>The New Peru, which is heralded by all
recent visitors to the west coast republics, is
building an industrial and commercial nation
on the long smoldering ruins of Spain’s
golden empire, and it will be a worthier and
more lasting structure than that with which
Pizarro remorselessly smothered the unique
civilization of the Incas. The war with Chile
<span class='pageno' title='324' id='Page_324'></span>seemed to awaken her to the necessity of keeping
pace with the times, not only in military
but in commercial affairs. Since then she has
made great strides.</p>

<p class='c008'>A short distance up the coast near
Ecuador’s port of Guayaquil lies the little
town of Tumbéz, where Pizarro landed with
his troop of two hundred men and planted the
banner of Castile in the Inca’s domain. One
of his first acts after establishing the power of
Spain in the Inca country was to found a
new capital nearer the coast than Cuzco,
where, in the midst of the Andes, the Incas
had for centuries had their seat of government.
He chose the site of a pre-Incaic
oracle on the Rimac River (the “river that
speaks”) where the legendary predecessors
of the Incas came to make their vows. For
nearly three hundred years this city, which is
now called Lima, but which he christened
the City of the Kings, enjoyed the distinction
of being the “second metropolis” of the great
Spanish Empire on two continents and the
center of a viceregal court, the splendor of
which rivaled that of royalty itself. Stately
palaces and churches were soon erected; wide
avenues and beautiful plazas were laid out
<span class='pageno' title='325' id='Page_325'></span>and substantial walls constructed for defense,
and here came in the viceroy’s train the
proudest nobility of Spain.</p>

<p class='c008'>Lima is reached by both railroad and trolley
line from Callao, and lies on a broad, fertile
plain on the left bank of the river. Fifty
miles back of the city the great chain of the
Andes passes; but spurs from the majestic
range stretch down and enclose it as within
an amphitheater. Lima is only five hundred
feet above sea-level, and in the summer season
unquestionably hot, although the cool breezes
from the Pacific temper the climate to a certain
extent. In general appearance the early
writers likened it to Seville; to-day, as the
capital of a progressive republic, it has broadened
out and become more active than its
dreamy Andalusian prototype. As in Santiago
and the old parts of Buenos Aires, the
business and poorer residence streets generally
are narrow and paved with cobble-stones,
and most of the buildings are two or three
stories high. In the better residence sections
the visitor is agreeably surprised to find
the charm of other days still remaining in
the massive wooden street doors studded with
brass, barred windows and Moorish balconies,
<span class='pageno' title='326' id='Page_326'></span>or <i>miradores</i>, of heavily carved mahogany,
and beautiful <i>patios</i>. The famous old Torre-Tagle
mansion, where so many of the viceroys
lived, is still standing to perpetuate this
interesting type, as in the older tropical
Spanish cities. <i>Portales</i>, or arcades, extend
along the sides of the plazas in front of the
shops to afford shelter from the sun.</p>

<p class='c008'>The great cathedral and the government
palace of the same period flank two sides
of the Plaza Mayor. On the third side stands
the city hall, above which are the balconies
of the principal social clubs. Near by is the
old Inquisition building. In the high-domed
and mahogany-paneled room in which the
Holy Office sat, the Senate now holds its
sessions and signs the laws of the republic on
the very table whence in the old days were
issued warrants for <i>autos da fé</i>, and the legislators
now hang their hats in the former
torture chamber, in fine disregard of the
horrors it once witnessed. There is a venerableness
attached to the old churches and
convents abounding in Lima which makes
one hope that the exigencies of modernism
may not demand the destruction of these
splendid relics of colonial architecture.</p>

<div id='i326'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_326.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>PLAZA MAYOR, LIMA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='327' id='Page_327'></span>The Plaza Mayor was the very heart of
the brilliant colonial régime. The courtly
Dons of these days, many of whom are descendants
of the principal courtiers of that
period, still are delighted to tell of the brilliance
of the viceregal court under the
Marquis de Cañete or the Duke de Palata,
or the dilettante Prince de Esquilache—a
court that was the talk of two continents. In
the gorgeous salons of the old palace the
gayety reached its height in the days of the
Viceroy Amat. It is not surprising to learn
that the deposed Ferdinand VII would gladly
have followed the example of the Portuguese
king and moved with his court to his new-world
capital had he been able to escape from
the grasp of Napoleon. At one corner is the
site of the house in which Pizarro fought in
vain with his assassins. His skeleton now lies
in a glass case in the cathedral, exposed to the
visitor’s astonished gaze. In the center of
the Plaza a beautiful bronze fountain has
stood for three hundred years, untouched by
the strife that surged about it as each new
period of Peru’s stormy career was ushered
in.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the Plaza de la Exposición, on the
<span class='pageno' title='328' id='Page_328'></span>Paseo Colón and in other parks and boulevards
are erected the statues of the nation’s
heroes, and other men who have made Peru’s
history—Christopher Columbus, the two Liberators,
San Martín and Bolívar, Colonel
Bolognesi, who fell in the war with Chile,
refusing to surrender “until we have burned
our last cartridge,” and many others. The
Paseo Colón runs through the fashionable
residence section. It is one hundred and
fifty feet wide and connects the Plazas Bolognesi
and Exposición. Through the center
runs a garden bordered with superb trees
and artistically laid out flower-beds and
flowering bushes, and interspersed at intervals
with monuments, pillars, and fountains.
The present day parade of the <i>gente decente</i>
gives the visitor a picture of beautiful women
and well-groomed equipages that measures
up to the best traditions of Peru’s social
eminence. In the heart of the city is the
great bull ring, where once society gathered
for other purposes than merely to take the air.</p>

<p class='c008'>Excellent electric car service is a feature
of Lima’s modern improvements. Trolley
lines extend to the many seaside resorts for
which society deserts the capital in the hottest
<span class='pageno' title='329' id='Page_329'></span>months—Chorillos, the Newport of Peru,
just south of Callao, or Miraflores, Barranco,
Ancón and the numerous imitations of Coney
Island.</p>

<p class='c008'>Too much cannot be said of the charm of
Lima’s culture and refinement. If the
<i>Limeños</i> have inherited from their ancestors
too much of the aristocratic pride and military
arrogance that distinguish the <i>Peninsulare</i>,
they have also fallen heir to the courtly
grace and <i>savoir faire</i> that made the Knights
of Alcántara famous among the first gentlemen
in Europe four centuries ago. From
the Lima home of to-day the visitor will take
away with him recollections of hospitality,
kindness and old-world dignity, lightened by
a pronounced keenness of wit. They have
the reputation of being generous and hospitable,
if inclined to extravagance, and of
forming warm and lasting friendships. Ardent
imaginations and brilliant intellects lend
a charm to conversation with the men, only
less than that which the world-famed beauty,
intelligence and kindly courtesy of the women
lend to theirs. Very reserved when on their
way to church in their black mantos or promenading
the Alameda in their handsome toilettes,
<span class='pageno' title='330' id='Page_330'></span>these ladies exert themselves to make
their homes agreeable to their guests. The
behavior of the young girls on the Alameda
is more like that of their Chilean sisters.</p>

<p class='c008'>At the head of Peru’s educational system
stands the fine old University of San Marcos,
in Lima, founded in 1551—nearly a hundred
years before Harvard received its charter.
It has now many additions and covers all
branches of learning, and its courses are
thrown open to every class.</p>

<div id='i330'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_330.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>SCENE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Peru’s railroads cover but fifteen hundred
miles, but they are pushing forward rapidly to
fill in its section of the long-promised Pan-American
railway from Panamá to Patagonia.
One of these, the Oroya road, which ascends
from Lima up into the plateau country, is altogether
the most impressive piece of railroad
engineering in the world; it is not only the
highest, but there is no other that lifts its
wondering passengers to any such altitude in
such an appallingly short space of time. For
an hour or more the train winds through a
wide, irrigated valley, green and prosperous-looking
with plantations of sugar cane.
Farther up, the valley narrows and is closed
in by naked rocks. Twenty-five miles from
<span class='pageno' title='331' id='Page_331'></span>Lima a station is reached twenty-eight hundred
feet above the sea; twelve miles farther
the altitude is five thousand feet. At Casapalca,
the town of smelters, thirteen thousand
six hundred feet is achieved by the puffing,
vibrating engine; at fourteen thousand feet
the chimneys of Casapalca’s smelters look
like pins stuck in the green carpet below,
and finally, the passenger descends from the
train, very uncertain on his feet, at the unprecedented
height of 15,665 feet, and stands
on the cold, wind-swept Andean roof. On
every hand are peaks and hoods of snow.
Beyond the station the rechristened Mount
Meiggs rises another two thousand feet, as a
monument to the indefatigable Yankee promoter
and soldier of fortune who conceived
and built the road—Henry Meiggs.</p>

<p class='c008'>Turning to the west, one looks back over
the long, infinitely varied descent; to the east
lie the plateaus and the Andean treasure land.
The northern branch of the road continues
along almost equally high levels, past the
historic plains of Junín on which Bolívar
dealt his crushing blow to the viceroy’s army in
1824, to Cerro de Pasco, where the American
mining syndicate is preparing to get rich.</p>

<div>
  <span class='pageno' title='332' id='Page_332'></span>
<h3 class='c014'>II</h3>
</div>

<p class='c015'>A still more extensive railroad and one
which gives the traveler a more varied view of
the Andes, is that ascending from the port city
of Mollendo, near the Chilean frontier. This
line is the outlet for much of the commerce
of Bolivia, and was built by the same gifted
Yankee who fathered the Oroya road. Leaving
Mollendo, the train speeds over the desert
for a few miles and then begins its steady
climb upward. All day it labors along the
tortuous ascent through echoing walls of rock,
bare, repellent, and awe-inspiring in their cold
majesty. Suddenly, around a jagged precipice,
the passengers look down upon a lovely
valley—an oasis of green. In its midst lies
the quaint, picturesque old city of Arequipa,
which Pizarro, who founded it, was wont to
call <i>la villa hermosa</i>—the city beautiful. Seen
from the heights, it somewhat resembles La
Paz, a group of low, white and blue walled,
red roofed buildings, arranged in squares,
with a large plaza in the center, the general
flatness relieved by many church spires, and
its spacious patios a mass of foliage and trees.</p>

<p class='c008'>Thus far the penetration of the railroad
<span class='pageno' title='333' id='Page_333'></span>into this quiet retreat has produced but little
change in its old-world aspect. It has long
been famous for its delightful climate and
location, and as Mozans truly says of it, “If
it is not the most beautiful place in South
America, as its admirers claim, it is certainly
the most restful. It is such a place as one
would like to retire to after the stress and
storms of a busy career, to pass one’s days in
quiet and a congenial environment. The
people who retain all the light-heartedness
and cordiality and culture of old Spain, are
worthy denizens of their charming city, and
the better one knows them, the more he admires
and loves them.”</p>

<p class='c008'>Overlooking the city are the buildings of a
branch of the Harvard Observatory. It is
said that, because of the remarkable clearness
of the atmosphere and the great number of
cloudless nights, this observatory is probably
more favorably located than any other in the
world, and that, as a consequence, the astronomers
stationed there have achieved results of
the greatest value to science, especially in
photographing the southern skies. Also they
are doing valuable work in measuring the
heights of the Andean peaks and charting
<span class='pageno' title='334' id='Page_334'></span>the general topography, as well as in keeping
open house to their fellow-countrymen who
hunger for the sound of their native tongue
after many weeks of effort to comprehend
the idioms of the Castilian speech and the
patois of the ever-present <i>cholo</i>. The verandas
and trim green lawns and tennis courts
are a reminder of Cambridge, indeed.</p>

<p class='c008'>Above the observatory, snow-capped Misti
rises sheer from the valley some 21,000 feet,
like a perfect cone. Its appearance is so
distinct, so impressive in its constancy and
brooding grandeur, that it possesses a personality
almost human. One feels impelled
to address it with the prefix “<i>Señor</i>,” after
the manner of the Japanese with their Fuji-san,
which, by the way, greatly resembles
Misti in shape and location.</p>

<p class='c008'>Continuing upward through the mountain
desert, the Mollendo road ascends to a height
of 14,666 feet in the short latitudinal distance
of less than two hundred miles, and across the
divide to Juliaca, a town near the northern
shore of Lake Titicaca, where it separates,
one branch extending south to Puno, the center
of the gold mining district, thence around
the great lake to La Paz, the other extending
<span class='pageno' title='335' id='Page_335'></span>northwest for about two hundred miles, down
the sloping plateau to the valley of Cuzco, at
the head of which is the ancient imperial capital
of the Incas. Plantations and pastures
begin to appear as the train descends from the
high ridges into the plain, and, great as is the
altitude even here, on an island in this very
lake, according to tradition, the remarkable
native dynasty had its birth. The legend, as
Mozans quotes it from the works of Garcilaso
de la Vega, the historian of the conquest, and
who was himself, through his mother, a descendant
of the royal Inca line, is that—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Our Father, the Sun, seeing the human race in the
condition I have described: living like wild beasts,
without religion or government, or town or houses,
without cultivating the land or clothing their bodies,
for they knew not how to weave cotton or wool to make
clothes; living in caves or clefts in the rocks, or in
caverns under the ground; eating the herbs of the
field and roots and fruit, like wild animals, and also
human flesh—had compassion on them and sent down
from heaven to the earth a son and a daughter to instruct
them in the knowledge of our Father, the Sun,
that they might adore him and adopt him as their
God, also to give them precepts and laws by which
to live as reasonable and civilized men and to teach
them to live in houses and towns, to cultivate maize
and other crops, to breed flocks, to use the fruits of
the earth like rational beings instead of living like
<span class='pageno' title='336' id='Page_336'></span>wild beasts. With these commands and intentions,
our Father, the Sun, placed his two children in the
Lake of Titicaca, which is eighty leagues from here”
(Cuzco); “and he said to them that they might go
where they pleased, and that, at every place where
they stopped to eat or sleep, they were to thrust a
scepter of gold into the ground, which was half a
yard long and two fingers in thickness. He gave them
this staff as a sign and token that in the place where,
by one blow on the earth, it should sink down and disappear,
there it was the desire of our Father, the Sun,
that they should remain and establish their court.”</p>

<p class='c008'>In this region the table-land is of vast expanse,
and in many respects the panorama is
more impressive even than that in the vicinity
of Aconcagua. In the center is the enormous
sheet of water, turquoise blue in the sunlight,
stretching for a hundred and ten miles off to
the south, with an average width of thirty
miles and an average depth of a hundred
fathoms, and, 12,500 feet high as it is, bordered
on either side by superb ranges towering
many thousands of feet higher, their
clean-cut peaks glittering with mantles of
snow and ice. Around the shore and on the
islands of Titicaca and Koati are picturesque
towns and small clusters of adobe houses
surrounded by hills, their sides terraced and
covered with farms, the water fringed with
<span class='pageno' title='337' id='Page_337'></span>fields of reeds, and feeding in them countless
birds and herds of cattle. It is no wonder
that these “Children of the Sun” should
have worshiped as their God and Goddess
the great luminous orbs in a region where,
thanks to the unwonted splendor of the moon
and stars, which enable one to distinguish
all the salient features of lake and Cordillera
with the greatest ease, the nights, as Mozans
says, are glorious beyond words; but where,
“however fair the views presented to the enraptured
gaze in the subdued light of the
moon and her attendant handmaidens, no one
can be insensible to the gorgeous vistas that
burst upon the vision during the daytime.” It
is then, he continues—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Especially at the hours of dawn and twilight that
the snow-crested range of the lofty Cordillera Real is
visible in all its transcendent beauty and majesty.
For then, as if by magic, various colored fires seem to
blaze from the immense glaciers and snow fields and
to convert the sparkling expanse into glowing rubies,
sapphires, and emeralds, while the lofty peaks of the
Sorata range are transformed into gleaming pinnacles
of burnished gold. Then in fullest perfection and
palpable form is realized that vision of mountain loveliness,
that crowning splendor of earth and sky, set
forth in Ruskin’s noble lines: ‘Wait yet for one hour,
until the east again becomes purple and the heaving
<span class='pageno' title='338' id='Page_338'></span>mountains, rolling against it in the darkness like
waves of a wild sea, are drowned one by one in the
glory of its burning. Watch the white glaciers blaze
in their winding paths about the mountains, like
mighty serpents with scales of fire; watch the columnar
peaks of solitary snow, kindling downwards, chasm
by chasm, each in itself a new morning—their long
avalanches cast down in keen streams brighter than
the lightning, sending each its tribute of driven snow,
like altar-smoke, up to the heaven, the rose-light of
their silent domes flushing that heaven about them
and above them, piercing with purer light through its
purple lines of lifted cloud, casting a new glory on
every wreath as it passes by, until the whole heaven,
one scarlet canopy, is interwoven with a roof of waving
flame, and tossing, vault beyond vault, as with the
drifted wings of many companies of angels.’”</p>

<p class='c008'>The railroad has been built along the very
route that the first Inca and his sister-wife
are said to have chosen when they started
out to found their capital. Passing between
two giant peaks, it descends the gradually
sloping two-hundred-mile-long plateau which
became the most populous section of the
great empire, as it is still of modern Peru.
On either side are torrential rivers that rush
down through the deep defiles of the mountains
to the Amazon. Every foot of the
region is associated with legendary and historic
events; scattered about everywhere,
<span class='pageno' title='339' id='Page_339'></span>from the islands of Titicaca on, are wonderful
ruins—ruins of towns, bridges, fortresses,
temples, burial towers, some Incaic, some
thought to be as old as the pyramids of
Egypt. There is a lake in which, at the
coming of the Spaniards, the Indians are
said to have thrown the colossal gold chain
that was forged at the birth of Huascar, a
chain so heavy, according to the chroniclers,
that it was all that two hundred men could do
to carry it.</p>

<p class='c008'>The climate is delightful. All along the
road is a succession of wild, gorgeous scenery,
quaint towns and villages and big haciendas,
with fields green with growing crops and
herds of cattle and alpaca ranging about,
often tended by pretty copper-colored <i>chola</i>
(mixed breed) or Indian girls, as picturesquely
dressed as those of La Paz, only
here in Peru, instead of the great number of
voluminous many-colored skirts the Bolivian
women wear—sometimes as many as twelve
or fifteen, which makes them appear as
though they had on the hoops once worn by
our grandmothers—they wear a single, short
woolen skirt over the usual cotton ones, and,
instead of the peculiar headdress of the
<span class='pageno' title='340' id='Page_340'></span>Aymaras, broad-brimmed, gaily beribboned
hats, though, like the Aymaras, they wear
brilliantly colored mantles, fastened around
the shoulders by a pin with a spoon-shaped
head (which they also use as a spoon), and
the men, like the Bolivian mountaineers,
wear ponchos that vie with the mantles of
the women in color. Ponchos and mantles
like those worn to-day, but many centuries
old, have been found in the tombs, so ancient
is the fashion.</p>

<p class='c008'>It is in this country between La Paz and
Cuzco that the llama is seen in greatest numbers—that
remarkable animal which Mozans
aptly describes as a creature with the legs
of a deer, the body of a sheep, and the head
and neck of a camel. They are larger than
sheep, however, and far more docile and
ornamental than the ugly, ungainly camel.
Their coats are of several shades: white,
brown, black or parti-colored; their wool is
long and thick, and they are noted for their
beautiful big, wistfully inquiring eyes. From
time immemorial the natives had used them
as burden-bearers, and the Spaniards, when
they came, found them surer-footed and more
enduring than mules or burros, proof against
<span class='pageno' title='341' id='Page_341'></span>cold and acclimated in the rarefied atmosphere
of the high table-lands, and able to go
as long as a camel without food and water,
and to maintain themselves by grazing along
the waysides in parts of the country in which
no other animal could live. It was on their
backs that all the material that entered into
the construction of the steamers on Lake
Titicaca was hauled, and most of the mining
machinery, and the caravans still compete
with the railroads in carrying ores and coca
to the coast and bringing back supplies for
the mountain towns.</p>

<p class='c008'>In these days only the males are used for
such purposes. It is said of them that when
they are loaded with more than they feel
that they can comfortably carry (about a
hundred pounds), they lie right down in their
tracks and refuse to budge for all the cajoling
or in spite of the kicks and curses
their tenders can bestow. The females are
kept in pasture for breeding purposes and
for their wool and milk, and in that region
rank with cattle as a source of food supply,
for their flesh resembles mutton and is quite
as palatable and good to eat. It is much
used in the native dish called <i>chupe</i>, a sort
<span class='pageno' title='342' id='Page_342'></span>of thick soup which is made of the peculiar
mountain potatoes grown in those parts, first
frozen and dried, and then put into a pot
and boiled with any other vegetables at hand
and fragments of meat and fish, and seasoned
with salt and red pepper. This, to the people
of the mountains, is what rice is to the
Chinese and macaroni to the Italians. Sometimes
it is the only fare the traveler can
get at the little <i>tambos</i> or inns remote from
the railroad; but even so, when properly prepared,
as it usually is, with plenty of nourishing
ingredients, it leaves little to be desired
after a hard day’s climb.</p>

<p class='c008'>The valley of Cuzco—a pocketlike depression
about ten miles long and varying in
width from two to three miles, covered with
fields of barley and maize, dotted with many
attractive-looking gardens and country mansions
of the old Spanish colonial type, and
hedged in on either side by ranges of mountains
towering high above—is at the northwestern
extremity of the plateau. The city,
which is at the head of the valley, is a little
more than a mile and a half in breadth, from
the foot of the mountain range on the east
to that of the range on the west, and about
<span class='pageno' title='343' id='Page_343'></span>a mile in length. To the north, the famous
hill of Sacsahuaman rises abruptly over it
and is separated from the mountains on either
side by deep ravines, through one of which
flows the little river Huatanay and through
the other the Rodadero. The Huatanay
tumbles noisily past the moss-grown walls
of an old convent, under the houses forming
the west side of the great square, thence
through the center of a broad street, where
it is confined between banks faced with masonry
and crossed by numerous bridges, and
on beyond until it unites with the Rodadero,
which separates the city from the suburb of
San Blas.</p>

<p class='c008'>The most important section of the ancient
city was built between the two little rivers,
with the great square in the center, and this
site, said to have been chosen for it by the
first Inca and his sister-wife, is declared by
many to be the most wildly, majestically
beautiful of all the beautiful mountain city
sites in South America—even Santiago, La
Paz, Arequipa, Cajamarca, Quito, Bogotá,
and Caracas. Respecting the ancient city
itself, Prescott tells us that the Spaniards
were astonished “by the beauty of its edifices,
<span class='pageno' title='344' id='Page_344'></span>the length and regularity of its streets,
and the good order and appearance of comfort,
even luxury, visible in its numerous
population. It far surpassed all they had
seen in the New World.... It” (the
great square), he continues, “was surrounded
by low piles of buildings, among which were
several palaces of the Incas. One of these,
erected by Huayana Capac, was surmounted
by a tower, while the ground floor was occupied
by one or more immense halls, like those
described in Cajamarca, where the Peruvian
nobles held their <i>fêtes</i> in stormy weather.
The population of the city,” he goes on—</p>

<p class='c016'>“Is computed by one of the conquerors at two hundred
thousand inhabitants and that of the suburbs at
as many more. This account is not confirmed, as far
as I have seen, by any other writer. But, however it
may be exaggerated, it is certain that Cuzco was the
metropolis of a great empire, the residence of the
court and the chief nobility, frequented by the most
skillful mechanics and artisans of every description,
who found a demand for their ingenuity in the royal
precincts, while the place was garrisoned by a numerous
soldiery, and was the resort, finally, of emigrants
from the most distant provinces. The quarters whence
this motley population came were indicated by their
peculiar dress, and especially their head-gear, so rarely
found at all on the American Indian, which, with
<span class='pageno' title='345' id='Page_345'></span>its variegated colors, gave a picturesque effect to the
groups and masses in the streets....</p>

<p class='c016'>“The edifices of the better sort—and they were
very numerous—were of stone, or faced with stone.
Among the principal were the royal residences, as
each sovereign built a new palace for himself, covering,
though low, a large extent of ground. The walls
were stained or painted with gaudy tints, and the
gates, we are assured, were sometimes of colored marble.
‘In the delicacy of the stonework,’ says another
of the conquerors, ‘the natives far excelled the Spaniards,
though the roofs of their dwellings, instead of
tiles, were only of thatch, but put together with the
nicest art.’ The sunny climate of Cuzco did not require
a very substantial material for defense against
the weather.... The streets were long and narrow.
They were arranged with perfect regularity,
crossing one another at right angles; from the great
square diverged four principal streets connecting with
the highroads of the empire. The square itself, and
many parts of the city, were paved with fine pebble.
Through the heart of the capital ran a river of pure
water, if it might not be rather termed a canal, the
banks or sides of which, for a distance of twenty
leagues, were faced with stone. Across this stream,
bridges, constructed of similar broad flags, were
thrown at intervals, so as to afford an easy communication
between the different quarters.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The most sumptuous edifice in Cuzco in the times
of the Incas was undoubtedly the great temple dedicated
to the sun, which, studded with gold plates, as
already noticed, was surrounded by convents and dormitories
for the priests, with their gardens and broad
parterres sparkling with gold. The exterior ornaments
<span class='pageno' title='346' id='Page_346'></span>had been already removed by the conquerors—all
but the frieze of gold, which, imbedded in the
stones, still encircled the principal building....
The fortress was raised to a height rare in Peruvian
architecture, and from the summit of the tower the
eye of the spectator ranged over a magnificent prospect,
in which the wild features of the mountain
scenery—rocks, woods, and waterfalls—were mingled
with the rich verdure of the valley and the shining
city filling up the foreground, all blended in sweet
harmony under the deep azure of a tropical sky.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The ruins of the palace of the first Inca,
on the hill above the city, and those of the
immense fortress on the summit—which is
admitted by all to have been constructed with
a degree of skill equaled nowhere else in the
world prior to the use of artillery—are thus
described by Sir Clements R. Markham:</p>

<p class='c016'>“On a terrace, built of stones of every conceivable
size and shape, fitting exactly one into the other,
eighty-four paces long and eight feet high, is a wall
with eight recesses, resembling those of the Inca palace
at Lima-tambo, and, in the center of the lower
wall, a mermaid or siren, much defaced by time, is
carved in relief on a square slab. In one of the recesses
a steep stone staircase leads up to a field of
lucerne, on a level with the upper part of the wall,
which is twelve feet high, and this forms a second terrace.
On either side of the field are ruins of the same
character, traces of a very extensive building or range
<span class='pageno' title='347' id='Page_347'></span>of buildings. They consist of a thick stone wall, sixteen
paces long and ten feet six inches wide, containing
a door and windows. The masonry is most perfect.
The stones are cut in parallelograms, all of
equal height but varying in length, with corners so
sharp and fine that they appear as if they had just
been cut—and without any kind of cement, fitting so
exactly that the finest needle could not be introduced
between them. The doorposts, of ample height, support
a stone lintel seven feet ten inches in length,
while another stone, six feet long, forms the foot....
Behind these remains are three terraces, built
in the rougher style of the masonry used in the
first walls and planted in alders and fruit trees,
... where he” (the first Inca, Manco Capac) “is
said to have chosen the site of his residence, the
more readily to overlook the building of his city and
the labors of his disciples....</p>

<p class='c016'>“On the east end of Sacsahuaman, crowning a
steep cliff immediately above the palace of Manco
Capac, there are three terraces, one above the other,
built of a light-colored stone. The first wall, fourteen
feet high, extends in a semicircular form around the
hill for one hundred and eighty paces, and between the
first and second terraces there is a space eight feet
wide. The second wall is twelve feet high and the
third is ninety paces around its whole extent....
This was the citadel of the fortress, and in its palmy
days was crowned by three towers connected by
subterranean passages, now quite demolished....
From the citadel to its eastern extremity the length of
the table-land of Sacsahuaman is three hundred and
fifty-three paces and its breadth in the broadest part
one hundred and thirty paces. On the south side the
<span class='pageno' title='348' id='Page_348'></span>position is so strong and impregnable that it required
no artificial defense. The position is defended on
part of its north side by a steep ravine through which
flows the river Rodadero and which extends for one
hundred and seventy-four paces from the citadel in
a westerly direction. Here, therefore, the position required
only a single breastwork, which is still in a
good state of preservation; but from this point to the
western extremity of the table-land, a distance of four
hundred paces, nature has left it entirely undefended,
a small plain extending in front of it to the rocky
heights of the Rodadero.</p>

<p class='c016'>“From this point, therefore, the Incas constructed
a cyclopean line of fortifications, a work which fills the
mind with astonishment at the grandeur of the conception
and the perfect manner of its execution. It
consists of three walls, the first averaging a height of
eighteen feet, the second of sixteen and the third of
fourteen, the first terrace being ten feet broad and the
second eight. The walls are built with salient and retiring
angles, twenty-one in number and corresponding
with each other in each wall, so that no one point
could be attacked without being commanded by others....
But the most marvelous part of this fortification
is the huge masses of rock of which it is constructed
(one of them being sixteen feet in height and
several more varying from ten to twelve feet), yet
made to fit exactly one into the other and forming a
piece of masonry almost unparalleled in solidity,
beauty, and peculiarity of its construction in any
other part of the world. The immense masses at
Stonehenge, the great block in the tomb of Agamemnon
at Argos, and those in the cyclopean walls of Volterra
and Agrigentum are wonderful monuments of
<span class='pageno' title='349' id='Page_349'></span>the perseverance and knowledge of the people who
raised them, but they fall immeasurably short in
beauty of execution of the fortress of Cuzco.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The railroad and electric lights and the
telegraph and telephone have come to Cuzco
now, but in other respects the city is not
much modernized. It is still distinctly reminiscent
of the royal Inca régime, and even
more of the régime of the Spanish viceroys.
For many years after the conquest it was
superior in importance to Lima. Notaries
were required under severe penalties, Mozans
says, “to write at the head of all public
documents, ‘<i>En la gran ciudad del Cuzco,
cabeza de estos reinos y provincias del Perú
en las Indias</i>’—In the great city of Cuzco,
head of these kingdoms and provinces of
Peru in the Indies. Even so late as the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,” he
continues, “it was, next to Lima, the city
of the greatest social importance in the viceroyalty.”
And so now, although there are
the same long vistas of low, massive buildings
through the narrow streets, the view from
the hill presents a panorama of red-tiled roofs
instead of thatches, of many tall church
<span class='pageno' title='350' id='Page_350'></span>towers, and of a great square divided into
three.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the first stories of the old Indian homes
Spanish superstructures have been built; on
the foundation walls of the ancient temple
of Voricancha, the largest and richest of the
sanctuaries devoted to the worship of the
Sun, has been erected the convent of Santo
Domingo; the devotees in the convent of
Santa Catalina occupy cells that were once
used by the Virgins of the Sun; walls that
were retained in the building of the Church
of San Lazaro are ornamented with bodies
of birds having women’s heads that were
carved by the bronze chisels of the artisans
of the Incas. The grand old renaissance
cathedral, which, with its massive stone walls
and pillars and vaulted roof, cost so much
to build that one of the viceroys said it
would have been cheaper to build it of silver,
is one of the most imposing specimens of
church architecture in America; the pulpit in
San Blas is famed as one of the most beautiful
in the world, and many of the interiors
and cloisters, particularly of La Merced,
where the remains of Almagro and two of
<span class='pageno' title='351' id='Page_351'></span>Pizarro’s brothers lie, and the patio of the
university, are perfectly superb.</p>

<div id='i350'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_350.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CHURCH OF LA MERCED, LIMA—TYPE OF RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE OF SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Of course, like La Paz, Quito, Bogotá
and many of the other old mountain cities,
which until very recently were isolated so
far as the outside world was concerned because
of their inaccessible locations, Cuzco is
still behind the times in sanitary arrangements.
Since there is surface drainage, there
are odors, but one need have little fear of
any ill effects in such a climate as theirs.
Thanks to it, the cities are as healthful as
most; and to the archæologist and the lover
of art and the beauties of nature in her sublimest
aspect, there is no more fascinating
city in South America than Cuzco.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='352' id='Page_352'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>IX<br /> <br />ECUADOR</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>Ecuador, “the Switzerland of America,”
is one of the smallest of our sister
republics in the South, yet her area,
of 116,000 square miles, is equal to that of
our States of Missouri and Arkansas combined,
and, if certain pending boundary disputes
should be determined in her favor, her
territory would be more than doubled. Her
population is now about 1,500,000, an average
of a little over twelve to the square mile.</p>

<p class='c008'>Politically, the republic is divided into
sixteen provinces, not including the Galápagos
Islands. Five are maritime, occupying
the strip of coast between the Western
Cordillera and the sea, ten are interandine,
and then there is the Oriente, so
called, which consists of all the country embraced
in the slope between the Eastern
Cordillera and the Brazilian frontier, in the
valley of the Amazon. There are two fluvial
<span class='pageno' title='353' id='Page_353'></span>systems, both rising in the mountains; one
flowing west to the sea and the other down
the eastern slope. In all they are composed
of ninety-one rivers. Those tributary to the
Guayas, flowing westward to the sea, and
many of which are of considerable size, are
now of the greater commercial importance
because the country of the Oriente, through
which those tributary to the Amazon flow,
is still a wilderness, only sparsely inhabited
even by what are left of the aborigines—and
this although it is the richest of all in vegetation
and fertility of soil, like the adjoining
Montaña district of Peru.</p>

<p class='c008'>Thus, ranging as it does from the sea-level
of the coast on one side and the valley of the
Amazon on the other to the high interandine
plateau, and from thence to the great cloud-piercing
peaks of the cordilleras, crowned
with perpetual snow, this country directly
beneath the Equator, from which it derives
its very name, is possessed, as are Peru, Bolivia,
and Colombia, of every variety of climate
within the sphere of a few hours’ journey—in
the lowlands, the eternal summer of the tropics;
on the high table-lands, eternal spring,
and, in the glacial regions of the mountain
<span class='pageno' title='354' id='Page_354'></span>summits, winter without end. As the late Professor
Orton so aptly put it: “As the Ecuadorian
sees all the constellations of the firmament,
so nature surrounds him with representatives
of every family of plants. Tropical,
temperate and arctic fruits and flowers are
here found in profusion, or could be
successfully cultivated. There are places
where the eye can embrace an entire zone, for
it may look up to a wheat or barley field or
potato patch and down to the sugar cane
and pineapple.”</p>

<p class='c008'>And, in addition to the familiar products,
in many places the slopes of the mountains
between twelve and fifteen thousand feet are
clothed with a shrub peculiar to the high
altitudes of the Andes, called <i>chuquiragua</i>,
the twigs of which are used for fuel and the
yellow buds as a febrifuge. In the valleys
between the cordilleras a very useful and valuable,
as well as the most ordinary, plant is
the American aloe, or century plant, which
under cultivation, however, blooms oftener
than once in a hundred years. It is the largest
of all the herbs, and, with its tall stem
rising from a cluster of long, thick, gracefully
curved leaves, looks like a great
<span class='pageno' title='355' id='Page_355'></span>chandelier. Most of the roads are fenced
with hedges of them. Nearly every part is
said to serve some practical purpose. The
broad leaves are used for thatching huts and
by the poorer classes as a substitute for paper
in writing; a sirup flows from them when
tapped; as they contain much alkali, a soap
that lathers in salt water as well as fresh is
manufactured from them; the fiber of the
leaves and roots is woven into sandals and
sacks; the flowers make excellent pickles, the
stock is used in building, the pith of the stem
is used by barbers for sharpening razors and
the spines as needles. A species of <i>yucca</i>,
resembling the aloe, yields the hemp of Ecuador.</p>

<p class='c008'>In the lowlands, cacao and sugar cane, coffee,
tobacco, rice, cotton, and bananas and
other tropical fruits are grown. The forests
contain rubber and numerous species of useful
trees, among them the tree that yields
what is known as the <i>taque</i> nut, or vegetable
ivory, from which buttons are made, the
grasses and <i>toquilla</i> palm used in the manufacture
of the coarser grades of Panamá
hats, the <i>chincona</i> from the bark of which
quinine is obtained, the mangrove cultivated
<span class='pageno' title='356' id='Page_356'></span>for tanning purposes as well as its fruit,
and the silk-cotton tree that yields the valuable
commercial product known as <i>kapok</i>.
A considerable portion of the Oriente is
verdured with a part of that immense forest
which extends in an unbroken mass from the
grassy <i>llanos</i> of Venezuela to the <i>pampas</i> of
Argentina. In other sections of the country
are gold, silver, copper, iron, coal, petroleum,
asphalt and other minerals, though since the
colonial régime there has been little activity
in mining. Only a few years ago work was
resumed in the famous mines of Zaruma,
formerly the source of much revenue to the
Spaniards.</p>

<p class='c008'>Ecuador has a treasury of wealth in her
vast cacao groves. The cacao tree, which
grows wild in the forests, is from sixteen to
forty feet high and bears a fruit in which the
beans lie buried in a cucumber-shaped pod
five to ten inches long and three or four inches
thick. The bean itself in its raw state resembles
a thick almond. When ripe, the pods
are cut from the tree by means of a knife with
a curved blade, set on the end of a long pole,
an implement specially designed to remove
them without injury. The pods are then
<span class='pageno' title='357' id='Page_357'></span>gathered in heaps and left on the ground to
dry for a day or two before the beans are
removed and cured. From cacao comes cocoa.
The name “cacao” signifies the raw, and
“cocoa” the finished product. There is still
another name—coca—which is often confused
with these, but coca is nothing like
cacao. Coca is the Peruvian plant from the
leaves of which cocaine is extracted. The
cacao bean contains the cocoa we drink at our
breakfast tables, and our chocolate.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the skill employed in the curing,
which is an extremely delicate process, to
a great extent depends the quality of the
output and its flavor and color. When ready
for the market, the bean is dark red outside
and chocolate tinted within. Analyses show
that it is rich in fats, albuminoids, caffeine
and theobromine, which last is what imparts
to it its principal characteristics. What we
know as chocolate differs from cocoa in that,
in the former compound, the cocoa butter
is not extracted; from the latter it is.
Cocoa is really a factory product. The cured
bean is treated differently in the various
countries to suit the taste of the public, and
chocolate also is prepared in different ways
<span class='pageno' title='358' id='Page_358'></span>for the various uses. American and French
chocolates are sold all over the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>The tobacco grown in the Province of Esmeraldas
on the coast is claimed to be comparable
with that produced in Cuba. And
this reminds me that, unless tradition is at
fault, the town of Atacames, from around
which some of the best of it comes, has quite
a unique history of its own. In 1623, so the
story goes, a vessel laden with seven hundred
African slaves was on its way from Panamá
to Peru, where they were to be worked in
the mines. When near the mouth of the
Esmeralda River, they mutinied, massacred
the officers and sailors of the ship, and, landing
at Atacames, took possession of the town
and killed or drove away every man in the
neighborhood, Indian or Spanish, but spared
the women, whom they kept as wives. Afterward,
however, instead of indulging in further
depredations, they kept within the territory
they had conquered, and, mixing with the
Cayapas, who had attained an unusual state
of civilization for lowland Indians before the
invasion, became miners and agriculturists on
their own account. These African mutineers,
therefore, protected by the reputation for
<span class='pageno' title='359' id='Page_359'></span>ferocity they had acquired in their stroke for
freedom, were thus the founders of what
afterward became an intelligent and industrious
community. The women, particularly,
are famous for their skill in making Panamá
hats.</p>

<p class='c008'>Indeed, aside from agriculture, the most
important industry in all the coast provinces
is the making of these hats. Guayaquil long
since supplanted Panamá as the principal
market for them. Those of the finest texture,
the ones that are so soft and delicately woven
that they can be folded and put in a coat
pocket like a handkerchief and will last a
lifetime, are made of a peculiar grass called
<i>jipi-japa</i>, for which the town in the Province
of Manavi is named, and, in the weaving of
them, considerable time and great skill is
required. These we seldom, if ever, see in
this country. Many go to Paris, Italy, and
Spain; more are taken by the planters along
the coast, and in Cuba, who are willing to
pay as much as $80 to $100 for them. They
are woven by the women by hand, and only
in the moonlight, these best grades, because
the sun would harden the material, artificial
light would attract insects, and the dampness
<span class='pageno' title='360' id='Page_360'></span>that comes with sunset is necessary to give
the flexibility so essential to their beauty.
The coarser grades, such as we see here,
are woven in the daytime, but under water,
in tubs.</p>

<p class='c008'>Guayaquil, a city of about 50,000 inhabitants,
is Ecuador’s principal seaport, and,
next to Valparaiso and Callao, the busiest
and most important on the Pacific side of
the continent. All the way up from Callao
the steamer hugs the shore as closely as safety
will permit. There is little change in the
view. The same arid strip of low-lying coast
land, dotted with rocky promontories, fringed
here and there with cliffs and crossed with
occasional stretches of green where the rivers
flow through to the sea, continues day after
day—the same background of mountains rising
tier on tier for thousands and thousands
of feet, in the morning partly obscured by
heavy banks of clouds that later melt away
and leave the rugged contour sharply silhouetted
against the bright blue, are bathed in
the evening, as the sun sinks toward the
horizon, in the purple haze that becomes them
best. Yet there are also the same calm sea
and rainless sky and the same cool, aromatic
<span class='pageno' title='361' id='Page_361'></span>breezes that make the lazy hours on deck a
continual delight.</p>

<p class='c008'>And so it is with mixed feelings of regret
and relief that one enters the Gulf of Guayaquil—relief,
for here, as we steam past the
island of Puna, where Pizarro camped for
months awaiting reinforcements before beginning
the conquest of Peru, the aspect of the
shore line changes and we see foliage as fresh
and green and as wildly luxuriant as any in
the basins of the interior. Passing the island,
we come to the mouth of the Guayas, the
greatest of South American rivers emptying
into the Pacific. The city is sixty miles
beyond at the head of the estuary. The first
glimpse we catch is of a street, called El
Malecon, that extends along the water front
for two miles or more from a shipyard to a
hill crowned by a fortress. This is at once
the principal shopping, café, and amusement
place, the favorite promenade, the warehouse
district, and the quay where the lighters that
ply between it and the vessels anchored out
in the river take on and unload their cargoes.
It is faced with what from the deck appear
to be long rows of white stone and marble
buildings of beautiful and graceful architectural
<span class='pageno' title='362' id='Page_362'></span>design, for the most part of the usual
Moorish type. Long series of arcades in
front of the shops remind one of those of
the Rue de Rivoli in Paris; above are pretty
balconies sheltered by blinds and awnings
of gaily colored canvas, screening groups of
ladies who like to sit in them and watch the
lively scene below as they sip their coffee and
chat.</p>

<p class='c008'>But picturesque as it all is, one finds on
going ashore, that the walls of these imposing-looking
edifices are merely shells of split
bamboo, plastered with cement, ornamented
with stucco and painted to resemble marble
and stone, which sad experience has taught
the people of the city will not resist earthquakes
as well as this more elastic imitation
they have been compelled to substitute.
The residences of the well-to-do are constructed
of the same materials and with wide
verandas from ground to roof, enclosed with
Venetian blinds. Few are elaborately furnished.
In that climate it is thought better,
for the sake of spaciousness and comfort, to
forego evidences of wealth in the form of
carpets, hangings, and upholstery, which keep
out air and retain the heat. The poor of the
<span class='pageno' title='363' id='Page_363'></span>suburbs have thatched bamboo or adobe huts
with floors of hardened earth. As in Canton,
China, many of them live on the water on
rafts made from <i>balsa</i>, a species of timber
nearly as buoyant as cork, or else of hollow
trunks of bamboo. A number of logs, forty
or fifty feet long, are lashed together in
such a way that they can be propelled by
either oars or sails, and a bamboo hut is
built in the center. These often serve as the
homes of whole families for generations, and
are so substantial that they are used in the
coasting as well as the river trade for bringing
produce to market.</p>

<div id='i362a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_362_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>STREET SCENE IN GUAYAQUIL.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i362b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_362_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>CONDOR OF THE ANDES.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>In June, 1908, a long-desired and much
needed railroad was completed between Guayaquil
and the capital, Quito, way up in the
interandine table-land, 9350 feet above the
level of the sea, and now the trip of nearly
three hundred miles, that formerly took from
twelve to fifteen days on mule-back, and often
more by foot, may be made in two days, in
a comfortably equipped passenger train. The
scenery <i>en route</i> is gorgeous. The train
speeds through forests of stately trees like
those of the Amazon—walnut, mahogany,
rubber, cacao, cottonwood, with vines entwined
<span class='pageno' title='364' id='Page_364'></span>around their trunks and hanging from
their branches, and beds of mosses and ferns
at their feet, slender bamboos shooting up
straight as an arrow, and tall, graceful palms,
tipped with feathery tufts—the whole mass
aglow with scarlet passion flowers and orchids,
and blossoms of every hue. Then come
broad fields covered with prickly pineapple
plants, sugar cane, coffee and snowy cotton
plantations and groves of cocoanut palms,
oranges, lemons, and limes saturating the air
with their delicious fragrance, splendid mango
trees with their golden fruit and dense foliage
that makes them the best of all shade trees in
the tropics, and groves of banana trees, tossing
out glossy green leaves eight feet long
from their sheathlike stalks, and many bearing
bunches of this bread of the poor and
delicacy of the rich that weigh from sixty
to seventy pounds. Von Humboldt calculated
that “thirty-three pounds of wheat and
ninety-nine pounds of potatoes require as
much space of ground as will produce four
thousand pounds of bananas.” They bear fruit
but once and die, but the roots are perennial
and every year bring forth new plants.</p>

<p class='c008'>Then, when the traveler has crossed the
<span class='pageno' title='365' id='Page_365'></span>coast strip, he comes to the foothills and begins
the steep, tortuous ascent. On either
side of this highland but ever green series of
plateaux, crossed by <i>nudos</i> and ascending like
steps to the one in which the capital lies,
tower mountains, the crests of forty-two of
which are more than ten thousand feet high.
Twenty of them are higher than Pike’s Peak
in Colorado; fourteen are higher than the
Alpine giant, Mont Blanc. It was in this
vast, magnificent “Avenue of Volcanoes” that
the celebrated artist, Frederick E. Church,
painted his wonderful picture, “The Heart of
the Andes.” Here, he declared, is the grandest
mountain scenery in the world.</p>

<p class='c008'>The most majestic of them all is snow-covered
Chimborazo, near the center of the
Western Cordillera, and fortunately almost
constantly in view, for it is along its spurs
that the road between Guayaquil and Quito
ascends. One would not imagine its summit
so very hard to reach, as it appears from the
mountain pass at an elevation of fourteen
thousand feet; yet many explorers, from Von
Humboldt down, strove for the honor, only
to fail until Edward Whymper, an Englishman,
finally achieved it in 1879. For years,
<span class='pageno' title='366' id='Page_366'></span>with its known altitude of 21,420 feet, it was
famed as the highest point in America; now
the mighty Aconcagua in Argentina, which
is recorded at the Harvard Observatory at
Arequipa as measuring 24,760 feet, has been
awarded the palm. It is from shipboard on
the Pacific, though, on a clear day, rather
than from the plateau, that Chimborazo is
to be seen in all the majesty of its complete
proportions, particularly when the evening
shadow’s mellowing tint creeps upward to
the summit—a vision of gold, vermilion, purple,
followed by the glory of the brief tropical
sunset—in the few minutes before darkness
covers the earth and “the haste of stars,
trembling with excess of light, bursts suddenly
into view over the peaks,” when the
waters of the sea become so impregnated with
phosphorescent flashes that each wave seems
tipped with silver and the foam that follows
in the vessel’s wake is like a stream of fire.</p>

<p class='c008'>Conspicuous among the crests of the eastern
range are Tunguragua, with its perfect
cone and great cataract tumbling down fifteen
hundred feet from the snow line to the
valley beneath; fierce, Plutonic Sangai, the
most active volcano in the world; and the
<span class='pageno' title='367' id='Page_367'></span>beautiful Altar, as it was called by the Spaniards,
which is said to have been higher than
Chimborazo a few years before the Conquest,
but has since collapsed. Now its summit presents
the appearance of a superb crown,
pointed with eight jagged peaks; its snowy
mantle is relieved by rents or fissures in the
rock that seem to be colored dark blue in contrast
with the white.</p>

<p class='c008'>And then there is the still more superb
Cotopaxi, 19,613 feet, without a rival in
height or symmetry among the active volcanoes
of the old world. Some faint
idea of its grandeur may be conceived by those
who have seen Vesuvius, for instance, when
it is realized that it is more than fifteen
thousand feet—nearly three miles—higher,
and that, when in eruption, it vomits forth its
fires, with ominous rumblings that can be
heard for a hundred miles, from a cone which
itself is higher than Vesuvius. Mr. Whymper,
who also succeeded here in making the
perilous ascent where Von Humboldt and
others had failed, described the crater as an
enormous amphitheater with a rugged crest
surrounded by overhanging cliffs, some snow-clad,
others encrusted with sulphur.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='368' id='Page_368'></span>“Cavernous recesses,” he says, “belched
forth smoke; the sides of the cracks and
chasms shone with ruddy light. At the
bottom, probably twelve thousand feet below
us, there was a ruddy circular spot about
one-tenth the diameter of the crater; it was
the pipe of the volcano, its channel of communication
with the lower regions, and was
filled with incandescent if not molten lava,
glowing and burning, lighted by tongues of
flame that issued from cracks in the surrounding
slopes.” On the side of the mountain
is a huge rock called the “Inca’s Head.”
Tradition has it that this was the original
summit, hurled down by an eruption on the
very day that Pizarro caused Atahualpa to be
strangled. The great eruption of 1859 was
succeeded by an earthquake that wrought terrible
destruction and loss of life, and by a
tidal wave, which in its devastating course
carried a United States warship a mile inland,
over the roofs of the houses of a town on
the coast of Peru and left it high and dry
on a sandy plain. Just now the volcano is
in a state of “solemn and thoughtful suspense”;
only thin clouds of smoke escape
from its crater.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='369' id='Page_369'></span>At the base of Pichincha, the crater of
which the astronomer, La Condamine, likened
to the “chaos of the poets,” and Orton describes
as “a frightful abyss nearly a mile
in width and a half mile deep from which a
cloud of sulphurous vapors comes rolling up,”
lies the city of Quito. Its origin is shrouded
in mystery, but we know that at the time of
the Conquest it was the northern stronghold
of the great Inca empire, and the place where
Atahualpa resided. On this lofty site, which
in the Alps would be buried in an avalanche
of snow, but in the tropics enjoys an eternal
spring, palaces more beautiful than the
Alhambra are said to have been built, glittering
with the gold and emeralds of the
region. But all this passed away with the
scepter of Atahualpa. Where the pavilion
of the Inca stood is now a gloomy convent;
a wheat field takes the place of the Temple
of the Sun. Even the Spanish structures
that supplanted the original ones seem dilapidated
enough. The population is said to
number about sixty-five thousand, but there
is little of the modern and still less in the way
of opportunity for amusement, though it is
all most interesting simply because it is so old
<span class='pageno' title='370' id='Page_370'></span>and because there is much of romance in its
history.</p>

<p class='c008'>The train emerges from the pass on to the
plain of Riobamba, the scene of many notable
events in the history of the country. Here
it was that the great Inca conqueror Tupac
Yupanqui routed the Shiri of the Caras and
began the conquest of his possessions; it was
here that Atahualpa’s great general, Quizquiz,
defeated the army of the Inca Huascar
and proceeded to the invasion of Peru; it was
here that the daring Conquistador Sebastian
de Benalcázar defeated the victors and
brought the Kingdom of Quito under the sway
of Pizarro. The city of Riobamba, which is
the first of importance on the line, is also said
to have been the birthplace of the eminent historian
Juan de Velasco and several others of
South America’s most distinguished sons. It
has a population of only twelve or fifteen
thousand, but, thanks to the demand created
by commercial travelers and the employees
of the railroad, it serves as an excellent resting
place, for there are two or three very
tolerable hotels. From this point on to Quito,
there are parts of the plain that are arid
and desolate. This is attributed partly to
<span class='pageno' title='371' id='Page_371'></span>the fact that so much of the country was
long ago denuded of its trees and partly to
volcanic eruptions of a peculiar kind.</p>

<p class='c008'>Describing one of them, Mozans says:</p>

<p class='c016'>“But, destructive as are the eruptions of the volcano
when it belches forth ashes, cinders, and lava,
it is even more so when its terrific operations are
followed by deluges of water and avalanches of mud,
carrying along with them immense blocks of ice and
rock to great distances, causing death and devastation
all along their course. Such an eruption took
place in 1877, and, so great was the velocity of the
angry flood, that it swept the plain with the momentum
of an express train, carrying before it bridges,
buildings, and everything that stood in its path. The
very day of the eruption the irresistible torrent
reached the mouth of the Esmeralda River, nearly
three hundred miles distant. The catastrophe had
been announced the preceding evening by an enormous
column of black ashes, which the roaring mountain
projected more than three miles above the crater,
and which an east wind carried far out over the
Pacific. Vessels going from Guayaquil to Panamá
were suddenly enveloped in a cloud of dust and
transmitted to Europe and the United States the first
news of the disaster. After this eruption of ash, there
was a welling of molten lava over the rim of the
crater which melted the ice and snow and transformed
them at once into tremendous avalanches of mud. At
the same time immense blocks of ice were transported
across the plain of Latacunga to a distance of thirty
miles, where they remained several months before they
<span class='pageno' title='372' id='Page_372'></span>were entirely melted. The foregoing is only one of
many similar eruptions that occurred during the last
century.”</p>

<p class='c008'>“But why, it will be asked, do people live
in a land in which they are constantly exposed
to such sudden and awful disasters?”
he continues—“where thousands of victims
are sacrificed in a single moment? Why do
people cling around the rich flanks of Kilauea
and Mauna Loa and huddle around the
treacherous slopes of vine-clad Etna and
Vesuvius, or pitch their tents on quaking,
incandescent Stromboli? Let philosophers
reply.” But, in the neighborhood of Quito
itself no more of these arid stretches are to be
seen. “Notwithstanding the ever-menacing
volcano towering above it, Quito,” he tells us,
“was always to the Ecuadorian of the interior
one of the world’s most favored cities. It was
what Damascus and Bagdad in their halcyon
days were to the Arabs, what Cordova and
Granada were to the Moors. It was ‘<i>Quito
bonito</i>’—charming Quito—the city above the
clouds, ‘the navel of the world, the home of the
<i>continua primavera</i>—perpetual spring—evergreen,
magnificent Quito.’ It was like
Heaven—<i>Como de Cielo</i>—where there is
<span class='pageno' title='373' id='Page_373'></span>neither heat nor cold. It was the Paradise of
delights. Had Columbus discovered the
beautiful valley which it overlooks, he would,
we are assured, have pronounced it the site
of the Garden of Eden.”</p>

<p class='c008'>After Lima and Santiago, the suburbs
strike one as rather squalid and dilapidated.
In the city proper, however, the houses improve
in size and finish and continue to
improve until the Grand Plaza is reached in
the center. The more pretentious are of
two stories, a few three, and of massive construction,
with adobe walls two or three feet
thick and tiled roofs, and are built around a
square courtyard, or <i>patio</i>, in the old Spanish
style, often with a fountain or flower plot in
the center. Here, too, around the <i>patios</i> are
pillared arches supporting galleries used as the
passage way to rooms in the upper tier; the
floors are paved with large, square, red bricks.
The public buildings, some of them dating
back to Philip II, are clustered about the
three plazas. The most imposing, the capitol,
a low building adorned with a splendid colonnade,
faces the Grand Plaza. With its
long rows of columns it looks a little like the
Fifteenth Street side of the Treasury Building
<span class='pageno' title='374' id='Page_374'></span>in Washington. To the right of it is an
ancient but beautiful cathedral; on the other
side is the palace of the Papal Nuncio. All
are fine specimens of the architecture of the
periods in which they were built.</p>

<p class='c008'>The scene in the shopping district and
around the market has quite an Egyptian
flavor. The shops are very small and exposed;
groups in gay ponchos stand chatting
and smoking in front of them or lean idly
against the walls, enjoying the sunlight;
soldiers saunter to and fro; Indians, in every
variety of costume, are scattered about guarding
heaps of vegetables they have brought
in from the surrounding country for sale;
bronze-complexioned women in many-colored
gowns peddle oranges and alligator pears
from baskets carried on their heads; purchasers,
mostly men and in more conventional
attire, wander from store to store, for it is
not here so much as in the vicinity of the
churches that one is favored with a glimpse
of the ladies of the upper class. They do
little shopping themselves, these <i>señoras</i> and
<i>señoritas</i>, yet they are very devout, and it is
their custom to wrap themselves in their black
mantillas and attend mass every day.</p>

<div id='i374'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_374.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>ROOM IN THE OLD PALACE AT QUITO, IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS SIGNED, AUGUST 16, 1809.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='375' id='Page_375'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>X<br /> <br />COLOMBIA</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>Journeying overland into Colombia
from Ecuador, there opens before the
traveler the vast mountainous country
that was once the ancient kingdom of the
Chibchas—the contemporary of the Inca empire,
and, later the pivotal state of Bolívar’s
great confederation. Colombia occupies the
extreme northwestern corner of the continent.
With its 465,714 square miles of territory, it
is as large as Texas, Kansas, Arkansas and
Louisiana, and has a population of 4,320,000.</p>

<p class='c008'>In this corner of the continent the Andes
come to an end in a great splurge of deep-cut
ridges presenting an aspect very different
from the formations to the south. Here three
clearly defined ranges diverge from the Ecuadorian
frontier and spread northward like the
ribs of a fan; the Western and Central Cordilleras
merge before reaching the Caribbean
Sea, and slope off into foothills and plains near
<span class='pageno' title='376' id='Page_376'></span>the coast, and the Eastern Cordillera continues
in an almost unbroken line until, as
the Sierra de Parija, it plunges into the sea
at the end of the bleak, forbidding peninsula
(Goajira) west of the Gulf of Maracaibo.
Rising from the Pacific, on the west, is an
almost entirely distinct range, separated from
the Andean terminals by the great basin of
the Atrato River, and running along the
Isthmus of Panamá into Central America.
Just north of the Ecuadorian frontier lies
the so-called “<i>Massif</i>,” from which branch off
the three Cordilleras just mentioned and in
which the four important Colombian river
systems have their source; the Patia flowing
westward to the Pacific; the Caquetá, eastward,
through the Amazon, into the Atlantic,
and the Cauca and Magdalena, the great highways
of the country, flowing northward to the
Caribbean on either side of the Central Cordillera,
and joining their floods about one hundred
and fifty miles from the sea in the hot,
marshy plains of the Magdalena basin.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Eastern Cordillera slopes off into the
Orinoco and Amazon plains—over a territory
constituting two-thirds of the republic’s
area—and thus gives to Colombia the same
<span class='pageno' title='377' id='Page_377'></span>astonishing range of productiveness that distinguishes
her southern neighbors along the
Andean chain. Gold is scattered literally all
over the Andean ridges and is picked up
along the streams that flow into the lower
levels. Silver, iron and lead are almost as
universally present; the platinum deposits
are surpassed only in Russia; the emerald
mines of Muzo, seventy-five miles from Bogotá,
have been famous ever since the brilliant
stones were torn from the turban crowns
of the Indian kings by the Conquistadores,
and are the principal source of the world’s
supply; the salt mines and pearl fisheries add
largely to the republic’s revenue.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Review Number of the <i>Pan American
Bulletin</i> (August, 1911) says of the emerald
industry:</p>

<p class='c016'>“All, or very nearly all, the emeralds mined to-day
come from Colombia. And, in spite of the supposed
higher value of diamonds, the emerald is the most
precious of gems. Carat for carat, a flawless emerald
would bring perhaps three times the price of a flawless
diamond in the jewelry market. India, the storehouse
of precious stones, is credited with producing
the first emeralds, but the oriental emerald is not
identical with the modern gem, as it is a variety of
the ruby, of a green color, and extremely rare. The
<span class='pageno' title='378' id='Page_378'></span>stone that adorned Aaron’s armor, described in the
writings of Moses, if it was a real emerald and not a
carbuncle, may have come from the mines of Coptos
in Egypt, which furnished the ancients with the
precious green gems. Certain of these old mines are
known as ‘Cleopatra’s Mines,’ because that remarkable
Egyptian queen is supposed to have obtained her
jewels from that source. Nero wore an emerald monocle
at the gladiatorial combats that came perhaps
from the mines of Ethiopia. The Museum of Naples
contains fine emeralds taken from the ruins of Pompeii
and Herculaneum, some of which are carved, and
the history of this gem shows that it was highly
treasured from the earliest recorded times....</p>

<p class='c016'>“Mexico, Peru, and Ecuador were ravished of their
mineral wealth; so wonderful emeralds, as part of the
spoil, found their way into the treasury of the Spanish
kings. Pizarro and Cortés sent the first emeralds
from the New World to Spain, where they acquired
the name ‘Spanish emeralds.’ Tradition has it that
an Aztec gem appropriated by Cortés was valued
at forty thousand ducats. Another wonderful stone,
the size of an ostrich egg, was found in the Manka
Valley, Peru, where the Indians worshiped it as the
Goddess of Emeralds. The Spanish conquerors
opened up the mines in Colombia in 1540, enslaving
the Indians to work them. The richest mineral areas
were those of Muzo and Cosquez, about 75 miles north
of Bogotá, at an elevation of about 6500 feet above
sea-level. A curious fact in the history of these latter
mines is that they were closed and lost to the world
in an enveloping forest of jungle for over a hundred
years, and only rediscovered some fourteen years ago.
The Government of Colombia controls the exploitation,
<span class='pageno' title='379' id='Page_379'></span>leasing the mining districts to the working companies.</p>

<p class='c016'>“The Muzo group, from which the finest emeralds
come, has an estimated yearly output of 262,548
carats of the first class, 467,690 of the second, 22,700
of the third, and 16,000 of the fourth class. The
Coscuez group, named for an Indian princess, which
produced a variety of emerald called canutillo, one of
the most valuable stones, is now in the category of
lost mines. The Samandoco or Chivor group, not
now being worked, is supposed to possess a matrix
that would yield half a million dollars worth of emeralds
a year.... It was” (in the Muzo group)
“that the most valuable single emerald in the world
was found. It belongs to the Duke of Devonshire
and is a perfect, six-sided crystal that weighs 8
ounces 18 pennyweights, is two inches in length and
measures across its three thicknesses 2-1/2, 2-1/5, and
1-7/8 inches. Another fine stone is the Hope emerald,
weighing 6 ounces, which was also found in Colombia.
There can be no doubt that this source of wealth will
be greatly augmented in the future, when improved
transportation facilities shall make it possible.”</p>

<p class='c008'>A wealth of agricultural products, typical
of nearly every clime, lies in the great river
basins and on the eastern slopes and plains in
the Orinoco and Amazon regions. In the
river basins and part of the way up the mountain
sides are great forests, so dense as to
be almost impenetrable, but abounding in
nearly every species of cabinet and dye woods
<span class='pageno' title='380' id='Page_380'></span>and nearly every medicinal plant known to
science. In altitudes of from two to four
thousand feet the coffee plant thrives; the berries
from the celebrated Chimbi estates are
said to produce the most delicately flavored
coffee in the world. But little of it ever
reaches the United States. In the <i>tierras
calientes</i>, or “hot lands,” the fragrant tonka
beans, that have the sweet odor of new-mown
hay and are used in some blends of tobacco
to give it a bouquet and in the manufacture of
soaps and perfumes, and cacao, bananas, yuccas,
arracha, sugar, indigo, tobacco, vanilla
and rice are among the staple products. The
soil of this region is of a rich, black, deep-lying
loam, well watered and capable of a greater
productiveness than the plains of Louisiana or
Texas. In the intermediate areas the culture
includes wheat, barley, oats, potatoes and
other cereals and vegetables common to the
temperate zone. Along the Sinu River is a
great cattle belt. This is also the source of
the cedar and mahogany, of which Colombia
is one of the chief exporters.</p>

<p class='c008'>It follows naturally that, as in Ecuador,
the diversity in altitude that accounts for
this varied productiveness gives to Colombia—a
<span class='pageno' title='381' id='Page_381'></span>wholly tropical country—a range in climate
that makes it one of the world’s most
attractive abiding places. Von Humboldt is
quoted as saying that the traveler here needs
but “a thermometer and a mule to find any
climate desired within the compass of a few
leagues.” When one tires of the torrid heat
of the valleys, the frozen sierras are just in
sight. When the perpetual spring of the
table-land palls upon him, he can by a few
hours’ ride find autumn on the steppes above
or summer in the plains below. If he is a
sportsman, he can find his game among many
species of the fauna of three zones: the jaguar,
sloth, armadillo, tapir, the red deer, black
bear, and panther, and in the jungles of the
Amazon region, the tiger.</p>

<p class='c008'>The overland route to Bogotá from Quito
lies over a well-built highway which, in the
not distant future, will be paralleled by
Colombia’s and Ecuador’s contributions to
the long-heralded Pan-American railway
from New York to Buenos Aires. Up to the
present time Colombia has had but six hundred
miles of railways: the little system
radiating from the capital and connecting it
with the Magdalena River, and, through that
<span class='pageno' title='382' id='Page_382'></span>natural highway, with the Caribbean ports,
and the short lines that run inland from the
ports of both oceans; for Colombia is the
only country in South America that borders
on both the Pacific and the Atlantic.</p>

<p class='c008'>The traveler who enters the country in the
saddle over the route mentioned will profit
more than by sailing up the Pacific coast
from Guayaquil and entering through the
port of Buenaventura. The journey along
the lofty heights and down through the lovely
green valleys will not only give him much
more of the inspiring Andean scenery, but will
make him acquainted with the country and
village life which he could not see at close
range otherwise. But he will have to sacrifice
many familiar comforts on the altar of
education. The <i>posadas</i>, or village inns, at
which he must stop are mere adobe huts with
dirt floors, and none but rawhide cots are
offered for his rest. The few dishes served at
these primitive hostelries are plentifully seasoned
with garlic, saffron, and <i>morones</i>, or
red peppers. The early hours of the journey
will bring the traveler in conflict also with the
all-pervading philosophy of <i>mañana</i> (to-morrow),
and his progress will be slow. However,
<span class='pageno' title='383' id='Page_383'></span>the unfailing good humor of his muleteer
will do much to dispel his exasperation at
delays, and he will find himself more and
more repaid for his discomforts by the splendor
and beauty and strangeness through
which he is making his way.</p>

<p class='c008'>Passing over the bleak, frozen <i>paramos</i>, or
mountain deserts, wrapped in awful stillness
by the great peaks rising above them, the
scene suddenly changes as the road descends
along the heavily wooded slopes and the
country becomes alive with verdure and the
sounds of birds. Below, in a still more summery
clime, lies, perhaps, a beautiful little
lozenge-shaped valley fringed about up the
sides of the mountains with coffee plantations
and groves of bamboo, or some other scene
even more picturesque—and then, over equally
sudden changes and different pictures of native
life, the traveler goes on until there begin
to appear extensive plantations with well-built
houses and farm machinery, and, finally
reaches the railway, which takes him, not unregretfully,
from his guide and carries him up
into the lofty <i>sabana</i>—the great altaplain on
which Bogotá, the capital, is located. This
plateau is a level plain, about seventy miles
<span class='pageno' title='384' id='Page_384'></span>long by about thirty in width, containing
some two thousand square miles of cleared,
arable land. It lies 8700 feet above the sea in
the very heart of the Eastern Cordillera, just
below the fifth degree of north latitude, and
ranges in temperature from fifty-nine to
sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit the year around.
From this plateau the descendants of the
Spanish conquerors have administered the
country since 1538. The <i>sabana</i> is now covered
with prosperous plantations belonging to
rich Bogotaños.</p>

<p class='c008'>Bogotá lies on the eastern border. When
Quesada, its founder, set foot on the <i>sabana</i>,
he was struck by its resemblance to the broad
plain of Santa Fé, in his native Granada,
on which the armies of Ferdinand and Isabella
encamped during the siege that was to
put an end to the power of the Moors in
Spain. He therefore called the new capital
<i>Santa Fé de Bogotá</i>, and New Granada became
the name of the northern viceroyalty
which was carved out of the Viceroyalty of
Peru in 1717. Both names have disappeared.
The capital has reverted to its ancient Indian
name of Bogotá, and the name of Granada,
perpetuated until 1861 in the name of the
<span class='pageno' title='385' id='Page_385'></span>Republic of New Granada, was succeeded in
that year by that of the present Republic of
Colombia.</p>

<p class='c008'>The site of the present city, some twelve
miles southeast of the ancient Chibcha capital,
was the location of the little Indian village of
Tensaquilla, the pleasure resort of the Zipas,
nestling, like the Spanish city of Granada,
at the foot of two mountains—Monserrate
and Guadelupe. Down these mountains
tumble the little streams that make up the
near-by Funza River, which spreads out over
the plain and then plunges down into the
upper waters of the Magdalena. On the
far side of this great river runs the Central
Cordillera, some ninety miles west of the
capital, and on clear days the giant white-topped
volcano, Tolima, 18,400 feet high, and
the Mesa de Herveo, but sixty feet lower—constituting
the culminating points in Colombia—are
plainly visible.</p>

<p class='c008'>The traveler’s first impressions of Bogotá
are those of surprise and admiration—surprise
at finding so large a city (150,000 in
population) perched high up in the Andes,
fully “six hundred miles from anywhere;”
and admiration of the surpassing natural
<span class='pageno' title='386' id='Page_386'></span>beauty of its locality. His next impression
is that it is one of the most conservative, quiet
and restful places on earth—conditions
greatly to be appreciated after his long,
eventful journey. The discovery is soon
made that Bogotá possesses a climate that
is simply perfect, and a highly educated and
accomplished society, that boasts for the
capital the appellation of “the Boston of
South America.” Like Quito, Bogotá is old,
and being so far inland and inaccessible, its
Tibet-like seclusion for centuries has bred
within its higher circles an aristocratic caste,
somewhat arrogant but always suave, kindly,
and hospitable. In this eddied fragment of
the old-world Spain, the old ceremonious
forms of address—“Your servant who kisses
your hand,” and that hospitable assurance,
“<i>Aqui tiene su casa</i>,” with which even the
chance acquaintance is made to feel at home,
as in his “own house”—do not seem incongruous,
as they would in Spanish cities in
closer contact with the outer world.</p>

<div id='i386'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_386.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>OVERLOOKING BOGOTÁ.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>The streets of the city run eastward up the
slopes of a wide avenue cut along the sides
of the mountain, and are crossed at right angles
by others running north and south. The
<span class='pageno' title='387' id='Page_387'></span>blocks thus formed rise one above another
like the benches of a great amphitheater, overshadowed
by the peaks of Monserrate and
Guadelupe. On the crests of these peaks
stand two massive cathedrals. One wonders
why great temples were built in such inaccessible
locations, and why, with over thirty
more cathedrals and churches in the city, they
were needed at all. They can be reached only
by pedestrians, and then only after some
three hours of hard climbing; no one ever
lived near them, and the bleak, icy <i>paramo</i>
beyond is uninhabitable. Like the cross, however,
their presence is objectively effective
in this very religious community.</p>

<p class='c008'>The city is now well lighted by gas and
electricity and is beautified by three large
plazas and many smaller parks, in nearly all
of which the Bogotaños have erected handsome
bronze statues to the soldiers and statesmen
of the republic. The great central plaza
bears the name of Bolívar, and on a high
pedestal in its center stands a bronze figure
of the Great Liberator, his sad, thoughtful
face turned as if in mute reproach toward the
old executive mansion, where, for a brief
reign, he ruled the destinies of Colombia,
<span class='pageno' title='388' id='Page_388'></span>Venezuela, and Ecuador, then united in his
ill-starred Colombian confederation. From
a window in that mansion he once leaped, at
midnight, to escape the hand of an assassin,
raised against him because the people distrusted
his rule and permitted themselves to
forget his inestimable services to the country.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the north side of the plaza stands the
new capitol building, a plain but well-proportioned
structure of white granite; on the
east is the fine old metropolitan cathedral,
and adjoining it, on the same side, is the ancient
palace of the Spanish viceroys, now,
however, used for shops and offices. Near
the western outskirts of the city is the extensive
Plaza de los Martiros, so named in commemoration
of the patriots executed on its
site by the royalist general, Morillo. Although
beautifully laid out and made into an
attractive pleasure ground, it has always been
shunned by the people, for it was a veritable
Golgotha during the revolution, and was used
as the execution ground until the early sixties,
when capital punishment was abolished
in Colombia. Not a great way from the tragic
spot is another noted place now called <i>Ninguna
Parte</i> (literally “Nowhere”). It is
<span class='pageno' title='389' id='Page_389'></span>rather a disreputable part of the city in these
days, but, when General William Henry
Harrison resided there as United States Minister,
in 1827, it was a fashionable district.
The old house in which he lived is still pointed
out, as is the still older, and, if possible, still
more dilapidated, house occupied by Baron
von Humboldt during his year’s sojourn in
Bogotá. On the northern side of the little
Plaza de las Nieves stands the city’s oldest
landmark—the house built by Quesada.</p>

<p class='c008'>It would be idle to attempt to enumerate
the grand old monasteries and convents of the
city. Many of them occupy entire squares.
Since the political upheaval of 1860, generally
known as the “Mosquera Rebellion,” these
edifices have ceased to be church property.
Some are now used as schools or hospitals,
others as hotels, armories, and barracks;
many are now occupied as government offices—the
National Mint, the National Military
Academy, the Post Office, the War and Navy
Departments, and the noted Rosario College.</p>

<p class='c008'>The traveler’s descent from the Bogotá
<i>sabana</i> to the Magdalena on his departure
from the country, will store his memory with
vistas of grandeur and beauty that will never
<span class='pageno' title='390' id='Page_390'></span>be effaced, for the Upper Magdalena valley
is one of the most beautiful in the world. By
the old mule path to Honda, the head of navigation
for big steamers on the Magdalena,
by way of La Mesa, Tocaime, and Jirado,
one will be traveling over a route that for
centuries was the great thoroughfare for
<i>peon</i> or viceroy, and is to-day practically unchanged
in the scenes that make it interesting.
But one can now go by rail from Bogotá to
Girardot on the Magdalena, some eighty
miles above and south of Honda, thence by
small steamer to Arrancapluma, where a
short railway trip is made around the Honda
Rapids to La Dorada, about twenty miles
north of and down the river from the town
of Honda. At La Dorada the five hundred
mile journey northward down the Magdalena
to the Caribbean is made in one of the
regular steamers that cover this service. The
river trip is full of interest, for the wild
stream, nearly as large as the Mississippi,
flows with great rapidity throughout its
course, and has a most varied aspect. For
miles it spreads out in a calm, placid sheet of
water several miles in width, then whirls over
a series of rapids, or forms into whirlpools,
<span class='pageno' title='391' id='Page_391'></span>or later races through a narrow mountain
gorge; and, in consequence of its eccentricities,
the channel is constantly changing, to the
great inconvenience of pilots.</p>

<p class='c008'>At Calamar, about seventy-five miles from
the mouth, the traveler may exchange the
steamer for the railroad to the port of Cartagena,
or continue down the Magdalena, now
greatly increased in volume by the confluence
of the almost equally large river Cauca, to
the two important Caribbean ports at the
mouth, Barranquilla and Sabanilla. The
first part of the trip from Bogotá to Girardot
reminds one of the mountain scenery over
the Oroya road up into the Andean plateau
from Lima. Constantly before him, in the
distance, are the lofty frozen peaks of Tolima,
San Ruiz, and Herveo, towering above
their fellows in the Central Cordillera. On
either side of the Magdalena, the slopes of
the two ranges in their lower reaches are
dotted with coffee plantations; above them,
reaching to the altitude of the <i>paramos</i>, the
mountain sides are thickly overgrown with
forests, and down in the river basin, in the
hollow of the broad valley, the brilliant green
of varied tropical vegetation continues, on
<span class='pageno' title='392' id='Page_392'></span>past the point where the Central and Western
Cordilleras merge in the <i>llanos</i>, down to the
Caribbean coast plains; here the Magdalena
basin spreads out over a vast area of barren
waste.</p>

<p class='c008'>Barranquilla, Sabanilla, and Cartagena are
the important commercial centers of the republic
on the Caribbean, the last-named being
one of the oldest and most interesting of the
historic old ports. Founded in 1533 by Don
Pedro de Heredia, this port was the most
glorious monument to Spain’s military genius
in the new world, and was properly looked
upon as the key to her great treasure house.
Spain spent over $60,000,000 on its fortifications,
a fabulous sum in those days, but an
expenditure which for over two hundred years
secured to her the mastery of the Indies. To-day
these fortifications—the citadel within the
landlocked harbor, the two castles dominating
the narrow entrance, the tremendous walls
and ramparts—stand without question as the
most picturesque and characteristic survival
of Spain’s colonial splendor. Not even the
perfectly preserved walls of Manila are more
impressive. The visitor who walks to-day
through the narrow, Moorish streets comes
<span class='pageno' title='393' id='Page_393'></span>with memories of the fabulous wealth and
the violent scenes of siege and bloodshed
culled from romances of the days of the
buccaneers that “sailed the Spanish Main.”
He will, however, search in vain for the
evidences of the rich traffic once centered
here that gave to Francisco Pizarro the inspiration
for his conquest of Peru.</p>

<div id='i392a'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_392_a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>A POSADA, OR COUNTRY INN, ON THE ROAD TO BOGOTÁ.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div id='i392b'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_392_b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>BATTLEMENTED WALL, CARTAGENA.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Cartagena, “The Heroic City,” from its
very beginning was the objective of every
expedition undertaken to wrest from Spain
her rich domain in the Indies; its fortifications
stood as a perpetual challenge to the
freebooters who pillaged the Spanish Main
in the days of the galleons. This challenge
was accepted more than once to Cartagena’s
heavy cost. Sir Henry Morgan, Robert Vaal,
Martin Cote, Du Casse, Sieur des Pointes,
and Sir Francis Drake sacked the town, and
later it was the object of the most important
attack made against Spain in the new world
prior to the nineteenth century, when, in
1741, the English Admiral Vernon undertook
his memorable campaign on the Caribbean.
He assembled at Jamaica 29 ships of
the line and nearly 100 transports, carrying
a total force of 27,000 soldiers and sailors.
<span class='pageno' title='394' id='Page_394'></span>His siege of Cartagena began on the 4th of
March and lasted two months, and was attended
by enormous losses. The event is
peculiarly interesting to North Americans
because of the fact that the land forces, under
General Wentworth, contained a contingent
drawn from the thirteen English colonies
in North America, and that the commander
of this contingent was Colonel Lawrence
Washington, elder brother of the immortal
George. It was through admiration
for Admiral Vernon’s brilliant but unsuccessful
action that Washington gave to his
Virginia estate the name of Mount Vernon.</p>

<p class='c008'>“Cartagena de Indias,” as the old kings
of Spain loved to call their “very royal and
loyal city,” ranks third in point of age in
the new world, and still retains more of its
early characteristics than any of the others.
Its antiquity is everywhere in evidence. Like
the battlements and castles at its entrance,
the city seems to have been built of the
yellow-white coral laid in concrete, which
seems to be indestructible. If one could fly
over it in an airship, and look down
upon its closely massed, red-tiled houses,
and, beyond, upon the deep green of the
<span class='pageno' title='395' id='Page_395'></span>country-side, with the exquisite blue effects
of the Caribbean and the tropic sky, the city
would seem gemlike in its romantic beauty.
The narrow streets of rough stone are overhung
at frequent intervals with the protruding
windows and balconies familiar to
visitors in Lima and others of the older
Spanish cities, yet there is an individuality
about the houses here that is far more fascinating,
and facing the parks are many fine
examples of the old churches and convents
which constitute the distinctive architecture
of the colonial régime. Surrounding these
buildings are luxuriant gardens, presenting
a riot of color, in which the peculiarly refreshing
green of the hot countries predominates.</p>

<p class='c008'>Among the many substantial dwellings occupied
by the wealthy is one that was the
seat of the terrible Inquisition which sat here
from 1610 until 1821. San Felipe de Barajas,
an old castle and fort lying on a low hill overlooking
the city, is full of interesting underground
passages, as are many of the fortifications,
and although utterly abandoned and
falling into decay, is still a forceful and
grim reminder of the mediæval period of
<span class='pageno' title='396' id='Page_396'></span>storm and stress. On the top of another hill,
called “La Popa,” lying back of the town,
still stands the ancient convent of Santa
Candelaria, serving as a landmark to mariners
passing that way, its white or light
yellow buildings being visible for many miles
out at sea. Here the visitor is shown where
a buccaneer amused himself on the occasion
of one of the raids by hurling the nuns over
the edge of the perpendicular cliff on which
the convent stands.</p>

<p class='c008'>Cartagena in the old days surpassed Mexico,
Lima, Panamá, and Havana in importance,
and stood forth as the commercial giant
of Spain in America; it represented, as did
no other American city, the pomp and magnificence
of her sixteenth and seventeenth
century imperialism. Now all this is past;
even as the natural gateway for Colombia’s
productiveness, she has lost her position, the
North American-built railroad connecting
the port with the Magdalena River, at
Calamar, having proved powerless to restore
even a small measure of her prestige
against the rising commercial importance of
Puerto Colombia and Barranquilla. The
latter port has now become the <i>entrepôt</i> of
<span class='pageno' title='397' id='Page_397'></span>commerce with the interior by the great
waterway of the Magdalena.</p>

<p class='c008'>On the desolate stretch of Colombia’s Pacific
coast there is but one city of importance,
Buenaventura. This is the busy exchange
that taps the fertile region of the upper
Atrato basin, and when the Panamá Canal
shall have been opened should spring into
greater importance along with the other ports
of the West Coast. In the interior Colombia
possesses many cities of considerable size,
ranging from thirty to sixty thousand inhabitants,
which are centers for the mining and
agricultural districts—Pamplona in the
mountains near the Venezuela frontier, Bucarmanga,
a little to the west, Mompóz, near
the confluence of the Cauca and Magdalena,
once a port on the latter river but now, owing
to the erratic wanderings of that stream,
twenty miles east of it, Medellín, in the
Cauca valley; Popayán and Pasto near the
head waters of that river, and La Plata on
the other side of the Central Cordillera.</p>

<p class='c008'>The Hon. John Barrett and Hon. William
L. Scruggs, both former Ministers of
the United States at Bogotá, have written
extensively of Colombia’s commercial possibilities
<span class='pageno' title='398' id='Page_398'></span>and predict great strides for the
hermit republic. “Colombia,” writes Mr.
Barrett, “is a wonderland of opportunity.
Measured by the standards of other countries
it can be said without exaggeration that the
Republic of Colombia, in proportion to area
and population, is the richest of all in the variety
and extent of undeveloped resources,
fullest in promise for future growth and reward
to mankind.” “Colombia,” he continues,
“is at our very doors; it is nearer to the principal
ports of the United States than any
other South American country, and yet we
have done little to study her internal wealth
or to take part in her foreign commerce.”
The country is only nine hundred and fifty
miles away from us; from Cartagena to
Tampa, Florida, the distance is less than
from New York to St. Louis. The foreign
trade of Colombia last year amounted to
$26,000,000, in which the United States participated
to the extent of only $11,000,000.</p>

<p class='c008'>Mr. Scruggs says in closing his interesting
work on Colombia: “Such is the country as
nature has made it—picturesque, beautiful,
and exceedingly rich and varied in undeveloped
resources. As yet man has done very
<span class='pageno' title='399' id='Page_399'></span>little for it, the greater part being still unbroken
wilderness.... The commercial possibilities
of the country are almost incalculable;
and the time is probably not very remote
when the fact will be more fully realized
by the great commercial powers of the world.”</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='400' id='Page_400'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>XI<br /> <br />VENEZUELA</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>At the end of his “swing around the
circle” of South American countries
(having begun with Brazil), the traveler
comes to Venezuela—the huge republic
that bulges out into the northernmost nub of
the continent, where the terminal ranges of
the Andes turn eastward to meet the great
Guiana Highlands and form those high-flung
ramparts that protect the fertile, low-lying
Amazon plains from the Atlantic. This
black, mountainous front runs along the
Caribbean coast line for some fifteen hundred
miles, broken at intervals, however, where
the lovely blue of the tropical sea sweeps
inland to meet the bright green of some great
river basin.</p>

<p class='c008'>Southward, Venezuela spreads down over
an irregularly shaped territory extending
from twelve degrees north latitude to the
equator. Her varied topography, too, produces
<span class='pageno' title='401' id='Page_401'></span>almost every change of climate, from
the cold of the mountains—some of whose
peaks reach high enough to earn the title of
<i>nevada</i>—down through the temperate zone
of the <i>llanos</i>, or rolling plains that slope off
into the great Orinoco basins, where wheat,
corn, and cattle abound, and the country’s
great staples, coffee, cotton, and tobacco are
grown, to the hot Orinoco jungles that trail
off to the south, where rubber and cacao trees
luxuriate without cultivation, and sugar cane,
oranges, fruits, and pineapples thrive in the
clearings. More than half of Venezuela’s
territory may be ignored from the commercial
standpoint of to-day, for it is either Alaskan
or Amazonian in character and can be reserved
for later needs of the human family
if, as Humboldt prophesied, the Amazon
valley should become the feeding ground of
mankind.</p>

<p class='c008'>No description has ever done justice to the
beauties of Venezuela’s landscape of mountain
and valley and mighty rivers, of warm
green pastures and blue skies, and the mystic
shimmering white of an occasional snow-capped
peak. The country that so appeals
to the traveler’s interest is nearly six hundred
<span class='pageno' title='402' id='Page_402'></span>thousand square miles in area, and could
include within its confines the States of Iowa,
Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and
Ohio. Its mountainous coast saw the beginning
of the European invasion of the new
world. Columbus, Vespucci, and Ojeda
touched here. Ojeda gave the country its
name. When, on his way west from the
Orinoco, he rounded Cape San Roman and
turned into the Gulf of Maracaibo, he saw
Indian villages composed of houses built on
piles in the water along the shores, which suggested
something of a resemblance to Venice,
and he called the place Venezuela (Little
Venice); and soon the whole coast, and eventually
the country beyond, became so known—a
region larger than all Italy and Spain
combined. This coast and the white-walled
cities nestling in the heights among the magnificent
trees formed the storied Spanish
Main.</p>

<p class='c008'>Cumaná, in the middle east, is the oldest
European settlement in South America; it
was in its old church that Las Casas preached—the
saintly priest who was the Indian’s
ablest champion in the early days of Spanish
devastation, but who, with regret be it said,
<span class='pageno' title='403' id='Page_403'></span>is reputed also to have been the father of
African slavery in the new world, for it was
he, so the chroniclers say, who suggested that
negroes be imported to labor in the fields
and mines and relieve the Indians of a burden
they were both temperamentally and physically
unfitted to bear. Venezuela was the
birthplace of the resistance to Spain’s oppression
of her colonies, and of Miranda, Bolívar,
Sucré, and the fiery young patriot, Yáñez—the
men who led the van of that resistance.
Through her land flows one of the world’s
greatest rivers, the Orinoco, with its four
thousand miles of navigable waters. The
vast productiveness of the country and its
stores of mineral wealth are sufficient to sustain
twenty times its present population of
two millions and a half. And, finally, Venezuela
is nearer to us than any other country in
South America.</p>

<p class='c008'>A most agreeable route for the traveler
leaving Colombian ports for Venezuela is by
the steamers which zigzag around the Caribbean
Sea for ten days or more on the way to
Europe, and touch at many of the once famous
old ports before reaching La Guayra,
the sea gateway to Caracas. Immediately
<span class='pageno' title='404' id='Page_404'></span>after leaving Colombian waters and rounding
the Guajira peninsula, the ship enters
the great Gulf of Maracaibo, one hundred
and fifty miles in extent from east to west,
and sixty miles from north to south. Passing
along in through a narrow strait, the almost
equally large Lake of Maracaibo swells out
before the traveler. This great body of water
drains an extensive basin lying between two
terminal spurs of the Andes—the Sierra de
Parija and the Sierra Mérida—and into it
flow many rivers having their source in
the surrounding mountains. Inside, on the
east bank of the strait, lies the city of
Maracaibo, now one of the most important
centers on the north coast, for here is shipped
the produce of the vast fertile region of
western Venezuela—coffee, cacao, tobacco,
castor beans, hardwood timber, and dyewoods.
Much of the produce of the eastern slope of
Colombia also finds its way to Europe and
the States through this port; fully half of
what is known in our markets as “Maracaibo
coffee” is really a Colombian product.</p>

<div id='i404'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_404.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>VIEW OF MARACAIBO LOOKING WEST FROM THE CATHEDRAL.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>The tropical scenery of the plains sloping
down to the lake, and the mountains, with
their suggestion of snowy freshness, make
<span class='pageno' title='405' id='Page_405'></span>the setting of this port one of the most
interesting on the continent. A dozen or
more of the peaks in the Mérida range are
snow-capped, and two of them—Concha and
Coluna—rise to a height of over fifteen thousand
feet. Years ago a passing visitor to
Maracaibo, mistaking the discomforts of the
humidity and heat for general dissolution,
pronounced the place “the graveyard of Europeans.”
Such hasty judgment is a great
injustice, for the rate of mortality here is
less than in many of the other tropical ports.</p>

<p class='c008'>Rounding the eastern enclosure of the
Gulf, the Paraguana peninsula, the traveler
comes upon the quaint old town of Coro,
founded in 1527, and one of the very first of
the European settlements. It was this town
that the governor, sent out by the Germans to
whom the King of Spain at first leased the
country, made his capital, and from which he
undertook his disastrous expeditions in search
of El Dorado. Afterward, until 1576, it was
the seat of Spain’s government of the colony,
and is now the capital of the State of Falcón.
Here, also, Miranda made his first resistance
to Spanish misrule at the beginning of the
revolutionary war. Coro is but a few miles
<span class='pageno' title='406' id='Page_406'></span>south of the Dutch Island of Curaçao, that
most picturesque fragment of Amsterdam
perched on a coral rock.</p>

<p class='c008'>Sweeping out eastward over the sea, as if
in continuation of the Mérida range, is the
Cordillera de la Silla (the “Saddle Range”),
which terminates abruptly at Cape Codera.
Midway between this cape and Coro, lies
the important seaboard city of Puerto Cabello.
Its environment is not only remarkably
attractive—like an oasis to the traveler
who has sailed along the bleak coast range
for many hours—but it is to-day one of the
finest harbors in the world, as it was in the
days of the early navigators, who said of it
that “a vessel is safe here, anchored by a single
hair (<i>cabello</i>).” The city is connected by
rail, over the Silla Cordillera, with the prosperous
little city of Valencia, some fifty
miles distant, and thence, by waters of Lake
Valencia, with Cura and other important inland
towns which are commercial centers of a
large part of the region that slopes inland
from the coast range. Puerto Cabello is,
therefore, the export depot of the States of
Carabobo, Lara, and Zamora, three of the
most productive commonwealths of the Venezuelan
<span class='pageno' title='407' id='Page_407'></span>federal union. It was once a rendezvous
of the buccaneers and, later, the scene
of General Páez’s astonishing night attack
on the Royalist forces during the revolution,
when, with his small command, he forced the
surrender of General Calzada’s entire army.
To-day the city has a population of about ten
thousand, and many modern improvements—electricity,
water supply, well-paved streets,
and a number of attractive new buildings,
that harmonize, however, with the fine old
plazas and colonial residences.</p>

<p class='c008'>Eastward, some sixty-five miles toward
Cape Codera, and halfway the length of the
Silla range, the traveler sights the great peak
of Picacho rising from the water’s edge to a
height of over seven thousand feet. Along
this promontory, on a narrow strip of beach,
are scattered groups of sixteenth century
houses, white and red-topped for the most
part; some of them nestle inland in coves of
the mountains or look over the blue Caribbean
from shelves of the cliffs above. This is
La Guayra, the seaport of the republic’s capital.
High above, overhanging the business
center of the town, stands the ancient and
picturesque Spanish fortress of early colonial
<span class='pageno' title='408' id='Page_408'></span>days, and just below, on another bench of
rock, is the old bull ring. Overlooking all,
on a high bluff, are the ruins of the old
castle which was the residence of the Captain-General
during the Spanish régime. To
those who have enjoyed Kingsley’s great historical
novel, “Westward Ho!” the old ruins
will have a romantic interest, for it was from
the walls of this fortress-castle that Amyas
Leigh escaped after his vain attempt to rescue
the Rose of Devon.</p>

<p class='c008'>Baron von Humboldt said that there is but
one place in the world that can rival La
Guayra in the splendor of its setting—Santa
Cruz de Teneriffe, which points one of the
Canary Islands off the Moroccan coast. La
Guayra is now all business, but not business
of the feverish, bustling kind, as the visitor
will find, after an entire morning spent
in passing from one leisurely official to another
in the effort to enter the country. The
port usually serves the traveler merely as a
landing place on his way to Caracas. If for
any reason, however, he should prefer to delay
his visit to the capital, he would do well
to run up the coast some three miles east of
the port city, to the pleasant little watering
<span class='pageno' title='409' id='Page_409'></span>place, Macuto, the resort of the leisure class
of the near-by capital.</p>

<p class='c008'>Caracas is but seven miles inland from the
port as the crow flies, but the actual distance
by rail is twenty-two miles. The steep, winding
road was started by American enterprise,
and at a cost of over $100,000 per mile. It
is now controlled by Englishmen, and so
great is the traffic, that the little line never
fails to be busy. For two hours the train
zigzags up the perilous ascent to a height of
three thousand feet before it turns sharply
around a dizzy precipice and enters the beautiful
valley of Caracas. Until this turn is
made the traveler is rarely ever shut off from
the gorgeous blue of the Caribbean. So
superb is the constantly changing view, that
he will feel more than repaid for the sensations
of giddiness that may assail him as the
train swings around the many curves on the
route, and the yawning chasms overlooked
from the car windows are but added beauties
to the scene, instead of death traps, for so
excellent is the construction and so efficient
the management that there has never been
an accident along the entire length.</p>

<p class='c008'>Caracas is usually much on the visitor’s
<span class='pageno' title='410' id='Page_410'></span>mind during the days of his approach. His
mental picture doubtless will have been colored
from some newspaper cut of a dirty,
tatterdemalion crew, entitled “The President’s
Body Guard,” or by some equally deceptive
idea of chaotic civic affairs. But he
will by this time have learned, from his visits
to other Venezuelan centers, that this charming
and progressive country has been greatly
maligned by our North American press. He
will be entirely reassured the instant the train
comes to a stop and he descends at the clean,
pleasant little station and, in cab or trolley
car, enters the fine old Spanish metropolis,
rich in creature comforts, dignity, history,
and civic pride. The population of the city
now exceeds 70,000, in which there is but a
very small percentage of citizens of foreign
birth.</p>

<p class='c008'>Unquestionably Caracas is one of the most
delightful places of residence in the world.
It lies in a valley three thousand feet up from
the sea, on either side of which towers a range
of mountains, one about seven, the other nine
thousand feet. The tropical heat is tempered
to a springlike mildness by the high altitude,
and the luxuriant fertility resulting from the
<span class='pageno' title='411' id='Page_411'></span>misty rains wafted down from the mountains,
make of the city and its environs a garden of
astonishing beauty. One old gentleman, retired
from the British diplomatic service after
many years in Caracas, preferred to end his
days here, where, he said, it was “but a step
to Paradise.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The city is laid out in the usual Spanish
colonial scheme—in streets running at right
angles to each other, forming blocks of
nearly uniform size. Prior to the liberation
from Spain, the streets bore names expressive
of the dominant influence of religion—names
that seem strange to us now:
<i>Encarnación del Hijo de Dios</i> (Incarnation
of the Son of God), <i>Dulce Nombre de Jesus</i>
(Sweet Name of Jesus), <i>Presentación del
Niño Jesus en el Templo</i> (Presentation of
the Child Jesus in the Temple), <i>Huido á
Egypto</i> (Flight to Egypt), and many others
of like import—a custom prevalent in most
of the ancient cities of Spain and her colonies,
and one which still prevails in Cuba.
Fronting on the narrow, paveless streets are
the plastered, red-tiled houses found in all
North Andean cities; behind the bars the
pretty Venezuelan girls look out from their
<span class='pageno' title='412' id='Page_412'></span>cloistered seclusion with the same wistfulness
that is noted in Bogotá and Lima.</p>

<p class='c008'>The House of Congress is on the road to
everywhere; inside it the decorations and
frescoes are exceptionally fine, and perpetuate
many of the principal events in the life of the
nation. Miraflores, the appropriately named
home of Venezuela’s president, is open to visitors
at certain hours. In the Pantéon, to
the north of the city, repose the remains of
Bolívar in a superb tomb of Parian marble.
Upon it stands a statue of the Liberator,
wrapped in his military cloak—a noble and
dignified figure. In front of the cathedral is
the broad Plaza Bolívar, in the center of
which, amidst a profusion of tropical plants,
rises the equestrian statue of the nation’s
hero. Another may be seen in Bolívar Park,
on which front several federal buildings; the
coins bear Bolívar’s name, and the largest
state of the Union, as well as its capital,
Ciudad Bolívar, is similarly honored—everywhere
throughout the republic his name is
revered as is Washington’s with us. In the
museum of the University, in a room kept
sacred as the “Holiest of Holies,” are displayed
the Liberator’s clothing, saddle, boots,
<span class='pageno' title='413' id='Page_413'></span>and spurs, and many relics intimately connected
with his brilliant career. Among them
is a portrait of Washington, sent him by
Custis, bearing the inscription, “This picture
of the Liberator of North America is sent by
his adopted son to him who acquired equal
glory in South America.”</p>

<p class='c008'>The white group of buildings of the Vargas
Hospital, on the heights near the city,
presents a beautiful picture against the mountains
in the background. This is one of the
most extensive and best equipped in America—either
North or South. In the Academía
de Bellas Artes are displayed the works of
Michelena, a son of Caracas, whose paintings
have obtained an international reputation,
and many other pictures by native artists
from which one may get a good idea of the
great scenic beauty of Venezuela.</p>

<p class='c008'>Although there are no active volcanoes in
Venezuela, the country has been subject to
many destructive earthquakes, notably in
1812, when Caracas was nearly destroyed at
a cost of some twelve thousand lives. As a
consequence of the constant presence of this
menace, the buildings of the capital are almost
uniformly of one story. From the
<span class='pageno' title='414' id='Page_414'></span>Monte Calvario, on the outskirts of the city,
the general aspect is flat and monotonous, but
a walk through the broader avenues and the
fifteen or more parks and plazas, gives to the
visitor vistas of foliage and flowers that leave
on his mind the impression of a lovely garden.</p>

<p class='c008'>The capital is connected by railway with
Puerto Cabello, via Lake Valencia. This is
the attractive scenic route that is made a
part of the Caribbean excursions offered by
the steamship lines each winter. The road
passes through indescribably beautiful mountains
and <i>llanos</i>—alternating wooded slopes
and meadows, and richly productive fields of
maize and wheat. Frequent stops are made
at the stations of important plantations or
the busy centers of this great agricultural
region: La Victoria, San Mateo, and Valencia,
the last-named a modernized city of forty
thousand inhabitants and the capital of the
State of Carabobo, one hundred and thirty-seven
miles from Caracas.</p>

<div id='i414'  class='figcenter id001'>
<img src='https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:h:harry-weston-van-dyke-page_414.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
<div class='ic002'>
<p>A COFFEE PLANTATION, VENEZUELA—DRYING THE BEAN.</p>
</div>
</div>

<p class='c008'>Turning back along the coast, eastward,
and passing the last of the coast ranges, the
Carib mountains, which taper off to the sharp
point of the Paria peninsula, the traveler
<span class='pageno' title='415' id='Page_415'></span>comes to the Island of Trinidad, which helps
to enclose the Gulf of Paria. This island is
now a British possession and is famous for
its asphalt lakes; it is also the point at which
Columbus stopped on his third voyage and
met the fresh waters from the Orinoco delta,
thus becoming convinced that he was confronted
by a great continent. He gave the
island its name when he observed from his
masthead the three high peaks on its northern
coast.</p>

<p class='c008'>The deltaic region of the Orinoco River
basin extends for about four hundred and
fifty miles in a southeasterly direction from
the mountain ridge on the Paria peninsula to
the British Guiana highlands, and covers an
area of seven thousand square miles. Here
the traveler enters a country of wild, tropical
forests, mangrove swamps and mazelike
waterways, teeming with strange bird and
animal life—practically the same now as when
it was a primeval land of mystery that terrified
the first navigators.</p>

<p class='c008'>The delta is made up of fifty or more
channels emptying into the Atlantic north
of the main stream of the Orinoco. The
region is entered by the Royal Mail through
<span class='pageno' title='416' id='Page_416'></span>the central channel, or Macareo River. The
service of ocean steamers, however, extends
as yet only as far as Ciudad Bolívar, about
six hundred miles from the mouth, although
the river is navigable for smaller vessels as
far as Apures rapids—over a thousand miles
up its course on the Colombian frontier. For
fifteen hundred miles the wonderful stream
extends into the continent, draining a territory
of three hundred and sixty-four thousand
square miles. With its numerous affluents,
the Orinoco affords four thousand three
hundred miles of navigable waters for the
service of this vast region. The main river
rises in the Parima Mountains, which, with
the Pacarima range, form the frontier with
Brazil. Near its source it is tapped by the
Casiquiare, the remarkable river, which flows
in two directions and connects the Orinoco
with the Rio Negro, an affluent to the
Amazon.</p>

<p class='c008'>The traveler entering the Orinoco from the
sea never forgets his first impressions. There
is a weird grandeur about the forests that
cannot be described—the magnificent trees,
closely grouped and undergrown with tropical
jungle plants that create a dense shadow land
<span class='pageno' title='417' id='Page_417'></span>of mystery that is made ever more awe-inspiring
to the uninitiated by the startling cries of
the jaguar and puma and the queer howling
of the monkeys. The leaves are thick and
moist, and tinted a deep rich green, but glisten
brightly in the high lights; the foliage never
loses that freshness and brilliance which is
assumed in our northern woodlands only in
the lovely season of early spring. Hence
the darker tones blending with the flitting
shafts of sunlight develop a play of color
effects of never-ending delight to the lover
of nature. Countless creepers, decked with
gorgeously colored blossoms along the water
sides and where the sun’s rays penetrate,
twine themselves around the great tree trunks.
In many places natural bowers are thrown
up, that display a beauty and symmetry which
could not be surpassed by the most consummate
art. Flame-colored flamingoes, chattering
parrots and myriads of strange birds of
brilliant plumage, enhance the beauty of the
scene and add a welcome touch of life, yet
serve to confirm the stranger’s impression that
he has wandered into some enchanted realm.</p>

<p class='c008'>South of the Orinoco there is a gradual
rise to the Guiana Highlands, which are as
<span class='pageno' title='418' id='Page_418'></span>yet sparsely populated and but little given
over to cultivation; this hilly country, constituting
about half of the republic’s area,
ascends in uneven ridges to the higher altitudes
of the Brazilian frontier ranges. North
of the river the rolling plains, or <i>llanos</i>, sweep
inland from the Atlantic between the Guiana
highlands and the coast ranges like a great
green arm of the sea—past the Mérida sierra
and the western escarpment of the highlands,
to merge in the hot plains of the Amazon
region. These <i>llanos</i> do not correspond exactly
with the Argentine <i>pampas</i>; they undulate
and ascend gradually from the river
bottoms to an elevation of over three hundred
feet, whence they continue up into the foothills.
They are thus known as <i>llanos
altos</i>, or upper plains, and <i>llanos bajos</i>, or
lower plains. The <i>llanos</i> present a diversified
aspect, with much broken ground and heavily
wooded tracts near the upper courses of the
Orinoco affluents, and clothed, in some of the
lower stretches, with rich tropical vegetation.</p>

<p class='c008'>In this fertile agricultural and grazing
country lies a great source of future wealth
of the nation, for although coal and iron have
been discovered within its boundaries in practicable
<span class='pageno' title='419' id='Page_419'></span>quantities, Venezuela’s production,
aside from asphalt, is chiefly confined to coffee,
cacao, tonka beans, sugar, cotton, indigo,
rubber, cereals, cattle, hides, aigrette plumes,
sarsaparilla and other medicinal plants, cabinet
woods, and fruits. Gold has been mined
since the earliest colonial times. Venezuela
also possesses several of the world’s most important
asphalt deposits. “While the ‘pitch
lake’ of Trinidad, a surface a mile and a half
across of pure asphaltum,” says the <i>Pan
American Bulletin</i> (of July, 1911), “is perhaps
the most remarkable occurrence of this
mineral in nature, the lake of Bermudez,
which covers a thousand acres in the old state
of Bermudez, Venezuela, is fast equaling the
first in commercial importance. Asphalt is
also found in the Perdanales district as well
as on the shores of Lake Maracaibo, and as
an indication of the value of Venezuelan
bitumen, we have the fact that this special
variety is used to protect the tunnels of the
New York Subway.” The foreign trade of
Venezuela in 1910 was valued at $30,336,122,
the great bulk of which was with Europe.
Her purchases from us amounted to but
$3,788,539.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='420' id='Page_420'></span>The population of Venezuela is made up
of Indians, <i>mestizos</i>, and unmixed descendants
of the Spanish; but few North Americans
are settled in the country thus far, in
spite of its nearness to the United States. A
better acquaintance between our people and
the Venezuelan land of promise should result
from the opening of the Panamá Canal.
This most desirable consummation will operate
to the benefit of both peoples, for, being
but six days from New York and four from
Charleston, the flow of the country’s trade
should turn our way with increasing volume
as our merchants become familiar with the
ports of the Spanish Main en route to the
canal. So far Venezuela is almost wholly
unknown to us. Less than ten years ago, a
bill was introduced in our Congress to consolidate
the diplomatic missions to the republics
of Venezuela and Guatemala, under the
impression that the countries were adjacent!
and during the debate one member arose and
asked in all seriousness, “Where is Venezuela,
anyhow?”</p>

<p class='c008'>Like Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, Venezuela
is a federation of states. In this respect
it differs from the other Latin American
<span class='pageno' title='421' id='Page_421'></span>republics, except Brazil. Its government is
modeled closely on our own, although more
centralized, the governors of the states being
appointed by the federal executive. The
country is on a gold basis; its national debt
is not excessive; its administration of the
postal, telegraph, and customs services is
efficient and progressive, and, underlying the
whole structure, is the sure guarantee of inexhaustible
wealth. With each new crisis in
her history, Venezuela has advanced to a
higher plane, and has maintained her footing.
The men who have lifted her up the steps of
her career—Bolívar, Páez, Vargas, Guzmán
Blanco, Crespo, and the little Andean general
who has recently come again into international
notice after a brief eclipse, Cipriano
Castro—have been honest in their purpose
and patriots first, whatever they may have
been in their private lives. Many other names
may be written on her roll of fame: the romantic,
but visionary, Miranda, the fiery
young patriot Yáñez, and the Venezuelan of
all others who survived the revolution without
question or reproach—Bolívar’s great
lieutenant, Sucré, who became the first president
of Bolivia.</p>

<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' title='422' id='Page_422'></span>Of all her latter day sons, Guzmán Blanco
accomplished most for his country. After
serving in the diplomatic corps in Europe,
he returned in 1870 able to assume the supreme
authority with an understanding of
the needs of his disordered country and the
knowledge and forcefulness with which to
supply them. During his practical dictatorship
of eighteen years, he ruled with a rod of
iron; he enriched himself and his favorites,
and stamped his personality ineradicably on
the country, it may be—but he made Venezuela
a thriving country. He beautified and
practically rebuilt the capital, subsidized and
fostered the railroads, opened the door to
foreign capital and traders who learned to
believe in his stable government, and improved
the ports. Under his energetic administration
the production of coffee reached
phenomenal proportions; shipping made rapid
progress; the population increased in normal
ratio, and the homes of the people improved
in every way. The work he did lasted.</p>

<p class='c008'>Castro, also, worked hard to build up a
spirit of nationalism with which to withstand
the impositions of foreign governments, whose
citizens in many instances had sought by
<span class='pageno' title='423' id='Page_423'></span>fraudulent claims to enrich themselves. He,
too, won a good fight and in some respects
advanced Venezuela to a higher place in the
family of nations. His patriotism has been
made grotesque in our public press, but those
who know him well have no doubt that it was
sincere. He is well born and able and has
shown many of the elements of statesmanship.
Venezuela unquestionably has suffered injustice
at the hands of European governments,
and of our own, in the demands they
have sought to enforce on behalf of adventurers
who have attempted to exploit the
country to their own advantage and without
regard to her interests—notably in the cases
of her dispute with Great Britain over the
boundary with British Guiana, and the
French cable company.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='424' id='Page_424'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>XII<br /> <br />THE GUIANAS</h2>
</div>

<p class='c007'>On the northeastern shoulder of the
continent lies a huge block of territory
as large as France and Spain
combined. It is in reality an island, since it
is bounded on the north and east by the
Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, on the
south by the Amazon River, and on the northwest
and west by the continuous waterway
formed by the Orinoco, the Casiquiare and
the Negro rivers, the last named an affluent
of the Amazon. Like the north Andean
republics, the Guiana country is made up
of mountains, highlands, and low-lying plains,
and lies wholly in the tropics; its productiveness
thus embraces nearly every cereal
and vegetable found in the three great zones
of the earth.</p>

<p class='c008'>Guiana was discovered, named, and first
occupied by the Spanish in the very beginning
<span class='pageno' title='425' id='Page_425'></span>of things in South America. It acquired
fame in the latter part of the sixteenth
century as one of the regions in which
the home of El Dorado was supposed to be
located—the fateful will-o’-the-wisp that was
chased by the early fortune hunters all over
the region from the mountain fastnesses about
Bogotá, in Colombia, to the Paraná, in southern
Brazil, the lure which brought disaster
even to such men of intelligence and practical
common sense as Sir Walter Raleigh and
Sir Francis Drake. The long-sought Lake
Guatavita (now known to be located near
Bogotá), in whose sacred waters El
Dorado bathed his gilded body, was once
supposed to lie near the source of the Orinoco
in the Parima Mountains, and, indeed,
geologists now contend that such a lake did
exist ages ago in these mountainous heights,
and it is unquestionably true that on the line
northward from this point runs a vein of gold
richer than any in the known world, and that
this vein had been worked by the Indians
from time immemorial.</p>

<p class='c008'>The lure of the gold, purged, however, of
its myth, has survived to our own day, for
we all remember Great Britain’s effort, in her
<span class='pageno' title='426' id='Page_426'></span>boundary dispute with Venezuela, to extend
her Guiana boundary over the rich gold
fields south of the Orinoco delta.</p>

<p class='c008'>Until 1624, the Spanish succeeded in holding
Guiana against all comers; but in that
year the Dutch West India Company gained
a foothold at the head of the Essequibo delta,
and was confirmed in its possession by the
treaty of Münster in 1648, at the close of
the war between Spain and the Netherlands.
After this opening, other nations made haste
to share in a partition of the rich territory.
The French established a colony at Cayenne;
the English made a settlement and called it
Surreyham, after the Earl of Surrey—whence
the present name of Surinam—and
eventually the country was partitioned among
the five nations: Brazil became the owner of
that portion trailing off southward to the
Amazon which Portugal had wrested from
Spain, and which is now sometimes called
Brazilian Guiana, although it is an integral
part of the United States of Brazil; France
still retains Cayenne, now known as French
Guiana; the Dutch are now installed in the
Surinam colony, which came into their possession
at the time of the British occupation
<span class='pageno' title='427' id='Page_427'></span>of New York, and is now called Dutch Guiana;
Great Britain owns the three settlements
at Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo,
captured in 1803 from the Dutch and afterward
ceded to her by the treaty of 1814, and
which now constitute British Guiana, and,
lastly, Venezuela, as successor to the title of
Spain, owns the rest of the highlands, south
of Parima and Pacarima, the territory formerly
known as Spanish Guiana until the
revolution of the Venezuelan colonists.</p>

<p class='c008'>British Guiana is 109,000 square miles in
area—larger than the United Kingdom—and
has a population of about 300,000, made
up of 150,000 negroes, 100,000 East Indians,
15,000 Portuguese, 10,000 British and Europeans,
and the balance of <i>mestizos</i>. It is divided
into three counties, which correspond
to the old settlements—Demerara, Berbice,
and Essequibo. Georgetown, the capital, is
on the right bank of the Demerara River at
its mouth. It is an attractive port city of
about 60,000 inhabitants, heavily shaded with
tropical trees, and presents the substantial
appearance of most British colonial centers.
Just now its interests are being rather neglected,
but, as the shipping point of a sugar
<span class='pageno' title='428' id='Page_428'></span>area productive enough to supply the mother
country, it could be developed into one of
the great ports of the Caribbean.</p>

<p class='c008'>The area of Dutch Guiana is 46,060 square
miles, and its population numbers about 70,000.
The capital, Paramaribo, is a city of
some 30,000 inhabitants, located at the junction
of the Surinam and Commewine rivers,
about ten miles from the sea. The colony’s
trade in coffee, cacao, rubber, timber, and
gold has not yet been developed to such
proportions as to make it self-supporting; it
is still subsidized by the mother country.</p>

<p class='c008'>French Guiana is known to us principally
as a penal settlement. Since the days of the
French Revolution, Devil’s Island, off the
coast, has been used by the French government
as a penal establishment, and in recent
years the world has become familiar with its
supposed terrors by reading the account of
Captain Dreyfus’s sufferings. Nevertheless,
French Guiana has all the capabilities of the
other Guianas, and could be made richly productive.
Its area is 31,000 square miles and
its population about 25,000; that of its capital,
the city of St. Louis, on the Island of
Cayenne, now numbers slightly over 15,000.</p>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='429' id='Page_429'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
</div>

<table class='table2' summary=''>
<colgroup>
<col width='61%' />
<col width='38%' />
</colgroup>
  <tr><td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>General</span></td></tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Along the Andes.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>A. Petrocokino</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Along the Andes and Down the Amazon.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>H. J. Mozans</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Ancient America.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John D. Baldwin</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Andes and the Amazon, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>James Orton</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Andes and the Amazon, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Reginald C. Enock</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Around the Caribbean and Across Panama.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Francis C. Nicholas</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Between the Andes and the Ocean.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William Eleroy Curtis</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Capitals of South America, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William Eleroy Curtis</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Commercial Traveler in South America.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Frank Wiborg</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Continent of Opportunity, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Francis E. Clark</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Discovery of America, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John Fiske</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Discovery and Conquest of America, A Collection of Rare Documents concerning.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>E. George Squier</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William Lewis Herndon</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Great States of South America, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Charles W. Domville-Fife</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Land of To-morrow, The.</span> (Pamphlet.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John Barrett</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Latin America of To-day and its Relations to the United States.</span> (Pamphlet.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John Barrett</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Latin America, A Practical Guide to.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Albert Hale</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Northern Republics of South America, The.</span> (Pamphlet.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John Barrett</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Orinoco, Up the, and Down the Magdalena.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>H. J. Mozans</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Other Americans, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Arthur Ruhl</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Panama to Patagonia.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Charles M. Pepper</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South America.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Antonio D. Ulloa</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='pageno' title='430' id='Page_430'></span><span class='sc'>South America.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>A. H. Keane</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South America, History of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Adnah D. Jones</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South America, History of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Charles E. Akers</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South American Republics, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Thomas C. Dawson</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South American Republics, The Independence of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Francis L. Paxson</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>South Americans, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Albert Hale</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Spanish America.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Julian Hawthorne</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Spanish Conquest in America, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Arthur Helps</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr><td class='c019' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>By Countries</span></td></tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Martin Conway</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Argentina.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>W. A. Hirst</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Argentina and Her People of To-day.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Nevin O. Winter</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Argentina, Modern.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>W. H. Koebel</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Argentina, The Republic of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>A. Stuart Pennington</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Bolivia.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Marie Robinson Wright</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Bolivia, A Handbook Issued by.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>The Pan American Union</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Bolivian Andes, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Martin Conway</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Brazil and the Brazilians.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>James C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Brazil, A Journey in.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Louis Agassiz</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Brazil, The New.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Marie Robinson Wright</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Brazil of To-day.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Arthur Dias</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Chile, History of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Anson Uriel Hancock</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Chile, Its History and Development.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>G. F. Scott Elliot</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Chile, The Republic of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Marie Robinson Wright</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Chile of To-day.</span> (By the Chilean Consul-General in New York.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Adolfo Ortuzar</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Colombia.</span> (Pamphlet.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>John Barrett</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Colombia, Journal of Expedition across Venezuela and.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Hiram Bingham</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Colombia, The Republic of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>F. Loraine Petre</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Colombian and Venezuelan Republics, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William E. Scruggs</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='pageno' title='431' id='Page_431'></span><span class='sc'>Countries of the King’s Award, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Thomas H. Holdich</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Cuzco and Lima.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Clements R. Markham</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Ecuador, A Handbook Issued by.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>The Pan American Union</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Incas of Peru, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Clements R. Markham</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Incas, Royal Commentaries on.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Garcilaso de la Vega</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Islands of Titicaca and Koati.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Adolf F. Bandelier</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Paraguay.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>E. de Bourgade la Dardye</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Paraguay, A Handbook Issued by.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>The Pan American Union</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Paraguay, History of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Charles A. Washburn</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru, Chronicles of.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Pedro de Cieza de Leon</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru, History of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Clements R. Markham</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru, Historia General.</span> (Translated.)</td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Garcilaso de la Vega</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru, History of the Conquest of.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William H. Prescott</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru: Incidents of Travel in the Land of the Incas.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>E. George Squier</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Peru, The Old and the New.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Marie Robinson Wright</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Purple Land that England Lost, The.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>W. H. Hudson</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Sir Edward Whymper</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Alfred Simpson</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Uruguay.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>W. H. Koebel</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Uruguay, A Handbook Issued by.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>The Pan American Union</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Venezuela.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William Eleroy Curtis</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Venezuelan Republics, The Colombian and.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>William L. Scruggs</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Venezuela and Colombia, Journal of an Expedition across.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Hiram Bingham</i></td>
  </tr>
  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td class='c020'><span class='sc'>Wilderness, Our Search for a.</span></td>
    <td class='c021'><i>Mary Blair and W. C. Beebe</i></td>
  </tr>
</table>

<div class='pbb'>
 <hr class='pb c000' />
</div>
<div class='chapter'>
  <span class='pageno' title='433' id='Page_433'></span>
  <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2>
</div>

<div class='lg-container-b c004'>
  <div class='linegroup'>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Aconcagua, Mt., <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>-<a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-<a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Agassiz, Louis, exploration of Amazon by, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>-<a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Agriculture, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>-<a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Bolivia, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-<a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Ecuador, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>-<a href='#Page_359'>359</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Colombia, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>-<a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Venezuela, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>-<a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Alcantara, Francisco, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Almagro, Diego de, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>-<a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>leads expedition into Chile, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>disappointed and repulsed in Chile, returns to Peru and wars against the Pizarro brothers, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>-<a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>death of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>followers of, assassinate Pizarro, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>-<a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Alpaca, the, in Peru, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Altar, El, volcano, Ecuador, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Alvarado, Alonso de, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Alvarado, Pedro de, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>-<a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Amambay Mountains, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Amazon River, discovery of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>sources of, in Peruvian Andes, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Andes Mountains, nature of, in Chile, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>-<a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>railway through the, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Peru, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Colombia, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>-<a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Animals of Amazon country, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Antofagasta, city of, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>-<a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Antofagasta, Province of, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Antofagasta-La Paz railway, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Araucana</i> of Ercilla, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Araucanian Indians, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>wars of the Spanish with, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>customs, religion, and dress, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>-<a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Valdivia’s war with, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>-<a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>treaties between Spanish and, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Architecture, styles of, in South American cities, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>-<a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Arequipa, city of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>-<a href='#Page_333'>333</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Harvard Observatory at, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>-<a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Argentina, Spanish conquest of northern areas of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>-<a href='#Page_113'>113</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area and coast-line, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>natural resources, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>-<a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>government, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>-<a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>population, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>volume of trade with Europe as compared with that with United States, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>division into Buenos Aires and “the Camp,” <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>-<a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>political history, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>-<a href='#Page_197'>197</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>rapid advance of, since <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>2, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>-<a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>railways, immigration, and education in, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>conditions of life in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>-<a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>“the Camp,” <a href='#Page_214'>214</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cattle, horses, sheep, goats, etc., of, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>-<a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>gradual introduction of small landholders into, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>territory known as Patagonia, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-<a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Tierra del Fuego, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>tropical wilds of the north, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='434' id='Page_434'></span>Asphalt deposits, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Asses, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Asunción, Paraguay, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>population and character, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>-<a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>-<a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Atacama, Province of, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Atacames, Ecuador, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Atahualpa, defeat of Huascar by and accession to Inca throne, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>made a prisoner by Pizarro, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-<a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>ransom paid by, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Pizarro’s treachery toward and murder of, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>-<a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Atrato River, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Aucasquilucha, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ayacucho, battle of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Aymara Indians, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Bahia, State of, black diamonds in, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bahia Blanca, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Balsa</i> rafts, Guayaquil, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Balsas</i>, reed boats on Lake Titicaca, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Banana trees, Ecuador, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Barranquilla, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>-<a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Barrett, John, <i>Independent</i> article by, quoted, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>on Colombia’s commercial possibilities, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Belém, city of, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>-<a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Belgrano, Manuel, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Belgrano, suburb of Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bello Horizonte, city of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>-<a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Benalcázar, Sebastian de, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bermudez, asphalt lake of, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bio-bio River, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bitumen from Venezuela, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Black diamonds, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Blanco, Guzmán, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Blancos</i>, Uruguayan political faction, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Boers in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bogotá, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>-<a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bolívar, Simon, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>San Martín’s retirement in favor of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>career of, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>-<a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Bolivia named for, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>period of residence in Bogotá, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>-<a href='#Page_388'>388</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>tomb of, Caracas, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>relics of, at Caracas, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>-<a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bolivia, Pizarro’s expedition into, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>position, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>-<a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>people, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area and climate, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>-<a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>scenery, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>-<a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>agricultural productions, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-<a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mineral wealth, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>-<a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cities and ruins in, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>-<a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bolognesi, Colonel, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bomfim, Senhor, quoted, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Botafogo Bay, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Botanical garden, at Belém, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>at Rio de Janeiro, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>-<a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Boyacá, battle of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Brandão, Frei Caetano, statue of, Belém, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>-<a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Brazil, discovery of, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>exploration of, by Vespucci, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-<a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>secures independence, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area and population of present republic, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>-<a href='#Page_135'>135</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>international commerce, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>-<a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Amazon country, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>-<a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>railways, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>-<a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cities of coast, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>-<a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Brazil wood, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>British, capital of, invested in Argentine railways, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>-<a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' title='435' id='Page_435'></span>residing in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>club life of, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>investments of, in Argentine land, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>as investors in Montevideo, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>British Guiana, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>-<a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bucarmanga, Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Buenaventura, Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Buenos Aires, first settlement on site of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>pride of citizens of, in their city, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>-<a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in character similar to Chicago, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>-<a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>impressive dock system of, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>-<a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commerce of, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the æsthetic side of, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>-<a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>influence of Paris on the culture, dress, and customs of, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>-<a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>foreign colonies in, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>patriotism of citizens of, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>-<a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>newspapers of, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>places of amusement, opera, cafés, etc., of, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>-<a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>club life in, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Jockey Club, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>-<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>contrasts of prodigality and destitution in, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>narrowness of streets, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>-<a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>expense of living in, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>a well-appointed city in all respects, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>-<a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Buenos Aires, Province of, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Buenos Aires, University of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Buenos Aires, Viceroyalty of, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Bull, papal, dividing New World between Spain and Portugal, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Caaguazú Mountains, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cabot, Sebastian, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>-<a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cacao trees, Ecuador, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-<a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cafés, at Belém, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>-<a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>at Rio de Janeiro, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>-<a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Callao, description of, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>-<a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cape Horn, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>-<a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Caquetá River, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Carabobo, State of, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Caracas, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>-<a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Carriage parade, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cartagena, Colombia, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>-<a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cartier, Jacques, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Casapalca, town of, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Casas, Bartolomé de las, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>-<a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Castro, Cipriano, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>-<a href='#Page_423'>423</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Castro, Vaca de, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cattle-raising, in Rio Grande do Sul, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cauca River, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cauchi tribe of Indians, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Caupolican, Araucanian chief, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cayenne, Island of, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cedar from Colombia, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Century plant in Ecuador, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chacabuco, battle of, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chachacomani, Mt., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chaco region, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Charrúa Indians, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chaves, Francisco, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chibcha Indians, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>-<a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chicago, comparison of Buenos Aires and, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>-<a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chile, Almagro leads a force into, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Valdivia undertakes conquest of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Spanish wars in attempts to conquer native tribes of, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>-<a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>War of Independence in, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>-<a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' title='436' id='Page_436'></span>proclamation of independence of, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the matter of a name for, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-<a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>shape, location, and area, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-<a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commerce, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mountains, passes, and other surface features, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>-<a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>nitrate of soda deposits, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>-<a href='#Page_292'>292</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cities, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>-<a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>war between Peru and, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>islands of southern, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mountain ranges along Strait of Magellan, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>-<a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chiloé, Island of, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chiloé, Province of, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chimborazo, Mt., <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>-<a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chincona trees, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chonos Archipelago, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Christ of the Andes, the, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Chubut, Territory of, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Church, F. E., “Heart of the Andes,” by, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cigars, Brazilian, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cipango, island of (Japan), <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ciudad Bolívar, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Club life in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coast Range, Brazilian, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>-<a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coati, island of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coca, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coca leaf, chewing of the, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-<a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cochabamba, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cochrane, Lord, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cocoa, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>-<a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coelho, Duarte, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coffee, production of, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in State of São Paulo, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>exportation of, from Santos, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>-<a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>beginnings and increase in growth of, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>-<a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of plantations, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>-<a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>production of, in Colombia, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Venezuela, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Maracaibo coffee, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Colleges, at São Paulo, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Colocolo, Araucanian chief, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Colombia, early exploration of, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>-<a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>formation of Republic of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>location and area, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mountains and river systems, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>-<a href='#Page_376'>376</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mineral wealth, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>-<a href='#Page_379'>379</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>agricultural products, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>-<a href='#Page_380'>380</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>range in climate, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>-<a href='#Page_381'>381</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>railways, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>-<a href='#Page_382'>382</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mountain scenery, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>-<a href='#Page_384'>384</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trip down the Magdalena River, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>-<a href='#Page_392'>392</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cities and seaports, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>-<a href='#Page_396'>396</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commercial possibilities of, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>-<a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Colonial system, Spanish, in South America, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Colón Opera House, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>-<a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Colorados</i>, Uruguayan political faction, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Columbus, Bartholomew, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Columbus, Christopher, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>-<a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>personal appearance, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>historic voyage of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>-<a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>second voyage of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>-<a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>later voyages and death, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>-<a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Columbus, Diego, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coluna, Mt., <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Commerce, of Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>-<a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>at Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>-<a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Chile, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>possibilities for, in Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>-<a href='#Page_399'>399</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Venezuela, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of the Guianas, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>-<a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Compilation of Laws of the Kingdoms of the Indies, code known as, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='437' id='Page_437'></span>Concepción, Chile, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Concha, Mt., <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Conway, Sir Martin, quoted, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>-<a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>-<a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Copper, in Bolivia, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>. <i>See</i> Mineral resources.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coquimbo, Chile, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coquimbo, Province of, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Córdoba, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Córdoba, University of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Coro, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>-<a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Corrientes, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cortés, Hernando, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-<a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cosmas, Egyptian monk, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>-<a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cotopaxi, Mt., <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Council of the Indies, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cucutá, battle of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cumaná, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Curaçao, Island of, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Curtis, W. E., quoted, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>-<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Cuzco, founding of, in <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>th century, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>appearance of, at time of the Incas, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Pizarro’s march on and occupation of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>-<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>-<a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>-<a href='#Page_351'>351</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>ruins at, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>-<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Darwin, Mt., <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>D’Aubigny, quoted, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Davila, Pedrarias, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Dawson, T. C., quoted, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>-<a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>-<a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>-<a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>-<a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>-<a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>-<a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Desiderato, Cape, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Desolation Island, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>De Soto, Hernando, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>-<a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Devil’s Island, French Guiana, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Diamantina, town of, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Diamonds, Brazilian, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>black, mined in State of Bahia, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Dias, Arthur, quoted, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Dias, Bartholomew, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Docks, of Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>-<a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Montevideo, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Dutch Guiana, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>-<a href='#Page_427'>427</a>, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Earthquake, of <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>9 in Ecuador, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>7, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>-<a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Earthquakes, in Venezuela, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ecuador, invasion of, by a lieutenant of Pizarro’s, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area, population, and political divisions, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>river systems, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>-<a href='#Page_353'>353</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>climate, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>-<a href='#Page_354'>354</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>plants, shrubs, and trees, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>-<a href='#Page_358'>358</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>voyage along coast of, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>-<a href='#Page_361'>361</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mountains, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>-<a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Eden, Richard, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Education, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>-<a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>El Dorado, legend of, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>-<a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Emeralds of Colombia, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-<a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Encomiendas</i>, system of, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>England, commerce between Brazil and, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>capital from, invested in Argentine railways, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>-<a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>English, in Valparaiso, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>. <i>See</i> British.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Episcopal seminary, São Paulo, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ercilla, Alonso de, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>-<a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Esmeraldas, Province of, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Essequibo, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Estates or ranches of Argentina, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Eucalyptus trees, Montevideo, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Exposition of <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>0 at Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'><span class='pageno' title='438' id='Page_438'></span>Federmann, Nicolaus, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fiske, John, quoted, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>-<a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Forests, of Brazil, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Paraguay, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of southern Chile, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>-<a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>-<a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Ecuador, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>-<a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Formosa, territory of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fortaleza, city of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fletcher, James C., quoted, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>-<a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Francia, José Rodríguez Gaspar, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>-<a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fray Bentos, Liebig Company plant at, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>-<a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>French, in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Valparaiso, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>French Guiana, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Froward, Cape, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fruit-raising at Mendoza, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Fuegian Archipelago, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>-<a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Funza River, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Gallo, Island of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gama, Vasco da, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>-<a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Garcilaso, de la Vega. <i>See</i> Vega.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gasca, Pedro de la, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>-<a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Gaucho</i>, Argentine cowboy, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>-<a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Georgetown, British Guiana, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Germans, steamships of, at Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>resident at Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>investments of, in Argentine land, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Valparaiso, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gilded Man, legend of the, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Goats, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gold, of the Incas, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-<a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mining of, in State of Minas Geraes, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>-<a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Venezuela, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in the Guianas, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</div>
      <div class='line in2'><i>See also</i> Mineral resources.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gomara, Francisco Lopez de, quoted, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Grains, production of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Gran Chaco, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Great Western Railroad, Argentina, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guadelupe, Mt., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guallatiri, Mt., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guano deposits, Peru, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guarany Indians, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guatavita, Lake, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guayaquil, founding of, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>manufacture of Panamá hats at, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>-<a href='#Page_360'>360</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of city, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>-<a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guayas River, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guayra, cataract of, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>-<a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guiana Highlands, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a>-<a href='#Page_418'>418</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Guianas, location and topography, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>discovery, naming, and occupation by the Spanish, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>-<a href='#Page_425'>425</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Dutch, English, and other nations in, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>-<a href='#Page_427'>427</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area, population, and productions, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>-<a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Hancock, A. U., “History of Chile” by, cited, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Harvard Observatory, Arequipa, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>-<a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Hawthorne, Julian, quoted, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>-<a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>-<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>-<a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>-<a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>-<a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>-<a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Helps, Sir Arthur, quoted, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Heredia, Pedro de, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Herndon, W. H., exploration of Amazon by, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='439' id='Page_439'></span>Herveo, Mesa de, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Holmes, Burton, quoted, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>-<a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-<a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Honda, Colombia, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Hope emerald, the, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Horse-raising, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Hospitals, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Houses, in Santiago, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>-<a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Guayaquil, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>-<a href='#Page_362'>362</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Quito, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Huallaga River, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Huarina, battle of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Huascar, Inca sovereign, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Huatanay River, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Huayna Capac, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Humboldt, Baron von, exploration of Amazon by, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>quoted, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>house occupied by, in Bogotá, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Iguazú Falls, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Illampú, Mt., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Illimani, Mt., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Immigration, to Argentina, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Imperial, Chile, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Inca’s Head, the, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Incas, extent of empire, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>question of origin, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>lack of written records among, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>peoples who antedated, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>-<a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>history of, previous to conquest by Spanish, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>highways of the, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>worship of sun and moon by, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>marriage of sovereigns, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trade carried on by water only, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>irrigation of land practiced under the, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>common ownership of land, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>-<a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>temple and palaces of, at Cuzco, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>different type of people from Peruvian Indians of to-day, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>-<a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>dress, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>-<a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>birthplace and legend of birth, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-<a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Indians, of northern Argentina, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in El Chaco, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>work of Jesuits among Paraguayan, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>-<a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>natives of Tierra del Fuego, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>-<a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Iquima, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Iquique, city of, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Irala, Domingo, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Irrigation, practiced by Incas, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>possibilities of, in Peru, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Islands of southern Chile, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>-<a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Italians, as laborers in State of São Paulo, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>resident in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Montevideo, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Valparaiso, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Jamacchppeke plant, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jamaica, discovery of, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jaques, Christovão, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jesuit missions in the Parana basin, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>-<a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jews, in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jockey Club, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>-<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Juliaca, town of, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Junín, battle of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Jurujuba Bay, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Karkaake, Mt., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Koati, Island of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Koebel, W. H., “Modern Argentina” by, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>La Condamine, explorer of Amazon, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ladrone Islands, discovery of, by Magellan, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lage, Fort, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>La Guayra, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>-<a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='440' id='Page_440'></span>Landed estates of Spanish conquerors, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>La Paz, naming of, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>-<a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>altitude and location, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>-<a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>-<a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>La Plata, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lara, State of, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Largo da Polvora, Belém, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>-<a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Las Cuevas, station of, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>La Serena, Chile, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lautero, Araucanian hero, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>death of, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>-<a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lenglet, Dr., quoted, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Leon, Cieza de, quoted, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Liebig Company’s plant, Fray Bentos, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>-<a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lima, founding of, by Pizarro, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>-<a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>attracts other Spanish adventurers, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>-<a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of modern, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>-<a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Linseed, production of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Llamas, in Peru, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>-<a href='#Page_342'>342</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Llanos</i> of Venezuela, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Llanquihue, Province of, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Llulaillaco, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Los Patos Pass, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lopez, Carlos Antonio, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Lopez, Francisco, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>-<a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Luque, Hernando de, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Macareo River, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mackenzie College, São Paulo, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Magdalena River, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>scenery in valley of, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>-<a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Magellan, Ferdinand, voyage and discoveries of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>-<a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Magellan, Strait of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>-<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>-<a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mahogany, from Colombia, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maize, production of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Manãos, city of, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Manco Capac, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Manco Capac II, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>-<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mapocho River, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maracaibo, city of, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>-<a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maracaibo, Gulf of, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maracaibo, Lake, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>asphalt on shores of, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maracaibo coffee, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Markham, Sir Clements, quoted, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>-<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maule River, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Maypú, battle of, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mbaracayú Mountains, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Medellín, Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Meiggs, Henry, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Meiggs, Mt., <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mendoza, Pedro de, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mendoza, city of, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>-<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mendoza, Province of, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mendoza River, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>-<a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mercedario, Mt., <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mérida range, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mexico, Cortés in, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-<a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Michelena, Venezuelan artist, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Minas Geraes, State of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>-<a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mineral resources, of Chile, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Peru, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Ecuador, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Colombia, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-<a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mining, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in State of Minas Geraes, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>-<a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Miniquis, Mt., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Miranda, Francisco, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Misiones territory of Argentina, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Misti, volcano, Peru, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mitré, Bartolomé, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mollendo, city of, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mompóz, Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Monserrate, Mt., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='441' id='Page_441'></span>Montaña region of Peru, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>-<a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Monteagudo, Bernardo, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Montesino, <i>Anales del Perú</i> by, quoted, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Montevideo, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>comparison with Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>material prosperity of, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>-<a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>foreigners, theaters, and club life of, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Prado Park, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>houses, gardens, and social life of, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>-<a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Montezuma, Señor, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Moon, worship of, by Peruvian Indians, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-<a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mosquera Rebellion, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mountain sickness, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mozans, H. J., quoted, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>-<a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-<a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>-<a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-<a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>-<a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Mules, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Muzo, emerald mines of, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Nabuco, Joahim, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Negro River, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>New Granada, Viceroyalty of, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>-<a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>New Spain, Viceroyalty of, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Newspapers of Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Nictheroy, city of, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Nitrate of soda beds, Chile, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>-<a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Nombre de Dios, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>North Americans, small number of, in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Obydos, city of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>O’Higgins, Bernardo, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Oil, production of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ojeda, Alonso de, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Venezuela named by, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Olinda, suburb of Recife, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Opera in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Orellana, Francisco de, discovers and explores the Amazon, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Organ Mountains, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Orgoñez, Rodrigo de, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Oriente River system, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Orinoco River, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>delta of the, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>-<a href='#Page_416'>416</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>entrance upon, from the sea, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>-<a href='#Page_417'>417</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Oroya Railroad, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>-<a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Orton, James, quoted, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ossorio, General, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>-<a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Pacific Ocean, Balboa’s discovery of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>named by Magellan, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>-<a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pampas of Argentina, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a> ff.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pamplona, Colombia, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Panamá Canal, importance of, to relations between the two Americas, xv-xvii;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>influence on trade between Venezuela and United States, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Panamá hats, manufacture of, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>-<a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Pan American Bulletin</i>, quoted, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>-<a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-<a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pan American Union, vii-xi;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>publications of, ix-x;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>library of, x.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pará (Belém), city of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>-<a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pará River, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>-<a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paraguay, situation and area, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>-<a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>climate and surface features, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>-<a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' title='442' id='Page_442'></span>forests, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Indians and mestizos in, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Jesuit missions in, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>-<a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>character of interior, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>-<a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>stormy political history of, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>-<a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>great commercial possibilities of, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paraguay River, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paraguay tea, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paraná, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Paraná, River, Cabot’s exploration of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trip on the, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>picturesqueness of, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Great Cataract of, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>-<a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Patagonia, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>-<a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-<a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Patia River, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pearl fisheries of Colombia, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pedro II of Brazil, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pernambuco, city of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-<a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pernambuco, colony of, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Peru, the ancient civilization of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>-<a href='#Page_47'>47</a> (<i>see under</i> Incas);</div>
      <div class='line in2'>War of Independence in, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>war with Chile over nitrate provinces, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>products of, in the world’s commerce, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>-<a href='#Page_316'>316</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>voyage along coast of, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>-<a href='#Page_318'>318</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area, surface features, and rainfall, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>-<a href='#Page_322'>322</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>population and its disposition, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>-<a href='#Page_323'>323</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>railways, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>-<a href='#Page_332'>332</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>ruins of the Incas and their predecessors in, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>-<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Peru, Viceroyalty of, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>-<a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Peruvian bark, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Petropolis, city of, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>-<a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pezuela, Joaquín de la, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-<a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Picacho, Mt., <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pichincha, battle of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pichincha, Mt., <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pigs, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pilcomayo River, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pillar, Cape, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pizarro, Francisco, early history of, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>first expedition of, to Peru, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>-<a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>ennobled by the King of Spain, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>treacherous dealings of, with Atahualpa, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-<a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>murder of Atahualpa by, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>advances to and occupies Cuzco, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>-<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>takes possession of government, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>-<a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>founds city of Lima as his capital, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>-<a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>holds his new empire against Almagro, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>-<a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>assassination of, by adherents of Almagro, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>-<a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>tribute to great qualities of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>relics of, in modern Lima, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pizarro, Gonzalo, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>-<a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pizarro, Hernando, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pizarro, Juan, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Plata River, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>-<a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Platinum deposits, Colombia, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pororoca, the, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>-<a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Portezuelo de Come Caballo, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Porto Alegre, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Portuguese, as discoverers, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>-<a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>lands granted to, in division of New World by papal bull, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-<a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>attempt to colonize Brazil, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>-<a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Potato, discovery of the, in Peru, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='443' id='Page_443'></span>Potatoes as a food among Peruvians, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Potosí, silver mines of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Prado Park, Montevideo, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Precious stones, mining of, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Bolivia, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Colombia, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-<a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Prensa</i> newspaper, building of, Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>-<a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Prescott, W. H., quoted, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>-<a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-<a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>-<a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Promaucian Indians, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Puente del Inca, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Puerto Colombia, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Pular, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Puna, island of, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Punta Arenas, city of, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Quebracho tree, the, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>-<a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quesada, Gonzalo Jiminez de, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>-<a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quichua Indians, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quinine, production of, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quinsay, city of (Pekin), <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Quintas</i>, in Montevideo, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quinze Puntas range, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quito, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>-<a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Quizquiz, Atahualpa’s general, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Rada, Juan de la, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Railways, Brazilian, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>-<a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Argentine, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>English capital invested in Argentina, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>-<a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trans-Andine, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>-<a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Uruguay, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Bolivian, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>Peruvian, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>-<a href='#Page_332'>332</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Ecuador, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Colombia, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>-<a href='#Page_382'>382</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Venezuela, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ramalho, João, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ranches, Argentine, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Recife, city of, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>-<a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Repartimientos</i> of the Spanish conquerors, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Revolutions, outgrowing of, xiii.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ringmann, Mathias, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Riobamba, city of, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rio Branco, Baron, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>-<a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rio de Janeiro, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the approach to, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>-<a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>scenic wonders of bay of, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>-<a href='#Page_164'>164</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of city, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> ff.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rio Grande do Sul, production of <i>yerba maté</i> in, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rio Negro, Territory of, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rodadero River, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rojas, Diego de, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Root, Elihu, quoted, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rosario, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rosario College, Bogotá, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rubber, production of, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>-<a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rubber estate, description of a, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>-<a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Rubber trees, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ruhl, Arthur, quoted, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>-<a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>-<a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ruins, prehistoric, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Tiahuanaco, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>-<a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>about Lake Titicaca, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>-<a href='#Page_339'>339</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Sacsahuaman, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>-<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Sabanilla, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sacsahuaman, ruins of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>-<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>St. Julian, harbor of, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>St. Louis, French Guiana, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Salt mines of Colombia, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Salta, battle of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Francisco Xavier, University of, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sangai, Mt., <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San José, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' title='444' id='Page_444'></span>San Lazaro, Church of, in Cuzco, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Marcos, University of, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Martín, General José de, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>-<a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>crossing of the Andes by, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>defeats Royalist army in Chile, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>liberates Peru from Spanish rule, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>-<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>voluntary retirement of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>tomb of, in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Miguel, Gulf of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Rafael Lake, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Ruiz, Mt., <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Salvador, Island of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Candelaria, convent of, Cartagena, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Catalina, convent of, in Cuzco, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Cruz, Bolivia, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Cruz, Fort, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Cruz, Territory of, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Lucia, hill and fortress of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>-<a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santa Marta, Colombia, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santarem, city of, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santiago, Chile, founding of, by Valdivia, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>-<a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>mentioned, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>description of, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>-<a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santo Domingo, convent of, in Cuzco, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Santos, city of, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>-<a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>San Valentín, Mt., <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São João, Fort, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São Leopoldo, city of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São Luiz de Maranhão, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São Paulo, city of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>-<a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São Salvador da Bahia, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>-<a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>São Vicente, colony of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sarmiento, Mt., <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>-<a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Scots, in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Scruggs, William L., on Colombia’s commercial possibilities, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>-<a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sheep-raising, Rio Grande do Sul, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Patagonia, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>-<a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Silla, Cordillera de la, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Silver, from Mt. Potosí, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</div>
      <div class='line in2'><i>See</i> Mineral resources.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sinu River, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Slavery, reduction of Peruvian Indians to, by the Spanish, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>introduction of negro, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Socompa, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Solis, Juan Diaz de, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Solis Theater, Montevideo, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sorata, Mt., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Souza, Martim Affonso da, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Spain, mistaken colonial policy of, in South America, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page_120'>120</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>revolt of South American countries against, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>-<a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Spaniards, numbers of, in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Spanish Main, the, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Squier, E. G., quoted, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Steamships, German, at Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>on Paraná River, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sucré, Antonio José de, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sucré, city of, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>-<a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sugar, beginnings of production of, in Brazil, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sugar Loaf, peak of, bay of Rio de Janeiro, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Sun, worship of, by Peruvian Indians, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-<a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Surinam, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'><span class='pageno' title='445' id='Page_445'></span>Tabatinga, Brazilian port, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tacna, Province of, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Talca, truce of, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tapajos River, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tarapacá, Province of, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tehuelche Indians, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Temple of the Incas at Cuzco, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tensaquilla, village of, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Theater, the Amazonas, at Manãos, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>-<a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Municipal, Rio de Janeiro, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>at São Paulo, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Solis, in Montevideo, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Theaters, at Belém, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tiahuanaco, ruins of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>-<a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tierra del Fuego, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tin, wealth of Bolivia in, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Titicaca, Island of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Titicaca, Lake, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-<a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tobacco from Province of Esmeraldas, Ecuador, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tolima, volcano, Colombia, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tonka beans, Colombia, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Toparca Capac, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tordesillas, treaty of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Toroni, Mt., <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Torre Tagle, Marquis of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Toscanelli, letters of, quoted, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>-<a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Trade, restrictions placed on South American, by Spain, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>-<a href='#Page_120'>120</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of United States of Brazil, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>-<a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Argentina, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>-<a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</div>
      <div class='line in2'><i>See also</i> Commerce.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Trans-Andean railway, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Trees, of Brazil, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Montevideo parks, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of southern Chile, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>-<a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>-<a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Ecuador, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>-<a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>-<a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Trinidad, Island of, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Trombetas River, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tronador, Mt., <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tucapel, Araucanian chief, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tucumán, battle of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tucumán, city of, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tumbéz, Peru, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tunguragua, Mt., <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Tupungato, Mt., <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Ucayali River, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>United States, trade between Brazil and, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>smallness of commerce of, with Argentina, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>fewness of people from, in Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commerce between Chile and, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trade of, with Colombia, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>trade with Venezuela, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Universities in Argentina, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>University, San Francisco Xavier, Sucré, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>San Marcos, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Uruguay, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a> ff.;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>life in Montevideo, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>-<a href='#Page_234'>234</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>nature of the country, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>-<a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commerce of, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>favorable conditions of, for national prosperity, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>turbulent political history of, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>-<a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>bellicose personality and present-day outlets for, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>-<a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>political factions in, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Uruguay River, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Uspallata Pass, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>-<a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Valdivia, Pedro de, conquest of Chile undertaken by, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>-<a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'><span class='pageno' title='446' id='Page_446'></span>put to death by Araucanians, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valdivia, town of, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valencia, city and lake of, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valera, Father Blas, cited, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valle, Marquis del, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valparaiso, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>-<a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Valverde, Friar Vincente de, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vargas Hospital, Caracas, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vega, Garcilaso de la, quoted, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vela, Blasco Nuñez, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Velasco, Juan de, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Venezuela, location and topography, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>-<a href='#Page_401'>401</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>area, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>-<a href='#Page_402'>402</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>naming of, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>coastwise approach to, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>-<a href='#Page_404'>404</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>towns and cities, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>-<a href='#Page_413'>413</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>earthquakes in, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the Orinoco delta and river, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>-<a href='#Page_417'>417</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the <i>llanos</i>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>agricultural products, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>-<a href='#Page_419'>419</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>commerce of, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>government, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>-<a href='#Page_421'>421</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>statesmen and rulers of, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>-<a href='#Page_423'>423</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vernon, Admiral, siege of Cartagena by, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>-<a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vespucci, Amerigo, voyages of, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-<a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the <i>Mundus Novus</i> of, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>the naming of the New World for, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-<a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>later explorations by, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>-<a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Victoria, city of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Vilcapujio, battle of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Villagran, Francisco de, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>-<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Villa Hayes, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Villegagnon, settlement at, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Viña del Mar, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Virgins, Cape, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Virgins of the Sun, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>palace of, at Cajamarca, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Volcanoes, of Chile, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Colombia, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Ecuador, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>-<a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Waldseemüller map, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Washington, Col. Lawrence, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Watling’s Island, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>“Westward Ho!” reminders of, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Wheat, production of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>harvesting of, in Argentina, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>production in Uruguay, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Wheelwright, William, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Whymper, Edward, ascent of Ecuadorian peaks by, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>quoted on the crater of Cotopaxi, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Wine industry, Mendoza, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Women, Brazilian, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>-<a href='#Page_173'>173</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Buenos Aires, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Mendoza, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Montevideo, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Santiago, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>of Lima, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Wright, Marie Robinson, quoted, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>-<a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Yavarí River, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Yegros, General, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'><i>Yerba maté</i>, production of, in Rio Grande do Sul, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Argentina, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>in Paraguay, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>cultivation of, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>-<a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</div>
      <div class='line in2'>beneficial results from, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>-<a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Ypiranga, building in São Paulo, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Yupanqui, Inca ruler, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
 <div class='line c004'>Zamora, State of, Venezuela, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Zaruma, mines of, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>.</div>
    </div>
    <div class='group'>
      <div class='line'>Zenufana, region called, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</div>
    </div>
  </div>
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