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<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_Front" id="Figure_Front"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-frontis_0001.jpg">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-frontis_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="Frontispiece." title="BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS." />
</a>
<span class="caption">
<i>Frontispiece.</i> <br />
<i>Photo, Reid, Wishaw.</i><br />
BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS.<br />
The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was one of the best ever bred, &quot;Holywell
Countess Victoria.&quot;
</span>
</div>




<h1>THE PIG
<br />
<span style="font-size:large">BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING</span></h1>

<p class="center">BY</p>

<p class="center" style="font-size:large">SANDERS SPENCER</p>

<p class="center">
London
<br />
C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.
<br />
Henrietta Street
<br />
1919
</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>


<h3>CONTENTS</h3>

<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><th align="left">CHAPTER</th><th align="right">&nbsp;</th><th align="right">PAGE</th></tr>
<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Non-Pedigree Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pure Breeds</span> (with Standard Descriptions and Scales of Points)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cross-bred Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dentition and Age of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Boar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Selection of the Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Sow's Udder</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mating the Young Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Farrowing Sow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Weaning Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rearing of Young Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Housing of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Exhibition of Pigs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Present and Future Pig-keeping</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pig-fattening</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Pig Calendar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Diseases of the Pig</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Curing of Pork</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
</table></div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>

<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>



<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_Front"><span class="smcap">Breeding Sows of the Large and Middle White Breeds</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><th align="right">FACING PAGE</th></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F16"><span class="smcap">Large Black Boar, "Drayton King"</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">16</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F17"><span class="smcap">Pair of L.C.C. Gilts, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914</span></a>
</td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F32"><span class="smcap">A Berkshire Sow</span></a>
</td><td align="right">32</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F33"><span class="smcap">Large Black Sow, "Sudbourne Sadie"</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">33</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F48"><span class="smcap">Three Middle White Breeding Sows</span></a>
</td><td align="right">48</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F49"><span class="smcap">A Middle White Boar</span></a></td>
<td align="right">49</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F64"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Boar: Bishop of Webton</span></a>
</td><td align="right">64</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F65"><span class="smcap">Gloucester Old Spot Sow</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">65</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F80"><span class="smcap">Large White Boar</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">80</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F81"><span class="smcap">Tamworth Sow, "Queen of the Fairies"</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">81</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F96"><span class="smcap">Middle White Sow</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">96</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F97"><span class="smcap">Cumberland Sow</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">97</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F112"><span class="smcap">Large White Sow, "Worsley Sunbeam"</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">112</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">
<a href="#Figure_F113"><span class="smcap">Large White Ulster Boar</span></a>
</td>
<td align="right">113</td></tr>
</table></div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>




<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3>


<p>There are few points in the breeding of stock on
which a greater variation of opinion has been confidently
expressed than on the origin of the domesticated
pig. It has been contended that our various
types had a common origin in the wild hog, and that
the difference in form, colour, and character amongst
the local breeds is due, in the main, to the requirements,
imaginary or real, of the interested residents
in the particular districts. On the other hand, it is
asserted with equal confidence, and probably with
the same amount of actual proof, that it would be
impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection
as to render it the equal of the domesticated hog.
There must, therefore, have been an infusion of
blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even
that amount of success which was noticeable in the
improved pig of a century, or less, ago. Unfortunately,
for this argument, it has not been possible
to obtain any information of value as to the alleged
source of origin of this cultivated breed of pigs.</p>

<p>Again, those pigs which possess in a marked
degree early maturity, fine quality of flesh, and
those other characteristics of the improved pig, are
so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only
could not have been utilised in the general improvement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>

<p>All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have
experienced the same difficulty when endeavouring
to discover the sources of origin of the material
which might have been used in the production of
the pig which in their time was looked upon as the
domesticated and improved pig of the period. This
difficulty extends even to the present day. So far
as is known there exists no actual proof that the
domesticated hog has been evolved in any particular
way other than by continued selection of those
animals for breeding purposes which possessed in
the greatest degree those particular qualities held
in the highest estimation at the time.</p>

<p>Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in
which pigs are reared have a certain amount of
influence, but this is noticeable to a much lesser
extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep,
since under the present system of pig-breeding the
greater portion of the food used in the different
districts is of a very similar character&mdash;indeed,
much of it has a common origin&mdash;having been imported
from abroad.</p>

<p>As a rule, comparatively speaking very little
difference is noticeable in the development, form,
and character of pigs bred in the various parts of
the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated
animals a very considerable change follows
the removal of sheep of a pure breed from one
district to another. The quality and quantity of
the wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An
exactly similar effect is noticeable when horses of a
particular breed are moved from one district to
another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
may possess the characteristic bone, flesh, and hair,
yet if it be moved into portions of the Eastern
counties where the soil is of a totally different
character, it will when matured have lost, to a very
considerable extent, its peculiar characteristics of
bone and hair. The changes wrought may be due
in small measure to climate, but the predominant
cause must be due to the variation in the food
grown on soils of a different character.</p>

<p>This question of the original cause or causes of
the varying colour of the pigs in different localities
appears to be equally difficult of solution. As to
the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one
colour, custom and even prejudice have a great
effect. So strong is this prejudice that some
persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of
the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is
superior to that from pigs of any other colour. As
this weakness is common in districts where black
and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted
that prejudice alone must be the foundation of the
belief.</p>

<p>Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with
respect to the variation in colour of the pigs noticeable
in certain districts is that in the long ago the
native pig in the wild state was of the colour of the
soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was
thus less conspicuous to its enemies, whether human
or animal. A marked instance of this is to be found
in the colour of the common or original pig found in
some parts of the country where the soil is of a
decidedly red colour. In the district referred to one
actually hears some farms spoken of as "red land<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
farms." What more natural than to find in the
districts in which land of this hue predominates
that the pigs should be a red rusty hue such as was
the original colour of that breed of pigs now called
the Tamworth breed.</p>

<p>Some persons, who do not agree with this theory
of the origin of the various coloured pigs, cite as a
proof of their belief the fact that in so many districts
the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this
peculiar marking is equally as general in localities
as is any particular or special colour in the pigs.
This is perfectly true, and it is probably due to
exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom.
The residents in certain districts have grown accustomed
to certain things or certain forms, and are
loth to change; the manufacturer of any article
must humour the actual or fancied requirements of
his customers if he is to secure success; and in a
similar manner the breeder of pigs has to consider
and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour
which are most in demand. Further if, as confidently
alleged, there is a preference in some districts
for pork from pigs of a certain colour, then the
butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of
that colour which most fully satisfy the fancies of
his customers, and thus we find a similarity of form
and colour in the pigs of various districts.</p>

<p>As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the
explanation offered is that even in pre-railway times
there was a certain amount of interchange of the
different local breeds of stock. This would be
affected in various ways, which need not be specified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>

<p>At the present time we have several defined and
distinct breeds of pigs which have secured recognition
at our principal agricultural shows. Indeed
it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock
which have become so general in all parts of the
country have been one of the chief factors in fixing
to a certain extent the type and character of certain
local breeds. Within the memory of the present
writer the classification of pigs at our principal
shows was of a very simple character; it consisted
of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of
any other colour. There was no attempt at any
definition as to size, form, and quality of the pigs.
These points were left entirely to the judges, who
naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which
they bred. There was thus a greater amount of
uncertainty as to the success of an exhibitor's stock
than at the present time. This uncertainty&mdash;save
as to the members of the Show Committees or their
friends&mdash;was increased by the unfair system of
withholding from the knowledge of the average
exhibitor the names of those selected to judge.</p>

<p>The necessity of some definition, if only of colour,
quickly became obvious. At first classes were established
for pigs of certain colours; then the prizes
were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were
more or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows
the pigs exhibited in the various classes must be
qualified for entry in the herd books of the particular
breeds.</p>

<p>At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been
classes for pigs of the Large White, Middle White,
Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and Lincolnshire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next
show classes for pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire
Old Spots breed are to be included. As showing
the changes which are in progress it may be
noted that two breeds of pigs which had classes
provided for them at the Royal and some other
Shows have become extinct. These were the Small
White and the Small Black breeds&mdash;the sole cause
of their disappearance being the unsuitability of
the pigs of the breeds to supply the present requirements
of the consumer.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F16" id="Figure_F16"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep016_0001.jpg">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep016_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="LARGE BLACK BOAR"
title="LARGE BLACK BOAR" />
</a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i>
<br />
LARGE BLACK BOAR, &quot;DRAYTON KING.&quot;
<br />
Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show, 1913.
<br />
To face page 16.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F17" id="Figure_F17"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep017_0001.jpg">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep017_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS"
title="PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914." />
</a>
<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House, Graby, Folkingham.</i>
<br />
PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at Smithfield Show 1914.
<br />
1st Prize. Age 8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts.
<br />
To face page 17.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h2>THE PIG</h2>




<h3>CHAPTER I
<br />
NON-PEDIGREE PIGS</h3>


<p>Although the more general use of so-called pedigree
pigs has tended to modify the characteristics of the
various local breeds of pigs, yet it is possible to find
a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the
type of pig which has been in the past most generally
found in their district. This type was undoubtedly
fixed by the wants or fancies of those resident in the
particular portions of the country.</p>

<p>In the past it has been the practice when describing
these local breeds to write as though they were
confined to certain counties. It may be that
pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more
numerous within the borders of various counties,
but this is by no means always the case. The
habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than
the soil and climate&mdash;as with horses, cattle and
sheep&mdash;have the greatest influence on the form,
size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use and
custom appear to determine the colour of the pig.
We are of opinion that it will be more instructive
if we give a short description of some of the more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
common types of these local breeds of pigs, and
mention the names of those counties in which they
are more generally found.</p>

<p>Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds
is that which is variously termed the sheeted or
saddle-backed pig, which in the United States has
a society to look after its interests, and where it
bears the name of</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">The Hampshire</span></h4>

<p>Just why our American cousins should have
decided to call these sheeted pigs Hampshires is
not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs
give to the county of Sussex the credit of being
their original home. The description given by
Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a coarse
and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and
not in the same refined class as the Essex." Richardson
writes "The Hampshire breed is not infrequently
confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is
longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and
the snout sharp. The colour of the breed is usually
dark spotted; but it is sometimes black altogether,
and more frequently white."</p>

<p>The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county
of Essex for over a century, but it is recorded that
it was introduced into this county by a Mr. Western
who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose
estate was situated in Essex.</p>

<p>In Sidney's book <i>The Pig</i>, we read, "West Sussex,
Hampshire, Berkshire, Dorset, Shropshire and Wales
had indigenous black or red and black breeds of
swine; and between the whites, the blacks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
the reds the parti-colours were produced which have
since in a great degree disappeared under the
influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure
breeds of single colours."</p>

<p>Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the
authors who have followed him down to the latest
work published on the subject, occupy space in
describing various county pigs which have long
ceased to possess, if they ever possessed, any merit
worth the attention of the breeder."</p>

<p>The Rudgwick, which is another name for the
sheeted pig, is included in the list. Richardson at a
still earlier date describes the Sussex breed as
"black and white in colour, but not <i>spotted</i>; that
is to say, these colours are distributed in very large
patches; one half&mdash;say, for instance, the fore part
of the body white and the hinder end black; or
sometimes both ends black and the middle white or
<i>vice versâ</i>; these pigs are in no way remarkable;
they seldom feed to over twenty stone. They are
well made, of middle size, and their skin covered
with scanty bristles. The snout tapering and firm,
the ears upright and pointed, the jowl deep and the
body compactly round. They arrive at early
maturity, fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent."</p>

<p>Richardson also writes, "There is another improved
Essex breed, called the Essex Half-Blacks,
resembling that which I have described in colour,
said to be descended from the Berkshire. This
breed was originally introduced by Lord Western,
and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc.</p>

<p>He then quotes from <i>The Complete Grazier</i>, sixth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
edition, as follows: "They are black and white,
short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads and
ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside
hair which is a distinctive mark of both; have
short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad and deep
in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in
the bone and offal. They feed remarkably fast and
are of an excellent quality of meat. The sows are
good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to
twelve; but they have the character of being bad
nurses." If this allegation were true at the time it
was written, it is not at the present time as the Half-Blacks
or sheeted sows are both prolific and first-rate
mothers.</p>

<p>Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called
the Rudgwick, was one of the largest in England.
There appears to be a doubt as to whether the
coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire
or the black and white Essex. They were of
medium size, of good quality generally, but of
somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted
view is that the Essex sheeted pig was descended
from importations from the county of Sussex. These
sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex,
but the system of crossing which is generally followed
by pig breeders in the county is gradually reducing
its number, although even amongst the cross-breeds
the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At
the time of writing there is a movement on foot to
form a society for the purpose of reviving the breed.
From the utility point of view the sheeted pig has
much to recommend it, but whether or not one or
more of the breeds of pigs whose pedigrees are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
already recorded do not possess at least equal merits
must be left for decision by others.</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">Spotted Pigs</span></h4>

<p>In many districts are found other parti-coloured
pigs, but in these the black, the white, and the red
colours show themselves in spots of varying size and
extent. Probably amongst the best types of these
spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of
the county of Northampton, and portions of the
counties of Leicester and Oxford adjoining. In the
former county the pigs have more of black than
white in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red
spots are more often seen. This is probably due to
a stronger infusion of the blood of the Staffordshire
red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The
blood of the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire
or the Small Black is credited with being the origin
of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted
pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or
"plum pudding" pigs as they are locally termed,
are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and the
production of pork possessing a large proportion of
lean to fat meat. They are also good grazers, and
grow to a size quite the equal of the Berkshire. In
form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh
pork trade than for the manufacture of bacon of
the kind now so much in demand.</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">The Large White and Blue Pigs</span></h4>

<p>Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a
white colour and skins more or less mottled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
blue are gradually giving place to pigs with finer
hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse
lop ears are being reduced in size and thickness,
whilst the pig itself is becoming less gaunt and its
early maturity considerably increased by crossing
with the better quality Large White and the
quickly maturing Middle White. These coarse
white with blue markings pigs were common in the
Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely
and Lincolnshire, and in the counties of Bedford,
Cheshire, etc.</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">White Pigs</span></h4>

<p>Within the memory of persons now living, white
pigs of varying types were found in various parts of
this country. Many of these white pigs found in
Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little
to recommend them as they were flat sided, long
legged, hard feeders, and required to be comparatively
old before they could be turned into pork.
A vast improvement has of late years been effected
in these unprofitable swine by crossing them with
compact and early maturing pigs of different colours,
but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when
Large Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old
Spots boars have been introduced in Norfolk.</p>

<p>At one time white pigs of a small size were by no
means uncommon in Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex,
Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other counties.
The origin of these small, compact, and early
maturing pigs appears to have been a cross of the
imported Chinese on the neater and shorter country
pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do,
but the general public objected to the pork produced
by them, owing to its excessive fatness. The
bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short
sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the
cured carcases. During the last thirty years comparatively
few of these pretty, but useless, pigs
have been bred.</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">Black Pigs</span></h4>

<p>The description given of the two main types of
white pigs would apply equally well to the Black
pigs common in this country, save with respect to
colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in
Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These
pigs were noted for their prolificacy, hardihood, and
quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a full supply
of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow
feeders that it became necessary to cross them with
pigs which matured more quickly. A type of black
pig similar in form to the Small White was also
found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire,
Dorset, and one or two other counties the colour of
the pigs was blue rather than black, and of a somewhat
larger size, but possessing the same weakness,
too large a proportion of fat to lean meat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />



<h3>CHAPTER II
<br />
PURE BREEDS</h3>


<p>The task of writing a description of the various
breeds of swine has been rendered less difficult by
the formation during the past half-century of
societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the
pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up
of scales of those points which pigs for entry in the
particular herd books should possess. The first of
these societies was the National Pig Breeders
Association, of which the present writer was the
honorary secretary for two years. At the time of
its formation the breeds of pigs most generally
recognised were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle,
and Small Whites or Yorkshires, and the Small
Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of
the pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be
recorded by the Association and published in one
herd book.</p>

<p>There is no doubt that this would have been an
ideal plan, and would have resulted in a saving of
much labour and expense, and decidedly more convenient
for those connected with the export trade.
For reasons into which it is not now necessary to
enter, the breeders of Berkshires determined to have
a separate herd book; therefore, they started a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
society which they named the British Berkshire
Society, to distinguish it from the American Berkshire
Record.</p>

<p>Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became
recognised by the Royal Agricultural Society, and
the breeders of the red pig joined the National Pig
Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small
White and Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually
the pedigrees of Large White, Middle White,
and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the
N.P.A. Herd Book.</p>

<p>Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs
formed themselves into a society presumably for
propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of
breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other
breeds of pigs have been brought to public notice,
and have had herd books, and societies specially
devoted to their particular interests. The Large
Black, Large White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly
Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire Old Spots, and the
Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded.
An attempt was made some years since to resuscitate
the Oxfordshire Spotted pig, but it was not a
continued success. It is quite possible that other
local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to
form societies to bring before the public the many
good qualities possessed by the pigs of these breeds,
but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if
any permanent benefit will supervene from this
multiplication of herd books&mdash;save that it may increase
the interest in pig breeding, a result devoutly
to be prayed for.</p>

<p>The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
of pigs whose pedigrees are recorded in the various
herd books has rendered it unnecessary for us to
endeavour to formulate the good qualities which
are presumably those which are more or less completely
possessed by these pedigreed animals, nor
does the necessity exist for us to mention those
particular qualities which each breed is supposed
by the admirers of other breeds to lack. There is
no doubt that each breed possesses certain points
which render it specially suitable for differing
localities and varying purposes.</p>

<p>Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an
animal, as a converter of various substances into
pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those
responsible for the running of these societies is
towards fancy points to the detriment of the practical
points. There appears to have been some
grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small
Black, the Berkshire, and the Large White have all
been affected by the acts of faddists. The three
first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain
of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase
the so-called quality until the consumers of pork
refused to follow the fashion; whilst the craze
which has seriously affected the utility of the Large
White pigs has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an
endeavour to so vastly increase the size that they
ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of
joints which the general public demanded. It may
be natural for fanciers to declare that a Small White
or a Small Black pig must be a small animal, but
this is only on comparison with the large breeds of
the same colour and characteristics. The usefulness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
of the pig in the commercial world must be
studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the
market.</p>

<p>The opposite extreme to that followed by the
breeders of the small breeds is that of the breeders
of Large Whites, who look upon mere size as the
most important of the points to be studied. The
mere increase in bulk, in length of head and leg and
weight of bone may appeal to the mere fancier or
faddist, but by paying undue attention to these
fancy points the actual object of the breeding and
fattening of pigs is lost sight of, and the consumer
who is after all the one whose wants must first
receive study, is estranged and the commercial
market is lost.</p>

<p>In the following pages will be found full particulars
together with the scales of points, as issued
by the various societies, of the chief breeds and
varieties.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>


<h3>STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE</h3>

<h4>LARGE WHITE</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>&mdash;White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible
from blue spots on the skin.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>&mdash;Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not
too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the
ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>&mdash;Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with
fine hair.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>&mdash;Long, and proportionately full to shoulders.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>&mdash;Wide and deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>&mdash;Level across the top, not too wide, free from
coarseness.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>&mdash;Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body
with flat bone.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>&mdash;Short and springy.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>&mdash;Strong, even, and wide.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>&mdash;Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>&mdash;Broad.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>&mdash;Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of
fine hair.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>&mdash;Deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>&mdash;Well sprung.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>&mdash;Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>&mdash;Thick, and well let down.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>&mdash;Long and wide.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>&mdash;Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>&mdash;Long and moderately fine.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>&mdash;Firm and free.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>&mdash;Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles.

<br />Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until
some months old, the pig at five months often proving at a
year or 15 months a much better animal than could be anticipated
at the earlier age and <i>vice versâ</i>; but size and quality
are most important.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>&mdash;Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse
mane, short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of
shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></li>
</ul>

<h4>MIDDLE WHITE</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>&mdash;White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the
skin.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>&mdash;Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned
up, jowl full, wide between ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>&mdash;Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>&mdash;Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>&mdash;Wide and deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>&mdash;Level across the top, moderately wide, free from
coarseness.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>&mdash;Straight and well set, level with the outside of body
with fine bone.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>&mdash;Short and springy.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>&mdash;Strong, even, and wide.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>&mdash;Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>&mdash;Broad.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>&mdash;Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of
fine hair.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>&mdash;Deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>&mdash;Well sprung.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>&mdash;Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>&mdash;Thick and well let down.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>&mdash;Long and wide.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>&mdash;Broad, full, and deep to hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>&mdash;Long, fine, and silky.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>&mdash;Firm and free.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>&mdash;Fine, and quite free from wrinkles.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>&mdash;Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane,
inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled
skin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></li>
</ul>

<h4>TAMWORTH</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Colour.</span>&mdash;Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from
black.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Head.</span>&mdash;Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight,
face slightly dished, wide between ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>&mdash;Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined
slightly forward.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>&mdash;Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>&mdash;Wide and deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>&mdash;Fine, slanting, and well set.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>&mdash;Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well
outside body.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>&mdash;Strong and sloping.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>&mdash;Strong, and of fair size.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back.</span>&mdash;Long and straight.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>&mdash;Strong and broad.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>&mdash;Set on high and well tasselled.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>&mdash;Long and deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>&mdash;Well sprung and extending well up to flank.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Belly.</span>&mdash;Deep, with straight under line.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Flank.</span>&mdash;Full and well let down.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>&mdash;Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>&mdash;Broad, and full, well let down to hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>&mdash;Abundant, long, straight, and fine.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Action.</span>&mdash;Firm and free.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>&mdash;Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat,
coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears,
short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin,
inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></li>
</ul>

<h4>BERKSHIRE PIGS</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.&mdash;Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Skin</span>.&mdash;Fine, and free from wrinkles.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hair</span>.&mdash;Long, fine, and plentiful.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.&mdash;Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide
between the eyes and ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.&mdash;Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward,
and fringed with fine hair.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.&mdash;Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and
not heavy.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.&mdash;Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.&mdash;Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.&mdash;Wide and deep to hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.&mdash;Set high, and fairly large.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Flank</span>.&mdash;Deep and well let down, and making straight under
line.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs and Feet</span>.&mdash;Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart,
and hoofs nearly erect.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Imperfections</span>.&mdash;A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white
ear. A crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin
on the body. A rose back. A very coarse mane, and inbent
knees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></li>
</ul>

<h4>LARGE BLACK PIG</h4>

<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5>


<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head</span>.&mdash;Medium length and wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.&mdash;Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extendingbeyond point of nose</td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.&mdash;Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.&mdash;Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.&mdash;Well developed, in line with the ribs</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.&mdash;Long and level</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.&mdash;Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.&mdash;Very deep</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.&mdash;Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.&mdash;Thick and well developed</td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.&mdash;Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.&mdash;Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.&mdash;Set high, of moderate size</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.&mdash;Short, straight, flat, and strong</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.&mdash;Fine and soft, with moderate quantity of straight, silky hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr>
</table></div>

<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.&mdash;Head&mdash;narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears&mdash;thick,
coarse, or pricked. Coat&mdash;curly or coarse, with rose,
bristly mane. Skin&mdash;wrinkled.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification</span>.&mdash;Colour&mdash;any other than black.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></li>
</ul>


<h4>LARGE WHITE ULSTER</h4>

<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5>



<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Head.</span>&mdash;Moderately long, wide between the ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears.</span>&mdash;Long, thin, and inclined well over the face</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl.</span>&mdash;Light</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Neck.</span>&mdash;Fairly long and muscular</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest.</span>&mdash;Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders.</span>&mdash;Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs.</span>&mdash;Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside of the body, with flat bone, not coarse</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pasterns.</span>&mdash;Straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back.</span>&mdash;Long and level (rising a little to centre of back not objected to)</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides.</span>&mdash;Very deep</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ribs.</span>&mdash;Well sprung</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin.</span>&mdash;Broad</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters.</span>&mdash;Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams.</span>&mdash;Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank.</span>&mdash;Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail.</span>&mdash;Well set and not coarse</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>&mdash;Fine and soft</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat.</span>&mdash;Small quantity of fine silky hair</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr>
</table></div>

<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Objections.</span>&mdash;Head&mdash;narrow forehead. Ears&mdash;thick, coarse,
or pricked. Coat&mdash;coarse or curly; bristly mane.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Disqualification.</span>&mdash;Colour&mdash;any other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></li>
</ul>


<h4>LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG</h4>

<h5><span class="smcap">Scale of Points</span></h5>



<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.&mdash;White</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Face and Neck</span>.&mdash;Medium length and wide between the eyes and ears</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.&mdash;Medium length, and not too much over face</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.&mdash;Heavy</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.&mdash;Wide and deep</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.&mdash;Wide</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back</span>.&mdash;Long and level</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.&mdash;Very deep, and ribs well sprung</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.&mdash;Broad</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.&mdash;Long, wide, and not drooping</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.&mdash;Large and well filled to hocks</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.&mdash;Set high and thick</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.&mdash;Short and straight</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.&mdash;Thick and well filled</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Coat</span>.&mdash;Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" class="bt">100</td></tr>
</table></div>

<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.&mdash;Head&mdash;narrow forehead. Ears&mdash;Thin.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.&mdash;Ears&mdash;pricked. Nose&mdash;dished or long.
Coat&mdash;coarse, straight, or bristly. Colour of hair&mdash;any
other than white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></li>
</ul>


<h4>THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.&mdash;Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide
and medium length, slightly dished.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.&mdash;Rather long and drooping.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.&mdash;Medium size.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.&mdash;Fairly long and muscular.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.&mdash;Wide and deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.&mdash;Well developed but not projecting and in line
with ribs, must not show any coarseness.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.&mdash;Long and level.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.&mdash;Deep, well sprung.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Loin</span>.&mdash;Very broad.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.&mdash;Very deep and presenting straight bottom line.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.&mdash;Full and thick.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.&mdash;Long, wide, and not drooping.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.&mdash;Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long
and carrying brush.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.&mdash;Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.&mdash;Short, straight and strong.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.&mdash;Skin light or dark, must not show coloured
splotches otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat.
The latter should be full and fairly thick, hair long and
silky but not curly, with an absence of mane bristles.
Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on
white ground. Such spots to be of medium size.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Teats</span>.&mdash;Minimum number of teats to be considered.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.&mdash;Head&mdash;narrow, face and nose both dished.
Ears&mdash;thick, floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat&mdash;Coarse
or curly with rose; bristly mane, or decidedly sandy
colour; skewbald or saddleback markings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></li>
</ul>

<h4>THE CUMBERLAND PIG</h4>
<ul class="nest">
<li><span class="smcap">Head</span>.&mdash;Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between
ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ears</span>.&mdash;Falling forward over face, long and thin.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Jowl</span>.&mdash;Heavy.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Neck</span>.&mdash;Fairly long and muscular.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Chest</span>.&mdash;Deep and wide.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Shoulders</span>.&mdash;Deep and sloping into the back, blades not
prominent, but in line with ribs, not too wide on top.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Back</span>.&mdash;Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Ribs</span>.&mdash;Deep and well sprung.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Loins</span>.&mdash;Broad and strong.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Sides</span>.&mdash;Deep.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Belly and Flank</span>.&mdash;Full and thick.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Quarters</span>.&mdash;Long and level or with only very slight droop.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Tail</span>.&mdash;Set high, not coarse.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Hams</span>.&mdash;Very large and well filled to hocks.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Legs</span>.&mdash;Short, straight, and strong.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Colour</span>.&mdash;White.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Skin and Coat</span>.&mdash;Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and
not too much of it.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Size</span>.&mdash;Large without coarseness.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Disqualifications</span>.&mdash;Black spots, black hair, prick ears.</li>

<li><span class="smcap">Objections</span>.&mdash;Blue spots.</li>
</ul>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F32" id="Figure_F32"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep032_0001.jpg">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep032_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="A BERKSHIRE SOW."
title="A BERKSHIRE SOW." />
</a>
<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i>
<br />
A BERKSHIRE SOW.
<br />
To face page 32.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
<a name="Figure_F33" id="Figure_F33"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep033.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep033_tn.jpg" width="350" height="263" alt="Large Black Sow"
title="Large Black Sow" /></a>
<span class="caption">LARGE BLACK SOW, &quot;Sudbourne Sadie.&quot;
<br /> Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich.
<br /> To face page 33.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER III
<br />
CROSS-BRED PIGS</h3>


<p>This term has a varying meaning to different
persons. There are those who term a pig a cross-bred
unless it be bred from parents of recorded
pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable
of registration. Others claim that a cross-bred is
any pig which is bred indiscriminately from boar
and sow of no particular type or breeding&mdash;in fact
common pigs of the country; whilst still others
declare that the title of cross-bred can be legitimately
applied only to a pig whose parents were of
two different pure breeds in contradistinction to a
pig sired by a pure bred boar, and from a common
sow, or the diverse way.</p>

<p>It is not for us to determine the knotty point,
but we may venture the opinion that the two first
definitions of a cross-bred are not convincing to us,
since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary
to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds.
Probably the most correct definition of a cross-bred
animal is one bred from the mating of sire and dam
of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely
applied to an animal begotten by a sire or from a
dam of pedigree breeding, the other parent being of
no particular breed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>

<p>This system of breeding has become somewhat
common owing to the comparatively small outlay
required in the purchase of a boar as compared
with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also
to the belief which is general that a greater improvement
in the produce is noticeable when the boar is
pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular
breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar
a common bred one. In addition to this there is the
important point that the pure bred boar should be
able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas
the pure bred sow will not produce more than two
litters annually, so that the advantage obtainable
from the outlay on one pure bred boar is twenty-five
times as great as is possible from the purchase
of a pure bred sow.</p>

<p>There is also another advantage to the owner of
a boar who has only a limited number of sows, he
can allow his neighbours to make use of his boar on
payment of a liberal service fee, which combined
will partially pay for the prime cost of the boar.</p>

<p>A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced
in the purchase of a pure bred boar rather
than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows are
neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are
common bred sows. This belief was even more
common in years gone by than it is at the present
time, and it must be candidly confessed that there
existed substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years
since it became fashionable, particularly amongst
those who had suddenly become rich by trade or
in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural
shows. They may have been animated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
the laudable desire of endeavouring to assist farmers
and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a
place in the sun may have had some slight influence.
As the majority of these exhibitors of stock had no
special knowledge of stock, they were compelled to
place themselves entirely in the hands of their
managers and stockman, who generally received by
arrangement a certain percentage of the prize
money won by the stock. It was then only natural
that they gave far more attention to the show points
of the animals in their charge than to the breeding
qualities.</p>

<p>The supply of pedigree animals was also very
limited at about the period mentioned so that it
was much more difficult to avoid too close breeding,
nor was there the same care taken in the private
record of the pedigrees of the animals bred. These
various causes combined led to a loss of vitality
amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this
weakening of the constitution showed itself in a
reduction in the number of the offspring and in the
power of the dam to furnish its young with a full
supply of well-balanced milk.</p>

<p>There is little doubt that in the third quarter of
the past century a considerable proportion of the
pedigree sows were not so prolific as they ought to
have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly
well so many pigs at each litter as the common sow
of the country was capable of doing. A more
general study of stock breeding has tended to compel
attention to the practical apart from the show
points of pedigree pigs, but probably the strongest
influence has been the formation of the various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
breed societies, and the registration of the produce
including the number, sex, and sire of the pigs.
These entries most clearly showed those breeders
of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility
points of their pigs, especially those particular
points in which pedigree pigs were generally believed
to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows of
the same families afforded the best possible confirmation
of the belief which was becoming general that
prolificacy like many other qualities was most
certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure
bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily
slow breeders, helped vastly to increase the
demand for pedigree animals for crossing purposes
in the breeding of commercial stock.</p>

<p>The enormous benefit which has resulted from the
use of pedigree sires is most clearly proved in the
Irish live stock. The so-called premium bulls and
boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with
the sanction of the Live Stock Commissioners and
placed at the service of the general public at a
somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to
the owner an annual premium of some £15 for each
bull, and a certain sum for each boar.</p>

<p>It is alleged that the original improvement in the
ordinary pig stock of those parts of Ireland where
pig-keeping on a considerable scale is followed, was
due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large
White boars, as after experiments carried out in
Denmark, these boars were found to effect the
greatest improvement in the common country pigs
and to render them far more suitable for conversion
into the kind of bacon which was in most general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
demand, and of course realised the highest price.
For the beginning of the vast improvement in the
Irish pig which has followed the importation of
these Large White boars, the Irish bacon curers
must receive the credit, as they joined together in
the purchase of these boars which were distributed
in those districts from which the various factories
drew their supplies of fat pigs.</p>

<p>A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of
Calne who purchased some hundreds of boars of the
Large White breed, and at first lent them on certain
conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the
young boars by auction for whatever they would
fetch, their object being to secure the use of these
boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable
for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers.</p>

<p>There may or may not be any grounds for the
belief that the sire has a greater influence in the
external form of the joint produce than does the
dam, but this belief has also had its influence in
determining breeders of cross breds to use the pure
bred sire on the ordinary stock of the country,
rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt
that apart from the improvement in the general
quality of the produce of the pure bred sire there
results a general uniformity of the young stock,
which is a great recommendation when they are
placed on the market either as stores, or when
fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This
uniformity of type and character in the young
stock would be more noticeable still if the buyers of
the pure bred sires were to continue their purchases
from the same herds, providing that the owners of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
them were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous
breeding.</p>

<p>So many people appear to be content with the
knowledge that the sire which they are purchasing
has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred sire
eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but
they forget that it is possible in the crossing of two
pedigree animals of a similar breed to obtain as
great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating
of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity
in a herd, stud, or flock can only be rendered
comparatively certain by the continued use of sires
of similar breeding. In making a compound, its
character is determined by the proportion of the
various ingredients used in its manufacture. So it
is in the breeding of stock, those points which are
most predominant in proportion in the blood of the
sire and dam will, on the average, be represented in
an equal degree in the joint produce. This it is
which renders so impressive a sire which is descended
from closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has
handed down a proportion of its own particular
characteristics so that the larger the number of
animals amongst its forbears which possessed these
particular points the greater the certainty of their
being possessed by the produce. The meaning of
this may be made more clear by pointing out that
the result of the mixing together of various mixtures
will depend entirely on the proportion of the substances
used in the manufacture or compounding
of those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the
characteristics of its forbears.</p>

<p>There exists generally an opinion that the produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
of two parents of distinct breeds, or as it is
termed a first cross is commonly superior to a pure
bred of either of the two breeds represented by the
parents. It is difficult to discover the cause of this,
if it be a fact. If one of the parents were deficient
in stamina the produce might conceivably be more
robust, and it might also occasionally happen that
the mixture of the qualities or properties possessed
by the parents would result in improvement, as
happens when a distinct new breed is originated;
but as a rule the good and the bad qualities of the
produce from the mating of two animals of diverse
breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities
possessed by the parents.</p>

<p>The mere mixing of the blood of two animals
differently bred cannot increase the good or bad
properties, but the combination might possibly result
in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand.</p>

<p>Another claim commonly made for the crossing
of animals is that the risk of that delicacy of constitution
which they assert is far too common
amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close
breeding, is hereby avoided. It must be admitted
that in times past there was a certain amount of
cause for this complaint of want of constitution
amongst pedigree animals, but the cause has been
considerably if not entirely removed by the more
careful recording of the breeding, and by the more
drastic screening out of any animals suspected of
delicacy of constitution.</p>

<p>The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing
purposes have also become more careful in their
selection. They have ceased to imagine that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
because the owner of certain animals most of which
he has purchased is successful in winning prizes at
the chief agricultural shows, the whole of the
animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal
excellence or at all events sufficiently good for the
production of profitable commercial stock. Action
on this mistaken belief has led to much disappointment
in the past, since the home bred animals may
have been of totally different blood from those which
have won prizes, and further they may not be inbred
for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to
render them prepotent enough to impress their
good qualities on their produce.</p>

<p>Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding
is the heavy cost of replacing the breeding stock, as
to obtain a first cross, a succession of sires and dams
must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty
by merely buying sires of a breed similar to
the first used, but then the produce ceases to be
cross-breds and become grades until such time as
by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar
breed the produce become eligible for entry in the
herd book of the sires which have been continuously
used. This system of breeding insures a greater
uniformity in the produce providing that the sires
selected are of similar breeding, type, and character,
than even by the system of crossing sire and dam of
two pure breeds.</p>

<p>The risk attending too close breeding as in the
breeding of pure breds is also avoided provided
that the herd from which the sires are bought is
sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet
of similar breeding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>

<p>No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary
farm stock of the country will for one moment deny
that there is still vast room for improvement in our
live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is
equally the fact that our Government has not
shown a readiness equal to that of some foreign
Governments, and even of the authorities in some
of our colonies to assist farmers in obtaining the use
of improved sires. Take Canada as an instance.
For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been
purchasing and delivering free into districts needing
them, male animals for the use of farmers and
stock owners free, save stallions, for which a covering
fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance
of the stallion. The other important condition
which relates to all the sires provided by the
authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be
paid by the Local Association which has the management
of the sire and the arrangement of its services.</p>

<p>Another noticeable point is that all the sires
allocated to the various districts are Canadian bred,
and so far as is possible are purchased in the province
in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly
to encourage in Canada the breeding of
pure bred animals and may thus far be considered
satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption
which may not be justified that there exists in the
Dominion a sufficiency of stock equal in quality
and breeding to those which it may be possible to
import.</p>

<p>Within the past three or four years our Board of
Agriculture have taken some steps to assist our
farmers to improve their stock. The assistance has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
taken the form of offering premiums of fixed
amounts to private persons or associations who
hired or purchased approved stallions, bulls, and
boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service
of the stock of the public. Already great benefit
has been derived from the use of the stallions and
bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the
pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was
attempted to be enforced as to the formation of pig
clubs and impracticable conditions the number of
boars located in the country has been much smaller
than would have been had the conditions at present
in force been adopted at the initiation of the
scheme.</p>

<p>The boar conditions are now of a similar character
to those in force from the first with regard to
stallions and bulls. In addition to the supply of
male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt
has been made to assist in the recording of the milk
yield of cows, a matter of the highest importance.
If only this could be extended to sows there would
soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint
of the owners of sows of certain breeds of
pedigree pigs, as to the limited quantity of milk
which is provided by the sows for their litters of
pigs.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F48" id="Figure_F48"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep048_0001.jpg">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep048_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="321" alt="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS."
title="THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth.</i>
<br />
THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS.
<br />
The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor, near St. Ives.
<br />
To face page 48.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F49" id="Figure_F49"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep049_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep049_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR."
title="A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i>
<br />
A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR.
<br />
From the Author&#39;s Pig Farm.
<br />
To face page 49.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER IV
<br />
DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS</h3>


<p>Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to
be, and may be able to substantiate the claim to be,
equally as honest as the majority of others in trade,
yet there may be a small minority who are apt to
attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they
really are. It is most annoying when you are
anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven months
old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to
have pigs of four or five months old which continue
to make growth instead of flesh, so that they are
not ready for killing until two or three months after
they are required for conversion into bacon.</p>

<p>Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield
Club is to prevent fraud of a different character,
i.e. the exhibition in classes limited to certain ages
of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry
form, yet the following table showing the normal
state of the dentition of pigs at certain fixed ages
will enable purchasers to discover whether or not
the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at
once be admitted that there will be a limited number
of cases in which the state of dentition of pigs is
abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some
thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
have no hesitation in asserting that more than half,
at least, of the variations from the normal are
allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of
experience is quite able to arrive at the approximate
age of a pig by its development and appearance;
some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge
more or less fully developed, but this examination
of the state of dentition is of the greatest
possible assistance in arriving at the actual age
of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case
of a difference of opinion between buyer and
seller.</p>

<p>The following are the conditions of the state of
dentition to which all pigs have to conform ere they
are allowed to compete for the prizes offered by the
Smithfield Club at their annual shows:&mdash;</p>

<p>"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut
will be considered as exceeding six months.</p>

<p>"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than
half up will be considered as exceeding nine
months.</p>

<p>"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up,
and any of the first three permanent molars cut, will
be considered as exceeding twelve months.</p>

<p>"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors
shed, and the permanents appearing will be considered
as exceeding fifteen months.</p>

<p>"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors
fully up will be considered as exceeding eighteen
months."</p>

<p>As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by
amateurs are young pigs it may be advisable to
state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig
three months old should have all four temporary
incisors cut, the two outside ones being more than
half as long as the two central incisors.</p>

<p>As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a
child are merely temporary, and as these give place
at fairly definite ages of the owner to permanent
ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as
clearly as possible the position and appearance of
the temporaries as compared with the permanents.
The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed
of teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on
each side of the upper and lower jaw. It has been
suggested that these early teeth are provided to
assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when
in the act of sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat
in length; those pigs which are carried by the
sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently
have longer and even sharper teeth than
those of pigs which are born at the usual time.
These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark
colour. This is doubtless the origin of the remark
commonly made by old-fashioned pigmen that
"pigs born with black teeth never do well." This
might have been so prior to the discovery that the
breaking off the sharp teeth of the newly born pigs
frequently saved trouble, and often the life of the
little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at
birth are usually more robust rather than the
reverse, since the sow carrying them beyond the
allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of
health, and her pigs consequently more fully
developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>

<p>When the pig is about a month old, the two
central incisors are cut in each jaw, these are two
of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig at a
subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also
cut on each side of the jaw above and below, with
the first temporary molar in each place ready to
come through the gum.</p>

<p>At two months the temporary central incisors
are fully developed, and the two lateral temporary
incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are not
already through. All three temporary molars are
now about level.</p>

<p>When the pig is about three months old its
temporary teeth are all in position, the temporary
lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long as
the temporary central incisors. Owing to the
lengthening of the jaws the two temporary corner
teeth which were present at birth will have become
further apart. When the pig is about five months,
the fourth molar in either jaw shows itself in the
gums, then at six months the wolf teeth show
between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth
molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The
corner incisors and the tusks usually disappear, and
are replaced by permanents when the pig is nine
months old. The second permanent molar also
shows itself. At twelve months the two central
temporary incisors give place to the permanents;
these last are more square in form than the temporaries,
and are thus easily distinguished. The
three temporary molars will also be ready for displacement
by three permanents. These last will be
level with the other permanent molars when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
pig is fifteen months. The two lateral incisors will
also have given place to permanents. At eighteen
months the third permanent molars will be coming
through, and at the age of twenty months the pig's
teeth are fully developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER V
<br />
SELECTION OF THE BOAR</h3>


<p>The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd"
appears to have a different meaning to varying
persons. To some it conveys the idea that the
selection of the sire is of far more importance than
the selection of the dam because the influence of
the sire is so much more powerful than that of the
dam on at least the external form and character of
the produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took
a particularly keen interest in the breeding of pigs,
used to declare that the appearance and form of the
young pigs far more generally followed those of the
sire than of the dam; whilst the influence of the
latter was more shown in the character and constitution
of their joint produce; or in other words,
that the boar stamped his character to a greater
extent on the external points of the young, whilst
the sow more strongly influenced the internal parts
of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this
idea has gained ground to a large extent from the
fact that the use of a pure bred sire on ordinary or
grade females has been very much more common
than the crossing of pure bred females by the
ordinary or non-pedigree sire; as also from the far
greater numbers of young which each pure bred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
sire would improve, than would be improved by
each pure bred female which might be crossed.</p>

<p>If only for this reason alone, we would always
recommend buyers who are desirous of grading up
and improving their farm stock to attempt to do
this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved
sire. The original outlay is infinitely less,
whilst the immediate results are comparatively
longer.</p>

<p>It is scarcely desirable to go further into the
question as to the comparative influence on the
young of the sire and the dam since our actual
knowledge of the subject is by no means large.
Indeed, it is at the least doubtful, if by the closest
observation any definite opinion on the subject is
possible, so great is the difference which varying
parents have on the chief characteristics of their
joint progeny, and even in the separate specimens
which they have procreated. Of course, it is quite
possible to breed animals especially well developed
or endowed with certain qualities, providing that
the parents have been for generations selected because
of their possession in a marked degree of
those particular qualities sought. It is in this
power of prepotency that one of the chief benefits
from the use of a pure bred sire or dam arises. By
the term pure bred is not meant merely that the
names of a certain number of the forbears of the
animal shall have been recorded in the register of
the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain
number of generations have been bred on similar
lines so that it shall possess a considerable amount
of concentrated blood. This is a point to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers
of so-called pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary
bred or graded stock. The far too common practice
is to purchase each boar required from a totally
different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar
breeding, with the result that there is not the
slightest uniformity in the appearance or character
of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready
for market.</p>

<p>It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief
value of a record of the pedigree is that by it one
can trace the breeding of the animal's progenitors,
and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of
the probable produce&mdash;providing it is possible to
learn the chief characteristics of the progenitors.
Failing this, the only course open is to note the
names of the breeders of the more recent parents,
as from this a certain amount of information as to
the probable qualities of the parents may be obtained
or surmised.</p>

<p>Another point on which at least a diversity of
opinion exists, is the wisdom of giving so much
consideration to the fact that the herd from which
the sire is purchased shall have been recently
successful in the show yard, or in extreme cases,
that the sire itself shall have been a prize winner.
It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded
in winning one or more prizes is a proof that
it possesses in a marked degree those qualities
which are most highly prized. This may be conceded,
yet there is no certainty that the mating of this
winning sire even with dams that have also been
prize winners shall result in the production of young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
the equal of the parents, since the winners at the
various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding.</p>

<p>But the case would be quite different if the
winning sire and dam came from the same old
established herd in which the animals had been
bred for generations on similar lines. It is this
concentration of certain qualities in generation
after generation which renders the pedigree animal
so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated
with animals of an ordinary character or not possessing
concentrated breeding. Indeed, it may be safely
assumed that the power of a parent to impress its
own individuality and qualities on its produce,
depends to a very large extent, if not entirely, on
the comparative hereditary extent of those qualities
in comparison with the other qualities possessed by
itself, or by the animal with which it may have
been mated.</p>

<p>In other words, it is contended that the sire or
the dam has not the power to impress certain of its
characteristics on its young, merely because of its
sex, but that this power depends on the proportion
in the sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who
possessed in a marked degree certain qualities.</p>

<p>It is with the breeding of animals as with the
manufacture of a compound article. The character
and quality of that compound will vary according
to the proportion of the various ingredients used in
its manufacture. It is to this law or fact that the
marked impressiveness of certain strains of blood
is attributable.</p>

<p>Again, the marked and long continued success of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
the blood of the animals bred by a few of our most
successful breeders of live stock is in the main due
to the fact that the owners set up a standard and
persistently selected and bred together only animals
possessing to a greater or lesser extent the particular
qualities which together comprised that standard.
There is not the slightest doubt that in carrying out
their system they were often compelled to mate
animals related in blood the one to the other, but in
this there is little risk providing that all those
animals which show the slightest symptom of
delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted
out.</p>

<p>It will be inferred from the above remarks that
we hold to the belief that the breeding of the boar
should receive attention as well as the following
points in its form and character.</p>

<p>One of the most important of these points is good
temper. This is a quality not usually attributed to
the pig in its wild state, and consequently not natural
to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession of it
depends to a very great extent the thrift and well
doing of the produce of the boar. The produce of an
irritable boar are almost certain to inherit this
quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows
this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad
tempered sow is almost invariably an indifferent
mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of bad
temper in a boar is advisable not only because this
quality is almost invariably hereditary, but a savage
boar is a continual source of danger to man and
beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if
the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
such as when sows are placed with him, when a
certain amount of liberty must be given to him, and
it is generally on such occasions of excitement when
the bad temper is the most in evidence. The mere
fact that irritability and nervousness are natural to
the pig should make us the more careful to avoid
any increase in the failing by using a boar which is
the least inclined to be bad tempered.</p>

<p>Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar
one of the principal points is size. They contend
that size, in pigs especially, is imperative if a profitable
return is to be made. This view may have
arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of
method and observation which is characteristic of
so many stock owners. The one point which to
them is of the greatest importance is the selling
price of the fat or store animal sold being fully up
to the average. Little or no thought is given to the
value of the food eaten by each animal. If it had
been, very frequently it would have been found
that the smaller animal of a lot had actually given
the best return for the food it had consumed. It is
not the size alone of the animal which determines
its value as the producer of meat, but more than
anything it is the feeding qualities of the animal
fattened. In addition to this there never was a
time when the consumer more strongly demanded
small joints of meat, and these of the best quality
and with as little bone as possible.</p>

<p>Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as
it is invariably awkward when serving&mdash;it can be
used only for large and strong sows, and its average
period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
of a medium sized and compact boar. A large boar
generally possesses an undue proportion of bone,
its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and
feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections.
The bone of a boar should be solid, not
porous; the ankles compact and the feet small,
and the pasterns short. The head should be wide
so that the brain can be well developed, the head
inclined to be short rather than long, since an
animal with an extremely long head is certain to be
deficient in natural flesh.</p>

<p>On the question of the size and hang of the ears
a variety of opinion exists; pigs with long ears, and
pigs with short ears are found possessing good
carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its
size and hang which seems to indicate the character
most. A pig with a thin and firm ear is usually of
fine quality, whereas a pig which has a thick,
coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh,
and hair.</p>

<p>The neck of the boar should be muscular as
indicating constitution and natural vigour; the
shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well
sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square,
not drooping, the hams full and extending quite
down to the hocks, and without any of that loose
skin which is far too common amongst the largest
of our breeds of pigs, and which is a sure sign of
coarseness. The flank should be thick and well let
down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat,
the legs should be fairly short and set well apart so
that the heart, lungs, and other organs have plenty
of room to perform their share of the work of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight
and silky, as well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is
generally an indication of shortage of lean meat,
whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far too
frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness
of meat.</p>

<p>With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar
there are one or two points which should receive
special attention. A boar with excessively small
testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often
barren. Again, a boar with one testicle of normal
size and the other smaller, ordinarily suffers
from the same disqualification to a lesser extent.
A ruptured boar should not on any account
be used, as this weakness is strongly hereditary.
The weakness may not possibly show itself in the
first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner
or later. Not only is it a sure index of weakness of
constitution, but pigs so affected occasionally die
suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount
of risk from the operation of castration.</p>

<p>Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a
litter will be found to be malformed, in that only
one of the testicles is apparent. Generally speaking,
the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached
to the inside of the pig, and thus is unable
to descend into the scrotum or purse, so that the act
of castration is only partially performed. A boar
pig with only one testicle down is commonly
termed a rig. The removal of one of the testicles
does not deprive the rig of reproducing its species,
and it is thus a source of continual trouble when
herded with a lot of sow pigs now that the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
custom is to allow the female pigs of a litter to remain
unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten
a rig either alone, or with male pigs which have
been operated upon. In addition to this extra
trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept fattening
after it is some five or six months old is almost
certain to be strong in flavour, like unto that of a
boar. It is, therefore, advisable to fatten a rig
quite early in life and convert it into a porket or
porker carcase of pork.</p>

<p>It may appear strange to some readers to specially
mention the teats of the boar, but it is equally as
necessary to avoid boars having small teats, teats
unevenly placed, and commencing any distance
from the fore legs, and blind teats, as it is in the
case of the sow, since any weaknesses of the kind
are equally as hereditary from the boar as from the
sow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER VI
<br />
SELECTION OF THE SOW</h3>


<p>It is impossible to agree with the view held by so
many persons that the necessity for the same care
is non-existent in the selection of a sow as in the
choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for
studying the forbears, especially the dam, of a
young sow intended for breeding purposes is fully
as great as when selecting the young boar, since
many, if not most, of the qualities which we desire
the brood sow to possess are strongly hereditary.
Take, for instance, the question of gentleness or a
quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce
with a regularity equal to that of bad temper, and
the latter is wellnigh a certainty. Again, whoever
found that the female produce of a sow deficient in
the maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding
purposes, to be a really good mother? As a rule the
daughters of a sow which gives but a small quantity
of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also
cursed with the same grievous failings, but this
does not appear to be universally the case, since the
milking qualities of the dam descend through her
sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar
have been good milkers it is probable that the
boar's daughters may be able to rear their pigs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
successfully, even if their dam had not been in the
habit of suckling her pigs well.</p>

<p>Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one
exception we may fairly anticipate that the good
qualities which we seek in a sow are far more likely
to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the
possessor, than from one which does not possess
them. We are inclined to the belief that the alleged
failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood
sows is in the main due to the continued selection
for breeding purposes of those pure-bred yelts which
show early maturing and flesh-forming qualities,
rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably
to be found in a sow which is prolific, a
free milker, and a really good mother. There is a
marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving
and a fat-producing sow&mdash;the latter is
generally somewhat heavy in the shoulders, has a
muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head
and heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly
built, whereas a good brood sow has rather
a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a light
muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses
long and square quarters and appears to be heavier
in the hind than in the forequarters. She is somewhat
more loosely built and often shows less of
quality. Thickness of flank and length of side are
desirable, the first as indicating substance and flesh,
whilst the second gives plenty of room for her pigs
to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the
same remarks apply to the skin and hair.</p>

<p>About half a century since there existed a fancy,
which almost amounted to a craze for sows of small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
size; they could not be too neat, and showing too
much so-called feminine character. The almost
certain result of selecting the neatest of the female
pigs followed, the fat pigs sent to market were light
in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named
"animated bladders of lard." Within about the
same distance of time it was the common practice
of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's Shows
to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of
wood on which the fat pigs rested their heads so
that these were raised in order to prevent the pigs
becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were
fed on forcing foods until they were at least one
and a half year old and allowed to take, or were
given little exercise, with the result that the pork
consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an
extent had this craze for neatness been followed
that the bacon curers and consumers of pork wellnigh
ceased to purchase or consume pork.</p>

<p>At the present time we are afraid that the tendency
is in the opposite direction, and mere size is
receiving far too much attention. At some of our
agricultural shows the judges select for honour
great unwieldly sows which could not possibly
perform with any amount of success those maternal
duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept
solely to perform. An extremely large sow is
very frequently a poor milker, the quantity of
milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue
to give even this reduced supply for a period
long enough to allow her young to grow strong
enough to make a good start in life on their own
account.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>

<p>Another great objection to a sow of extreme size
is that her produce almost invariably take after her
to such an extent that it is difficult, if not wellnigh
impossible, to make them fat until they are from
nine to twelve months old, and by that time they
are too large and heavy for the general demand
which is at the present time, and likely to become
still more so in the future, for small joints of meat
which carry a large proportion of lean and a limited
quantity of bone. The most successful manufacturer
is he who most nearly supplies the consumer
with that which he requires or fancies. We are not
moved by the contention of breeders of pedigree
pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which
possesses in the greatest degree those special points
which are characteristic of the breed, as, for instance,
size in the pigs of the Large White, the Large Black,
and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore
the biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem.
In our opinion the best, as it is in the long run the
most profitable, is the pig which furnishes to the
greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the
most general demand.</p>

<p>In addition to these objections to an extremely
large and ungainly sow is the fact that such an one
is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen, she is
almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is
even alleged that her period of usefulness as a
breeder is shorter than that of a sow of ordinary
size.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F64" id="Figure_F64"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep064_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep064_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton."
title="TAMWORTH BOAR" /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i>
<br />
TAMWORTH BOAR: Bishop of Webton.
<br />
Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion, Royal Show.
<br />
To face page 64</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F65" id="Figure_F65"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep065_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep065_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="310" alt="Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor."
title="GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor.</i>
<br />
GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW.
<br />
From the herd of Lord Sherbourne.
<br />
To face page 65.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER VII
<br />
THE SOW'S UDDER</h3>


<p>One of the most important points in connection
with the reproduction of the species of our various
domestic animals is the provision of a full supply of
milk for the young in the early portion of their
existence. Nature herself has set us a good example
in a duplicated source of milk supply even amongst
animals which usually produce only one animal at
a birth. If this duplication be necessary under
such conditions, it must be imperative on us to
select those sow pigs which are intended for breeding
pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a
full supply of teats, and these of good shape and
properly placed on the belly of the sow. Not only
is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly
numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner,
but it is held that the number of teats possessed by
a sow indicates to a remarkable extent the probable
degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily
understand that nature would not be likely to endow
a sow with the power to produce a larger number of
young at each birth than she would be able to rear.
Of course it may be said that the sow of the present
day is not as nature first made her, in that, by
selection and by feeding, the number of pigs produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
at each birth is now so much larger than the
litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or
eight teats and farrow at each litter a similar
number of pigs. On the other hand, neither the
number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in
the domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so
that by continued selection we are able to permanently
increase, within limits, the production of
larger litters and the increased supply of milk for
their sustenance when young.</p>

<p>The provision of a suitable udder is even of more
importance with the domesticated than with the
sow running wild, since the latter produces each
year one litter only, and that in the season of the
year when the young are less dependent on their
dams; whereas the domesticated sow is expected
to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently
owing to want of care on the part of the owner the
young pigs are farrowed at the most unfavourable
time of the year.</p>

<p>Apart from the provision of a certain number of
teats there is another point to be considered, the
power of the sow to produce milk enough to satisfy
the given number of pigs. This of course varies
with each family or tribe of pigs, and even with the
various members in it, so that to obtain the best
results selection must be made of the produce of
those sows which give the largest quantity of the
most nutritious milk. There exists amongst pig
keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of
pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably
the average of this number would be ten for a
mature sow, and seven or eight for a first litter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve
teats, as frequently one of these may not give a full
supply of milk from either natural or accidental
causes. The teats should be regular in size and
form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of
the teats of a sow much smaller in size than the
others. These smaller teats will produce a reduced
quantity of milk, so that the pigling which
is unfortunate enough to decide on making this
small teat its very own&mdash;and each pigling is confined
by the others to its own special teat&mdash;is
certain to be less well developed than its
brothers and sisters, even if it should succeed in
surviving.</p>

<p>The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant
the one from the other arises from the
desirability of each pig having room to suck comfortably.
Should two of the teats be closely placed
the two pigs will probably fight, when not only will
sores be caused on the cheeks of the pigs, but the
milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually
cease to flow.</p>

<p>Another point of great importance is that the
teats should commence as near as possible to the
fore legs&mdash;this for two reasons: it gives more room
for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other
and more important one is that the teats most
forward on the udder of the sow produce the
larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better
quality. It will be almost invariably found that
the pigs sucking the foremost teats thrive the
best.</p>

<p>It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
pig for breeding purposes from a sow which has
large and coarse teats, as these invariably accompany
coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this
in turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will
also be found that those sows with a neat and compact
udder, with fine teats, will give more milk and
a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and
flabby udder.</p>

<p>Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a
sow pig for breeding purposes is that which is commonly
termed a blind teat, since it is undoubtedly
hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose
of rearing pigs. The normal teat projects
boldly from the udder, whereas the blind teat is
almost flat or on a level with the udder. In appearance
it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed
nipple in its centre. At the time of parturition
the blind teat contains milk to the same extent
as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up
since it is impossible for the little pigs to extract
the milk from it since the nipple recedes
as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it
with its lips and tongue, instead of becoming
more extended so that the little pig can suck the
milk from it.</p>

<p>An ideal udder can be briefly described as one
possessing at least twelve fully developed teats, the
more the better&mdash;these should commence from a
point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible,
and be placed as nearly as possible an equal distance
the one from the other.</p>

<p>Some persons hold that large teats and much
loose skin are sure indications that the sow has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
proved to be a good milker. This is a mistaken
view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific
milkers are those with well formed and soft udders
which almost disappear when the lactation period
has passed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER VIII
<br />
MATING THE YOUNG SOW</h3>


<p>As in most other details in the management of our
domesticated animals there exists a variety of
opinion as to the age at which the young sow, or, as
it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt,
hilt, elt, etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps
the most important point to consider is the
time of the year when the anticipated pigs should
arrive. If possible the period between the middle
of the month of September and the middle of
December should be avoided. The long nights and
the short and dull days generally experienced
during this period are most unsuitable for young
pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October are
not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month
of March as those farrowed during the early portion
of January in the following year, and very frequently
the loss amongst the October and November
farrowed pigs from lameness, or, as it is commonly
termed, cramp, is very large. An attempt should
be made so that the two litters which should be
bred each year from the sow arrive so that they are
weaned during the longer and brighter days of the
year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning
of February may be expected to farrow again in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
July. The weather is sometimes rather cold for
little pigs early in the year, but it is surprising how
little they are affected by it providing the sow
furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is
dry and plentiful. The pigs farrowed in the months
of January and February are generally the most
profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption
of the separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc.,
which is generally abundant in the month of May
in districts where dairying and cheese making are
followed. These pigs are also ready for turning
out to grass in April or May, or as soon as the weather
is suitable, and the grass has grown sufficiently.
These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly
providing that some additional food is fed to them
and shelter provided.</p>

<p>This natural system of pig raising is of great
benefit to those pigs which are intended for breeding
purposes and was consistently followed by the
writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a
new plan even at that period, although strange
claims have recently been made that the system is a
novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one
or two enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in
pig breeding. In the middle of the last century it
was quite a common practice in parts of the counties
of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds
which comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs
which received in addition extra food, such as peas
or beans in accordance with the amount of vegetable
food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs
were required; those intended for pork receiving
the larger supply.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>

<p>Although it may not be possible to allow the
young boar pigs to have their liberty after they
become five months old, yet the sow pigs will grow
and develop far better in the field if properly fed
than they will in an inclosed sty; further, the young
pigs which they produce will be much more lusty
than if the sows had been kept in close confinement.</p>

<p>Although the sow pig will generally come in heat
when she is about six months old, it is advisable
that she should not be mated until she is some
eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is
not farrowed until she is about a year old, when she
should be quite strong enough to rear a fair litter
of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully
natured specimen of its breed.</p>

<p>In some districts where the breeding pigs are
generally kept in confinement and high keeping is
followed the sow pigs are mated with the boar at
an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages
which more than outweigh the saving of the extra
few weeks of the keep of the yelt ere she is put to
the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if
the number of the pigs in the first litter should be
large. So few pig keepers have the hardihood to
knock a certain portion of the too numerous litter
on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven
or eight, which most young sows should be able to
rear fairly well and without any undue drain on
the sow's system&mdash;but the whole of the large litter
are left on the sow, which becomes very much
reduced in condition, and checked in growth, whilst
the too large litter of pigs are badly reared and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
frequently become a source of trouble and annoyance
to the owner.</p>

<p>On the other hand, there are many practical pig
keepers who make it a rule to delay the mating of
their young sows beyond the eight months' age.
They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not
sufficiently matured to bear the strain of producing
a litter of pigs when she is about one year old, and
then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of milk to
give them a good start in life. The plan which they
adopt is to mate the sow when she is about a year
old so that she is some sixteen months old before
her family troubles commence.</p>

<p>Another very curious reason has been recently
made public by an enthusiastic novice for delaying
the mating of the yelt until she is at least a year
old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to
ensure that the produce of young sows which have
reached the age of sixteen or seventeen months ere
they farrow their first litter shall possess the desired
characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no
means certain if the young pigs arrive before the
sow has reached that age or is about a year old.
Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made to
account for this alleged curious variation in the
qualities inherited from a parent of about one year
old and the parent which had arrived at the more
matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is
impossible to discover a solution of the strange
problem.</p>

<p>Therefore, we should be unable to admit the
correctness of the assertion even though it was not
directly in opposition to our belief which is founded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
on experience of a most extensive character extending
over some sixty years. To aver that the power
of a young sow to impress its hereditary characteristics
on its young are only fully developed by
deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or
five months, or until the sow is sixteen instead of
twelve months old when she farrows must surely
cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object
of the propounder of the theory was to create a discussion&mdash;it
could not have been to bring his name
prominently before the public.</p>

<p>Another advantage in mating the young sow so
that her first litter appears when she is about a year
old, her daughters will in turn farrow during the
most suitable months of the year, providing of
course that she herself had been farrowed in early
spring or about the month of July.</p>

<p>When the sow pig which is intended to be kept
for breeding has been farrowed in some other part
of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond the eight
months the mating of her so that she farrows at the
best times, or perhaps even better than that, if the
pigs are not intended for breeding purposes, would
it be to have the sow mated when she is about
eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain
on the sow a few weeks beyond the usual period of
eight weeks so that the pigs are taken off the sow
three or four days before it is desired to have her
again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow
returning to the boar will be minimised, as a sow
which has been baulked is sometimes difficult to
settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and
more vigorous and likely to produce a strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
litter of pigs, whilst the piglings will scarcely miss
their mother's milk when they are weaned from
her.</p>

<p>Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding
the boar from the young sow until she is
about a year old aver that early mating results in
the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding
at a much younger age than if she be not mated
until she is well matured. This is not in accordance
with the writer's experience, as many of his sows
which farrowed their first litter when they were
about a year old continued to breed regularly until
they were six or seven years old&mdash;indeed, one
Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed
her last litter when she was in her eleventh year.
This sow also disproved the confident assertion that
the showing of sows renders them comparatively
useless for breeding purposes, since she not only
continued to rear her pigs well, but she produced a
number of most successful prize winning boars and
sows, and also won many prizes herself from the
age of five months to five years.</p>

<p>The principal cause of premature old age amongst
sows is not due to their being first mated when they
are eight months old, but to the want of care in the
management and feeding of the sow during her
pregnancy and whilst she is suckling her litter of
pigs. To a sow with a good constitution the act of
breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only the
most important act of nature which cannot be
harmful to her, providing that she received that
amount of proper food and attention which nature
required.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>

<p>There may be very occasional instances of harm
being done to the breeding sow by over feeding, or
rather by injudicious feeding, but in comparison
there are hundreds of instances where under feeding
and neglect are the cause of trouble and loss.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER IX
<br />
THE FARROWING SOW</h3>


<p>The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about
sixteen weeks. The variations are neither great nor
numerous, when they do occur it is usually with
sows with their first litters or aged sows which
sometimes farrow ere the full time has expired, or
with robust sows in good condition which occasionally
carry their young beyond the one hundred and
twelve days which may be taken as the average
period.</p>

<p>We assume that each owner of a breeding sow
keeps a record of the date of service of the sow in
order that the necessary preparation of the sty,
etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the
expected litter. Even when this wise precaution is
neglected nature gives a sufficient warning to the
observant owner. Apart from the increasing size
of the body, the udder gradually becomes more
prominent, and each pap becomes more defined,
the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on
either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness,
whilst in the vast majority of cases milk appears
in the udder some twelve hours before the arrival
of the pigs. The teats shine and become more prominent,
the presence of milk is easily ascertained by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
gently pressing the teat between the finger and
thumb.</p>

<p>Another certain indication of the early arrival of
a family is the act of the sow carrying straw about
in her mouth wherewith to make her farrowing bed.</p>

<p>One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing
sow arises from the sow not having been allowed
to take sufficient exercise. Of course, the best of all
systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at
all seasons of the year save when she is within about
a fortnight of her time, and when she is rearing a
litter of pigs. Even if there be no grass field or
paddock in which she is able to pick up a good
portion of her living, or a roadside where she can
get a few blades of grass, an open yard is infinitely
better than the confinement of a sty, as apart from
the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce
stronger pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of
farrowing.</p>

<p>In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to
take a sufficiency of exercise either owing to laziness,
to high condition, or heaviness of body, it is
advisable to exercise her by walking her about
quietly for a short time each morning and evening
before and after the heat of the day has become
excessive, or has passed off.</p>

<p>There is a difference of opinion amongst pig
breeders as to the desirability or the reverse of
having someone in attendance on the sow during
the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this
procedure do so on the ground that the presence of
a man simply tends to irritate the sow, and to frequently
cause her to become restless, with the result<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
that the little pigs are trodden upon or become
laid upon and killed. This view is generally held
by those who are not particularly fond of animals,
as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between
pig and owner which consists of rubbing the head
of the pig, or scratching its side, when in response
to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its side
like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any,
which arises from the owner or pig man being in
the sty with the farrowing sow almost invariably
arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling
between the two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all
animals, pine for sympathy and company, and no
animal more so than a pig. Still there are very
occasional instances where the young sow becomes
very excitable as she commences to farrow even when
she and her owner or attendant have previously
been on the best of terms. But there the cause is
not the presence of a human being, but the arrival
of one of her own little pigs. So long as the pigling
remains quiet there is peace, but as soon as the
youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially
if in the endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak,
the young sow will jump up from her nest and
endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth,
when unless prevented the sow quickly squeezes all
life out of the pig; and in some cases when the
pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of
the piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed
to eat the dead pig. When affairs have arrived
at this sad state, the chances of the remaining pigs
having a pleasant reception into the world are comparatively
slight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>

<p>When there exists a good understanding between
the sow and attendant, as there invariably is when
the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad
tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as
just referred to is greatly reduced, as the attendant
runs no risk in entering the sty and in removing the
little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a
hamper or box partially filled with straw until such
time as the sow has completed her farrowing, when
the pigs can be placed against the sow's udder, and
providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in
peace and comfort.</p>

<p>In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is
advisable when the pigs are apart from the sow to
break off with a pair of pliers the four little teeth
with which the pigs are endowed prior to their
birth. Care being taken to remove the pigs beyond
the hearing of the sow each little pig in turn is tucked
under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the left
hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or
even a slight turn of the wrist given, when necessary,
and the brittle teeth are crushed.</p>

<p>As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected
this should be removed. A little slop food should
be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating it, the
wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a
little short and dry straw just enough to render the
nest comfortable for the little pigs. The nest should
be disturbed as little as possible, as should the whole
of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will
probably spend a considerable time in remaking the
nest, and in the meantime the little pigs will be in
danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in
the sow laying down and suckling her pigs is much
greater in cold weather, as not only will they become
chilled, but they will persist in crowding
round the sow and so run the greater risk of
being trodden upon, or rolled up in the bedding
in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable
nest.</p>

<p>Some persons strongly recommend the giving of
a strong dose of medicine to the sow after she has
farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not necessary,
the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and
natural operation. In those occasional instances
where manual assistance has to be given to the sow
owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong
presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead
for a day or two and has begun to decompose and
consequently to increase in bulk, it is advisable to
give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability
of some amount of inflammation due to the
insertion of the hand. As the sow's bowels are
likely to be somewhat constipated it is always advisable
to exercise her for a few minutes during the
morning after she has farrowed. In most cases the
exercise will at once cause her to relieve her bowels
and her bladder, when she can be returned to her
sty.</p>

<p>We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's
offals (which usually go by varying names in
different parts of the country), the most suitable
food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs
were at least four weeks old. Some persons recommend
that a portion of the food should consist of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
bran, this on two grounds&mdash;the first that its use
tends to prevent constipation, and secondly on
account of the food analysis which it gives. Our
experience has been that when sharps are fed to the
sow no trouble should arise from constipation,
whilst as to the nutriment which bran contains the
claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract
it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through
the pig in an undigested condition. As a rule the
pig, unlike the horse, cow, or sheep, does not masticate
its food, nor does it, like the two last named,
chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus
casts a greater labour on its digestive organs which
have neither the time nor power to extract the
whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition
to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the
bowels, which in the case of young pigs tends to
become diarrhœa.</p>

<p>There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen
who are over anxious to succeed to feed the sow too
large a quantity of food during the first ten days or
so after she has farrowed. During this period the
demand on the sow is really not much greater than
it was during the last two or three weeks of carrying
the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased
supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two
after the arrival of the pigs twice feeding of the sow
should suffice unless she is very low in condition,
or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such
cases it may be advisable to feed her three times
per day just as much as she will promptly clear up.
It is a great mistake to give so much food at one
time that a portion is left over in the trough, particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
is this so when the pigs are over three
weeks old, as nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs
of the youngsters as sour food. If in ordinary cases
feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in, the
same quantity of food given should simply be distributed
over the three feedings, as an excess of
food is only less a mistake than underfeeding.</p>

<p>Three of the most common troubles with young
pigs are diarrhœa, fits, and loss of the tail. There is
a belief amongst many old pigmen that every litter
of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of
diarrhœa ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a
fatality which is certain to eventuate, no matter
what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly.
The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is
commonly called scouring is great as the causes are
several, amongst them the greatest is perhaps a
chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty
construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected;
insufficient, unsuitable, or damp bedding;
neglect of proper sanitation, or the frequent cleaning
out of the sty; and most frequently of all from
injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything
which affects the health of the young pig to any
great extent appears to result in indigestion, which
causes constipation, and this in turn nature endeavours
to remove by a special effort which softens
the fæces somewhat. On removal of the cause of
the constipation, the bowels perform their duty
normally, but if this be not removed the result is
diarrhœa, which again if continued for any length of
time often becomes dysentery, when the fever is
acute; the pigling neglects its mother's teat, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
instead sucks up any moisture however foul which
it can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a
precursor of death.</p>

<p>From the above it will be gathered that prevention
is better than cure. In case of an attack,
the first thing is to discover the cause, and the
second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the
trouble ceases. As a help to this end, depriving the
sow of one meal is recommended. Coal, cinders, or
even earth will be readily eaten by the young
pigs and prove of benefit. Medicine is not often
required if the steps recommended are promptly
taken.</p>

<p>In our earlier days hog's madder was the common
medicine used with pigs for most ailments, but of
late years sulphur appears to have taken its place.
It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to
cause constipation of the bowels after its first effect
has passed off.</p>

<p>The soreness of the tails, which if not attended
to generally results in the pig becoming bob-tailed,
appears most generally in damp and cold
weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of
the blood. The cure is simple. The application of
fat or oil as soon as the tail becomes red and cold,
twice per day, and continued for two or three days
will almost always result in a cure. For some years
we used boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of
boracic acid and glycerine, but we are not certain
that it is now procurable.</p>

<p>The third of the common troubles of the young
pig is fits of an apoplectic and epileptic character.
As a rule the shortest, thickest, and fattest pigs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
the litter are those which are affected. This points
to the chief cause, too much food in the form of
mother's milk. A reduction in the quantity of the
food fed to the sow will generally be effectual,
except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then
both the quantity and the quality of the food given
to them should be reduced. Prompt removal of
the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be necessary
to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent
cases, or when remedial measures are not promptly
taken. The ordinary symptoms are unmistakable,
the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for
breath, then in a minute or two it rises and appears
to be little the worse. Unless continued over a
period, fits are not usually fatal.</p>

<p>Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion
of the rectum, or as it is commonly termed
"shooting of the gut." This is due to various
causes which result in straining. Of these constipation
and diarrhœa are the two most common. As
soon as the protrusion of the gut is noticeable, the
enlargement should be carefully washed, then oiled
and gently pressed back into its natural position.
Some pigmen advise the dusting of flour on to the
protruded portion before it is returned, but there is
a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation
which is generally present. If known the original
cause of the trouble should be removed, but in
any case it is advisable not to give any solid
food to the pig for two or three days after the
operation.</p>

<p>Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is
heir is hernia, or rupture. This is of two kinds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
umbilical and scrotum. The former is the escape of
a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly
closed navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself
in an enlargement of the scrotum or purse due to
an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal
contents. Both of these ailments are considered to
be hereditary, but the most common and the most
troublesome is the latter, since there is always a
chance of strangulation of the escaped portions,
which nearly always results in death.</p>

<p>At one time it was considered to be inadvisable
to castrate the boar pigs affected, but of late years
the plan has been adopted of making only one incision
in the scrotum in place of two, and making
that one as high as possible. Then after the operation
is performed, the aperture is sown up. The pig
should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to
give time for the healing of the wound.</p>

<p>Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance,
the navel opening gradually closes as the
pig grows stronger and the enlargement disappears.
It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which
has been affected, nor to continue to use a boar
which has begotten ruptured pigs, as both failings
are hereditary.</p>

<p>For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty
in obtaining a full supply of sharps, even of
the greatly reduced feeding value of the present
quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable
to refer to another system of feeding the suckling
sow and the young pigs. It is now perforce being
generally adopted, but the result is not generally
considered to be equal to the old system recommended.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
It is that of feeding pigs of the kind
mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of
palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake.
The proportions fed at the Cambridge University
Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two parts
palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.;
linseed cake, 2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb.
The two former were fed in the morning and evening,
and the other two at midday. The various
cakes seem to have been fed in a dry condition, but
other pig feeders have found it beneficial to soak
the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view
seems to have received support from the practice
at Cambridge, which was to mix the cake with the
cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed
to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake
would become softened by the mangold juice.
Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a
fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable
as mangold, indeed more so during the period
from October to April. In the winter months
cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips,
cabbages, artichokes, etc., fed raw; and in the
summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape, or
almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily
eaten by the pigs. Even where the wasteful practice
of peeling the potatoes before being cooked for
the household is still followed (and just how wasteful
this old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved
to be a loss of nearly one quarter of the nutriment)&mdash;it
is advisable to boil the parings and then mix
the whole with the pig's food.</p>

<p>It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
keepers that a certain proportion of vegetable food
is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as not only is
a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue
in a more healthy condition than when fed solely
on meal or other concentrated food.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F80" id="Figure_F80"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep080_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep080_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="358" alt="LARGE WHITE BOAR."
title="LARGE WHITE BOAR." /></a>
<span class="caption">LARGE WHITE BOAR.
<br />
The property of the Author. The Winner of many Prizes.
<br />
To face page 80.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F81" id="Figure_F81"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep081_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep081_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="TAMWORTH SOW, &quot;QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES.&quot;"
title="TAMWORTH SOW, &quot;QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES.&quot;" /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i>
<br />
TAMWORTH SOW, &quot;QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES.&quot;</span>
</div>


<hr style="width: 45%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>

<h3>CHAPTER X
<br />
WEANING PIGS</h3>


<p>There are few points in connection with the breeding
and feeding of pigs on which there is a greater
diversity of opinion and practice than on the question
of the weaning of the young pigs.</p>

<p>For instance, take the age at which it is most
satisfactory to take the pigs off the sow. This
practice varies greatly in different districts, and
even in the same district where one would naturally
suppose that the determining influences would be
similar weaning at five or six weeks old.</p>

<p>One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of
five or six weeks old should be and is able to support
itself alone, and will act accordingly. Should perchance
a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the
excuses made will be various.</p>

<p>The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too
cold, or the sharps, etc., on which they have been
fed were not good or sweet, that the sow's milk was
not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in
nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather
than the actual cause admitted.</p>

<p>In far too many instances the real reason for the
want of thrift on the part of the young pigs taken
from their mother when they are not more than five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are
not sufficiently developed as to enable them to
digest enough food to nourish them properly.</p>

<p>Another excuse often made for what we consider
to be undue haste in weaning young pigs is the alleged
desire of the owner not to waste the time of the sow.
He is anxious to have her served again and hasten
the arrival of the next litter.</p>

<p>Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean
the pigs for this purpose as the sow will come in
heat and can be served by the boar, but if she should
become in pig the result will be much the same so
far as the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the
sow has conceived the milk will promptly cease or
become very reduced in quantity and quality.</p>

<p>On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to
the boar time may be wasted. It is most unlikely
that the sow will again become in heat for some three
weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a
few days of the weaning of the litter of pigs.</p>

<p>Then another extreme, and one which is practised
by some pig breeders, is to allow the young pigs to
remain on the sow until the former are from ten to
twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice
that the young pigs grow much faster when left on
the sow than when weaned, and that less food is
consumed for a live weight increase from a given
quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more
inferior kind can be fed to the sow than could be
fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and thus the
sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if
the pigs are not weaned until nearly three months,
the milk of the sow will have gradually ceased to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from their
dam. Their digestive organs will then have become
sufficiently developed to enable them to make the
best use of the food given to them, and they will
sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are
weaned.</p>

<p>In this question of weaning pigs the good old
fashioned plan of following the middle course will
probably be found to be the best. Anyway, it was
the one which we followed for a great number of
years and found the results generally satisfactory
for the following among other reasons.</p>

<p>As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or
yelts for breeding purposes, we were naturally
anxious to give the pigs a good start in life so that
we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible,
and that they should thrive when they came into
the possession of their new owners, and thus prove
the best possible advertisement of our herds. As a
rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain
on the sows until they were some eight weeks
old they were quite strong enough to fend for
themselves, that by gradually increasing the length
of time which the sow was allowed to remain from
the pigs, the latter became accustomed to exist
without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the
sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially
ceased to withdraw it, no trouble was experienced
with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly the
case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow
which is in full milk.</p>

<p>There is also another advantage apart from that
to the sow and pigs, it is that the sow will almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
invariably come in heat within three or four days
of the weaning, and with the best possible chance
of becoming in pig.</p>

<p>Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their
litter of pigs at an early age, and then if the sow be
low in condition to baulk her at the first time of
œstrum. There are objections to this&mdash;one of them
is that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the
sow to conceive after she has been baulked. Why
this should be so we have not been able to ascertain.
We only record what we know to be a fact.</p>

<p>In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest
points in favour of the practice of allowing the
young pigs of a sow with her first litter, or of an old
sow which has become low in condition (either from
having had too many pigs left on her, or from other
natural cause), to remain on the sow for a longer
period than about eight weeks. Some persons will
keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three
months old in the belief that both sow and pigs are
benefited, and that the pigs can be kept quite as
cheaply if not more so when unweaned than weaned.
They also claim that the sow is so much stronger
and better fitted to prepare for another litter.
Experiments have been carried out in the United
States which go far to prove that the first of these
two claims is founded on fact; and it has further
been demonstrated that certain foods can be fed to
the sow without affecting the thrift and health of
the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the
latter direct, yet when fed through the sow the
pigs will thrive on the milk produced therefrom. It
is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for the sow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit
to the sow and her pigs.</p>

<p>One occasionally sees in the press a claim for
what is considered to be a great achievement in that
some one has bred three litters of pigs from one sow
within the year. There really is something wonderful
in this since of the fifty-two weeks constituting
a year, the sow would be carrying her pigs some
forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four
weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and
this would also include the few days between the
pigs being weaned and the sow coming in heat.
Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully
breeding three litters of pigs from one sow within
twelve months, there exists a far greater possibility
of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying
on the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow,
especially of the profitable kind of sow.</p>

<p>Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small
Blacks, and short thick Berkshires were fashionable,
the number of pigs in each litter was few, and the
number reared still fewer, owing to the limited
quantity of milk furnished by the sow. Now, the
Large Black, the Large White, the Middle White, the
Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots,
the Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows
of most of the local breeds of pigs are expected to
rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it were
possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within
the year, she could not possibly do justice to them
either before or after the piglings arrived in this
world; and further, the life of such a sow would of
necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
that in the production of each litter of pigs the sow
is compelled to manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of
flesh, skin, hair, etc., which together constitute the
newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has
to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of
suitable food.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F96" id="Figure_F96"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep096_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep096_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt="MIDDLE WHITE SOW."
title="MIDDLE WHITE SOW." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>From a Painting by Wippell.</i>
<br />
MIDDLE WHITE SOW.
<br />
To face page 96.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F97" id="Figure_F97"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep097_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep097_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="CUMBERLAND SOW."
title="CUMBERLAND SOW." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders&#39; Association, Carlisle.</i>
<br />
CUMBERLAND SOW.
<br />
Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XI
<br />
THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS</h3>


<p>One of the most important points in the profitable
raising of stock is to give the animals a good start
in their earliest days. There is an old and true
saying amongst shepherds that the best and most
profitable sheep are those which have never lost
their lamb fat. It may with equal truth be
declared that the most profitable pig is the one
which has a good start when on its mother,
and never afterwards lacks suitable food, judiciously
given.</p>

<p>At frequent intervals, the question as to the
number of pigs which a sow should have left on her
to rear is the subject of discussion in the press. At
each of these periods very similar arguments for and
against large litters are used with much the same
inconclusive results. This probably arises to a great
extent from the varying conditions under which the
particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of
year has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May
will more successfully rear a dozen pigs than she
would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the
month of October.</p>

<p>The age and condition of the sow should also be
considered. A young sow of about twelve months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
should not have more than seven or eight pigs left
on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters
until she is at least four years old she would rear at
least ten pigs each litter. After the sow has reached
the age of about four years, if that time has been
fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes
gradually less able to rear so large a number of pigs
with an equal amount of success. It is then advisable
to vary the number according to the season,
and to the physical condition of the sow; generally
speaking an aged sow will bring up more
pigs in the summer months than in the colder
months.</p>

<p>Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in
which the young pigs should be cared for until they
are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise
from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs
should be so managed and fed that only the very
slightest difference will be noticed by the youngsters
when parted from their mother. Many pigs are
permanently checked in growth by being suddenly
deprived of a full supply of mother's milk if weaned
when their digestive organs are insufficiently developed
as to treat a sufficiency of food to make
growth and progress without the assistance received
from their mother's milk.</p>

<p>Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs
are sufficiently developed as to exist and thrive
without their dam's help. Here again the time of
the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned,
but the desirability of prompt or deferred remating
of the sow in order that her succeeding litters should
arrive during the most favourable portions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of
each litter of pigs varies greatly. The health of the
sow, her condition before farrowing, and other
causes, some of which are not always on the surface,
have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule
that young pigs are fully able to fend for themselves
by the time they are eight weeks old. Should it be
possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow for
so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing
the next litters as to the time of year of their arrival,
the pigs may benefit, and no loss of food will be
sustained, since it has been clearly proved that pigs
beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as
economically, if not more so, on the sow than if
weaned. It may also be possible to feed the sow on
somewhat coarser and less expensive food than
could be satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her
digestive organs would be better able to treat the
coarser food. Another advantage generally follows
keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the
latter be well fed is that she will be in a stronger
and better condition to start the building up of her
next litter.</p>

<p>As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when
they are from three to four weeks old. If the sow is
fed in the sty in which the little pigs are, these will
endeavour to share in the food; at first they may
content themselves with licking any food which
may be outside the trough, but they quickly show a
desire for more, and attempt to get into the trough.
When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the
little pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is
best, as one with high sides is said to cause "high<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a curvature of
the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs
will promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will
thrive best, but even if only skim or separated milk
be obtainable, or butter milk, providing that it be
drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small
quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be
able to digest so large a quantity of the separated
as of the whole milk. The former is apt to have a
constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters.
Should an ample supply of separated milk be available
it can be fed through the sow, who will be
better able to digest it, and whose yield of milk will
be increased, provided that sufficient separated
milk to affect her bowels be not given to her. A
few kernels of wheat or white peas will be readily
eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit therefrom.</p>

<p>If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever
the local term for the finer miller's offals may be,
mixed with a little warm water and fed to the piglings,
will prove beneficial, care being taken to give
only so much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that
any surplus is taken away, so that it does not become
sour, as in this last condition it will cause
diarrhœa in the young pigs.</p>

<p>When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow
can be allowed to remain from them for a longer
time, and the youngsters fed two or three times each
day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up,
and the pigs will become accustomed to the food,
so that when the latter are about eight weeks old
they will have become weaned naturally, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
receive no check from the loss of the sow's milk.
This system, will also prevent any trouble arising
from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and
the occasional attacks of inflammation or garget
which follow a chill to the sow when her udder is in
an inflamed condition from being closely impacted
with milk.</p>

<p>Assuming that the economical and beneficial
practice of supplying the suckling sow with vegetable
food of some kind after the pigs are some three or
four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have
become accustomed to its consumption. It will be
found to be advisable to continue this whether it
has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of mangolds,
swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as
not only will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs
will make equal growth and thrift on food containing
say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they will if
fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will
have a beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and
tend to prevent those attacks of constipation and
diarrhœa which are so frequently the result of food
of too rich a character.</p>

<p>Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw
artichokes are the most nourishing and the most
readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green state
come next in food value and favouritism with the
pigs; cabbages are credited with causing constipation
when fed to young pigs, whilst mangolds are
said to have the opposite effect, and in addition
when grown on light land by the aid of artificial
manure mangolds are apt to affect the kidneys and
cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
much used in the feeding of pigs as would
be advisable. They are easily grown and will
take the place of swedes on land on which swedes
are subject to mildew; they are very nutritious,
and are readily eaten by both old and young
pigs.</p>

<p>Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this
country to anything approaching the same extent as
in Canada and the United States; its value and
results are of a very similar character to those of
cabbages. Tares or vetches contain too large a
proportion of water for young pigs, and they also
have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels.
The growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green
state has been recommended by some writers, but
in practice we found it most unsuitable for young
pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the
small proportion of nourishment contained in it in
comparison with its bulk. Further, pigs both old
and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by
hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs,
especially young ones, will thrive under such conditions.</p>

<p>One of the most common mistakes made by pig
feeders is allowing too long a time to pass between
feeding times. Twice or three times per day is considered
to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior
to their being weaned the pigs would have had a
meal wellnigh each two hours both day and night.
Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so
hungry that they bolt their food, and a greater
quantity than is desirable, and then suffer from
indigestion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>

<p>It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity
for storing food is very small, especially as compared
with some others of our domesticated animals.
Four or five meals per day at least should be given
to newly weaned pigs. That most troublesome of
ailments commonly termed cramp more generally
results from injudicious feeding than from all other
causes combined. Even when the young pigs are
properly fed on suitable food there is a tendency in
some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of the
best preventatives and even remedies is to compel
the pigs to leave their nests late in the evening or
prior to the pigman retiring for the night, as they
will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise,
particularly in cold weather, the pigs would
remain quiescent in their nests from feeding time
in the afternoon until they were fed the following
morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or
sixteen hours&mdash;far too long a time for the good
health of the young pigs.</p>

<p>Another point which requires attention is the
provision of a dry bed. Pigs are naturally
clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their
bed when they are in a healthy state. Still
the straw will in winter time become damp solely
from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when
huddled together in their nest. All damp litter
should be carefully removed at least once each
day.</p>

<p>The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs
is wheat straw. This will absorb a larger amount
of moisture than any other kind of straw, whilst the
skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
colour than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of
these two, the former is more suitable than the latter,
which so readily becomes damp and foul. In those
parts of the country where comparatively little
corn is grown, sawdust and wood shavings are
commonly used for litter for pigs. So far as the comfort
of the pigs is concerned there is little difference
as compared with straw with regard to pigs of all
ages in the warmer weather, but in the winter little
pigs suffer, as they are unable to make the warm
nest which straw enables them to make and
enjoy.</p>

<p>When peat moss was first introduced it was
strongly recommended for the bedding of pigs. It
was claimed for it that it was a far better absorbent
of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial
value was much greater. It is probable that both
claims are founded on fact, as sawdust is of comparatively
no value as a manure. But there exists
one serious objection to the use of peat moss as
litter for young pigs. It is that the pigs are
given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of
indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating
it.</p>

<p>Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has
ceased to be general. The causes of this neglect
may be several, amongst them the dislike of trouble,
but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called
store period of the pig's life is now so much shorter
than in the olden days, and consequently the
loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of
unexpected litters of pigs are less, from the repeated
periods of heat, indeed under the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
or recent conditions of pig keeping a large proportion
of the pigs are killed ere they have
become sufficiently developed to be troublesome in
this respect.</p>

<p>Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and
spaying of young pigs at about the age of six weeks,
or before they have been weaned from the sow is
advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid.
An unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in
company with other pigs, and when it is put up to
fatten will make no progress on some three or four
days during each three weeks when she ordinarily
becomes in heat.</p>

<p>In addition to her own waste of time she will, if
penned with others, be continually worrying her
mates and preventing them from resting and thriving.</p>

<p>Until recently another objection was taken to the
unspayed sow pig, it was that if she were killed
during the period of œstrum that great difficulty
would be experienced in curing the meat properly,
and that signs of her heated condition would be
noticed in the mammary glands in the form of
dark globules of what was considered to be blood,
but investigation carried out at the University Farm
at Cambridge by Messrs. Russell and Kenneth
Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and
the consequent loss in value of a certain portion of
the belly of a side of bacon is not due to the pig
having been in a state of heat at the time of its
slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable
only amongst coloured pigs. Thus, the globules
would be of a dark colour when the bacon was from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the
Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the
marked preference of the bacon curers for pigs of a
white colour in the manufacture of the highest
priced bacon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XII
<br />
HOUSING OF PIGS</h3>


<p>In the general management of pigs there are many
points on which improvements might be effected
without any very considerable amount of trouble
or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want
of care and thought is observable in the housing of
pigs. Many of the sties in the country districts are
neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too
often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in
such a disgraceful state that some excuse was
afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of the
sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection
of a pigsty within from sixty to one hundred feet
of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly it would have
been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs
within a much shorter distance of the house only so
long as the necessary steps were taken to prevent a
nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house
suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a
house can be rendered perfectly innocuous with
ordinary care, and the cottager not be deprived of
very considerable advantages not only in making a
profit, but in the provision of manure for his allotment
or garden which will benefit greatly from its
application.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>

<p>The mistakes or want of care in the erection of
pigsties is by no means confined to the owners of
cottages or small holdings, as a considerable proportion
of the piggeries on which great outlay is
expended are equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary.
Even in so-called model buildings the
piggery has often been the last thing thought of;
the stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently
placed for feeding the occupants, for air,
light, and sun, and then the piggery has been placed
in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied,
and as this generally happens to be on the northern
side of the buildings, the unhappy pigs are deprived
of the rays of the sun, which are to them
quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others
of our domesticated animals.</p>

<p>This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold
is noticeable in only a lesser degree in those buildings
which comprise a double row of sties with a
passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and
mixing house at one end, and an exercise or feeding
yard adjoining. It matters not whether the building
be placed north or south, or east or west, one
half of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the
sties facing the west can be said to possess one.
The trouble is still greater with the system of
having a yard attached to each sty. The north or
east wind renders the sties with such an aspect a
most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for young
pigs during more than half the year, whilst older
pigs cannot thrive on the same amount of food as
they would if their quarters were comfortable.
Apart from the waste of food which results from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
these draughty and cold sties, the latter are the
chief cause, with injudicious feeding, of that most
troublesome ailment amongst pigs, rheumatic gout,
or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very
draughty and uncomfortable these sties are which
have an open yard attached, and an inlet at all
times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and
windy weather by noticing the position in which
the occupant has made its bed. This will be found
not on the highest part of the sty, which will be
opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the
corner next to the opening, since in this position it
is less exposed to the cold wind which rushes into
the sty through the opening.</p>

<p>Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting
from the exposure to draughts it is not apparent
to the writer that any advantage is gained from the
provision of these yards. In many instances they
serve only for an excuse to limit the height of the
sties, as unless these are of a fair height there is a
considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The
money expended on building the yard would easily
cover the extra cost of raising the side walls of the
pigsty by two feet, and thus not only render it free
from draughts, but also make it far more healthy
and less subject to the extremes of heat and cold.</p>

<p>The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy
for a growing or matured pig, but in the
colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born pigs,
of which numbers are annually lost from exposure
or are greatly checked in their growth.</p>

<p>One of the very best places in which to house
pigs in the experience of the writer was a large barn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
with a thatched roof. This was divided off into
sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to
the height of the building the temperature was not
unduly high in the hottest weather nor did the pigs
suffer to any extent during severe weather. These
advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in
temperature, and an abundant supply of uncontaminated
air.</p>

<p>One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of
the pigsties is the absence of ventilation without
draught. This trouble is especially noticeable
where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft.
high, whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs
increases the sufferings of the pigs from the heat
when the weather is excessively hot.</p>

<p>Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large
scale have found it profitable to erect cheap buildings
very similar to small barns, the side walls
being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of
thorough ventilation, quite free from draughts,
whilst the variations in the temperature will be
comparatively slight. The building being complete
within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is
no disturbance of the pigs between the feeding times,
so that the pigs will rest and grow fat. These houses
are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs,
whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties
or houses are more convenient. These should be at
least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6 in. high, the
doors divided so that the upper half can be opened
when the weather is favourable; ventilation can
be obtained by hanging or sliding doors just under
the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
draught; the floor should be laid with brick and
gradually incline to the front of the building so
that the liquid can run through an aperture in the
lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed
close to the building. A row of these houses, which
should face to the south, can be more cheaply erected
than a single house, as the wooden partitions between
the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high,
and one of these would take the place of two gables
or ends. Several of the houses which the writer
erected had brick foundations and feather-edged
boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed,
as in this way the houses were much cooler
in the summer, whilst in the winter the upper
portions of the houses were packed with straw
which still permitted of the escape of the foul air,
yet greatly added to the warmth and comfort of the
building.</p>

<p>The one thing of all others most needful in the
sty or house for the well doing of pigs is a sufficiency
of pure air without draughts; pigs of even a few
days old will suffer less from cold than from moist
and foul hot air. It is not the most costly building
in which pigs will thrive best, but the one in which
they are the most comfortable and free from the
extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which
to rest and be thankful.</p>

<p>When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment
Stations and Agricultural Schools in Denmark
some few years since, the writer saw near Aarhuss
what was then a novelty in the form of a two
decker pigsty, i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above&mdash;one
could scarcely term it an upstairs room as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined
board with struts of wood fastened across it to give
a firm holding to the pigs as they ascended to the
upper story. The incline was very steep, but the
pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and
down. The advantages claimed for it by the
principal were that the sleeping compartment was
so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was
required for bedding, and that the pigs were far
more comfortable and rested better than when
boxed up, especially in the summer season when the
heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The
feeding took place in the lower portion. It was
stated that nearly the whole of the urine and dung
was deposited below. This was a great advantage
as the moisture ran off at once into the drains, and
the solids were easily cleared out as there was no
litter mixed with them, or the dung could be readily
washed into the drains by water from a hose, which
was used in the summer for the purpose of bathing
or of washing the pigs.</p>

<p>The chief objection to the plan would be its expense,
as unless the pigsties were in a barn or a
shed already erected for some other purpose the
pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side
walls and consequently more strongly built.</p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F112" id="Figure_F112"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep112_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep112_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="LARGE WHITE SOW, &quot;WORSLEY SUNBEAM.&quot;"
title="LARGE WHITE SOW, &quot;WORSLEY SUNBEAM.&quot;" /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo, Sport and General.</i>
<br />
LARGE WHITE SOW, &quot;WORSLEY SUNBEAM.&quot;
<br />
To face page 112.</span>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
<a name="Figure_F113" id="Figure_F113"></a>
<a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep113_0001.jpg"><img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep113_0001_tn.jpg" width="400" height="322" alt="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR."
title="LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR." /></a>
<span class="caption"><i>Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral, Belfast.</i>
<br />
LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.</span>
</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XIII
<br />
THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS</h3>


<p>When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous
shows became common, a belief sprang up amongst
non-exhibitors that the preparation for show was
most deleterious to the animals shown. It was
also contended that exhibitors were prone to pay
attention, to a far greater extent, to the fancy or
show points of the animals which they bred than
to those utility points which are of infinitely more
importance to the ordinary stock breeder and the
consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or
training which the show stock underwent seriously
affected their procreative powers, and especially so
with the animals of the feminine gender.</p>

<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that there
existed some ground for the belief that a majority
of the exhibitors did appear to give too great attention
to the claims of the judges who were, in too
many cases, chosen for reasons other than their
knowledge of practical agriculture or the requirements
of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the
exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier
days of showing, their main object was to win
prizes in order to advertise their stock and so secure
customers for their spare breeding animals. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
actual improvement of the various breeds of stock
did not in those far-off days appear to be of such
vital importance as the world upheaval, of which
the present generation has been the witness, has
proved it to be.</p>

<p>It may also be fairly claimed that there has been
some slight improvement in the system of feeding
and training followed by the pig exhibitors of to-day.
This is in part due to the fact that the cramming
on rich food and giving little exercise may result in
rendering the show pig in such a state of obesity as
to secure the approval of the non-practical judge,
who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when
in its natural breeding condition, but that to be
able to follow the present system of exhibiting at
several successive shows and even when the bloated
pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen,
this excessive feeding proved to be a grievous
mistake. It may not be possible to claim that the
over feeding of show animals is a thing of the past,
but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have
become alive to the fact that it is not profitable.
Not only is the expense excessive, but the damage
done to the breeding animals is so great as to render
it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow.
Again, there has of late years been a very considerable
improvement in the pig classification at both
the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the
writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty
years since, the common classification at most of
the shows was, boar any age, sows any age, and
pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in
some cases even twelve months. There were no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
restrictions as to the age of the boar or of the sow,
no condition as to utility, of the sow having at any
time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so
that it was by no means uncommon at even some
of the chief shows to find both boars and sows
appear year after year, having been guiltless of any
attempt to procreate their species, but having been
kept solely for the purpose of winning prizes and
adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly
adding much to their balances at the bank. The
only way in which the continued exhibition of these
old stagers was made profitable was the securing of
customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors,
who in far too many cases were not the breeders of
the winning animals. To so great an extent had
this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers
of exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the
last century, that some of the live stock papers in
the United States took up the cudgels on behalf of
the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the
habit of importing show winners from this country
and plainly asked for the English definition of a
pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent show
of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners
shown by one exhibitor were entered as of certain
defined breeds, yet neither age, pedigree, nor name
of breeder was given, the only particulars given in
the show catalogue being the name and address of
the exhibitor, the name of the pig, and the further
statement age and breeder unknown. As our
American cousins asked, how could it be possible
to ensure that a pig was of a certain pure breed
when it was admitted that no knowledge existed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person
who bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was
one of the contributing causes of the establishment
of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of
the various types or breeds of pigs.</p>

<p>Other changes which have been great improvements
have been the limitation of the ages of boars
and sows shown, the requirement that the sow has
within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs
and that when entered as being in farrow a certificate
of subsequent farrowing shall be furnished ere
the prize money is paid over. The age of the young
boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows
to six months, or the pigs must have been farrowed
in the year of the show. In the good old times the
age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two
or three or five, varied from six to twelve months,
and the asserted age given by the exhibitor was
accepted as correct. At many of the important
shows not only are some means of identification
asked for, but the state of the dentition are variously
dealt with; at some shows they are disqualified at
once by the stewards on the certificate of the
veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted
that this mode of procedure is very hard on an
honest exhibitor whose pig has for some reason
developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally&mdash;and
such cases are not unknown&mdash;- although
as a rule the various stages in the cutting
of the permanent teeth are very regular, the
majority of the irregularities are also in favour of
the exhibitor, since delayed rather than precocious
development of dentition is the most common.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
Just how imperative it was that some steps should
be taken to prevent mistakes being made in the
ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be
cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs
in a pen of five entered in a class for pigs not exceeding
six months actually farrowed a litter of fully
developed pigs in the show yard.</p>

<p>During the last forty years, great improvements
have been made in the classification for pigs at our
principal Fat Stock shows. The division of breeds
or types has been attended to and the ages of the
pigs in the various classes have been greatly reduced.
For instance, when the writer was judging pigs with
two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield
Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not
exceeding nine months; above nine months, and
not exceeding twelve months, and above twelve
months and not exceeding eighteen months. A
more ridiculous classification could not possibly
have been devised since no small white pig would
have paid for fattening after it had become nine
months old. A similar classification existed for
pigs of the Large White breed, for Black breeds,
and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class
for a single pig of any age or breed. The condition
of some of the exhibits in the oldest classes was
most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an
extent that their life must have been a misery to
them, they were unable to walk any distance, and
to prevent suffocation rollers were used on which to
raise their heads. The only way in which to describe
these unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was
as animated bladders of lard.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>

<p>At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not
only has the age limit been greatly reduced but
classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight
have been instituted, in addition to classes for all
the recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any
cross. Even this great reduction in age has not
been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, as an
endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of
twelve months to nine months, so that in future the
classes will be for pens of two pigs not exceeding
100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six
months old and for pigs between six and nine months
old, with certain classes for single pigs under nine
months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot be
profitably kept after they reach the age of nine
months. Another innovation of recent years at the
Smithfield Show has been the establishment of the
so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by
far the greatest improvement of recent years in the
pig section. Classes are provided for pigs not
exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing over
100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs
above 220 lbs. and not exceeding 300 lbs. live
weight. The pigs are first exhibited and judged
alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on
their pork merits. There is also one class for pigs
above 160 lbs. and not exceeding 240 lbs. live weight
best suited for the manufacture of bacon. These
various classes have created great interest and have
proved of the greatest educational value.</p>

<p>Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions
is the elimination from the summer show-yards
of fat sows guiltless of milk and accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts
of an age varying from three months upwards, and
which together were exhibited in the class for
breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine
fat sow which would take kindly to an unlimited
number of adopted youngsters was in those days
almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old
and well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured
the writer that no fewer than sixty-three young
boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in
company of one well-known sow. At the present
time the pigs shown with a sow must be certified to
be her produce and not to exceed the age of eight
weeks.</p>

<p>It is at all times difficult to discover the motive
power for certain actions on the part of a human
being. It has been declared that there is an equal
amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of
stock wishing to exhibit his animals. Surely this
last assertion is at least of a doubtful character.
What greater proof could a stock breeder give of
his pride in his animals than a burning desire to
expose their good qualities to the public gaze. In
addition to this, few men are entirely free from the
spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions,
particularly in the show yards. The
winning of prizes with stock may not be quite so
uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there
is enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring
a centre of great excitement. Some persons will
even contend that the showing of farm stock is not
desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely
to assume so great a similarity with gambling, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
attending the shows means a neglect of business
and leads to expensive habits. On the other hand,
it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved
specimens of stock has been of untold benefit
to both home and foreign stock breeders. Further,
the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually
saved us from semi-starvation during this most
fearful of all wars, as without our improved stock
the native stock of foreign countries could not
possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of
meat which we have had to import.</p>

<p>It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock
had little or no intention of becoming one when
they first purchased their stock, but on these
proving quite the equal of that possessed by their
neighbour, the desire grew to suggest how good
they were, or in many instances the original entries
have been made in response to a request to support
the local show.</p>

<p>This may be still another cause for a beginner in
stock breeding exercising extreme care in the
selection of his original stock. Even if the prime
cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock
the extra outlay expended on animals from well-known
breeders, and out of old established herds,
is certain to prove a good investment. There is just
as great difference in the different families or strains
of our domestic stock, as there is in the various
human families and of animals, and it may be
probably more true that the vast majority of the
best of them are the descendants of a comparatively
few ancestors. This is evident in almost everyone
of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might
go through the whole list of domesticated or farm
animals.</p>

<p>It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks
of exhibiting his pigs should endeavour first to
discover the particular tribes or families which, in
the past, have furnished a large proportion of the
winners, and then to obtain some of the specimens
of those families which have been successful in the
show yards and in the breeding pen. This combination
is most important, as it does not necessarily
follow that a line of blood which produces
prize winners shall also produce animals which are
not only good in type, character, and form, but
possessed of prolificacy, free milking properties,
and ability to raise large litters. The difficulty of
finding in some of the mere exhibition herds this
most desirable combination is due, in the main, to
the far too frequent neglect of the utility points,
the two aims of the herdsman are in too many
instances the winning of prizes for their employers
and the securing of a percentage of the prize money
for themselves.</p>

<p>Although there have been attempts made to
impress on outsiders the claim that there exists in
the training of pigs for successful exhibition in our
show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the
practice is most simple, it consists in the employment
of the greatest possible observation, care, and
attention; without the continual use of these qualities
it is not possible to become a really successful
pigman. In very many instances just that little
extra attention has turned the scales. The one chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
qualification on the part of a successful stock man
is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other
exhibitors of pigs who exhibited largely over many
years the writer never employed a professional
pigman. The comparatively small number of
pigmen who assisted him to win thousands of prizes
were merely ordinary farm labourers, save in one
case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the best
feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was
naturally fond of animals and was never tired of
waiting on them and of supplying their needs. It
was once jokingly said of him that, having no
children, he bestowed on the pigs in his care the
love which some other people bestowed on their
children. There is much of truth in the assertion
made by a coloured preacher in the United
States when discussing the want of success of
ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause
he declared was the absence of love. We would call
it want of natural fondness of animals and an insufficient
determination to render the conditions of
life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and
satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With
regard to the system of rearing and feeding animals
intended for exhibition, nothing more is needed than
the concentrated care and attention which is required
in the successful rearing and feeding of all
commercial animals. A liberal supply of suitable
food, prepared in the most tempting form and
judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity
required, as frequently as the pig is able to
thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good
motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
adhere to nature, the more successful shall we be.
It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so specially
necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the
show yard. It is impossible to render a pig perfectly
fit for exhibition at a show, and more particularly at
several successive shows, without plenty of exercise.
Each morning and evening a walk of a distance
varying with the ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable.
Another point to which some professional pigmen
give great prominence is the regular dosing of their
charges with secret medicines. This is not only
unnecessary, but may with breeding animals prove
harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires
medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is
the over feeding or intense desire of the pigman which
in the majority of cases renders medicine necessary.</p>

<p>A word of warning against this haste to get the
pig into show condition. This last can only be a
work of time, and the commencement of the process
must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and
be steadily continued until within a few days of the
show. This slight reduction of the food may be
necessary in the summer when the heat is great and
the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up
in a crate in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs
lost in travelling to or from the shows or soon after
arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to
being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding
them when on the journey. This is an entire mistake;
not only should the pigs not be fed, but prior
to being put into the crates they should be given
just so much exercise as will cause them to evacuate
the bowels, or the bladder. Care in this respect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in
every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly
reduce to a minimum the chance of it.
Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water should
be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a
cloth, and should some of the water percolate into
the mouth of the pig so much the better.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XIV
<br />
PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING</h3>


<p>As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the
present disastrous war will have upon the pig-breeding
industry, we have deemed it expedient to
refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions
of feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be
of a temporary character or which may become
permanent in a more or less modified manner.</p>

<p>One of the results of the scarcity and high market
value of the different articles which have been
commonly used in the feeding of pigs is drawing
greatly increased attention to the original conditions
under which pigs were kept, i.e. when they
were in a wild state or when they were allowed their
partial freedom for the purpose of getting their
own living to a greater or lesser extent.</p>

<p>We are aware that a claim has been made by
an enthusiastic convert to pig-keeping that in
allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass
fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel
course of procedure, but the old hands merely smile
and admire the enthusiasm which is more nearly
allied with youth than old age. The practice may
not have been generally followed of late years, but
in the middle of the last century it was to the writer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
knowledge common in certain of the Eastern
Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of
Essex and Cambridgeshire, where a considerable
acreage of grass and especially clovers was grazed
by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other
food as the pigs were intended for breeding or
fattening purposes.</p>

<p>Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary
character was provided failing that furnished by
trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our American
cousins have gone one better in that they have
introduced small movable houses which can be
transported on wheels and can be utilised for a sow
and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the
former course, an enclosure sufficiently large for the
sow to graze therein is fenced in so that each sow
can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough
to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright.
The chief difficulty attending this system is
not experienced in the United States to the extent
it is in this country, since the general custom there
is to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the
spring and then to fatten off both sow and pigs,
save those reserved for breeding purposes next
year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful,
also handicaps the owner who desires to improve
his pig stock, since an opportunity is denied him of
discovering the best of his sows and so reserving
them and their produce to form the nucleus of a
really good herd. The system is not an entirely
new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some
parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties,
where there is not the excuse made for it in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
States that it avoids the trouble and risk from the
intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the
winter.</p>

<p>It may be that the severity of our winters is not
usually great, but the cold, damp and foggy weather
commonly experienced in England during the last
two or three months of the year render it necessary
to warmly house young pigs, and this is difficult in
wooden houses of limited size, as these become hot
and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold
when unclosed. Again, the labour attending the
feeding of a large herd housed in isolated sties must
be very considerable. Another objection raised
against this farrowing of sows in these small houses
is that it is difficult if not impossible at night to
have the pigman in attendance on the sow, further,
that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to
roam about with their dam until they are some
weeks old, as when the weather is cold or wet they
become chilled and when the sun is hot they quickly
become blistered, both conditions materially interfering
with their well doing.</p>

<p>It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to
secure a large portion of their living, but a sow with
a good litter of pigs on her requires a considerable
amount of food in addition to grass to enable her
to do justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs
are unable to digest any quantity of grass until
they are some weeks old; besides this, the youngsters
thrive much better during their early life when
confined in quarters than when trailing about after
the sow. Could we ensure fairly fine weather, and
an absence of cold nights and very changeable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under
outdoor conditions would be considerably enhanced.</p>

<p>Another alleged new discovery is the permitting
of pigs to roam at large in woods and plantations,
wooden huts or open sheds being provided as
shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig
food is obtained where the trees are not closely
planted, so that grass grows freely, or, in the autumn,
in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet
chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such
woods strong store pigs are able to obtain the major
portion of their food, but where the trees are of a
kind which does not produce nuts or are closely
planted, the additional food must be more plentiful,
whilst the manurial value of the food is wasted to a
considerable extent.</p>

<p>Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping
is that of running the pigs in orchards.
This system has many advantages, the pigs are able
to live without much additional food for some
months in the year, they consume the insect-affected
fallen fruit, and so act as insecticides. The
pigs also usually leave their droppings under the
trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and
especially is this the case where the pigs are being
fattened or fed on food which enables them to make
flesh. Many years since, the writer had several
customers for breeding pigs who kept numbers of
pigs in their orchards. One fruit grower in Kent
declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted
in the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger
size, better colour, and finer flavour. Another whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
apple orchard was disappointing followed my
advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity
of apples grown was much greater, whilst both the
size and quality of these were infinitely better.</p>

<p>Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is
more profitable to give some additional and concentrated
food to the pigs having their liberty, it is
therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from
the richer living by running the pigs where the
manure can be utilised, and no better place than an
orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and
wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs
deposit their urine and excrement in exactly the
place where it is most urgently required.</p>

<p>The practice of growing considerable areas of
rape or cole seed, artichokes, peas of various kinds,
beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is not followed
extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in
the United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark,
etc., have a partiality to it, since it is declared to
save labour and to bring the land into a good manurial
condition for the growth of corn crops; still some
few of our more advanced farmers have been in the
habit of grazing off lucerne, clovers, and even permanent
and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs,
which have also received in addition a varying
amount of roots, corn, or meal. It is asserted, and
evidence is available to prove the truth of the statement,
that land can be economically and quickly
and vastly improved by following the system referred
to above. The scarcity and high market
value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in
the past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
of pigs, has caused pig-keepers to seek for other
foods to take their place. The residuum from the
crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts
has been most successfully used in connection with
various forms of vegetable food; even sows have
reared good litters of pigs on about 2 lbs. of a mixture
of the meals remaining from the extraction of the
oil from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of
some form of vegetable food. This last has comprised
cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds,
kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter
months, and grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, cole
seed, etc., during the summer months. Fattening
pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of
concentrated food and a reduced amount of vegetable
food. The pre-war belief that sharps or middlings
only was the most suitable food for sows with litters
and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat
modified. Whether or not the quality and price of
middlings will be restored after the war and thus its
use become general as of old, must be left, but it is
probable that in the future a certain proportion of
the meals referred to will continue to be used for
both breeding and fattening pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XV
<br />
PIG-FATTENING</h3>


<p>If there be one task which is considered to be within
the capacity of any individual, it is that of feeding a
pig. In the good old times, the one thing needful
was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this
as the pig could possibly eat was placed into its
trough each day until the pig was thought to be fat
enough for slaughter. This was a very simple and
at the same time a very costly process and was
looked upon as the second of the two chief acts in
the life of a pig. The first consisted of building up a
frame on which fat could be stored. Just why
these two processes were not combined has never
been fully explained. One excuse made for this uneconomical
process is that our forbears must have
considered that there must be two distinct periods
in the life of any animal intended for the food of
man, that in which the structure was erected, and
that in which the building was completely furnished
with the material&mdash;flesh&mdash;in a state which most
nearly satisfied the requirements or fancies of
humanity. The system of first growing the frame
and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed
by the owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with
cattle, which in the good old times passed three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
four years in a state of semi-starvation ere they
were placed on our best pastures to produce beef.
Sheep, again, spent two or three years in building
up their frames and in the production of a limited
quantity of wool of inferior quality and strength,
before they were considered in a fit state to make
mutton economically. Another excuse which could
have been offered by our forbears, but which is not
now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and pigs of
former times required age before it was possible to
render them sufficiently fat for slaughter.</p>

<p>The very great improvement which has taken
place during the past half century, in wellnigh every
breed of pig, has deprived our present day pig-breeders
of such an excuse, yet they persist in far
too many instances in following the old-fashioned
and uneconomical system of first growing the pig
and then fatting it, whereas it is not only possible
but infinitely more profitable to combine the two
operations. So many persons have been in the
habit of looking upon the pig as a mere scavenger
or an animal to put out of sight certain articles
containing a small amount of nutriment which, undisposed
of, would become a nuisance or offensive
to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself
has been considered by many farmers, especially
those termed gentlemen farmers, as a necessary
nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the
conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all
machines, its output will depend entirely on the
quantity and quality of the raw material, and the
manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material
be of inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
too limited quantities, the article manufactured
will be more costly and of an inferior quality. An
extension in the time of manufacture means increased
cost for fuel and for labour in attendance
on the machinery. A certain quantity of fuel is
being continually used in the furnace whether the
engine is running at full power or at half power. It
is exactly the same with the meat making machine,
the pig every day of its existence consumes a certain
quantity of food for which it gives one return only,
its life. It has been conclusively proved that each
pig weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to
enable it to sustain life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue,
to provide heat, progression, etc., so that if a pig
lives six months longer than is actually necessary
to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of
meat, it will have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of
good food.</p>

<p>A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce
the manufactured article most cheaply when
it is fully supplied with the most suitable raw
material. There is not the slightest doubt that the
least costly pork is that which is produced by the
pig which spends its whole time in the object of its
existence, the manufacture of pork.</p>

<p>There is a further point of great importance.
Wellnigh all those materials which are used in the
feeding of pigs contain the constituents necessary
for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation
of fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making
of meat. Evidently nature intended that the two
operations should be carried on simultaneously.
Those constituents which are required in the building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
up of the frame cannot be entirely used in the
formation of fat, consequently if the frame is first
built up and then an attempt is made to lay on
flesh, a considerable portion of the building up
constituents are simply wasted, since the pig has
no need for them and cannot make complete use of
them. They simply pass through the pig after
taxing it to digest them, and are wasted.</p>

<p>Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting
have changed very much during the past half
century, and especially so since the full effect of the
fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned
period, the late Sir John Lawes, whose
researches and experiments have been of lasting
benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out
experiments in connection with pig-breeding, and
the result which appears to have impressed itself
most upon the writers of the day was that barley
meal was the best single food for the fatting of pigs.
At the time named, our importations of maize and
of many other materials now used in stock and
especially pig-breeding were not of anything the
magnitude of the period prior to the war, still, it
seems to be strange to the enlightened pig-breeder
of to-day that more serious endeavours should not
have been made to determine the value of a mixed
diet for pigs, since this had been proved to be
beneficial and necessary in the case of human
beings whose organs are so very similar to that of
the despised pig.</p>

<p>Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers
in all parts of the world, experiments in the
feeding of stock have been carried out in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States,
Canada, Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries,
save to any great extent in England. In connection
with pigs, the practices of a few of our more intelligent
pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst
these ideas which the old-fashioned ones looked upon
as fads, was that of feeding pigs of all ages and
especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of
vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively
proved that the substitution of some 10 per cent of
vegetable matter in place of an equal amount of
meal or concentrated food, does not result in the
slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the
fatting pig, and further that the old idea that a
limited quantity of vegetable food fed to a fatting
pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in
the cooking was not founded on fact. Another
fact which has evolved from these experiments is
that the pig will make far greater progress on an
equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed
solely on one food. This was clearly proved in
many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural
Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings
alone, a second lot on corn meal alone, and a third
lot on a mixture of corn meal and middlings. To
make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the
pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in
Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of corn meal to make an equal
increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were fed on a
mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only
439 lbs., or a saving of one-fifth in the weight of
food. In experiments with regard to the food value
of corn meal and middlings carried out at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
Missouri College, middlings also gave the best
returns, but unfortunately the ages of the pigs used
in the trials are omitted. This is important as middlings
are considered to be of more value in the
feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the
reverse holds good of corn or maize meal. Other
trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the use of
wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of
half wheat and half corn meal. In these the average
quantity of wheat meal required for 100 lbs. increased
live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485
lbs. of the mixture of wheat and corn meals was
needed to obtain an equal increase or a saving of
some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals.</p>

<p>In the good old times it was considered to be the
height of folly to make a change in the food on
which the pigs were being fattened, yet our forbears
would have been horrified had they been informed
that it was imperative that they themselves
should have no variety of food, that day after day
the food at their various meals should be exactly
similar; surely what is good for one animal should
be good for another animal whose organs are of an
exactly similar character. There is not the slightest
doubt that advantage is derived from the variation
in the food on which the pigs are being fattened.
By this, it is not intended to suggest that a complete
change of food should be made at stated times in
the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result
in a loss of time and food, but that a slight variation
in the proportions of the different kinds of food is
beneficial, or in the case where several different
kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
kind of food may be substituted so that the change
made secures a variation which has the effect of
whetting or enticing the appetite. A long continuance
of the same kind of food has the effect of
dulling the appetite. In addition to this, it is considered
that a variation in the food tends to stimulate
the digestive organs.</p>

<p>It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass
between feeding times; the pig is not endowed by
nature with a capacious paunch which enables it to
stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old
system of feeding twice a day might be improved
upon, and the fatting pig fed three times per day
would make greater thrift, even should the actual
daily quantity of food be not increased.</p>

<p>Again, so many persons are apt to give to the
fatting pig a greater quantity of food than it requires
or can eat with comfort to itself at one meal.
Should this be pointed out to them, their usual
reply would be that what the pig did not eat for
their breakfast would be there in readiness for the
evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as
they frequently would do. This sounds plausible
until the argument be closely examined. What
would the pigman think if he were treated in a
similar manner and an excessive quantity of food
placed on his plate, and then at the next meals the
stale food be again placed before him until it was
finished? This certainly would not increase his
appetite nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful
pigman is he who succeeds in so feeding his
charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest
the greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
as in many other things, time is money. Further it
is just as much a mistake for fatting pigs as for
human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular
intervals, small quantities of food. The two most
certain indications that a lot of fatting pigs are
thriving is to find that they are asleep and that
their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are
fed a greater quantity of food than they can eat at
once they will be frequently getting up to eat a
little more of the surplus, and each time they rise
from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and
in most cases before the major portion of the nutriment
has been extracted.</p>

<p>Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was
that the fatting pig made the greatest increase
from a given quantity of food when it was at least
approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete
fatness. It was useless to argue with them, since
anyone could see that it was so. If you suggested
the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a
person of any experience in pig fatting must be able
to notice the increase in bulk of the pig. It is true
that apparently the pig would be making a greater
increase of weight as it approached the completion
of its fatting process, since the addition to its weight
and bulk would be almost entirely composed of fat
which could only be deposited on the outside of the
carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the
pig would have been occupied, the pig would have
stored fat away in its muscles, around its kidneys,
on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it was
possible to stow it away, but these additions to the
weight of the carcase which had been proceeding in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
the early stages of the fatting could not be observed,
nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this was
the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make
a profitable return for the food consumed.</p>

<p>Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere
conjecture; many experiments have clearly proved
that in the early stages of the life of a pig it is
enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than
in its later stages of life. The young pig also possesses
over its older companion the great advantage
of being able to eat and utilise a greater quantity of
food in proportion to its weight or, in other words,
the young pig can convert a greater quantity of
raw material into the manufactured article than the
more matured pig, in proportion to the amount of
food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery.
Experiments which most clearly prove this have
been duplicated in Denmark, in the United States,
etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy different experiments
were carried out with pigs of varying weights,
with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs.
live weight were found to require nearly twice as
much food to make an increase in their live weight
as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this
was not an exceptional case is clearly proved by the
fact that the increase in the amount of food required
to enable them to make an increase in their
live weight was gradual, and shown in every stage;
thus pigs of from 35 to 75 lbs. consumed 376 lbs.
of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to
115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466
lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs
of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of 235 lbs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315
lbs., 639 lbs.</p>

<p>Even if this series of experiments stood alone
they surely would prove most conclusively that the
common belief in old and nearly fat pigs giving the
best return from the food consumed is founded on
fiction, but similar tests were made at many of the
American Experiment Stations, these tests together
numbering some hundred. The results are given in
tabulated form in Henry's <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>,
where the various points are so clearly brought out
that we have taken the liberty of lifting the whole
of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed
consumed" by pigs. "At many of our stations,
records of weights and gains of pigs and feed consumed
by them have been so reported as to permit
of studies concerning the influence of increased size
and weight of the animal on the consumption of
food.</p>

<p>"All of the available data from trials of this character
conducted in this country" (the United
States) "up to the time of going to press, enter
into the composition of the table given below. In
compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or
twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to
one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation
of these articles. For convenience of study,
the data are presented for each period covering
fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight
of the pigs, however, being given for each division.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>


<p class="center">DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS&mdash;MANY AMERICAN STATIONS</p>


<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr><th align="right">Weight of pigs in pounds.</th><th align="right">Actual Average weight.</th><th align="right">No. of stations reporting.</th><th align="right">Total No. of trials.</th><th align="right">No. of animals fed.</th><th align="right">Average feed eaten per day.</th><th align="right">Feed eaten per 100 lbs. weight.</th><th align="right">Average gain per day.</th><th align="right">Feed for 100 lbs. gain.</th></tr>
<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td><td align="right">lbs.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 15 to 50</td><td align="right">38</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">2.23</td><td align="right">5.95</td><td align="right">.76</td><td align="right">293</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 50 to 100</td><td align="right">78</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">417</td><td align="right">3.35</td><td align="right">4.32</td><td align="right">.83</td><td align="right">400</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 100 to 150</td><td align="right">128</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">119</td><td align="right">495</td><td align="right">4.79</td><td align="right">3.75</td><td align="right">1.10</td><td align="right">437</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 150 to 200</td><td align="right">174</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">107</td><td align="right">489</td><td align="right">5.91</td><td align="right">3.43</td><td align="right">1.24</td><td align="right">482</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 200 to 250</td><td align="right">226</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">72</td><td align="right">300</td><td align="right">6.57</td><td align="right">2.91</td><td align="right">1.33</td><td align="right">498</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 250 to 300</td><td align="right">271</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">46</td><td align="right">223</td><td align="right">7.40</td><td align="right">2.74</td><td align="right">1.46</td><td align="right">511</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 300 to 350</td><td align="right">320</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">7.50</td><td align="right">2.35</td><td align="right">1.40</td><td align="right">535</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 350 to 400</td><td align="right">378</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.52</td><td align="right">2.25</td><td align="right">1.98</td><td align="right">431</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 400 to 450</td><td align="right">429</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">36</td><td align="right">8.18</td><td align="right">1.91</td><td align="right">1.71</td><td align="right">479</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right"> 450 to 500</td><td align="right">471</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">2.12</td><td align="right">1.77</td><td align="right">562</td></tr>
</table></div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>

<p>"In the above table the large number of trials
reported for pigs weighing up to 350 lbs. each
furnishes reliable data. After this point is reached
the number of animals is too small to give reliable
averages. The heavy weight hogs reported in the
last three lines of the table were fed by the writer
(Professor Henry). They were mature specimens,
with large frames and in lean flesh when feeding
began, having been summered on pasture without
grain. The figures are introduced to show what
may be accomplished with mature hogs when they
are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening.</p>

<p>"We learn from the main portion of the table
that from 105 to 435 pigs were employed in calculating
each line of data. The number of trials
furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were
conducted by from 3 to 13 experiment stations.</p>

<p>"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig.
The sixth column of the table shows the average
amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different
weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less
than 50 lbs. each, averaging 38 lbs., consumed on
the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain equivalent,
daily. As the animal increased in weight there was
a gradual increase in the amount of food consumed,
until we find the 450 lbs. hog eating 10 lbs. of grain
daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 lbs.
pig.</p>

<p>"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh
column it is shown that pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed
5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of live
weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live
weight. As the pigs grew larger they consumed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until with the
heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more
than 2 per cent of their live weight. Here was a
decrease of about two-thirds in the feed consumption
per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity.</p>

<p>"Average daily gain: In the next column are
presented data concerning the daily gain of the pig.
It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of a lb.,
or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased
in size the pig made larger daily gains, the
maximum being reached with those weighing 271 lbs.,
which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large
thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically
2 lbs. per day, but these animals, because of their
mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under exceptional
circumstances.</p>

<p>"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is
of interest to all, especially the practical feeder, for
it teaches a most interesting and important lesson
concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those
which average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from
293 lbs. of feed. This exceedingly small allowance
of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact
that the young pigs used in these trials received
much milk, which was practically all digestible, the
other feed being also more highly digestible than
that usually supplied older animals. With pigs
weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for
100 lbs. of gain. There was a gradual increase of
feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, until the hog
weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs.
of gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed
than was required by the 78 lbs. pig."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>

<p>These tables prove most conclusively that the
idea which is almost universally prevalent that the
fatting pig gives the greatest increase for the food
which it consumes when it becomes matured and
nearly fat is an entirely mistaken one, and that the
young and growing pig, if well kept, not only eats
more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better
return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a
smaller amount of food to keep life within itself,
and to replace the certain loss sustained by movement,
etc. There is still another point on which the
young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price
per lb. on a majority of the markets. The fatting
pig which pays best is one which has a short life
and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for
its food.</p>

<p>Amongst the many other questions which have
been compelled attention owing to the shortage and
the high value of pig food, is that of the advisability
or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs.
When the practice of showing stock became fashionable
every possible means of forcing the exhibits
was practised, since early maturity was of so great
importance, especially in the classes for the younger
animals. The cooking of the stronger kinds of food
such as old beans for horses had been found beneficial,
as the risk of fever in the feet and other ailments
had been greatly reduced by this practice.
The stock man naturally concluded that the cooking
or steaming of beans having proved to be of
advantage, similar good results would follow the
steaming of the other kinds of food. In this fanciful
theory they would have been able to find ample<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
support in many of the books on stock feeding
which were published in the first half of the last
century and even later. Like many other novelties,
the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds of food
for animals was followed in the establishments of
well-to-do persons where cost was studied less than
success in the show yards. Then, as now, the
Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to
test the much belauded new plan by attempting to
discover the fact as to whether steaming rendered
hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with the
result that it was clearly proved that when the hay
was fed dry 46 per cent of the protein was digested
by the cattle while only 30 per cent was digested
from the steamed hay. But as our present business
is with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to
the results of experiments carried out to test the
effects of cooking the food of pigs. Perhaps the best
summary of these is to be found in the most valuable
work, <i>Feeds and Feeding</i>, by Professor Henry, who
wrote <i>Experiments with Cooked Feed for Pigs</i>.</p>

<p>These have been so numerous that all cannot be
here presented. Those given are selected because
they are strictly representative, covering a wide
range of country foods and conditions.</p>

<p>"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed
one lot of five pigs on cooked shelled corn, while a
second lot of four, similar in all respects, was given
uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety days.
In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and
water poured over it; into this mass a pipe carried
steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 to 60 lbs. The
kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
soft to be easily mashed between the thumb and
finger.</p>

<p>"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted
trials for 120 days in summer with cooked
and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs.</p>

<p>"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson
fed grade Chester Whites, a mixture of ground peas,
barley, and rye, the trials beginning in December
and lasting 141 days.</p>

<p>"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland
Chinas and Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One
lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, while to
the second lot it was given dry and uncooked.</p>

<p>"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry)
has conducted many trials with cooked and uncooked
feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here
reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days
each, the kinds of feed experimented being given
in the table.</p>

<p>"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin
Station, as will be seen by consulting the table, are
slightly in favour of cooked food, the difference
being very small, however. These are the only
feeding trials reported from any experiment station,
so far as known to the writer, where the results are
favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the
writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all
gave results unfavourable to cooking these, and a
number of trials at other stations with cooked and
uncooked feed for swine are not included for want
of space."</p>

<p>A table showing the stations at which the various
experiments were carried out, the numbers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
weights of the pigs, the varieties of foods, the duration
of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights
of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner
of cooking, the total increases in weight and the
quantities of cooked and uncooked food required
for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the
pigs are given. Professor Henry sums these up and
writes: "Including all the trials then, so far as is
known, that have been favourable to cooking feed
and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable
to that operation, the average shows that
476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain were required
for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was
cooked 505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of
6 per cent of the feeding value of these substances
through cooking."</p>

<p>Some thirty-five years since the present writer
made some small experiments in the feeding of
cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each case it
was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of
uncooked than cooked maize, and made a greater
proportionate increase in weight from the food consumed.
Only one opinion appears to be possible,
and this is that the cooking of food for pigs, save
potatoes, entails a loss of time, an increase in cost,
and a reduced return.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XVI
<br />
A PIG CALENDAR</h3>


<p>The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to
seek for employment, indeed his work may be said
to be only occasionally completed. There are always
many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may
result in loss, or a greatly increased amount of work
at some later period. The old proverb "A stitch
in time saves nine" is equally as true in connection
with pig keeping as with any other form of
work.</p>

<p>In years gone by the month of January was considered
to be quite a slack time for pig-keepers, the
sows and the store pigs usually found the greater
part of their living in the yards where the cattle
were fed on the straw which was continually being
placed in the cribs as the old-man-of-the-farm
threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of
the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels
of corn which were left in the straw would drop
through and be picked up by the pigs which found
their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned
large yards a corner would be railed off
in which the pigs would be given a few turnips,
swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful
or two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
fatting pigs which had not already been converted
into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were
fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or
water mill from the tail corn grown by the
farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date
pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows
farrow during this month of January so that the
sows have their second litter of the year late in the
month of June or early in July in order that both
litters of pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit
from the growing and hot season, since pigs thrive
best when the days are lengthening and when the
sun shines.</p>

<p>Of late years we appear to have had somewhat
severe weather in January. This has rendered it
the more necessary that care should be taken in
providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the
sows farrow. Warmth with free ventilation is
needed. The latter is particularly necessary after
the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so
much from cold as they do from damp and draughts.
Of course whilst the sow is farrowing warmth is
imperative, as the moist little pigs when first ejected
very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless
they are promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a
draught or two of new milk from the sow, and then
placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with
dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become
thoroughly dry the cold does not affect them very
much, providing that the sow furnishes her family
with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a
little water so that the sow and also the young pigs
as soon as they begin to eat may have warmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire
required in cottage and farm-house during the cold
weather. Warm food makes a vast difference in
the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very
slight observation will reveal the marked difference
in the comfort of a pig which has had a meal of
warm or of cold food. In the former case the pig
will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep,
whilst the poor beggar which has had its breakfast
on cold and occasionally frozen food will be the
picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of
its natural heat produced from its last meal being
required to warm up the food ere its digestive organs
can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times
less expensive to warm up food than the animal
fat which is burned in nature's lamp.</p>

<p>Provision should have been made for the supply
of some kind of vegetable food which pigs require,
particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, swedes
and cabbages, of which the first named is the best,
are all suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes,
which like the three former should be fed
raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they
are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding
value between cooked and uncooked potatoes is
great. It is scarcely necessary to point out that all
vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected
from frost.</p>

<p>The operations connected with pig-keeping are
very similar in February to those of the preceding
month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis
will have lost much of their feeding value. On
sunny days a run out for a few minutes will be of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
great benefit to the young pigs over a month old;
as soon as they cease to gallop about they should
be shut up again, as if allowed to lie down they may
contract a chill which might result in "cramp" or
rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks
old should be allowed out of the sty each morning
and afternoon for a short time.</p>

<p>The month of March brings with it an extra
amount of work for the pig-keeper, who will now
think of selling the pigs born early in January
unless he purposes to keep them on and have them
ready for sale as fat pigs in harvest time, when
there is always a good demand for medium sized
fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding
will have been picked out and earmarked, this
last should not be neglected after the others have
been spayed.</p>

<p>This last operation has of late years been much
neglected; this is a great mistake, as experiments
have clearly proved that on an average sow pigs
which have been spayed will make an equal gain in
live weight on 5 per cent less food than will an
unspayed sow pig, when both have become some
five or six months old, and the periods of œstrum
have commenced.</p>

<p>The sows which farrowed in January should now
be weaned from their pigs, and should be ready to
be mated within a few days. The sows should be
carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness.
Some sows give little indication of this unrest,
which is almost certain to appear within four or
five days providing the sow is in a healthy and
vigorous condition. To miss the sow means a loss of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
three weeks of most valuable time, besides the risk
of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after she
had been baulked. With the passing of the month
swedes and artichokes will have lost much of their
nourishment; mangolds can now take their place.
It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air
for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs;
this exposure hastens their ripening and reduces
the proportion of water. Of course care must be
taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March
this might be the case.</p>

<p>In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass
are sufficiently forward towards the end of April to
be cut and fed to the pigs which are confined in the
buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully
repay the cost of labour in the cutting and carting
of these vegetable foods. Brood sows both in pig
and with litters dependent on them, should be allowed
their liberty in the grass fields. This will both
greatly reduce the cost of keep and tend to their
thrift and well doing. Young pigs over a month old
should have a run out both morning and afternoon.
Newly weaned pigs which have been well done are
always in keen request in the months of April and
May at prices higher than in any other portion of
the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers
who have a superabundance of whey, of
which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination is
considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal.
Unfortunately, so many dairymen do not study the
requirements of the pig, and imagine that it will
give a good return from an excess of liquid in the
form of whey. Without some concentrated food<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers of young
pigs are also required in those districts where
butter-making is carried on to consume the butter
milk, and in ordinary times much of the separated
or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results
are not so good as they should be owing to neglect.
Both foods have been rendered unbalanced owing
to the extraction of the butter fat, so that although
new milk may be fed alone, the others require
additional food which should contain some oil or
fat to be fed with them, or they cause indigestion
and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature
pigs.</p>

<p>The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds,
have ceased to be of much value before April
ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the best
of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of
more value for human consumption than can be
obtained from their use as pig food. If there be any
grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores,
should there be such, should now find the major
portion of their food out of doors.</p>

<p>As a rule far too little attention is paid to the
growth of lucerne in this country. It is undoubtedly
one of the most nutritive of our vegetable crops. It
also produces a large weight of food extending over
several months, and continues fruitful for many
years providing attention is paid to the keeping it
free from grasses. It has the additional advantage
of furnishing a full supply of food when the weather
is so dry that grass and some other foods produce
little. It is true that in the initial stage it requires
time and care, but the results from it amply repay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
both. One of the best seasons for sowing it is the
month of May. The operation is simple, the land
having been cleared the seed is sown in drills about
1 ft. apart, the quantity of seed required being at
the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole or a
drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high
enough the land should be hand hoed, and if kept free
of weeds a light crop can generally be cut from it
towards the end of August. In the following years
it will produce at least three cuttings annually.</p>

<p>Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is
such a deep-rooted plant manure is unnecessary.
It is true that the roots penetrate several feet into
the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted
vegetable matter applied each autumn will give a
good return.</p>

<p>The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and
in the production of a maximum crop is to cut it
when young. The pigs will thrive on it far better in
this state than when the stalks become hard and
sticky. In the latter stage it is likely to cause constipation.
It is best not to graze it with either
horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from
folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep
which find most of their other food on the stubbles,
commons, heaths, etc.</p>

<p>All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding
should now spend their whole time out of doors. It
might be noted that lucerne will grow on almost
any kind of land providing it is well drained&mdash;stagnant
water destroys it.</p>

<p>The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in
the month of June to those of the previous month.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
Prior to the outbreak of war it was becoming general
amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to
fatten pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned
idea that pork was not a suitable food during any
of the months in which there was not the letter "r"
had become exploded. Not only did the bacon
curers require a supply of fat pigs weighing from
200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good demand
from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from
80 to 140 lbs. alive.</p>

<p>It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity
of food is required to produce a pound of pork
during the summer than during the winter months.
This has been clearly proved in many experiments.
The difference varies according to the temperature.
In the very cold weather experienced in some
portions of the United States it was found that
some pigs actually made no increase in weight when
well fed, the whole of the nutriment having to be
utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs.</p>

<p>The months of July and August see little change
in the duties of the attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned
plan of running the pigs on the corn
stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved
system of harvesting the crops leaves less
corn on the land, whilst the cost of labour in keeping
the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there
used to be a keen demand for young pigs in the
month of August for so-called "shacking" or running
on the stubbles. Experience has proved that
these pigs pay less frequently under present conditions
than they did under the old ones.</p>

<p>The scarcity of vegetable food which usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
shows itself in August is now, in September, met to
a considerable extent by the plan of the early
digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and
sometimes of slightly diseased ones are now cooked
and fed to the pigs with a certain proportion of
meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in
the month of September. Towards the end of the
month all pigs should be under shelter at night.</p>

<p>During the last three months of the year there is
little variation in the management of pigs. One of
the common mistakes made by farmers is to neglect
their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a
little extra food is needed, and for which the pigs
will give a better return than at almost any time of
the year. The early portion of October is one of the
best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be
left until the latter part of the month so that their
pigs do not arrive until the month of February
when the days are lengthening and the sun has
more power. It is advisable to have many of
the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of
November ends, as the demand for pork is usually
slack for two or three weeks prior to and after
Christmas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XVII
<br />
DISEASES OF THE PIG</h3>


<p>Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively
few serious diseases&mdash;save swine fever, swine
erysipelas, and very occasionally anthrax, which
are contagious or infectious, and all in the special
charts of the veterinary department of the Board
of Agriculture, and within the contagious Diseases
Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out of
Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and
rabies, pigs suffered from these contagious and
infectious diseases, particularly the former of the
two, which caused immense losses, especially of
young pigs, during the latter half of the past
century.</p>

<p>Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir,
the majority and the chief of them are mainly due
to that want of knowledge or care in the feeding
and in the housing of the pigs which renders them
more susceptible to the sudden changes in the
temperature or to the inclemency of the season.
In former chapters some, if not all, of these ailments
have been referred to, but it may be more convenient
to our readers to include in one chapter a
brief description of the ailments and the remedies
and means of prevention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Fever</span></h4>

<p>Some thirty years since the losses from this
disease were of so serious a nature that the Board
of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it
out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura
pneumonia in cattle, and foot and mouth disease.
The success of their efforts was not at all commensurate
with the outlay. The failure was attributed
to many causes; amongst them the want of
a complete knowledge of the disease, the impossibility
of diagnosing it during the life of the patient,
the absence of sympathy on the part of the local
veterinary surgeons owing to certain steps taken
by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to
which further reference is now inadvisable, and to
the general opposition of pig-keepers who had as
little faith in many of the post mortems and their
results as in the power of the authorities to stamp
out the disease which under various names had
been more or less common in the country so long as
they could remember. Doubts were also passed on
the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever,
or as it was variously termed red soldier, spots,
etc.</p>

<p>This disbelief was probably due in part to the
fact that some of the external symptoms of swine
fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease, such as
discoloration of the skin were of a similar character.
In some instances this redness of the skin,
which was looked upon as a sure sign that the pig
had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious,
as no other cases followed amongst the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
in-contact pigs. This led to the general belief that
swine fever was not necessarily infectious. Dissatisfaction
with the arbitrary manner in which the
restrictions in movement, etc., were carried out did
not mend matters, nor help to render the efforts of
the Board more successful.</p>

<p>At the present time it is imperative on the part
of the owner of an ill pig to report the fact to the
nearest policeman. The owner then merely carries
out the instructions supplied to him by the police
so that it is almost unnecessary to state that the
symptoms of swine fever are several. At times the
attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may
take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead
the next morning, no discoloration of the skin or
other external symptoms being visible before or
immediately after death.</p>

<p>As a rule when the pig is attacked the first
symptom is loss of appetite, generally accompanied
by a feverish condition of the skin which shows
more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and
inside the thighs, or in those portions of the body
where the skin is the thinnest and most free from
hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to
burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed,
save when the feverish thirst impels it to seek
moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which may
have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the
sty.</p>

<p>Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky
cough, a gummy discharge exudes from the eyes
and forms a ring round them, the ankles become
affected, and the muscles of the back become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
weakened so that the pig has difficulty in walking.
The discoloration of the skin may or may
not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes
greater so that death may follow within a day or
two from the first attack. Occasionally the affected
pig will continue to live for several days, and
eventually recover so much that it can be fatted,
but there exists a great risk of the recovered pig
being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease,
and possessing the ability to infect other pigs with
which it may come in close contact, although the
germs of the disease which it carries do not affect
its own health. Similar instances of human beings
being "carriers" of the disease have been recorded.
So difficult is it at times to discover the source of
the infection of swine fever that certain persons
who are not amongst the strongest believers in the
practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary
profession assert that swine fever need not necessarily
be the result of infection, but that injudicious
feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will
sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not
appear to be the slightest ground for this belief, as
there is a specific virus which when it obtains ingress
into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth,
nose, or in any other way, may result in an attack,
more or less severe, of swine fever, unless the virus
has become so attenuated that it is unable to
affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which
is due to causes which are probably not completely
known, is commonly the cause of the absence of
further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of
pigs which has had a very mild attack. This variation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
in the virulence of most infectious diseases has
been noticed and recorded.</p>

<p>At the present time the Board of Agriculture have
suspended the slaughter order in cases where the
owner of the pigs desires to inoculate the in-contact
pigs with serum which is supplied from the
Veterinary College. The experiment has not been
in operation sufficiently long enough to express a
confident opinion upon its results, but it is stated
that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs which
have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved
to be a success. The risks of carrying out the
experiment are by no means slight, but appear to
be worth running if there be any great probability
of success.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Swine Erysipelas</span></h4>

<p>The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately
is not so common as swine fever, owing probably to
its being more fatal and in a shorter time, are very
similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky
cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back
are generally absent. The post mortem shows distinctive
differences from those of swine fever.
There appears to be far greater difficulty in
thoroughly disinfecting the sty in which pigs
suffering from erysipelas have been housed than
after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus
remains active for a very long period, so that any
accident which may expose the virus even after
many months may affect any pigs with which it
comes in contact.</p>

<p>In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
to have the unaffected pigs inoculated as well as
those housed in a sty or building in which at any
time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed.
A certain limited number may die, and a few suffer
for a time, but the total loss will be considerably
reduced.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Anthrax, Foot and Mouth Disease and Rabies</span></h4>

<p>It may be unnecessary to describe these very
infectious or contagious diseases to which pigs are
subject, as fortunately the steps taken to stamp
them out, and which were much decried when taken
by the Board of Agriculture, have proved so successful
that the two latter are stamped out, and the
first named is so promptly and effectually dealt
with that a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Cramp, Diarrhœa and Epileptic Fits</span></h4>

<p>These diseases, which are more frequent amongst
young pigs, have been fully described in the chapters
dealing with the rearing, weaning, and growing of
pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly
due to faults in feeding, and the simple remedies
applicable are there given.</p>

<p>Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon
in the chapter on the Farrowing Sow.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Vagina or the Uterus</span></h4>

<p>These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete
expulsion and the former only a partial protrusion
of the "breeding bag," are generally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The
second is almost impossible of treatment, and indeed
may be declared as fatal, so that the loss may be
reduced by prompt slaughter.</p>

<p>The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion
may at times be noticeable during the latter
stages of pregnancy, and then after delivery may
disappear without treatment until the pressure due
to the increasing size of the fœtus again causes it.
Even in serious cases which attend the delivery and
are due to excessive straining of the sow, the attack
is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment
is applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding
part with warm water, to which some disinfectant
has been added, in order that all dirt, short straw,
etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be
made to rise, or if she refuses, as is not uncommon,
the hind quarters of the sow should be raised and
the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced
back. In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches
with strong cord or leather lace should be inserted
into the edges of the vulva&mdash;these need not be very
close together or otherwise the sow would be unable
to make water. For a few days the sow must be
kept as quiet as possible and fed on a little nourishing
but laxative food, so that the pressure on the
vagina is slight until the muscles regain their
normal strength. Should there be the slightest
symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should
be given to the sow. No harm, but rather good,
will attend the giving of a gentle dose of salts at the
first time of feeding after the operation as there is
certain to be an amount of inflammation present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Inversion of the Rectum</span></h4>

<p>This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed
is not often experienced amongst mature pigs.
Young pigs are not uncommonly affected save when
constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a
heating nature which causes continual difficulty on
the part of the pig in expelling the fæces. The
effort of straining causes the gut to exude. Similar
treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as
with inversion of the vagina, should be followed.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Tender Feet</span></h4>

<p>This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or
rheumatism, and is generally due to the same causes,
injudicious feeding, etc. In the latter disease the
ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in the
feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of
Epsom salts should be given and daily doses of
nitre should be given in the food. The object should
be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure
or remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet
which follows the fever. Poulticing the feet and
applying diluted white oils by adding equal quantities
of water and vinegar around the coronets are
both remedial measures of great value.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Constipation</span></h4>

<p>This trouble is very common amongst pigs which
are confined to the sties, its avoidance is comparatively
easy, when the want of exercise is the sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road
will almost always result in the pig evacuating dung
and water. A dose of salts, varying from 1/2 oz. to
1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the next
supply of food is advisable.</p>

<p>Constipation is usually the first indication of
many of the troubles to which the pig is heir. The
little pig on its mother becomes constipated when
the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the
pig suffers from indigestion; fever caused by a
chill is also foretold by constipation which should
be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor
oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed
oil is also frequently used to relieve the constipation,
but with this there is a fear of billiousness following
its use. If exercise and the above remedies do not
effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even
glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen
remove the hard and knotty fæces by the aid of the
finger.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Eczema</span></h4>

<p>This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it
appears to be rather a symptom of a severe attack
of indigestion or of billiousness than a disease in
itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red
spot, varying in size from that of a threepenny piece
to that of a shilling, these spots vary greatly in
number. Small pimples appear on the spots from
which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels
are thoroughly relieved by aperient medicine, the
spots become dark in colour and peel off the skin.
The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight
drachms in addition to the salts will be beneficial.</p>

<p>Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then
be necessary to dose it. The pig must be caught,
its head raised and the liquid gently poured down its
throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour
the liquid whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine
will go into the lungs and cause suffocation, or
inflammation of the lungs which will generally prove
fatal.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Measles</span></h4>

<p>This is a trouble of a very similar character to
eczema save that the red spots are more numerous
and of a more irritating character. The patient is
continually rubbing itself against the wall or any
prominence in an endeavour to relieve the itching.
The pig is also more feverish. The pig should be
placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into
which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom
salts to which is added a small quantity of spirit of
nitre should be given, as the pig affected will almost
invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or
sweet oil applied to the spots will relieve the irritation.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Rickets</span></h4>

<p>This is not by any means a common ailment
amongst pigs, but it is very hereditary. The most
common cause is too close breeding. The bones and
joints appear to be unequal to the performance of
their duties, the pig staggers and stumbles when it
attempts to move, whilst sometimes the back is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from
"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable
as recovery is doubtful. The first loss by knocking
the pig on the head is generally the least.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Tuberculosis</span></h4>

<p>Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to
tuberculosis when they are kept under conditions
similar to those which result in human beings becoming
affected. The disease is highly infectious,
pigs coming in contact with or even being housed in
sties where pigs affected have been recently kept
are very likely to become infected. Some persons
declare that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly
called, consumption, is hereditary. For this there
does not appear to be any foundation. The chief
thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to
keep them away from contagion. Although many
parts of the body may be attacked by tuberculosis,
the lungs are more frequently affected than any
other of the organs, owing probably to the ease
with which infection by the minute germ is conveyed
to the lungs in the act of breathing.</p>

<p>In the past a considerable number of pigs became
infected through being fed on skim milk which
contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering
from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the
lungs and the bowels becoming tubercular, the pigs
become unthrifty and frequently waste away and
die. When the bones and other portions of the body
are attacked the development of the disease is not
so rapid, but in any case the wisest plan is to destroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in
which it has been kept. Save when the disease is
local and of very limited duration the meat of a pig
suffering from tuberculosis is unfit for human consumption.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Worms</span></h4>

<p>Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of
these the most serious by far is the worm which
causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The
worms are transmitted to man in pork from a
diseased pig. Thorough cooking of meat appears to
destroy the vitality of the worm, but in foreign
countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or
an undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon.
Fortunately, Trichinosis is almost unknown
in this country, owing to our more stringent
sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the
pig to the eating of human excrement in which are
thread worms.</p>

<p>The most common kind of pig worm in this
country is the round white worm, pointed at both
ends. Its length varies from one to several inches.
Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more
of the worms are noticed in the dung of the pig. It
is readily got rid of by keeping the pigs from food
for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a
little tempting food in which a dose of santonine,
varying from three to ten grains for each pig,
according to its age, has been added. Some two
hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,
or of one to two ounces of Epsom salts, should be
given in milk or some other tempting food. Similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
treatment will prove successful in the case of pigs
affected with the smaller kind of worms save that
of the worm which causes what is commonly known
as "husk." This worm makes its home in the windpipe
and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain
from a chemist a drench for the riddance of this
worm, as the remedies will consist of linseed oil,
turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asafœtida.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Sore Teats</span></h4>

<p>Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows
with their first litters, become chapped or sore.
This trouble is frequently due to the too vigorous
sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is
short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp
little teeth have not been broken off, or even to
cold winds.</p>

<p>An application of boro-glyceride will usually
effect a speedy cure. In persistent cases it will be
advisable to give the sow a dose or two of opening
medicine such as salts or sulphur.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Salt and Soda Poisoning</span></h4>

<p>Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases,
the effects are often more serious than those of some
actual diseases to which swine are more or less subject.</p>

<p>In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect
of the cook to keep separate from the swill the
water in which salted meat or other food has been
boiled, or the water to which soda has been added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
in the washing of the plates, etc. An attack if at
all severe is usually fatal.</p>

<p>The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and
a refusal of food. As these are the usual symptoms
of several other ailments, it is difficult to determine
the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination.
It is to be feared that this mixing of a solution
of salt and soda with the other swill will be one
of the difficulties met with in the more general
utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />


<h3>CHAPTER XVIII
<br />
THE CURING OF PORK</h3>


<p>In the good old times bacon curing was carried on
in the large majority of farm-houses as well as in
many houses in the country districts, not only
where there were conveniences for the keeping of
pigs, but many householders were in the habit of
buying carcases of pork from their neighbours and
curing the major portion for the following year's
supply of cured meats. Even the better class
labourers would kill and cure it so that as long as it
lasted they had on hand a supply of most nutritious
and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change
has taken place of late years; this convenient and
profitable plan has been superseded. The causes
may have been many; amongst them, the importation
of immense quantities of salt pork of
very inferior quality at very low prices from the
United States; the change in the public taste which
is now for mild cured and lean bacon from young
pigs, instead of the more heavily salted meats from
older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in the
number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in
urban districts through the operation of the so-called
sanitary regulations; and probably from the
different style of living, which may or may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
an improvement, amongst the residents in country
districts.</p>

<p>It may be that one of the many changes which
have been brought about by, and which will also
follow, the war will be a return to the more simple
and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain
that a more economical system will have to be
followed, and one of the means of effecting this may
be a return to the keeping of pigs during their
growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and
then when the pigs have been fattened, by the
killing and curing of the carcase for home consumption.</p>

<p>Much has been written during recent years about
the folly of allowing so many millions of sovereigns
to go out of the country in payment for the vast
weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import
from foreign countries. Residents in the country
have been blamed by town residents and literary
men for their alleged want of enterprise in not
breeding and fattening the few extra million pigs
which would furnish an amount of pig produce
equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare,
save the country that outlay which is a dead loss
to these islands.</p>

<p>It may at once be frankly admitted that a very
considerable increase in the number of our pig
population is possible without any very greatly
extended cost of food, but when it is contended that
farmers and even cottagers are grossly neglectful in
not producing sufficient pork and its products for
the use of the whole of the population of these
islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
feeding of pigs is a business calling, not a philanthropical
pursuit. Farmers and cottagers are like
other manufacturers of necessary articles; they
produce in order to live, and they cease to manufacture
an article when its production ceases to
repay them for their outlay and trouble. They
must of necessity do so, or they come to grief
and are unable to carry on their farms or businesses.</p>

<p>It matters not what the cause be for the ability
of the foreigner to produce and land on our markets
articles cheaper than we can afford to offer them at,
the result is the same&mdash;the home production is automatically
reduced. There are many causes which
have helped to render it possible for foreigners to
supply us with a certain proportion of the pork and
bacon which we require at a less cost than our
home breeder and feeders of pigs can supply it.
These include help to the farmers from the Governments
of certain countries such as Denmark, where
assistance is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs
for the improvement of the native pigs, in the reduced
railway and other rates on the transit of
pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain
foods, and in carrying out experiments in order to
show how they may be utilised in the best manner.
Stud farms have also been established from which
pure bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole
industry of pig breeding and bacon curing is
carried on under the supervision and with the
advice of many Government officials appointed for
the purpose. The intrinsic value of this assistance
is perceptible, as in no other country are pig-keeping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary
success than in Denmark.</p>

<p>It is also asserted that the general system of
farming in Denmark has also contributed very
largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig
industry, in that a very large proportion of the land
is owned and farmed by comparatively small
farmers, men who have a direct interest in the
improvement of the land, and who with their
families perform the major portion of the work
on the land and in attendance on the stock. The
land is almost certain to be well managed and the
stock to receive the best possible attention with,
comparatively speaking, little cost as to labour.
The animals on the farm are likely to be
of a higher grade and the returns from them
of an increased character, than when strangers
and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds
them.</p>

<p>Another of the great advantages possessed by
some of our foreign competitors is the very much
better supply of feeding stuffs and their very considerably
lower cost. Take the United States, for
instance, the enormous supply of maize alone
enables American pigmen to manufacture pork at
a cost which enables the packers to land bacon,
hams, and lard on the British shores which our
home pig producers cannot approach. Although it
cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the
States than in England, yet there are some countries
from which we import pork products where the
labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the
future the allowance for labour will have to be on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
more liberal scale than hitherto when estimating
the cost of producing pork, unless the number of
persons owning and occupying small holdings is
greatly increased.</p>

<p>It has been stated that our home producers of
pork and bacon will obtain a considerable advantage
in the future in that the freight on the imported
meats will be so much higher. It is most
probable that this will increase the expense of landing
bacon, etc., on our markets; on the other hand,
as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening
foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased
to quite the same if not to a greater extent.
The only plan to reduce this extra expense will be
to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying
more attention to the growth of various foods suitable
for pigs, attending more carefully to our pigs
and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these
particulars there is room for much improvement in
many piggeries.</p>

<p>By reducing the cost of the production of pork
and by the more general adoption of the system of
home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon at
less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of
the finest quality of bacon and hams generally
available. We imagine that the reader of the
earlier portion of this book will experience little
difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a
minimum cost&mdash;it will then remain to cure and dry
it properly.</p>

<p>The fattened pig should not be fed for some
twenty-four hours before it is killed; after slaughter
the carcase should remain hanging until it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will
depend on the custom in the particular district.
In some parts of the country the pig is split down,
the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and
kidneys and the skirt taken out, the loin and the
crop with a certain proportion of the lean cut off,
and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn;
after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains.</p>

<p>In other districts the ham and the shoulder are
cut off and the side is converted into a middle, a
ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are
taken off the head and salted with the bacon and
hams. The upper part of the head, or, as it is commonly
termed, the scorf, is usually used with the
feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it
is sometimes called, pork cheese&mdash;presumably
from its being cooled in a form, and then
turned out on to the dish on which it is served
at table.</p>

<p>The first operation in curing is to distribute a
small quantity of salt all over the meat to be cured.
If allowed to remain about forty-eight hours the
blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved,
and will have exuded from the carcase.
This liquid should be thrown away. A mixture in
the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar,
1 oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell
should be prepared, and a portion of it be applied
to all parts of the meat and particularly in the pocket
hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn. This
should be continued for from twenty to thirty days,
according to the thickness of the meat and the degree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
of saltness desired. In one or two districts of a
limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat
violently with a large pebble when applying the
salt mixture, the alleged object being to rub in the
salt; but for this there is not the slightest necessity
as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt will
penetrate the meat equally as well without the
manipulation as with it. The principal point is to
secure the distribution of the salt to every part of
the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve
it.</p>

<p>When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung
up and dried. If it be desired to have it smoked
this is best done at the village bakery or smoke
drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is
possible on a small scale with the aid of a smoke
oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas and Sons
of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less
troublesome to send the meat to the village smoking
house. It will be advisable to brand or otherwise
mark each piece of cured meat sent to be
smoked, as the return of the same pieces is thus
assured.</p>

<p>Where the home curing of bacon and hams
is followed, this is best carried out from the
middle of October to the end of March; if it
be attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is
necessary.</p>

<p>The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the
year through as the meat is usually kept in the brine,
where it will keep perfectly good for a considerable
time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed
in the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
the pig killed in the evening, covered over with a
cloth to prevent the flies approaching it, and hanging
it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has
escaped ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot.
It may be advisable to note that the last is only
possible with a small pig during the hot weather.
In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only
salt and saltpetre. The use of sugar should be
avoided in the summer, as its use is likely to result
in fermentation in hot weather.</p>

<p>There are two other points in connection with
bacon curing on which a change of opinion has
taken place, or is taking place. These are the cause
of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and
the effect on the bacon of the female fat pig being
in a state of œstrum when it is slaughtered. Until
quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is a
most serious one to the trade, was generally considered
to be due to the second. It was believed by
curers that the slight inflammation noticeable in
the mammary glands of the female pig when she is
in heat resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies"
if the pig was in that condition when she was
slaughtered. This belief may have been either the
cause or the result, or both, of the common saying
that the meat of a sow pig killed when it was in
heat will not take the salt properly, and that it is
therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition
has passed away before the pig is slaughtered.
This contention has been one of the arguments used
when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated.
Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been
spayed, so that the unspayed fat pigs have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
nearly as numerous as those male pigs which have
been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat
each three weeks, and continue so for from three to
five days, a very considerable proportion of them
must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the
large bacon-curing factories, without any loss
resulting. We may, therefore, assume that it
matters little whether the pig be in heat or not
when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies
result.</p>

<p>On this point also the verdict is against the
common belief, as Messrs. Mackenzie and Marsh
have carried out a series of investigations at Cambridge
which clearly proved that seedy bellies were
equally as common when the sow pigs were not in
heat and when they were; but that the discoloration
which resembles numbers of small spots
of colour varying from dark blue to light red
in the mammary glands is merely an excess of
pigment, the darker shade being common in
pigs with dark coloured hair and skin such as
the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter
shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the
bacon manufactured from pigs with a white
skin and white hair there is no discoloration or
seedy bellies.</p>

<p>Although it has been generally considered by
bacon curers that pigs of a white colour were preferable
for their trade, and this to such an extent that
some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly
higher price for a pig with a white skin, the preference
was generally considered to be due to the more
presentable appearance of a side of bacon from a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
white than from a black pig; it would appear that
in the future a still greater preference will be
observable when it becomes generally known that
the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy
bellies.</p>

<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>


<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-imagep181.jpg" width="600" height="482" alt="Advertisement for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders."
title="Willson's Canadian Pig Powders." />
</div>

<div class="advert">
<p style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">To make money out of Pigs</p>

<p>One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth
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<p><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">Willson's Canadian Pig Powders</span>
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<span style="font-size:large; font-style:italic">are a
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</div>



<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Scale of prices advertised for Willson's Canadian Pig Powders.">
<tr><td align="right">7</td><td align="center">for</td><td align="left">6d.,</td><td align="center">post free</td><td align="left">7d.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/-</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1/2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">48</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2/9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3/-</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">144</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">8/-</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="5">and in bulk in tins
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</table></div>

<div class="advert">

<p class="center"><i>We have agents almost
everywhere.</i></p>


<p class="center">   <i>Sole<br />
  Manufacturer:</i><br />
<br />
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          Canadian Pig Powder Factory<br />
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</div>

<hr />

<div class="advert">
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<p class="center">  By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D.</p>

<p class="center">  Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d.</p>


<p>Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man
his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the
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<p class="center">  <i>Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers</i>,<br />
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</div>
<hr />




<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>

<h3>INDEX</h3>

<ul>
<li>Anthrax, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Apthous fever, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Arrival of little pigs, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
<li>Artichokes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Attendance on farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Bacon curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Bacon smoking, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Bacon from young pigs, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
<li>Barley meal  as  sole fatting food, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
<li>Barn for pigsty, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
<li>Baulked sows, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
<li>Baulking sows, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
<li>Berkshire breed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
<li>Black pigs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
<li>Blind teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
<li>Boar's teats, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
<li>Board of Agriculture's premiums, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
<li>Bob-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
<li>Breeds of pigs at shows, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
<li>British Berkshire Society, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
<li>Butter milk, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cabbages for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
<li>Canadian system, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
<li>Carriers of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
<li>Castrating pigs, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
<li>Castrating ruptured pigs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
<li>Cause of parti-coloured pigs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
<li>Close breeding, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
<li>Clover for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Coleseed for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
<li>Constipation in pigs, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li>Consumption in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked maize, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
<li>Cooked <i>v.</i> uncooked potatoes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
<li>Cooking pig foods, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
<li>Cooking potatoes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
<li>Cross-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
<li>Cross breds <i>v.</i> pure breds, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li>Cumberland pigs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
<li>Cutting up the pig, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Danish pig-keeping, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
<li>Dead pigs, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
<li>Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li>Dentition of pigs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
<li>Diarrh[oe]a, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Difficulty in disinfecting sties, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
<li>Diseases of pigs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>
  <ul class="nest">
  <li>Anthrax</li>
  <li>Apthous fever</li>
  <li>Constipation</li>
  <li>Cramp</li>
  <li>Diarrh[oe]a</li>
  <li>Eczema</li>
  <li>Epileptic fits</li>
  <li>Foot and mouth disease</li>
  <li>Inversion of the rectum</li>
  <li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; " &nbsp; "</span>  vagina</li>
  <li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; " &nbsp; "</span>  uterus</li>
  <li>Measles</li>
  <li>Rabies</li>
  <li>Rickets</li>
  <li>Salt poisoning</li>
  <li>Soda poisoning</li>
  <li>Sore teats</li>
  <li>Swine erysipelas</li>
  <li>Swine fever</li>
  <li>Tender feet</li>
  <li>Tuberculosis</li>
  <li>Worms</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>Dorset pigs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
<li>Dosing pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
<li>Dry beds, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
<li>Dysentery, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Eczema, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
<li>Effect of food and climate, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
<li>Epileptic fits, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Essex half-blacks, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
<li>Excited young sows, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
<li>Exhibition of pigs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
<li>Exposure of mangolds, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
<li>Extra food in the autumn, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Farmer owners, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
<li>Farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
<li>Fits, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
<li>Flabby udders, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
<li>Foot and mouth disease, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
<li>Foster mothers, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Garget, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
<li>Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
<li>Government help, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
<li>Grade breeding pigs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
<li>Grazing pigs, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Ham curing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
<li>Hampshire pigs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
<li>Hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>High-backed pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
<li>Holywell Victoria Countess, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
<li>Husk, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Importation of bacon and lard, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
<li>Improved breeds, origin of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
<li>Increased cost of freight, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
<li>Infectivity of swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
<li>Influence of sire, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  dam, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
<li>Inoculation for erysipelas, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span> swine fever, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Inversion of the rectum, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; " &nbsp; "</span>  vagina, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; " &nbsp; "</span>  uterus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Large boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
<li>Large Black breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
<li>Large blue and white pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li>Large White breed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
<li>Large White Ulster breed, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
<li>Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
<li>Litter for pigs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
<li>Lucerne for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Maize supply, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
<li>Mangolds for pigs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
<li>Mating the young sow, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  suckling sow, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
<li>Measles, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
<li>Medicine for farrowing sow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
<li>Mere size studied, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
<li>Messrs. Harris's scheme, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li>Middle White breed, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
<li>Milk for sucking pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
<li>Mixture of food, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
<li>Model piggeries, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Neat sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
<li>Non-infectious swine fever, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
<li>Norfolk pigs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
<li>Northamptonshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li>Number of pigs for a sow, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
<li>Number in a litter, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Origin of improved breeds, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
<li>Oxfordshire pigs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Parsnips for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
<li>Peat moss litter, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
<li>Persistence of erysipelas virus, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
<li>Pig calendar, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
<li>Pig fattening, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
<li>Pig keeping in orchards, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; " &nbsp; "</span>  woods, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
<li>Pigment, excess of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
<li>Pig pillows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
<li>Pig shacking, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
<li>Pigs suffering from heat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
<li>Plenty of teats, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
<li>Potatoes for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Poulticing pigs' feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li>Practical <i>v.</i> show points, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
<li>Prepotency of dam, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  sire, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
<li>Prolificacy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">"</span>  indications of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">"</span>  value of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
<li>Pure breeds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Quality of bone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Rabies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Rape for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Rearing of young pigs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></li>
<li>Recorded pedigree insufficient, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
<li>Rectum, inversion of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li>Registering produce, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
<li>Remaking sow's bed, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
<li>Rickets in pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
<li>Ring pigs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
<li>Rollers for fat pigs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
<li>Round white worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
<li>Rudgwick pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
<li>Rupture in pigs hereditary, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
<li>Ruptured boar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salt poisoning, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
<li>Santonine as a cure for worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
<li>Scrotal hernia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
<li>Seedy bellies, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Selection of boar, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  sow, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
<li>Separated milk for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
<li>Sheeted pigs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
<li>Size in boars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">"</span>  of pigs' ears, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
<li>Skim milk and tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
<li>Slaughter classes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
<li>Small black breed, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
<li>Small joints wanted, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
<li>Small testicles, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
<li>Smoke ovens, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Smoking bacon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Soft pork, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
<li>Sore-tailed pigs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
<li>Sore teats, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
<li>Sow's udder, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
<li>Spaying sow pigs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
<li>Sty facing east, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>     north, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>     south, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>     west, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
<li>Sugar in pork curing, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li>Sussex pigs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
<li>Swayback pigs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
<li>Swine erysipelas, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
<li>Swine fever, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  virus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Tares for pigs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
<li>Tender feet, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li>Trichinosis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
<li>Tuberculosis in pigs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
<li>Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
<li>Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Udder, the sow's, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
<li>Undersized teats, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
<li>Uniformity in a herd, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
<li><span class="ditto">" &nbsp; "</span>  young pigs, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li>Unwieldly sows, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
<li>Utility points, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Value of feeding qualities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
<li>Value of whey, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
<li>Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
<li>Varying food, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
<li>Vegetable food for pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Weaning pigs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
<li>Wheat meal, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
<li>White peas for little pigs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
<li>White-skinned pigs for bacon, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
<li>Worms, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></li>
</ul>



<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<div class="advert">
<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S</span>
<br />
<span style="font-size:large">"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS</span>
<br />
ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS.
<br />
Used by most of the leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS.</p>

<p class="center">It will pay you well to use them regularly.
<br />
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<br />
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</div>

<div class="sideleft">HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL</div>
<div class="sideright">SOLD EVERYWHERE</div>

<div class="figcenter" style="width: 621px;">
<img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:s:sanders-spencer-the-pigs-image195.png" width="621" height="313" alt="Advertisement for Dennis&#39;s Pig Powders"
title="Advertisement for Dennis&#39;s Pig Powders" />
<span class="caption">DENNIS&#39;s<br />
LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS<br />
PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS<br />
LOUTH.<br />
ENGLAND</span>
</div>
<div class="advert">
<p class="center">Trade Mark No. 14,839.</p>



<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS</span>
<br />
<b>are recognised as the surest means
<br />
of ridding pigs of these parasites.</b></p>

<p>Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:&mdash;"I
found 63 worms in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders."</p>

<p class="center">In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4.</p>

<p class="center">Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd.,
and Co-operative Societies, at all Branches.</p>

<p class="center">Proprietor:</p>

<p class="center"><b>JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist
<br />
LOUTH, LINCS.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center">All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should
get at once a copy of</p>

<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large"><b>FARMING ON FACTORY LINES</b></span>
<br />
<span class="smcap">OR</span>
<br />
<b>Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers</b>
</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">BY</span>
<br />
<b>T. WIBBERLEY, <span class="smcap">N.D.A.</span>, <span class="smcap">N.D.D.</span></b>
<br />
(<i>Of Queen's University, Belfast</i>).</p>

<p class="center">Second Edition <b>6/-</b> net (postage 4d.)</p>


<p><b>[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test book on the
Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a
new and frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER
Farming and to cheaper Milk, Corn and Beef Production.</b></p>

<p>"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer,
but it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning
what otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in
tilling the land.</p>

<p>"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale&mdash;yet the whole of
the scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming
on Factory Lines'&mdash;as the system is variously termed&mdash;is in reality
beautifully simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly
paid officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered
out some such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley
was born."&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Smallholder</span>.</p>

<p class="center"><b>Read all about it in this new and valuable work.</b></p>

<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free
for <b>6/4</b> from</i></p>

<p class="center">Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited,
<br />
18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />

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<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS</span>
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<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>Small Gardens and How to make the Most of
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<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given
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<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>The Dog: In Health and Disease.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. M.
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<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen proscribed
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<p class="center"><i>Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be sent post-paid
on receipt of the price mentioned by</i></p>

<p class="center"><b>A. F. SOWTER, Publisher, "Smallholder and Small Owner" Offices,<br />
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</div>
<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center"><span style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">FARMING</span>
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<p class="center">By
<br />
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<br />
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<p class="center"><i>Author of "The Potato Book," &amp;c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net.</i></p>

<p>This is an easy Guide to the
most useful Elements of Agriculture.
It has been specially
written by a thoroughly qualified
agriculturist, with a wide and
successful practical knowledge
of his subject, for the use of the
countless thousands of men and
women who are now streaming
back&mdash;eager but half instructed&mdash;to
work on the land. It covers
practically every department of
farm labour and enterprise, and
provides the fullest and most
reliable instruction for all who
propose to take up Agriculture
in a serious and practical spirit,
as a means of livelihood.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free
for 3/10 from</i></p>

<p class="center">MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED,<br />
18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
</div>

<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center"><span style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC.</span></p>

<p class="center">A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY.</p>


<p class="center"><b><span style="font-size:large;">DAIRY FARMING</span><br />
FOR<br />
<span style="font-size:large;">SMALLHOLDERS</span></b></p>


<p>By <span class="smcap">James Long</span>, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural College;
Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc.</p>

<p class="center">Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9.</p>

<p>THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:&mdash;Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management; Foods
and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc.</p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it. The explanations
are lucid and clear."&mdash;<i>Standard.</i></p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has facilities for doing so,
will be all the better for adding this book to those already in his possession."&mdash;<i>Field.</i></p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the dairy farmer's
shelf."&mdash;<i>The Dairy.</i></p>
</div>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>POULTRY FOR PROFIT</b>. By <span class="smcap">E. T. Brown</span>. Author of "Profitable
Poultry Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &amp;c.
Crown 8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A
thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper.</p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edwin Beckett</span>, V.M.H.,
F.R.H.S. Crown 8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net
(postage 3d. extra).</p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and famous as a grower of
exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical
way, dealing with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the cultivation of
roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is satisfying."&mdash;<i>The Field.</i></p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em"><b>THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.</b> Published annually in December.
Price 1/6 net, per post 1/9.</p>

<p style="margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent:1.5em">The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised court of appeal in all
matters connected with the land, in gardening, farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping
circles. It contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE
SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to puzzle YOU.</p>
</div>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center"><i>These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be forwarded
post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from</i></p>

<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>


<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<p class="center" style="font-size:large; font-weight:bold">THE<br />
"SMALLHOLDER"<br />
CHARTS.</p>

<p class="center"><span class="smcap">On Card</span> 11-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">by</span> 8-1/2 in. <span class="smcap">for Hanging Up.</span></p>

<ol style="margin-left:20%; margin-right:20%">
<li>How to Make a Garden Frame</li>

<li>How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds</li>

<li>The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping</li>

<li>The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping</li>

<li>The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping</li>

<li>Garden and Orchard Pests</li>

<li>How and When to Sow Flower Seeds</li>

<li>How to Cure Poultry Diseases</li>

<li>How to Cure Pig Diseases</li>

<li>Fruit Bottling</li>

<li>Manuring Made Easy</li>

<li>The Whole Art of Goat Keeping</li>
</ol>
<p class="center"><i>Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free.</i></p>
</div>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center">The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to
August, and September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth.
Price 4/-net each; post free 4/6. Cases for binding, including
Title Page and Index, price 1/9 each; post free 2/-.</p>

<p class="center">Write to the Editor<br />

The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>

</div>
<hr style="width: 45%;" />

<div class="advert">
<p class="center">AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK
FOR THE YOUNG.</p>

<p class="center" style="font-size:x-large; font-weight:bold">IN NATURE'S WAYS</p>

<p class="center">BY MARCUS WOODWARD.</p>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<p class="center">A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an
Introduction to Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History
of Selborne."</p>

<p class="center">Illustrated by <span class="smcap">J. A. Shepherd</span>.</p>

<p class="center">With Preface by <span class="smcap">Wilfrid Mark Webb</span>, Secretary of the Selborne
Society.</p>

<p class="center">This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in
addition to the Drawings in the Text.</p>

<p class="center"><b>Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth
boards, price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.</b></p>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<p>"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the
original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the bird or
beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A. Shepherd, full of his
usual vitality."&mdash;<i>Times.</i></p>

<p>"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the young."&mdash;<i>Field.</i></p>

<p>"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young
readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing on
nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many readers
who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations catch the spirit of
the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work that has made his reputation
as an artist."&mdash;<i>Literary World.</i></p>

<hr style="width: 30%;" />

<p class="center"><i>May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of published price
and postage from</i></p>

<p class="center"><b>C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.</b></p>
</div>
<hr style="width: 45%;" />
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