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      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style=
        "font-size: 173%">The Golden Bough</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style=
        "font-size: 144%">A Study in Magic and Religion</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">By</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style=
        "font-size: 144%">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D.,
        Litt.D.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fellow of Trinity
        College, Cambridge</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor of Social
        Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style=
        "font-size: 120%">Vol. IX. of XII.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style=
        "font-size: 120%">Part VI: The Scapegoat.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York and London</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">MacMillan and Co.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1913</p>
      </div>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>

        <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc">
          <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc3">Chapter I. The Transference of Evil.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc5">§ 1. The Transference
          to Inanimate Objects.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc7">§ 2. The Transference
          to Stones and Sticks.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc9">§ 3. The Transference
          to Animals.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc11">§ 4. The Transference
          to Men.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc13">§ 5. The Transference
          of Evil in Europe.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc15">§ 6. The Nailing of
          Evils.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc17">Chapter II. The Omnipresence of
          Demons.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc19">Chapter III. The Public Expulsion of
          Evils.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">§ 1. The Occasional
          Expulsion of Evils.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">§ 2. The Periodic
          Expulsion of Evils.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc25">Chapter IV. Public Scapegoats.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc27">§ 1. The Expulsion of
          Embodied Evils.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">§ 2. The Occasional
          Expulsion of Evils in a Material Vehicle.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">§ 3. The Periodic
          Expulsion of Evils in a Material Vehicle.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc33">Chapter V. On Scapegoats in General.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc35">Chapter VI. Human Scapegoats in Classical
          Antiquity.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc37">§ 1. The Human
          Scapegoat in Ancient Rome.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">§ 2. The Human
          Scapegoat in Ancient Greece.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc41">Chapter VII. Killing the God in
          Mexico.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc43">Chapter VIII. The Saturnalia and Kindred
          Festivals.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc45">§ 1. The Roman
          Saturnalia.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc47">§ 2. The King of the
          Bean and the Festival of Fools.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc49">§ 3. The Saturnalia
          and Lent.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc51">§ 4. Saturnalia in
          Ancient Greece.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc53">§ 5. Saturnalia in
          Western Asia.</a></li>

          <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc55">§ 6.
          Conclusion.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc57">Note. The Crucifixion Of Christ.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc59">Index.</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc61">Footnotes</a></li>
        </ul>
      </div>
    </div>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv"
      id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
        Scapegoat</span></span> our general discussion of the theory and
        practice of the Dying God is brought to a conclusion. The aspect of
        the subject with which we are here chiefly concerned is the use of
        the Dying God as a scapegoat to free his worshippers from the
        troubles of all sorts with which life on earth is beset. I have
        sought to trace this curious usage to its origin, to decompose the
        idea of the Divine Scapegoat into the elements out of which it
        appears to be compounded. If I am right, the idea resolves itself
        into a simple confusion between the material and the immaterial,
        between the real possibility of transferring a physical load to other
        shoulders and the supposed possibility of transferring our bodily and
        mental ailments to another who will bear them for us. When we survey
        the history of this pathetic fallacy from its crude inception in
        savagery to its full development in the speculative theology of
        civilized nations, we cannot but wonder at the singular power which
        the human mind possesses of transmuting the leaden dross of
        superstition into a glittering semblance of gold. Certainly in
        nothing is this alchemy of thought more conspicuous than in the
        process which has refined the base and foolish custom of the
        scapegoat into the sublime conception of a God who dies to take away
        the sins of the world.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Along with the
        discussion of the Scapegoat I have included in this volume an account
        of the remarkable religious ritual of the Aztecs, in which the theory
        of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name=
        "Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Dying God found its most
        systematic and most tragic expression. There is nothing, so far as I
        am aware, to shew that the men and women, who in Mexico died cruel
        deaths in the character of gods and goddesses, were regarded as
        scapegoats by their worshippers and executioners; the intention of
        slaying them seems rather to have been to reinforce by a river of
        human blood the tide of life which might else grow stagnant and stale
        in the veins of the deities. Hence the Aztec ritual, which prescribed
        the slaughter, the roasting alive, and the flaying of men and women
        in order that the gods might remain for ever young and strong,
        conforms to the general theory of deicide which I have offered in
        this work. On that theory death is a portal through which gods and
        men alike must pass to escape the decrepitude of age and to attain
        the vigour of eternal youth. The conception may be said to culminate
        in the Brahmanical doctrine that in the daily sacrifice the body of
        the Creator is broken anew for the salvation of the world.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. G. Frazer.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge</span></span>,<br />
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">21st June,
        1913</span></span>.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name=
      "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter I. The Transference of
        Evil.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Transference to Inanimate
          Objects.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The principle of vicarious
              suffering.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the preceding
          parts of this work we have traced the practice of killing a god
          among peoples in the hunting, pastoral, and agricultural stages of
          society; and I have attempted to explain the motives which led men
          to adopt so curious a custom. One aspect of the custom still
          remains to be noticed. The accumulated misfortunes and sins of the
          whole people are sometimes laid upon the dying god, who is supposed
          to bear them away for ever, leaving the people innocent and happy.
          The notion that we can transfer our guilt and sufferings to some
          other being who will bear them for us is familiar to the savage
          mind. It arises from a very obvious confusion between the physical
          and the mental, between the material and the immaterial. Because it
          is possible to shift a load of wood, stones, or what not, from our
          own back to the back of another, the savage fancies that it is
          equally possible to shift the burden of his pains and sorrows to
          another, who will suffer them in his stead. Upon this idea he acts,
          and the result is an endless number of very unamiable devices for
          palming off upon some one else the trouble which a man shrinks from
          bearing himself. In short, the principle of vicarious suffering is
          commonly understood and practised by races who stand on a low level
          of social and intellectual culture. In the following pages I shall
          illustrate the theory and the practice as they are found among
          savages in all their naked <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> simplicity, undisguised by the refinements of
          metaphysics and the subtleties of theology.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of evil to things.
              Evils swept away by rivers.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The devices to
          which the cunning and selfish savage resorts for the sake of easing
          himself at the expense of his neighbour are manifold; only a few
          typical examples out of a multitude can be cited. At the outset it
          is to be observed that the evil of which a man seeks to rid himself
          need not be transferred to a person; it may equally well be
          transferred to an animal or a thing, though in the last case the
          thing is often only a vehicle to convey the trouble to the first
          person who touches it. In some of the East Indian islands they
          think that epilepsy can be cured by striking the patient on the
          face with the leaves of certain trees and then throwing them away.
          The disease is believed to have passed into the leaves, and to have
          been thrown away with them.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href=
          "#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> In the
          Warramunga and Tjingilli tribes of Central Australia men who
          suffered from headache have often been seen wearing women's
          head-rings. <span class="tei tei-q">“This was connected with the
          belief that the pain in the head would pass into the rings, and
          that then it could be thrown away with them into the bush, and so
          got rid of effectually. The natives have a very firm belief in the
          efficacy of this treatment. In the same way when a man suffers from
          internal pain, usually brought on by overeating, his wife's
          head-rings are placed on his stomach; the evil magic which is
          causing all the trouble passes into them, and they are then thrown
          away into the bushes, where the magic is supposed to leave them.
          After a time they are searched for by the woman, who brings them
          back, and again wears them in the ordinary way.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> Among
          the Sihanaka of Madagascar, when a man is very sick, his relatives
          are sometimes bidden by the diviner to cast out the evil by means
          of a variety of things, such as a stick of a particular sort of
          tree, a rag, a pinch of earth from an ant's nest, a little money,
          or what not. Whatever they may be, they are brought to the
          patient's house and held by a man near the door, while an exorcist
          stands <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg
          003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          in the house and pronounces the formula necessary for casting out
          the disease. When he has done, the things are thrown away in a
          southward direction, and all the people in the house, including the
          sick man, if he has strength enough, shake their loose robes and
          spit towards the door in order to expedite the departure of the
          malady.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href=
          "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> When an
          Atkhan of the Aleutian Islands had committed a grave sin and
          desired to unburden himself of his guilt, he proceeded as follows.
          Having chosen a time when the sun was clear and unclouded, he
          picked up certain weeds and carried them about his person. Then he
          laid them down, and calling the sun to witness, cast his sins upon
          them, after which, having eased his heart of all that weighed upon
          it, he threw the weeds into the fire, and fancied that thus he
          cleansed himself of his guilt.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4"
          href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> In
          Vedic times a younger brother who married before his elder brother
          was thought to have sinned in so doing, but there was a ceremony by
          which he could purge himself of his sin. Fetters of reed-grass were
          laid on him in token of his guilt, and when they had been washed
          and sprinkled they were flung into a foaming torrent, which swept
          them away, while the evil was bidden to vanish with the foam of the
          stream.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href=
          "#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> The
          Matse negroes of Togoland think that the river Awo has power to
          carry away the sorrows of mankind. So when one of their friends has
          died, and their hearts are heavy, they go to the river with leaves
          of the raphia palm tied round their necks and drums in their hands.
          Standing on the bank they beat the drums and cast the leaves into
          the stream. As the leaves float away out of sight to the sound of
          the rippling water and the roll of the drums, they fancy that their
          sorrow too is lifted from them.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6"
          href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a>
          Similarly, the ancient Greeks imagined that the pangs of love might
          be healed by bathing in the river Selemnus.<a id="noteref_7" name=
          "noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> The
          Indians of Peru sought to purify themselves from their sins by
          plunging their heads <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg
          004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          in a river; they said that the river washed their sins away.<a id=
          "noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of evil to
              things.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An Arab cure for
          melancholy or madness caused by love is to put a dish of water on
          the sufferer's head, drop melted lead into it, and then bury the
          lead in an open field; thus the mischief that was in the man goes
          away.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> Amongst
          the Miotse of China, when the eldest son of the house attains the
          age of seven years, a ceremony called <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“driving away the devil”</span> takes place. The father
          makes a kite of straw and lets it fly away in the desert, bearing
          away all evil with it.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href=
          "#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> When
          an Indian of Santiago Tepehuacan is ill, he will sometimes attempt
          to rid himself of the malady by baking thrice seven cakes; of these
          he places seven in the top of the highest pine-tree of the forest,
          seven he lays at the foot of the tree, and seven he casts into a
          well, with the water of which he then washes himself. By this means
          he transfers the sickness to the water of the well and so is made
          whole.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href=
          "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> The
          Baganda believed that plague was caused by the god Kaumpuli, who
          resided in a deep hole in his temple. To prevent him from escaping
          and devastating the country, they battened him down in the hole by
          covering the top with plantain-stems and piling wild-cat-skins over
          them; there was nothing like wild-cat-skins to keep him down, so
          hundreds of wild cats were hunted and killed every year to supply
          the necessary skins. However, sometimes in spite of these
          precautions the god contrived to escape, and then the people died.
          When a garden or house was plague-stricken, the priests purified it
          by transferring the disease to a plantain-tree and then carrying
          away the tree to a piece of waste land. The way in which they
          effected the transference of the disease was this. They first made
          a number of little shields and spears out of plantain fibre and
          reeds and placed them at intervals along the path leading from the
          garden to the main road. A young plantain-tree, about <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to bear fruit, was then cut down, the
          stem was laid in the path leading to one of the plague-stricken
          huts, and it was speared with not less than twenty reed spears,
          which were left sticking in it, while some of the plantain-fibre
          shields were also fastened to it. This tree was then carried down
          the path to the waste land and left there. It went by the name of
          the Scapegoat (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kyonzire</span></span>). To make quite sure
          that the plague, after being thus deposited in the wilderness,
          should not return by the way it went, the priests raised an arch,
          covered with barkcloth, over the path at the point where it
          diverged from the main road. This arch was thought to interpose an
          insurmountable barrier to the return of the plague.<a id=
          "noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dyak transference of evil to
              things.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dyak priestesses
          expel ill-luck from a house by hewing and slashing the air in every
          corner of it with wooden swords, which they afterwards wash in the
          river, to let the ill-luck float away down stream. Sometimes they
          sweep misfortune out of the house with brooms made of the leaves of
          certain plants and sprinkled with rice-water and blood. Having
          swept it clean out of every room and into a toy-house made of
          bamboo, they set the little house with its load of bad luck adrift
          on the river. The current carries it away out to sea, where it
          shifts its baleful cargo to a certain kettle-shaped ship, which
          floats in mid-ocean and receives in its capacious hold all the ills
          that flesh is heir to. Well would it be with mankind if the evils
          remained for ever tossing far away on the billows; but, alas, they
          are dispersed from the ship to the four winds, and settle again,
          and yet again, on the weary Dyak world. On Dyak rivers you may see
          many of the miniature houses, laden with manifold misfortunes,
          bobbing up and down on the current, or sticking fast in the
          thickets that line the banks.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13"
          href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to other persons
              through the medium of things.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These examples
          illustrate the purely beneficent side of the transference of evil;
          they shew how men seek to alleviate human sufferings by diverting
          them to material objects, which are then thrown away or otherwise
          disposed of so as to render them innocuous. Often, however, the
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name=
          "Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> transference of evil
          to a material object is only a step towards foisting it upon a
          living person. This is the maleficent side of such transferences.
          It is exemplified in the following cases. To cure toothache some of
          the Australian blacks apply a heated spear-thrower to the cheek.
          The spear-thrower is then cast away, and the toothache goes with it
          in the shape of a black stone called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">karriitch</span></span>. Stones of this kind
          are found in old mounds and sandhills. They are carefully collected
          and thrown in the direction of enemies in order to give them
          toothache.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href=
          "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> In
          Mirzapur a mode of transferring disease is to fill a pot with
          flowers and rice and bury it in a pathway covered up with a flat
          stone. Whoever touches this is supposed to contract the disease.
          The practice is called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">chalauwa</span></span>, or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“passing on”</span> the malady. This sort of thing goes
          on daily in Upper India. Often while walking of a morning in the
          bazaar you will see a little pile of earth adorned with flowers in
          the middle of the road. Such a pile usually contains some scabs or
          scales from the body of a smallpox patient, which are placed there
          in the hope that some one may touch them, and by catching the
          disease may relieve the sufferer.<a id="noteref_15" name=
          "noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> The
          Bahima, a pastoral people of the Uganda Protectorate, often suffer
          from deep-seated abscesses: <span class="tei tei-q">“their cure for
          this is to transfer the disease to some other person by obtaining
          herbs from the medicine-man, rubbing them over the place where the
          swelling is, and burying them in the road where people continually
          pass; the first person who steps over these buried herbs contracts
          the disease, and the original patient recovers.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> The
          practice of the Wagogo of German East Africa is similar. When a man
          is ill, the native doctor will take him to a cross-road, where he
          prepares his medicines, uttering at the same time the incantations
          which are necessary to give the drugs their medical virtue. Part of
          the dose is then administered to the patient, and part is buried
          under a pot turned upside down at the cross-road. It is hoped that
          somebody will step over the pot, and catching <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the disease, which lurks in the pot,
          will thereby relieve the original sufferer. A variation of this
          cure is to plaster some of the medicine, or a little of the
          patient's blood, on a wooden peg and to drive the peg into a tree;
          any one who passes the tree and is so imprudent as to draw out the
          peg, will carry away with it the disease.<a id="noteref_17" name=
          "noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to images.
              Mongol transference of evil to things.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes in
          case of sickness the malady is transferred to an effigy as a
          preliminary to passing it on to a human being. Thus among the
          Baganda the medicine-man would sometimes make a model of his
          patient in clay; then a relative of the sick man would rub the
          image over the sufferer's body and either bury it in the road or
          hide it in the grass by the wayside. The first person who stepped
          over the image or passed by it would catch the disease. Sometimes
          the effigy was made out of a plantain-flower tied up so as to look
          like a person; it was used in the same way as the clay figure. But
          the use of images for this maleficent purpose was a capital crime;
          any person caught in the act of burying one of them in the public
          road would surely have been put to death.<a id="noteref_18" name=
          "noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> Among
          the Sena-speaking people to the north of the Zambesi, when any one
          is ill, the doctor makes a little pig of straw to which he
          transfers the sickness. The little pig is then set on the ground
          where two paths meet, and any passer-by who chances to kick it over
          is sure to absorb the illness and to draw it away from the
          patient.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href=
          "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> Among
          the Korkus, a forest tribe of the Central Provinces in India, when
          a person wishes to transfer his sickness to another, he contrives
          to obtain the loin-cloth of his intended victim and paints two
          figures on it in lamp black, one upright and the other upside down.
          As soon as the owner of the loin-cloth puts it on, he falls a
          victim to the ailment which afflicted the artist who drew the
          figures.<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href=
          "#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> Every
          nine years a Mongol celebrates a memorial festival of his birth for
          the purpose of ensuring the continuance of his life and welfare. At
          this solemn ceremony two lambskins, one <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> black and the other white, are spread on the
          floor of the hut, which is further covered with a felt carpet, and
          on the carpet are made nine little ridges of earth brought from
          nine mountains, the bottom of a river, and a sepulchral mound. The
          owner of the hut, for whose benefit the rite is performed, next
          seats himself on the black lambskin, and opposite him is set an
          effigy of himself made of dough by a lama. The priest then throws a
          black stone at the effigy, praying that the black arrow of death
          may pierce it, after which he throws a white stone at the master of
          the hut, praying that the bright beam of life may endow him with
          wondrous strength. After that the Mongol gets up, steps over one of
          the ridges of earth and says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I have
          overcome a mishap, I have escaped a death.”</span> This ceremony he
          performs nine times, stepping over all the ridges, one after the
          other. Then he sits down on the white lambskin, and the lama takes
          the dough effigy, swings it thrice round the man whom it
          represents, spits on it thrice, and hands it to attendants who
          carry it away into the steppe. A little holy water sprinkled over
          the Mongol now completes his protection against perils and
          dangers.<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href=
          "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> This
          last is a case of the beneficent transference of evil; for in it no
          attempt seems to be made to shift the burden of misfortune to
          anybody else.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Transference to Stones and
          Sticks.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Fatigue transferred to stones,
              sticks, or leaves.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the western
          district of the island of Timor, when men or women are making long
          and tiring journeys, they fan themselves with leafy branches, which
          they afterwards throw away on particular spots where their
          forefathers did the same before them. The fatigue which they felt
          is thus supposed to have passed into the leaves and to be left
          behind. Others use stones instead of leaves.<a id="noteref_22"
          name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a>
          Similarly in the Babar Archipelago tired people will strike
          themselves with stones, believing that they thus transfer to the
          stones the weariness which they felt in their own bodies. They then
          throw away the stones in places which are <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> specially set apart for the purpose.<a id=
          "noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> A like
          belief and practice in many distant parts of the world have given
          rise to those cairns or heaps of sticks and leaves which travellers
          often observe beside the path, and to which every passing native
          adds his contribution in the shape of a stone, or stick, or leaf.
          Thus in the Solomon and Banks' Islands the natives are wont to
          throw sticks, stones, or leaves upon a heap at a place of steep
          descent, or where a difficult path begins, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“There goes my fatigue.”</span> The act is not a
          religious rite, for the thing thrown on the heap is not an offering
          to spiritual powers, and the words which accompany the act are not
          a prayer. It is nothing but a magical ceremony for getting rid of
          fatigue, which the simple savage fancies he can embody in a stick,
          leaf, or stone, and so cast it from him.<a id="noteref_24" name=
          "noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Heaps of stones or sticks among
              the American Indians.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An early Spanish
          missionary to Nicaragua, observing that along the paths there were
          heaps of stones on which the Indians as they passed threw grass,
          asked them why they did so. <span class="tei tei-q">“Because we
          think,”</span> was the answer, <span class="tei tei-q">“that
          thereby we are kept from weariness and hunger, or at least that we
          suffer less from them.”</span><a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25"
          href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> When
          the Peruvian Indians were climbing steep mountains and felt weary,
          they used to halt by the way at certain points where there were
          heaps of stones, which they called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">apachitas</span></span>. On these heaps the
          weary men would place other stones, and they said that when they
          did so, their weariness left them.<a id="noteref_26" name=
          "noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> In the
          passes of the eastern Andes, on the borders of Argentina and
          Bolivia, <span class="tei tei-q">“large cairns are constantly
          found, and every Puna Indian, on passing, adds a stone and a coca
          leaf, so that neither he nor his beast of burden may tire on the
          way.”</span><a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href=
          "#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name=
          "Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In the country of
          the Tarahumares and Tepehuanes in Mexico heaps of stones and sticks
          may be observed on high points, where the track leads over a ridge
          between two or more valleys. <span class="tei tei-q">“Every Indian
          who passes such a pile adds a stone or a stick to it in order to
          gain strength for his journey. Among the Tarahumares only the old
          men observe this custom. Whenever the Tepehuanes carry a corpse,
          they rest it for some fifteen minutes on such a heap by the wayside
          that the deceased may not be fatigued but strong enough to finish
          his long journey to the land of the dead. One of my Huichol
          companions stopped on reaching this pile, pulled up some grass from
          the ground and picked up a stone as big as his fist. Holding both
          together he spat on the grass and on the stone and then rubbed them
          quickly over his knees. He also made a couple of passes with them
          over his chest and shoulders, exclaiming <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kenestíquai!</span></span>’</span> (May I not
          get tired!) and then put the grass on the heap and the stone on top
          of the grass.”</span><a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href=
          "#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> In
          Guatemala also piles of stones may be seen at the partings of ways
          and on the tops of cliffs and mountains. Every passing Indian used
          to gather a handful of grass, rub his legs with it, spit on it, and
          deposit it with a small stone on the pile, firmly persuaded that by
          so doing he would restore their flagging vigour to his weary
          limbs.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href=
          "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> Here
          the rubbing of the limbs with the grass, like the Babar custom of
          striking the body with a stone, was doubtless a mode of extracting
          the fatigue from them as a preliminary to throwing it away.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Heaps of stones or sticks among
              the natives of Africa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly on the
          plateau between Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa the native carriers,
          before they ascend a steep hill with their loads, will pick up a
          stone, spit on it, rub the calves of their legs with it, and then
          deposit it on one of those small piles of stones which are commonly
          to be found at such spots in this part of Africa. A recent English
          traveller, who noticed the custom, was informed that the carriers
          practise it <span class="tei tei-q">“to <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> make their legs light,”</span><a id=
          "noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> in
          other words, to extract the fatigue from them. On the banks of the
          Kei river in Southern Africa another English traveller noticed some
          heaps of stones. On enquiring what they meant, he was told by his
          guides that when a Caffre felt weary he had but to add a stone to
          the heap to regain fresh vigour.<a id="noteref_31" name=
          "noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> In
          some parts of South Africa, particularly on the Zambesi, piles of
          sticks take the place of cairns. <span class="tei tei-q">“Sometimes
          the natives will rub their leg with a stick, and throw the stick on
          the heap, <span class="tei tei-q">‘to get rid of fatigue,’</span>
          they avow. Others say that throwing a stone on the heap gives one
          fresh vigour for the journey.”</span><a id="noteref_32" name=
          "noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The heaps of stones or sticks
              generally on the tops of mountains or passes.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From other
          accounts of the Caffre custom we learn that these cairns are
          generally on the sides or tops of mountains, and that before a
          native deposits his stone on the pile he spits on it.<a id=
          "noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> The
          practice of spitting on the stone which the weary wayfarer lays on
          the pile is probably a mode of transferring his fatigue the more
          effectually to the material vehicle which is to rid him of it. We
          have seen that the practice prevails among the Indians of Guatemala
          and the natives of the Tanganyika plateau, and it appears to be
          observed also under similar circumstances in Corea, where the
          cairns are to be found especially on the tops of passes.<a id=
          "noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> From
          the primitive point of view nothing can be more <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> natural than that the cairns or the
          heaps of sticks and leaves to which the tired traveller adds his
          contribution should stand at the top of passes and, in general, on
          the highest points of the road. The wayfarer who has toiled, with
          aching limbs and throbbing temples, up a long and steep ascent, is
          aware of a sudden alleviation as soon as he has reached the summit;
          he feels as if a weight had been lifted from him, and to the
          savage, with his concrete mode of thought, it seems natural and
          easy to cast the weight from him in the shape of a stone or stick,
          or a bunch of leaves or of grass. Hence it is that the piles which
          represent the accumulated weariness of many foot-sore and
          heavy-laden travellers are to be seen wherever the road runs
          highest in the lofty regions of Bolivia, Tibet, Bhootan, and
          Burma,<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href=
          "#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> in the
          passes of the Andes and the Himalayas, as well as in Corea,
          Caffraria, Guatemala, and Melanesia.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Fatigue let out with the
              blood.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the
          mountaineer Indians of South America imagine that they can rid
          themselves of their fatigue in the shape of a stick or a stone,
          other or the same aborigines of that continent believe that they
          can let it out with their blood. A French explorer, who had seen
          much of the South American Indians, tells us that <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“they explain everything that they experience by
          attributing it to sorcery, to the influence of maleficent beings.
          Thus an Indian on the march, when he feels weary, never fails to
          ascribe his weariness to the evil spirit; and if he has no diviner
          at hand, he wounds himself in the knees, the shoulders, and on the
          arms in order to let out the evil with the blood. That is why many
          Indians, especially the Aucas [Araucanians], have always their arms
          covered with scars. This custom, differently applied, is almost
          general in America; for I <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg
          013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          found it up to the foot of the Andes, in Bolivia, among the
          Chiriguana and Yuracares nations.”</span><a id="noteref_36" name=
          "noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Piles of stones or sticks on the
              scene of crimes. The Liar's Heap.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not
          mere bodily fatigue which the savage fancies he can rid himself of
          by the simple expedient of throwing a stick or a stone. Unable
          clearly to distinguish the immaterial from the material, the
          abstract from the concrete, he is assailed by vague terrors, he
          feels himself exposed to some ill-defined danger on the scene of
          any great crime or great misfortune. The place to him seems haunted
          ground. The thronging memories that crowd upon his mind, if they
          are not mistaken by him for goblins and phantoms, oppress his fancy
          with a leaden weight. His impulse is to flee from the dreadful
          spot, to shake off the burden that seems to cling to him like a
          nightmare. This, in his simple sensuous way, he thinks he can do by
          casting something at the horrid place and hurrying by. For will not
          the contagion of misfortune, the horror that clutched at his
          heart-strings, be diverted from himself into the thing? will it not
          gather up in itself all the evil influences that threatened him,
          and so leave him to pursue his journey in safety and peace? Some
          such train of thought, if these gropings and fumblings of a mind in
          darkness deserve the name of thought, seems to explain the custom,
          observed by wayfarers in many lands, of throwing sticks or stones
          on places where something horrible has happened or evil deeds have
          been done. When Sir Francis Younghusband was travelling across the
          great desert of Gobi his caravan descended, towards dusk on a June
          evening, into a long depression between the hills, which was
          notorious as a haunt of robbers. His guide, with a terror-stricken
          face, told how not long before nine men out of a single caravan had
          been murdered, and the rest left in a pitiable state to continue
          their journey on foot across the awful desert. A horseman, too, had
          just been seen riding towards the hills. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“We had accordingly to keep a sharp look-out, and when
          we reached the foot of the hills, halted, and, taking the loads off
          the camels, wrapped ourselves up in our sheepskins and watched
          through the long hours of the night. Day broke at last, and then we
          silently advanced and entered the hills. <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> Very weird and fantastic in their rugged
          outline were they, and here and there a cairn of stones marked
          where some caravan had been attacked, and as we passed these each
          man threw one more stone on the heap.”</span><a id="noteref_37"
          name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> In the
          Norwegian district of Tellemarken a cairn is piled up wherever
          anything fearful has happened, and every passer-by must throw
          another stone on it, or some evil will befall him.<a id=
          "noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> In
          Sweden and the Esthonian island of Oesel the same custom is
          practised on scenes of clandestine or illicit love, with the
          strange addition in Oesel that when a man has lost his cattle he
          will go to such a spot, and, while he flings a stick or stone on
          it, will say, <span class="tei tei-q">“I bring thee wood. Let me
          soon find my lost cattle.”</span><a id="noteref_39" name=
          "noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> Far
          from these northern lands, the Dyaks of Batang Lupar keep up an
          observance of the same sort in the forests of Borneo. Beside their
          paths may be seen heaps of sticks or stones which are called
          <span class="tei tei-q">“lying heaps.”</span> Each heap is in
          memory of some man who told a stupendous lie or disgracefully
          failed in carrying out an engagement, and everybody who passes adds
          a stick or stone to the pile, saying as he does so, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“For So-and-so's lying heap.”</span><a id="noteref_40"
          name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> The
          Dyaks think it a sacred duty to add to every such <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“liar's mound”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tugong
          bula</span></span>) which they pass; they imagine that the omission
          of the duty would draw down on them a supernatural punishment.
          Hence, however pressed a Dyak may be for time, he will always stop
          to throw on the pile some branches or twigs.<a id="noteref_41"
          name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> The
          person to start such a heap is one of the men who has suffered by a
          malicious lie. He takes a stick, throws it down on some spot where
          people are constantly passing, and says, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Let any one who does not add to this liar's heap
          suffer from pains in the head.”</span> Others then do likewise, and
          every passer-by throws a stick on the spot lest he should suffer
          pains. In this way the heap often grows to a large size, and the
          liar by whose name it is known is greatly ashamed.<a id=
          "noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Heaps of stones, sticks, or leaves
              on scenes of murder. Heaps of stones or sticks on
              graves.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is on
          scenes of murder and sudden death that this rude method of averting
          evil is most commonly practised. The custom that every passer-by
          must cast a stone or stick on the spot where some one has come to a
          violent end, whether by murder or otherwise, has been observed in
          practically the same form in such many and diverse parts of the
          world as Ireland, France, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Bohemia, Lesbos,
          Morocco, Armenia, Palestine, Arabia, India, North America,
          Venezuela, Bolivia, Celebes, and New Zealand.<a id="noteref_43"
          name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> In
          Fiji, for example, it was the practice for every passer-by to throw
          a leaf on the spot where a man had been clubbed to death;
          <span class="tei tei-q">“this was considered as an offering of
          respect to him, and, if not performed, they have a notion they will
          soon be killed themselves.”</span><a id="noteref_44" name=
          "noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a>
          Sometimes the scene of the murder or death may also be the grave of
          the victim, but it need not always be so, and in Europe, where the
          dead are buried in consecrated ground, the two places would seldom
          coincide. However, the custom of throwing stones or sticks on a
          grave has undoubtedly been observed by passers-by in many parts
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name=
          "Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the world, and
          that, too, even when the graves are not those of persons who have
          come to a violent end. Thus we are told that the people of
          Unalashka, one of the Aleutian Islands, bury their dead on the
          summits of hills and raise a little hillock over the grave.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“In a walk into the country, one of the
          natives, who attended me, pointed out several of these receptacles
          of the dead. There was one of them, by the side of the road leading
          from the harbour to the village, over which was raised a heap of
          stones. It was observed, that every one who passed it, added one to
          it.”</span><a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href=
          "#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> The
          Roumanians of Transylvania think that a dying man should have a
          burning candle in his hand, and that any one who dies without a
          light has no right to the ordinary funeral ceremonies. The body of
          such an unfortunate is not laid in holy ground, but is buried
          wherever it may be found. His grave is marked only by a heap of dry
          branches, to which each passer-by is expected to add a handful of
          twigs or a thorny bough.<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href=
          "#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> The
          Hottentot god or hero Heitsi-eibib died several times and came to
          life again. When the Hottentots pass one of his numerous graves
          they throw a stone, a bush, or a fresh branch on it for good
          luck.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href=
          "#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> Near
          the former mission-station of Blydeuitzigt in Cape Colony there was
          a spot called Devil's Neck where, in the opinion of the Bushmen,
          the devil was interred. To hinder his resurrection stones were
          piled in heaps about the place. When a Bushman, travelling in the
          company of a missionary, came in sight of the spot he seized a
          stone and hurled it at the grave, remarking that if he did not do
          so his neck would be twisted round so that he would have to look
          backwards for the term of his natural life.<a id="noteref_48" name=
          "noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> Stones
          are cast by passers-by on the graves of murderers in some parts of
          Senegambia.<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href=
          "#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name=
          "Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In Syria deceased
          robbers are not buried like honest folk, but left to rot where they
          lie; and a pile of stones is raised over the mouldering corpse.
          Every one who passes such a pile must fling a stone at it, on pain
          of incurring God's malison.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50"
          href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a>
          Between sixty and seventy years ago an Englishman was travelling
          from Sidon to Tyre with a couple of Musalmans. When he drew near
          Tyre his companions picked up some small stones, armed him in the
          same fashion, and requested him to be so kind as to follow their
          example. Soon afterwards they came in sight of a conical heap of
          pebbles and stones standing in the road, at which the two Musalmans
          hurled stones and curses with great vehemence and remarkable
          volubility. When they had discharged this pious duty to their
          satisfaction, they explained that the missiles and maledictions
          were directed at a celebrated robber and murderer, who had been
          knocked on the head and buried there some half a century
          before.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href=
          "#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Stones and sticks hurled as
              missiles at dangerous ghosts and demons. Missiles to ward off
              dangerous ghosts.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these latter
          cases it may perhaps be thought that the sticks and stones serve no
          other purpose than to keep off the angry and dangerous ghost who
          might be supposed to haunt either the place of death or the grave.
          This interpretation seems certainly to apply to some cases of the
          custom. For example, in Pomerania and West Prussia the ghosts of
          suicides are much feared. Such persons are buried, not in the
          churchyard, but at the place where they took their lives, and every
          passer-by must cast a stone or a stick on the spot, or the ghost of
          the suicide will haunt him by night and give him no rest. Hence the
          piles of sticks or stones accumulated on the graves of these poor
          wretches sometimes attain a considerable size.<a id="noteref_52"
          name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a>
          Similarly the Baganda of Central Africa used to stand in great fear
          of the ghosts of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg
          018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          suicides and they took many precautions to disarm or even destroy
          these dangerous spirits. For this purpose the bodies of suicides
          were removed to waste land or cross-roads and burned there,
          together with the wood of the house in which the deed had been done
          or of the tree on which the person had hanged himself. By these
          means they imagined that they destroyed the ghost so that he could
          not come and lure others to follow his bad example. Lest, however,
          the ghost should survive the destruction of his body by fire, the
          Baganda, in passing any place where a suicide had been burnt,
          always threw grass or sticks on the spot to prevent the ghost from
          catching them. And they did the same, for the same reason, whenever
          they passed the places on waste ground where persons accused of
          witchcraft and found guilty by the poison ordeal had been burnt to
          death. Baganda women had a special reason for dreading all graves
          which were believed to be haunted by dangerous ghosts; for,
          imagining that they could conceive children without intercourse
          with the other sex, they feared to be impregnated by the entrance
          into them of the ghosts of suicides and other unfortunate or
          uncanny people, such as persons with a light complexion, twins, and
          particularly all who had the mishap to be born feet foremost. For
          that reason Baganda women were at pains, whenever they passed the
          graves of any such persons, to throw sticks or grass upon them;
          <span class="tei tei-q">“for by so doing they thought that they
          could prevent the ghost of the dead from entering into them, and
          being reborn.”</span> Hence the mounds which accumulated over these
          graves became in course of time large enough to deflect the path
          and to attract the attention of travellers. It was not merely
          matrons who thus took care not to become mothers unaware; the same
          fears were entertained and the same precautions were adopted by all
          women, whether old or young, whether married or single; since they
          thought that there was no woman, whatever her age or condition, who
          might not be impregnated by the entrance into her of a
          spirit.<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href=
          "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> In
          these <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name=
          "Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cases, therefore,
          the throwing of sticks or grass at graves is a purely defensive
          measure; the missiles are intended to ward off the assaults of
          dangerous ghosts. Similarly we are told that in Madagascar solitary
          graves by the wayside have a sinister reputation, and that
          passers-by, without looking back, will throw stones or clods at
          them <span class="tei tei-q">“to prevent the evil spirits from
          following them.”</span><a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href=
          "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> The
          Maraves of South Africa, like the Baganda, used to burn witches
          alive and to throw stones on the places of execution whenever they
          passed them, so that in time regular cairns gradually rose on these
          spots.<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href=
          "#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> No
          doubt with these Maraves, as with the Baganda, the motive for
          throwing missiles at such places is to protect themselves against
          the ghosts. A protective motive is also assigned for a similar
          custom observed in Chota Nagpur, a region of India which is the
          home of many primitive tribes. There heaps of stones or of leaves
          and branches may often be seen beside the path; they are supposed
          to mark the places where people have been killed by wild beasts,
          and the natives think that any passer-by who failed to add a stone
          or a stick to the pile would himself be seized and devoured by a
          wild animal.<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href=
          "#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> Here,
          though the ghost is not explicitly mentioned, we may perhaps
          suppose that out of spite he is instrumental in causing others to
          perish by the same untimely death by which he was himself carried
          off. The Kayans of Borneo imagine that they can put evil spirits to
          flight by hurling sticks or stones at them; so on a journey they
          will let fly volleys of such missiles at the rocks and dens where
          demons are known to reside.<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57"
          href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> Hence,
          whenever the throwing of stones at a grave is regarded as an insult
          to the dead, we may suppose that the missiles are intended to hit
          and hurt the ghost. Thus Euripides represents the murderer
          Aegisthus as leaping on the tomb of his victim Agamemnon and
          pelting it with stones;<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href=
          "#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> and
          Propertius invites all lovers to discharge <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> stones and curses at the dishonoured grave of
          an old bawd.<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href=
          "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">But the stones and sticks thrown
              on heaps cannot always be explained as missiles discharged at
              spiritual foes. Cairns raised in honour of Moslem
              saints.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if this
          theory seems adequately to account for some cases of the custom
          with which we are concerned, it apparently fails to explain others.
          The view that the sticks and stones hurled at certain places are
          weapons turned against dangerous or malignant spirits is plausible
          in cases where such spirits are believed to be in the
          neighbourhood; but in cases where no such spirits are thought to be
          lurking, we must, it would seem, cast about for some other
          explanation. For example, we have seen that it has been customary
          to throw sticks or stones on spots which have been defiled by deeds
          of moral turpitude without any shedding of blood, and again on
          spots where weary travellers stop to rest. It is difficult to
          suppose that in these latter cases the evil deeds or the sensations
          of fatigue are conceived in the concrete shape of demons whom it is
          necessary to repel by missiles, though many South American Indians,
          as we saw, do attribute fatigue to a demon. Still more difficult is
          it to apply the purely defensive theory to cases where beneficent
          spirits are imagined to be hovering somewhere near, and where the
          throwing of the stones or sticks is apparently regarded by those
          who practise it as a token of respect rather than of hostility.
          Thus amongst the Masai, when any one dies away from the kraal, his
          body is left lying on the spot where he died, and all persons
          present throw bunches of grass or leaves on the corpse. Afterwards
          every passer-by casts a stone or a handful of grass on the place,
          and the more the dead man was respected, the longer is the usage
          observed.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href=
          "#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> It is
          especially the graves of Masai medicine-men that are honoured in
          this way.<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href=
          "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> In the
          forest near Avestad, in Sweden, the traveller, Clarke, observed
          <span class="tei tei-q">“several heaps made with sticks and stones;
          upon which the natives, as they pass, cast either a stone, or a
          little earth, or the bough of a tree; deeming it an uncharitable
          act to omit this tribute, in their journeys to and fro. As this
          custom appeared closely allied to the pious practice in the
          Highlands of Scotland, of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg
          021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          casting a stone upon the cairn of a deceased person, we, of course,
          concluded these heaps were places of sepulture.”</span> They were
          said to be the graves of a band of robbers, who had plundered
          merchants on their passage through the forest, but had afterwards
          been killed and buried where they fell.<a id="noteref_62" name=
          "noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a>
          However, in all these cases the practice of throwing stones on the
          grave, though interpreted as a mark of respect and charity, may
          really be based on the fear of the ghosts, so that the motive for
          observing the custom may be merely that of self-defence against a
          dangerous spirit. Yet this explanation can hardly apply to certain
          other cases. Thus in Syria it is a common practice with pious
          Moslems, when they first come in sight of a very sacred place, such
          as Hebron or the tomb of Moses, to make a little heap of stones or
          to add a stone to a heap which has been already made. Hence every
          here and there the traveller passes a whole series of such heaps by
          the side of the track.<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href=
          "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> In
          Northern Africa the usage is similar. Cairns are commonly erected
          on spots from which the devout pilgrim first discerns the shrine of
          a saint afar off; hence they are generally to be seen on the top of
          passes. For example, in Morocco, at the point of the road from
          Casablanca to Azemmour, where you first come in sight of the white
          city of the saint gleaming in the distance, there rises an enormous
          cairn of stones shaped like a pyramid several hundreds of feet
          high, and beyond it on both sides of the road there is a sort of
          avalanche of stones, either standing singly or arranged in little
          pyramids. Every pious Mohammedan whose eyes are gladdened by the
          blessed sight of the sacred town adds his stone to one of the piles
          or builds a little pile for himself.<a id="noteref_64" name=
          "noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Stones as channels of
              communication with saints, living or dead.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a custom
          can hardly be explained as a precaution adopted against a dangerous
          influence supposed to emanate from the saint and to communicate
          itself even to people at a distance. On the contrary, it points
          rather to a desire of communion with the holy man than to a wish to
          keep <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name=
          "Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> him at bay. The mode
          of communion adopted, however strange it may seem to us, is
          apparently quite in harmony with the methods by which good
          Mohammedans in Northern Africa attempt to appropriate to themselves
          the blessed influence (<span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="ar"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>) which is supposed to
          radiate on all sides from the person of a living saint.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“It is impossible to imagine,”</span> we
          are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“the extremity to which the
          belief in the blessed influence of saints is carried in North
          Africa. To form an exact idea of it you must see a great saint in
          the midst of the faithful. <span class="tei tei-q">‘The people
          fling themselves down on his path to kiss the skirt of his robe, to
          kiss his stirrup if he is on horseback, to kiss even his footprint
          if he is on foot. Those who are too far from him to be able to
          touch his hand touch him with their staff, or fling a stone at him
          which they have marked previously so as to be able to find it
          afterwards and to embrace it devoutly.’</span>?”</span><a id=
          "noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> Thus
          through the channel of the stone or the stick, which has been in
          bodily contact with the living saint, his blessed influence flows
          to the devotee who has wielded the stick or hurled the stone. In
          like manner we may perhaps suppose that the man who adds a stone to
          a cairn in honour of a dead saint hopes to benefit by the saintly
          effluence which distils in a mysterious fashion through the stone
          to him.<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href=
          "#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The rite of throwing sticks or
              stones is perhaps best explained as a mode of purification, the
              evil being thought to be embodied in the missile which is
              thrown away.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we survey
          the many different cases in which passing travellers are accustomed
          to add stones or sticks to existing piles, it seems difficult, if
          not impossible, to explain them all on one principle; different and
          even opposite motives appear, at least at first sight, to have
          operated in different cases to produce customs superficially alike.
          Sometimes the motive for throwing the stone is to ward off a
          dangerous spirit; sometimes it is to cast away an evil; sometimes
          it is to acquire a good. Yet, perhaps, if we could trace them back
          to their origin in the mind of primitive man, we might find that
          they all resolve themselves more or less exactly into the principle
          of the transference of evil. For to rid ourselves of an evil and to
          acquire a good are often merely opposite sides of one and the same
          operation; for example, a convalescent regains health in exactly
          the same proportion as he shakes off his malady. And though the
          practice of throwing stones at dangerous spirits especially at
          mischievous and malignant ghosts of the dead, appears to spring
          from a different motive, yet it may be questioned whether the
          difference is really as great to the savage as it seems to us. To
          primitive man the idea of spiritual and ghostly powers is still
          more indefinite than it is to his civilized brother: it fills him
          with a vague uneasiness and alarm; and this sentiment of dread and
          horror he, in accordance with his habitual modes of thought,
          conceives in a concrete form as something material which either
          surrounds and oppresses him like a fog, or has entered into and
          taken temporary possession of his body. In either case he imagines
          that he can rid himself of the uncanny thing by stripping it from
          his skin or wrenching it out of his body and transferring it to
          some material substance, whether a stick, a stone, or what not,
          which he can cast from him, and so, being eased <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his burden, can hasten away from the
          dreadful spot with a lighter heart. Thus the throwing of the sticks
          or stones would be a form of ceremonial purification, which among
          primitive peoples is commonly conceived as a sort of physical
          rather than moral purgation, a mode of sweeping or scouring away
          the morbid matter by which the polluted person is supposed to be
          infected. This notion perhaps explains the rite of stone-throwing
          observed by pilgrims at Mecca; on the day of sacrifice every
          pilgrim has to cast seven stones on a cairn, and the rite is
          repeated thrice on the three following days. The traditional
          explanation of the custom is that Mohammed here drove away the
          devil with a shower of stones;<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67"
          href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> but
          the original idea may perhaps have been that the pilgrims cleanse
          themselves by transferring their ceremonial impurity to the stones
          which they fling on the heap.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">This interpretation of
              stone-throwing agrees with ancient Greek and Indian tradition
              and custom.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The theory that
          the throwing of stones is practised in certain circumstances as a
          mode of purification tallies very well with the tradition as to the
          origin of those cairns which were to be seen by wayside images of
          Hermes in ancient Greece, and to which every passer-by added a
          stone. It was said that when Hermes was tried by the gods for the
          murder of Argus all the gods flung stones at him as a means of
          freeing themselves from the pollution contracted by bloodshed; the
          stones thus thrown made a great heap, and the custom of rearing
          such heaps at wayside images of Hermes continued ever
          afterwards.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href=
          "#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a>
          Similarly Plato recommended that if any man had murdered his father
          or mother, his brother or sister, his son or daughter, he should be
          put to death, and that his body should be cast forth naked at a
          cross-road outside of the city. There the <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> magistrates should assemble on behalf of the
          city, each carrying in his hand a stone, which he was to cast at
          the head of the corpse by way of purifying the city from the
          pollution it had contracted by the crime. After that the corpse was
          to be carried away and flung outside the boundaries.<a id=
          "noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> In
          these cases it would seem that the pollution incurred by the
          vicinity of a murderer is thought to be gathered up in the stones
          as a material vehicle and to be thrown away with them. A
          sacrificial custom of the Brahmans, prescribed in one of their
          sacred books, is susceptible of a like interpretation. At a certain
          stage of the ritual the sacrificer is directed to put a stone into
          a water-pot and to throw it away in a south-westerly direction,
          because that is the region of Nirriti, the goddess of Evil or
          Destruction. With the stone and the pitcher he is supposed to cast
          away his pain and evil; and he can transfer the pain to another by
          saying, as he throws away the stone and the pitcher, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Let thy pain enter him whom we hate,”</span> or
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Let thy pain enter so-and-so,”</span>
          naming his enemy; but in order to ensure the transference of the
          pain to his enemy he must take care that the stone or the pitcher
          is broken.<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href=
          "#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The throwing of sticks or stones
              on piles is sometimes explained as a sacrifice. Certainly the
              throwing of stones is sometimes accompanied by sacrifices.
              Heaps of sticks at the fords of rivers in Africa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This mode of
          interpreting the custom of throwing sticks and stones on piles
          appears preferable to the one which has generally found favour with
          European travellers and writers. Imperfectly acquainted for the
          most part with the notions which underlie primitive magic, but very
          familiar with the religious conception of a deity who requires
          sacrifice of his worshippers, they are apt to interpret the
          missiles in question as cheap and easy offerings presented by pious
          but frugal worshippers to ghosts or spirits whose favour they
          desire to win.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href=
          "#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a>
          Whether a likely mode of conciliating a <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> ghost or spirit is to throw sticks and stones
          at him is a question about which opinions might perhaps differ. It
          is difficult to speak with confidence about the tastes of spiritual
          beings, but as a rule they bear a remarkable likeness to those of
          mere ordinary mortals, and it may be said without fear of
          contradiction that few of the latter would be gratified by being
          set up as a common target to be aimed at with sticks and stones by
          everybody who passed within range.<a id="noteref_72" name=
          "noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> Yet it
          is quite possible that a ceremony, which at first was purely
          magical, may in time have a religious gloss or interpretation put
          on it even by those who practise it; and this seems in fact to have
          sometimes happened to the particular custom under consideration.
          Certainly some people accompany the throwing of the stone on the
          pile with the presentation of useful articles, which can hardly
          serve any other purpose than that of propitiating some local
          spirits. Thus travellers in Sikhim and Bhootan offer flour and
          wine, as well as stones, at the cairns; and they also burn incense
          and recite incantations or prayers,<a id="noteref_73" name=
          "noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> or
          they tear strips from their garments, tie them to twigs or stones,
          and then lay them on the cairn, calling out to the spirit of the
          mountain, <span class="tei tei-q">“Pray accept our offering! The
          spirits are victorious! The devils are defeated!”</span><a id=
          "noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a>
          Indians of Guatemala offered, according to their means, a little
          cotton, salt, cacao, or chili.<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75"
          href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> They
          now burn copal and sometimes dance on the tops of the passes where
          the cairns are to be seen, but perhaps these devotions may be paid
          to the crosses which at the present day are generally set up in
          such situations.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href=
          "#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> The
          Indian of Bolivia will <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg
          027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          squirt out the juice of his coca-quid, or throw the quid itself on
          the cairn, to which he adds a stone; occasionally he goes so far as
          to stick feathers or a leathern sandal or two on the pile. In
          passing the cairns he will sometimes pull a hair or two out of his
          eyebrows or eyelashes and puff them away towards the sun.<a id=
          "noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>
          Peruvian Indians used similarly to make cheap offerings of chewed
          coca or maize, old shoes, and so forth, on the cairns.<a id=
          "noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> In
          Sweden and Corea a little money is sometimes thrown on a cairn
          instead of a stick or stone.<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79"
          href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> The
          shrine of the Jungle Mother in Northern India is usually a pile of
          stones and branches to which every passer-by contributes. When she
          is displeased, she lets a tiger or leopard kill her negligent
          votary. She is the great goddess of the herdsmen and other dwellers
          in the forest, and they vow to her a cock and a goat, or a young
          pig, if she saves them and their cattle from beasts of prey.<a id=
          "noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> In the
          jungles of Mirzapur the cairn which marks the spot where a man has
          been killed by a tiger, and to which each passer-by contributes a
          stone, is commonly in charge of a Baiga or aboriginal priest, who
          offers upon it a cock, a pig, or some spirits, and occasionally
          lights a little lamp at the shrine.<a id="noteref_81" name=
          "noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>
          Amongst the Baganda members of the Bean clan worshipped the spirit
          of the river Nakiza. <span class="tei tei-q">“There was no temple,
          but they had two large heaps of sticks and grass, one on either
          side of the river by the ford; to these heaps the members went,
          when they wished to make an offering to <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the spirit, or to seek his assistance. The
          offerings were usually goats, beer, barkcloth, and fowls. When
          people crossed the river they threw a little grass or some sticks
          on to the heap before crossing, and again a little more on to the
          second heap after crossing; this was their offering to the spirit
          for a safe crossing.”</span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82"
          href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> There
          is a ford on the Calabar river in West Africa which has an ill
          repute, for the stream is broad, the current rapid, and there are
          crocodiles in the deep places. Beside the ford is a large
          oval-shaped stone which the Ekoi regard as an altar of Nimm, a
          powerful goddess, who dwells in the depth of the river Kwa and
          manifests herself in the likeness now of a crocodile and now of a
          snake. In order to ensure a safe passage through the river it is
          customary to pluck a leaf, rub it on the forehead over the pineal
          gland, and throw it on a heap of leaves in front of the stone. As
          he rubs the leaf on his forehead, the person who is about to plunge
          into the river prays, <span class="tei tei-q">“May I be free from
          danger! May I go through the water to the other side! May I see no
          evil!”</span> And when he throws the leaf on the heap he prays
          again, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am coming across the
          river, may the crocodile lay down his head!”</span><a id=
          "noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> Here
          the leaves appear to be a propitiatory offering presented to the
          dread goddess in the hope that she will suffer her worshipper to
          pass the ford unmolested. At another but smaller stream, called the
          River of Good Fortune, the Ekoi similarly rub leaves on their
          foreheads, praying for luck, and throw them on a heap before they
          pass through the water. They think that he who complies with this
          custom will have good luck throughout the year. Again, when the
          Ekoi kill a chameleon on the road, they do not throw the body away
          in the forest, but lay it by the wayside, and all who pass by pluck
          a few leaves and drop them on the dead animal, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Look! Here is your mat.”</span> In this way heaps of
          leaves accumulate over the carcases of chameleons. The custom is
          intended to appease the shade of the chameleon, who, if he were not
          pacified, would go to the Earth-god Obassi Nsi and pray for
          vengeance on the race of those who <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> had caused his death.<a id="noteref_84" name=
          "noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> The
          Washamba of German East Africa believe that certain stony and
          dangerous places in the paths are the abodes of spirits; hence at
          any such spot a traveller who would have a prosperous journey must
          dance a little and deposit a few small stones.<a id="noteref_85"
          name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> The
          dance and the stones are presumably intended to soften the heart of
          the spirits and induce them to look favourably on the dancer. In
          Papa Westray, one of the Orkney Islands, there is a ruined chapel
          called St. Tredwels, <span class="tei tei-q">“at the door of which
          there is a heap of stones; which was the superstition of the common
          people, who have such a veneration for this chapel above any other,
          that they never fail, at their coming to it, to throw a stone as an
          offering before the door: and this they reckon an indispensable
          duty enjoined by their ancestors.”</span><a id="noteref_86" name=
          "noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The throwing of stones and sticks
              is sometimes accompanied by prayers. Gradual transformation of
              an old magical ceremony into a religious rite.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Prayers, too, as
          we have seen, are sometimes offered at these piles. In Laos heaps
          of stones may be seen beside the path, on which the passenger will
          deposit a pebble, a branch, or a leaf, while he beseeches the Lord
          of the Diamond to bestow on him good luck and long life.<a id=
          "noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> In the
          Himalayan districts of the North-Western Provinces of India heaps
          of stones and sticks are often to be seen on hills or at
          cross-roads. They are formed by the contributions of passing
          travellers, each of whom in adding his stone or stick to the pile
          prays, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou goddess whose home is
          on the ridge, eater of wood and stone, preserve me.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a>
          Tibetan travellers mutter a prayer at the cairns on the tops of
          passes to which they add a few stones gathered by them on the
          ascent.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href=
          "#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> A
          native of South-Eastern Africa who places a small stone on a cairn
          is wont to say as he does so, <span class="tei tei-q">“Cairn, grant
          me strength and prosperity.”</span><a id="noteref_90" name=
          "noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> In the
          same circumstances the Hottentot <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> prays for plenty of cattle,<a id="noteref_91"
          name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> and
          the Caffre that his journey may be prosperous, that he may have
          strength to accomplish it, and that he may obtain an abundant
          supply of food by the way.<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92"
          href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> It is
          said that sick Bushmen used to go on pilgrimage to the cairn called
          the Devil's Neck, and pray to the spirit of the place to heal them,
          while they rubbed the sick part of their body and cried,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Woe! woe!”</span> On special occasions,
          too, they resorted thither and implored the spirit's help.<a id=
          "noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> Such
          customs seem to indicate the gradual transformation of an old
          magical ceremony into a religious rite with its characteristic
          features of prayer and sacrifice. Yet behind these later
          accretions, as we may perhaps regard them, it seems possible in
          many, if not in all, cases to discern the nucleus to which they
          have attached themselves, the original idea which they tend to
          conceal and in time to transmute. That idea is the transference of
          evil from man to a material substance which he can cast from him
          like an outworn garment.</p>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name=
        "Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Transference to
          Animals.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to animals in
              Africa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Animals are
          often employed as a vehicle for carrying away or transferring the
          evil. A Guinea negro who happens to be unwell will sometimes tie a
          live chicken round his neck, so that it lies on his breast. When
          the bird flaps its wings or cheeps the man thinks it a good sign,
          supposing the chicken to be afflicted with the very pain from which
          he hopes soon to be released, or which he would otherwise have to
          endure.<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href=
          "#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> When a
          Moor has a headache he will sometimes take a lamb or a goat and
          beat it till it falls down, believing that the headache will thus
          be transferred to the animal.<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95"
          href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> In
          Morocco most wealthy Moors keep a wild boar in their stables, in
          order that the jinn and evil spirits may be diverted from the
          horses and enter into the boar.<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96"
          href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Algeria people think that typhoid fever can be cured
          by taking a tortoise, putting it on its back in the road, and
          covering it over with a pot. The patient recovers, but whoever
          upsets the pot catches the fever. In Tlemcen a pregnant woman is
          protected against jinn by means of a black fowl which is kept in
          the house from the seventh month of her pregnancy till her
          delivery. Finally, the oldest woman in the house releases the fowl
          in the Jews' quarter; the bird is supposed to carry the jinn away
          with it.<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href=
          "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a>
          Amongst the Caffres of South Africa, when other remedies have
          failed, <span class="tei tei-q">“natives sometimes adopt the custom
          of taking a goat into the presence of a sick man, and confess the
          sins of the kraal over the animal. Sometimes a few drops of blood
          from the sick man are allowed to fall on the head of the goat,
          which is turned out into an uninhabited part of the veldt. The
          sickness is supposed to be transferred to the animal, and to become
          lost in the desert.”</span><a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98"
          href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> After
          an illness a Bechuana king seated himself upon an ox which lay
          stretched on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg
          032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          ground. The native doctor next poured water on the king's head till
          it ran down over his body. Then the head of the ox was held in a
          vessel of water till the animal expired; whereupon the doctor
          declared, and the people believed, that the ox died of the king's
          disease, which had been transferred from him to it.<a id=
          "noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> The
          Baganda of Central Africa also attempted to transfer illness from a
          person to an animal. <span class="tei tei-q">“The medicine-man
          would take the animal, pass some herbs over the sick man, tie these
          to the animal, and then drive it away to some waste land, where he
          would kill it, taking the meat as his perquisite. The sick man
          would be expected to recover.”</span><a id="noteref_100" name=
          "noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> The
          Akikuyu of East Africa think that a man can transfer the guilt of
          incest by means of <span class="tei tei-q">“an ignoble
          ceremony”</span> to a goat, which is then killed; this saves the
          life of the culprit, who otherwise must die.<a id="noteref_101"
          name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> When
          disease breaks out among the cattle of the Bahima, a pastoral
          people of Central Africa, the priest <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“collects herbs and other remedies to attract the
          disease from the cattle. An animal is chosen from the herd in the
          evening, which is to be the scapegoat for the herd; the herbs,
          etc., are tied round its neck, with certain fetiches to ensure the
          illness leaving the other animals; the cow is driven round the
          outside of the kraal several times, and afterwards placed inside
          with the herd for the night. Early the following morning the animal
          is taken out and again driven round the kraal; the priest then
          kills it in the gateway, and some of the blood is sprinkled over
          the people belonging to the kraal, and also over the herd. The
          people next file out, each one jumping over the carcase of the cow,
          and all the animals are driven over it in the same way. The disease
          is thus transferred to the scapegoat and the herd is saved. All the
          fetiches and herbs, which were upon the scapegoat, are fastened
          upon the door-posts and lintel of the kraal to prevent the disease
          from entering again.”</span><a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102"
          href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to animals in
              various parts of the world.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the cattle
          of the Huzuls, a pastoral people of the <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> Carpathians, are sick and the owner
          attributes the sickness to witchcraft, he throws glowing coals into
          a vessel of water and then pours the water on a black dog; thus the
          sickness passes into the dog and the cattle are made whole.<a id=
          "noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> In
          Arabia, when the plague is raging, the people will sometimes lead a
          camel through all the quarters of the town in order that the animal
          may take the pestilence on itself. Then they strangle it in a
          sacred place and imagine that they have rid themselves of the camel
          and of the plague at one blow.<a id="noteref_104" name=
          "noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> In
          Annam, when sickness is caused by the presence of a demon in the
          body of the sufferer, a skilful exorcist will decoy the unwary
          devil into a fowl and then, quick as thought, decapitate the bird
          and throw it out of the door. But lest the fiend should survive
          this severe operation, cabalistic figures are posted on the outside
          of the door, which preclude him from entering the premises and
          assaulting the patient afresh.<a id="noteref_105" name=
          "noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> It is
          said that when smallpox is raging the savages of Formosa will drive
          the demon of disease into a sow, then cut off the animal's ears and
          burn them or it, believing that in this way they rid themselves of
          the plague.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href=
          "#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> When
          a Kabyle child is pining for jealousy of a younger brother or
          sister, the parents imagine that they can cure it as follows. They
          take fifteen grains of wheat, wrap them up in a packet, and leave
          the packet all night under the head of the jealous child. Then in
          the morning they throw the grains into an ant-hill, saying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Salutation to you, oh beautiful beings
          clad in black; salutation to you who dig the earth so well without
          the aid of any hoe by the help of God and the angels! May each of
          you take his share of the jealousy attached to these
          grains!”</span><a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href=
          "#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Vehicles for the transference of
              evils in Madagascar.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the
          Malagasy the vehicle for carrying away evils is called a
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">faditra</span></span>. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The faditra is anything selected by the sikidy
          [divining board] for the purpose of taking <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> away any hurtful evils or diseases that might
          prove injurious to an individual's happiness, peace, or prosperity.
          The faditra may be either ashes, cut money, a sheep, a pumpkin, or
          anything else the sikidy may choose to direct. After the particular
          article is appointed, the priest counts upon it all the evils that
          may prove injurious to the person for whom it is made, and which he
          then charges the faditra to take away for ever. If the faditra be
          ashes, it is blown, to be carried away by the wind. If it be cut
          money, it is thrown to the bottom of deep water, or where it can
          never be found. If it be a sheep, it is carried away to a distance
          on the shoulders of a man, who runs with all his might, mumbling as
          he goes, as if in the greatest rage against the faditra, for the
          evils it is bearing away. If it be a pumpkin, it is carried on the
          shoulders to a little distance, and there dashed upon the ground
          with every appearance of fury and indignation.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> A
          Malagasy was informed by a diviner that he was doomed to a bloody
          death, but that possibly he might avert his fate by performing a
          certain rite. Carrying a small vessel full of blood upon his head,
          he was to mount upon the back of a bullock; while thus mounted, he
          was to spill the blood upon the bullock's head, and then send the
          animal away into the wilderness, whence it might never
          return.<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href=
          "#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Extraction of kleptomania by
              spiders and crabs. Evils transferred to birds, which fly away
              with them.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
          Toradjas of Central Celebes a chief's daughter, who suffered from
          kleptomania, was healed by a wise woman, who placed a bag
          containing spiders and crabs on the patient's hands. The physician
          calculated that the prehensile claws of these creatures, so
          suggestive of a thief's hands in the act of closing on his prey,
          would lay hold of the vicious propensity in the young woman's mind
          and extract it as neatly as a pair of forceps nips out a thorn from
          the flesh.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href=
          "#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> The
          Battas of Sumatra have a ceremony which they call <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“making the
          curse to fly away.”</span> When a woman is childless, a sacrifice
          is offered to the gods of three grasshoppers, representing a head
          of cattle, a buffalo, and a horse. Then a swallow is set free, with
          a prayer that the curse may fall upon the bird and fly away with
          it.<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href=
          "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The entrance into a house of an animal
          which does not generally seek to share the abode of man is regarded
          by the Malays as ominous of misfortune. If a wild bird flies into a
          house, it must be carefully caught and smeared with oil, and must
          then be released in the open air, a formula being recited in which
          it is bidden to fly away with all the ill-luck and misfortunes
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sial jambalang</span></span>) of the
          occupier.”</span><a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href=
          "#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> In
          antiquity Greek women seem to have done the same with swallows
          which they caught in the house: they poured oil on them and let
          them fly away, apparently for the purpose of removing ill-luck from
          the household.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href=
          "#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> The
          Huzuls of the Carpathians imagine that they can transfer freckles
          to the first swallow they see in spring by washing their face in
          flowing water and saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Swallow,
          swallow, take my freckles, and give me rosy cheeks.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> At
          the cleansing of a leper and of a house suspected of being tainted
          with leprosy among the Hebrews the priest used to let a living bird
          fly away into the open field,<a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115"
          href="#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> no
          doubt in order to carry away the leprosy with it. Similarly among
          the ancient Arabs a widow was expected to live secluded in a small
          tent for a year after her husband's death; then a bird or a sheep
          was brought to her, she made the creature touch her person, and let
          it go. It was believed that the bird or the sheep would not live
          long thereafter; doubtless it was supposed to suffer from the
          uncleanness <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg
          036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          or taint of death which the widow had transferred to it.<a id=
          "noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to animals in
              India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
          Majhwar, a Dravidian race of South Mirzapur, if a man has died of a
          contagious disease, such as cholera, the village priest walks in
          front of the funeral procession with a chicken in his hands, which
          he lets loose in the direction of some other village as a scapegoat
          to carry the infection away. None but another very experienced
          priest would afterwards dare to touch or eat such a chicken.<a id=
          "noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> Among
          the Badagas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India, when a death
          has taken place, the sins of the deceased are laid upon a buffalo
          calf. For this purpose the people gather round the corpse and carry
          it outside of the village. There an elder of the tribe, standing at
          the head of the corpse, recites or chants a long list of sins such
          as any Badaga may commit, and the people repeat the last words of
          each line after him. The confession of sins is thrice repeated.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“By a conventional mode of expression, the
          sum total of sins a man may do is said to be thirteen hundred.
          Admitting that the deceased has committed them all, the performer
          cries aloud, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Stay not their flight to
          God's pure feet.’</span> As he closes, the whole assembly chants
          aloud <span class="tei tei-q">‘Stay not their flight.’</span> Again
          the performer enters into details, and cries, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘He killed the crawling snake. It is a sin.’</span> In
          a moment the last word is caught up, and all the people cry
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is a sin.’</span> As they shout, the
          performer lays his hand upon the calf. The sin is transferred to
          the calf. Thus the whole catalogue is gone through in this
          impressive way. But this is not enough. As the last shout
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘Let all be well’</span> dies away, the
          performer gives place to another, and again confession is made, and
          all the people shout <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is a sin.’</span>
          A third time it is done. Then, still in solemn silence, the calf is
          let loose. Like the Jewish scapegoat, it may never be used for
          secular work.”</span> At a Badaga funeral witnessed by the Rev. A.
          C. Clayton the buffalo calf was led thrice round the bier, and the
          dead man's hand was laid on its head. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“By this act, the
          calf was supposed to receive all the sins of the deceased. It was
          then driven away to a great distance, that it might contaminate no
          one, and it was said that it would never be sold, but looked on as
          a dedicated sacred animal.”</span><a id="noteref_118" name=
          "noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The idea of this ceremony is, that the
          sins of the deceased enter the calf, or that the task of his
          absolution is laid on it. They say that the calf very soon
          disappears, and that it is never after heard of.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> Some
          of the Todas of the Neilgherry Hills in like manner let loose a
          calf as a funeral ceremony; the intention may be to transfer the
          sins of the deceased to the animal. Perhaps the Todas have borrowed
          the ceremony from the Badagas.<a id="noteref_120" name=
          "noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> In
          Kumaon, a district of North-Western India, the custom of letting
          loose a bullock as a scapegoat at a funeral is occasionally
          observed. A bell is hung on the bullock's neck, and bells are tied
          to its feet, and the animal is told that it is to be let go in
          order to save the spirit of the deceased from the torments of hell.
          Sometimes the bullock's right quarter is branded with a trident and
          the left with a discus.<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href=
          "#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a>
          Perhaps the original intention of such customs was to banish the
          contagion of death by means of the animal, which carried it away
          and so ensured the life of the survivors. The idea of sin is not
          primitive.</p>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name=
        "Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. The Transference to
          Men.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils transferred to human beings
              in India and elsewhere.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, men
          sometimes play the part of scapegoat by diverting to themselves the
          evils that threaten others. An ancient Hindoo ritual describes how
          the pangs of thirst may be transferred from a sick man to another.
          The operator seats the pair on branches, back to back, the sufferer
          with his face to the east, and the whole man with his face to the
          west. Then he stirs some gruel in a vessel placed on the patient's
          head and hands the stir-about to the other man to drink. In this
          way he transfers the pangs of thirst from the thirsty soul to the
          other, who obligingly receives them in his stead.<a id=
          "noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> There
          is a painful Telugu remedy for a fever: it is to embrace a
          bald-headed Brahman widow at the earliest streak of dawn. By doing
          so you get rid of the fever, and no doubt (though this is not
          expressly affirmed) you at the same time transfer it to the
          bald-headed widow.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href=
          "#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> When
          a Cinghalese is dangerously ill, and the physicians can do nothing,
          a devil-dancer is called in, who by making offerings to the devils,
          and dancing in the masks appropriate to them, conjures these demons
          of disease, one after the other, out of the sick man's body and
          into his own. Having thus successfully extracted the cause of the
          malady, the artful dancer lies down on a bier, and shamming death,
          is carried to an open place outside the village. Here, being left
          to himself, he soon comes to life again, and hastens back to claim
          his reward.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href=
          "#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> In
          1590 a Scotch witch of the name of Agnes Sampson was convicted of
          curing a certain Robert Kers of a disease <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“laid upon him by a westland warlock when he was at
          Dumfries, whilk sickness she took upon herself, and kept the same
          with great groaning and torment till the morn, at whilk time there
          was a great din heard in the house.”</span> The noise was made by
          the witch in her efforts to shift the disease, by means of clothes,
          from herself to a cat or dog. Unfortunately <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the attempt partly miscarried. The
          disease missed the animal and hit Alexander Douglas of Dalkeith,
          who dwined and died of it, while the original patient, Robert Kers,
          was made whole.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href=
          "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> The
          Dyaks believe that certain men possess in themselves the power of
          neutralizing bad omens. So, when evil omens have alarmed a farmer
          for the safety of his crops, he takes a small portion of his farm
          produce to one of these wise men, who eats it raw for a small
          consideration, <span class="tei tei-q">“and thereby appropriates to
          himself the evil omen, which in him becomes innocuous, and thus
          delivers the other from the ban of the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pemali</span></span> or taboo.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sins and misfortunes transferred
              to human scapegoats in New Zealand and Manipur. Annual eponyms
              in Manipur. Eponymous magistrates as public scapegoats.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“In one part of New Zealand an expiation for sin was
          felt to be necessary; a service was performed over an individual,
          by which all the sins of the tribe were supposed to be transferred
          to him, a fern stalk was previously tied to his person, with which
          he jumped into the river, and there unbinding, allowed it to float
          away to the sea, bearing their sins with it.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> In
          great emergencies the sins of the Rajah of Manipur used to be
          transferred to somebody else, usually to a criminal, who earned his
          pardon by his vicarious sufferings. To effect the transference the
          Rajah and his wife, clad in fine robes, bathed on a scaffold
          erected in the bazaar, while the criminal crouched beneath it. With
          the water which dripped from them on him their sins also were
          washed away and fell on the human scapegoat. To complete the
          transference the Rajah and his wife made over their fine robes to
          their substitute, while they themselves, clad in new raiment, mixed
          with the people till evening. But at the close of the day they
          entered into retreat and remained in seclusion for about a week,
          during which they were esteemed sacred or tabooed.<a id=
          "noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a>
          Further, in Manipur <span class="tei tei-q">“they have a noteworthy
          system of keeping count of the years. Each year is named after some
          man, who—for a consideration—undertakes to bear the fortune
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name=
          "Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> good or bad of the
          year. If the year be good, if there be no pestilence and a good
          harvest, he gets presents from all sorts of people, and I remember
          hearing that in 1898, when the cholera was at its worst, a
          deputation came to the Political Agent and asked him to punish the
          name-giver, as it was obvious that he was responsible for the
          epidemic. In former times he would have got into
          trouble.”</span><a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href=
          "#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> The
          nomination of the eponym, or man who is to give his name to the
          year, takes place at a festival called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chirouba</span></span>, which falls about the
          middle of April. It is the priests who nominate the eponym, after
          comparing his horoscope with that of the Rajah and of the State
          generally. The retiring official, who gave his name to the past
          year, addresses his successor as follows: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“My friend, I bore and took away all evil spirits and
          sins from the Rajah and his people during the last year. Do thou
          likewise from to-morrow until the next <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chirouba</span></span>.”</span> Then the
          incoming official, who is to give his name to the New Year,
          addresses the Rajah in these words: <span class="tei tei-q">“O son
          of heaven, Ruler of the Kings, great and ancient Lord, Incarnation
          of God, the great Lord Pakhangba, Master of the bright Sun, Lord of
          the Plain and Despot of the Hills, whose kingdom is from the hills
          on the east to the mountains on the west, the old year perishes,
          the new cometh. New is the sun of the new year, and bright as the
          new sun shalt thou be, and mild withal as the moon. May thy beauty
          and thy strength grow with the growth of the new year. From to-day
          will I bear on my head all thy sins, diseases, misfortunes, shame,
          mischief, all that is aimed in battle against thee, all that
          threatens thee, all that is bad and hurtful for thee and thy
          kingdom.”</span> For these important services the eponym or vicar
          receives from the Rajah a number of gifts, including a basket of
          salt, and his grateful country rewards his self-sacrificing
          devotion by bestowing many privileges on him.<a id="noteref_130"
          name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a>
          Elsewhere, perhaps, if we knew more about the matter, we might find
          that eponymous magistrates who give their names to the year have
          been similarly regarded as public scapegoats, who bore on their
          devoted <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg
          041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          heads the misfortunes, the sins, and the sorrows of the whole
          people.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href=
          "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Indian story of the transference
              of sins to a holy man.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jataka</span></span>, or collection of Indian
          stories which narrate the many transmigrations of the Buddha, there
          is an instructive tale, which sets forth how sins and misfortunes
          can be transferred by means of spittle to a holy ascetic. A lady of
          easy virtue, we are told, had lost the favour of King Dandaki and
          bethought herself how she could recover it. As she walked in the
          park revolving these things in her mind, she spied a devout ascetic
          named Kisavaccha. A thought struck her. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Surely,”</span> said she to herself, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“this must be Ill Luck. I will get rid of my sin on his
          person and then go and bathe.”</span> No sooner said than done.
          Chewing her toothpick, she collected a large clot of spittle in her
          mouth with which she beslavered the matted locks of the venerable
          man, and having hurled her toothpick at his head into the bargain
          she departed with a mind at peace and bathed. The stratagem was
          entirely successful; for the king took her into his good graces
          again. Not long after it chanced that the king deposed his domestic
          chaplain from his office. Naturally chagrined at this loss of royal
          favour, the clergyman repaired to the king's light o' love and
          enquired how she had contrived to recapture the monarch's
          affection. She told him frankly how she had got rid of her sin and
          emerged without a stain on her character by simply spitting on the
          head of Ill Luck in the royal park. The chaplain took the hint, and
          hastening to the park bespattered in like manner the sacred locks
          of the holy man; and in consequence he was soon reinstated in
          office. It would have been well if the thing had stopped there, but
          unfortunately it did not. By and bye it happened that there was a
          disturbance on the king's frontier, and the king put himself at the
          head of his army to go forth and fight. An unhappy idea occurred to
          his domestic chaplain. Elated by the success of the expedient which
          had restored him to royal favour, he asked the king, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sire, do you wish for victory or defeat?”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Why for victory, of course,”</span>
          replied the king. <span class="tei tei-q">“Then you take my
          advice,”</span> said the chaplain; <span class="tei tei-q">“just go
          and spit on the head of Ill Luck, who dwells in the <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> royal park; you will thus transfer all
          your sin to his person.”</span> It seemed to the king a capital
          idea and he improved on it by proposing that the whole army should
          accompany him and get rid of their sins in like manner. They all
          did so, beginning with the king, and the state of the holy man's
          head when they had all done is something frightful to contemplate.
          But even this was not the worst. For after the king had gone, up
          came the commander-in-chief and seeing the sad plight of the pious
          ascetic, he took pity on him and had his poor bedabbled hair
          thoroughly washed. The fatal consequences of this kindly-meant but
          most injudicious shampoo may easily be anticipated. The sins which
          had been transferred with the saliva to the person of the devotee
          were now restored to their respective owners; and to punish them
          for their guilt fire fell from heaven and destroyed the whole
          kingdom for sixty leagues round about.<a id="noteref_132" name=
          "noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of evils to human
              scapegoats in Uganda.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A less harmless
          way of relieving an army from guilt or misfortune used in former
          times to be actually practised by the Baganda. When an army had
          returned from war, and the gods warned the king by their oracles
          that some evil had attached itself to the soldiers, it was
          customary to pick out a woman slave from the captives, together
          with a cow, a goat, a fowl, and a dog from the booty, and to send
          them back under a strong guard to the borders of the country from
          which they had come. There their limbs were broken and they were
          left to die; for they were too crippled to crawl back to Uganda. In
          order to ensure the transference of the evil to these substitutes,
          bunches of grass were rubbed over the people and cattle and then
          tied to the victims. After that the army was pronounced clean and
          was allowed to return to the capital. A similar mode of
          transferring evil to human and animal victims was practised by the
          Baganda whenever the gods warned the king that his hereditary foes
          the Banyoro were working magic against him and his people.<a id=
          "noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of sins to a Brahman
              in Travancore. Transference of sins to a Sin-eater in
              England.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Travancore,
          when a rajah is near his end, they seek out a holy Brahman, who
          consents to take upon himself the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> sins of the dying man in consideration of the
          sum of ten thousand rupees. Thus prepared to immolate himself on
          the altar of duty as a vicarious sacrifice for sin, the saint is
          introduced into the chamber of death, and closely embraces the
          dying rajah, saying to him, <span class="tei tei-q">“O King, I
          undertake to bear all your sins and diseases. May your Highness
          live long and reign happily.”</span> Having thus, with a noble
          devotion, taken to himself the sins of the sufferer, and likewise
          the rupees, he is sent away from the country and never more allowed
          to return.<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href=
          "#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a>
          Closely akin to this is the old Welsh custom known as <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“sin-eating.”</span> According to Aubrey, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“In the County of Hereford was an old Custome at
          funeralls to hire poor people, who were to take upon them all the
          sinnes of the party deceased. One of them I remember lived in a
          cottage on Rosse-high way. (He was a long, leane, ugly, lamentable
          poor raskal.) The manner was that when the Corps was brought out of
          the house and layd on the Biere; a Loafe of bread was brought out,
          and delivered to the Sinne-eater over the corps, as also a
          Mazar-bowle of maple (Gossips bowle) full of beer, which he was to
          drinke up, and sixpence in money, in consideration whereof he took
          upon him (ipso facto) all the Sinnes of the Defunct, and freed him
          (or her) from walking after they were dead.... This Custome (though
          rarely used in our dayes) yet by some people was observed even in
          the strictest time of ye Presbyterian government: as at Dynder,
          volens nolens the Parson of ye Parish, the kinred of a woman
          deceased there had this ceremonie punctually performed according to
          her Will: and also the like was donne at ye City of Hereford in
          these times, when a woman kept many yeares before her death a
          Mazard-bowle for the Sinne-eater; and the like in other places in
          this Countie; as also in Brecon, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> at
          Llangors, where Mr. Gwin the minister about 1640 could no hinder ye
          performing of this ancient custome. I believe this custom was
          heretofore used over all Wales.... In North Wales the Sinne-eaters
          are frequently made use of; but there, instead of a Bowle of Beere,
          they have a bowle of Milke.”</span><a id="noteref_135" name=
          "noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a>
          According <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg
          044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          to a letter dated February 1, 1714-15, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“within the memory of our fathers, in Shropshire, in
          those villages adjoyning to Wales, when a person dyed, there was
          notice given to an old sire (for so they called him), who presently
          repaired to the place where the deceased lay, and stood before the
          door of the house, when some of the family came out and furnished
          him with a cricket, on which he sat down facing the door. Then they
          gave him a groat, which he put in his pocket; a crust of bread,
          which he eat; and a full bowle of ale, which he drank off at a
          draught. After this he got up from the cricket and pronounced, with
          a composed gesture, the ease and rest of the soul departed for
          which he would pawn his own soul. This I had from the ingenious
          John Aubrey, Esq.”</span><a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136"
          href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> In
          modern times some doubt has been thrown on Aubrey's account of the
          custom.<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href=
          "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> The
          practice, however, is reported to have prevailed in a valley not
          far from Llandebie to a recent period. An instance was said to have
          occurred about sixty years ago.<a id="noteref_138" name=
          "noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of sins to a
              sin-eater in India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Aubrey's
          statement is moreover supported by the analogy of similar customs
          in India. When the Rajah of Tanjore died in 1801, some of his bones
          and the bones of the two wives, who were burned with his corpse,
          were ground to powder and eaten, mixed with boiled rice, by twelve
          Brahmans. It was believed that the sins of the deceased passed into
          the bodies of the Brahmans, who were paid for the service.<a id=
          "noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> A
          Brahman, resident in a village near Raipur, stated that he had
          eaten food (rice and milk) out of the hand of the dead Rajah of
          Bilaspur, and that in consequence he had been placed on the throne
          for the space of a year. At <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the end of the year he had been given
          presents and then turned out of the territory and forbidden
          apparently to return. He was an outcast among his fellows for
          having eaten out of a dead man's hand.<a id="noteref_140" name=
          "noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> A
          similar custom is believed to obtain in the hill states about
          Kangra, and to have given rise to a caste of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“outcaste”</span> Brahmans. At the funeral of a Rani of
          Chamba rice and ghee were eaten out of the hands of the corpse by a
          Brahman paid for the purpose. Afterwards a stranger, who had been
          caught outside the Chamba territory, was given the costly wrappings
          of the corpse, then told to depart and never shew his face in the
          country again.<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href=
          "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> In
          Oude when an infant was killed it used to be buried in the room
          where it had been born. On the thirteenth day afterwards the priest
          had to cook and eat his food in that room. By doing so he was
          supposed to take the whole sin upon himself and to cleanse the
          family from it.<a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href=
          "#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> At
          Utch Kurgan in Turkestan Mr. Schuyler saw an old man who was said
          to get his living by taking on himself the sins of the dead, and
          thenceforth devoting his life to prayer for their souls.<a id=
          "noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of sins in
              Tahiti.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Tahiti, where
          the bodies of chiefs and persons of rank were embalmed and
          preserved above ground in special sheds or houses erected for them,
          a priest was employed at the funeral rites who bore the title of
          the <span class="tei tei-q">“corpse-praying priest.”</span> His
          office was singular. When the house for the dead had been prepared,
          and the corpse placed on the platform or bier, the priest ordered a
          hole to be made in the floor, near the foot of the platform. Over
          this he prayed to the god by whom it was supposed that the soul of
          the deceased had been called away. The purport of his prayer
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name=
          "Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was that all the
          dead man's sins, especially the one for which his soul had been
          required of him, might be deposited there, that they might not
          attach in any degree to the survivors, and that the anger of the
          god might be appeased. He next addressed the corpse, usually
          saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“With you let the guilt now
          remain.”</span> The pillar or post of the corpse, as it was called,
          was then planted in the hole, and the hole filled up. As soon as
          the ceremony of depositing the sins in the hole was over, all who
          had touched the body or the garments of the deceased, which were
          buried or destroyed, fled precipitately into the sea, to cleanse
          themselves from the pollution which they had contracted by touching
          the corpse. They also cast into the sea the garments they had worn
          while they were performing the last offices to the dead. Having
          finished their ablutions, they gathered a few pieces of coral from
          the bottom of the sea, and returning with them to the house
          addressed the corpse, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“With you may
          the pollution be.”</span> So saying they threw down the coral on
          the top of the hole which had been dug to receive the sins and the
          defilement of the dead.<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href=
          "#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> In
          this instance the sins of the departed, as well as the pollution
          which the primitive mind commonly associates with death, are not
          borne by a living person, but buried in a hole. Yet the fundamental
          idea—that of the transference of sins—is the same in the Tahitian
          as in the Welsh and Indian customs; whether the vehicle or
          receptacle destined to catch and draw off the evil be a person, an
          animal, or a thing, is for the purpose in hand a matter of little
          moment.<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href=
          "#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a></p>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name=
        "Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. The Transference of Evil in
          Europe.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Transference of evils in ancient
              Greece. The transference of warts. Transference of sickness in
              Scotland, Germany, and Austria.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The examples of
          the transference of evil hitherto adduced have been mostly drawn
          from the customs of savage or barbarous peoples. But similar
          attempts to shift the burden of disease, misfortune, and sin from
          one's self to another person, or to an animal or thing, have been
          common also among the civilized nations of Europe, both in ancient
          and modern times. A Roman cure for fever was to pare the patient's
          nails, and stick the parings with wax on a neighbour's door before
          sunrise; the fever then passed from the sick man to his
          neighbour.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href=
          "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a>
          Similar devices must have been resorted to by the Greeks; for in
          laying down laws for his ideal state, Plato thinks it too much to
          expect that men should not be alarmed at finding certain wax
          figures adhering to their doors or to the tombstones of their
          parents, or lying at cross-roads.<a id="noteref_147" name=
          "noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> Among
          the ruins of the great sanctuary of Aesculapius, which were
          excavated not very long ago in an open valley among the mountains
          of Epidaurus, inscriptions have been found recording the miraculous
          cures which the god of healing performed for his faithful
          worshippers. One of them tells how a certain Pandarus, a
          Thessalian, was freed from the letters which, as a former slave or
          prisoner of war, he bore tattooed or branded on his brow. He slept
          in the sanctuary with a fillet round his head, and in the morning
          he discovered to his joy that the marks of shame—the blue or
          scarlet letters—had been transferred from his brow to the fillet.
          By and by there came to the sanctuary a wicked man, also with
          brands or tattoo marks on his face, who had been charged by
          Pandarus to pay his debt of gratitude to the god, and had received
          the cash for the purpose. But the cunning fellow thought to cheat
          the god and keep the money all to himself. So when the god appeared
          to him in a dream and asked anxiously after the money, he boldly
          denied that he had it, and impudently prayed the god to remove the
          ugly marks from his own brazen brow. He was told to tie the fillet
          of Pandarus about his head, then to take it off, and look at his
          face in the water of the sacred well. He did so, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and sure enough he saw on his forehead
          the marks of Pandarus in addition to his own.<a id="noteref_148"
          name="noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> In
          the fourth century of our era Marcellus of Bordeaux prescribed a
          cure for warts, which has still a great vogue among the
          superstitious in various parts of Europe. Doubtless it was an old
          traditional remedy in the fourth, and will long survive the expiry
          of the twentieth, century. You are to touch your warts with as many
          little stones as you have warts; then wrap the stones in an ivy
          leaf, and throw them away in a thoroughfare. Whoever picks them up
          will get the warts, and you will be rid of them.<a id="noteref_149"
          name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> A
          similar cure for warts, with such trifling variations as the
          substitution of peas or barley for pebbles, and a rag or a piece of
          paper for an ivy leaf, has been prescribed in modern times in
          Italy, France, Austria, England, and Scotland.<a id="noteref_150"
          name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a>
          Another favourite way of passing on your warts to somebody else is
          to make as many knots in a string as you have warts; then throw the
          string away or place it under a stone. Whoever treads on the stone
          or picks up the thread will get the warts instead of you; sometimes
          to complete the transference it is thought necessary that he should
          undo the knots.<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href=
          "#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> Or
          you need only place the knotted thread before sunrise in the spout
          of a pump; the next person who works the pump will be sure to get
          your warts.<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href=
          "#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a>
          Equally <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg
          049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          effective methods are to rub the troublesome excrescences with down
          or fat, or to bleed them on a rag, and then throw away the down,
          the fat, or the bloody rag. The person who picks up one or other of
          these things will be sure to release you from your warts by
          involuntarily transferring them to himself.<a id="noteref_153"
          name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a>
          People in the Orkney Islands will sometimes wash a sick man, and
          then throw the water down at a gateway, in the belief that the
          sickness will leave the patient and be transferred to the first
          person who passes through the gate.<a id="noteref_154" name=
          "noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> A
          Bavarian cure for fever is to write upon a piece of paper,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Fever, stay away, I am not at
          home,”</span> and to put the paper in somebody's pocket. The latter
          then catches the fever, and the patient is rid of it.<a id=
          "noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> Or
          the sufferer may cure himself by sticking a twig of the elder-tree
          in the ground without speaking. The fever then adheres to the twig,
          and whoever pulls up the twig will catch the disease.<a id=
          "noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> A
          Bohemian prescription for the same malady is this. Take an empty
          pot, go with it to a cross-road, throw it down, and run away. The
          first person who kicks against the pot will catch your fever, and
          you will be cured.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href=
          "#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> In
          Oldenburg they say that when a person lies sweating with fever, he
          should take a piece of money to himself in bed. The money is
          afterwards thrown away on the street, and whoever picks it up will
          catch the fever, but the original patient will be rid of it.<a id=
          "noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness transferred to asses,
              frogs, dogs, and other animals.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Often in Europe,
          as among savages, an attempt is made to transfer a pain or malady
          from a man to an animal. Grave writers of antiquity recommended
          that, if a man be stung by a scorpion, he should sit upon an ass
          with his face to the tail, or whisper in the animal's ear,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“A scorpion has stung me”</span>; in either
          case, they thought, the pain would be transferred from the man to
          the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name=
          "Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ass.<a id=
          "noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> Many
          cures of this sort are recorded by Marcellus. For example, he tells
          us that the following is a remedy for toothache. Standing booted
          under the open sky on the ground, you catch a frog by the head,
          spit into its mouth, ask it to carry away the ache, and then let it
          go. But the ceremony must be performed on a lucky day and at a
          lucky hour.<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href=
          "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> In
          Cheshire the ailment known as aphtha or thrush, which affects the
          mouth or throat of infants, is not uncommonly treated in much the
          same manner. A young frog is held for a few moments with its head
          inside the mouth of the sufferer, whom it is supposed to relieve by
          taking the malady to itself. <span class="tei tei-q">“I assure
          you,”</span> said an old woman who had often superintended such a
          cure, <span class="tei tei-q">“we used to hear the poor frog
          whooping and coughing, mortal bad, for days after; it would have
          made your heart ache to hear the poor creature coughing as it did
          about the garden.”</span><a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161"
          href="#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> Again
          Marcellus tells us that if the foam from a mule's mouth, mixed with
          warm water, be drunk by an asthmatic patient, he will at once
          recover, but the mule will die.<a id="noteref_162" name=
          "noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> An
          ancient cure for the gripes, recorded both by Pliny and Marcellus,
          was to put a live duck to the belly of the sufferer; the pains
          passed from the man into the bird, to which they proved
          fatal.<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href=
          "#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a>
          According to the same writers a stomachic complaint of which the
          cause was unknown might be cured by applying a blind puppy to the
          suffering part for three days. The secret disorder thus passed into
          the puppy; it died, and a post-mortem examination of its little
          body revealed the cause of the disease from which the man had
          suffered and of which the dog had died.<a id="noteref_164" name=
          "noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> Once
          more, Marcellus advises that when a man was afflicted with a
          disorder of the intestines the physician should catch a live hare,
          take the huckle-bone from one of its feet and the down <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from the belly, then let the hare go,
          pronouncing as he did so the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“Run
          away, run away, little hare, and take away with you the intestine
          pain.”</span> Further, the doctor was to fashion the down into
          thread, with which he was to tie the huckle-bone to the patient's
          body, taking great care that the thread should not be touched by
          any woman.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href=
          "#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> A
          Northamptonshire, Devonshire, and Welsh cure for a cough is to put
          a hair of the patient's head between two slices of buttered bread
          and give the sandwich to a dog. The animal will thereupon catch the
          cough and the patient will lose it.<a id="noteref_166" name=
          "noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a>
          Sometimes an ailment is transferred to an animal by sharing food
          with it. Thus in Oldenburg, if you are sick of a fever you set a
          bowl of sweet milk before a dog and say, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Good luck, you hound! may you be sick and I be
          sound!”</span> Then when the dog has lapped some of the milk, you
          take a swig at the bowl; and then the dog must lap again, and then
          you must swig again; and when you and the dog have done it the
          third time, he will have the fever and you will be quit of it. A
          peasant woman in Abbehausen told her pastor that she suffered from
          fever for a whole year and found no relief. At last somebody
          advised her to give some of her food to a dog and a cat. She did so
          and the fever passed from her into the animals. But when she saw
          the poor sick beasts always before her, she wished it undone. Then
          the fever left the cat and the dog and returned to her.<a id=
          "noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness transferred to birds,
              snails, fish, and fowls.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A Bohemian cure
          for fever is to go out into the forest before the sun is up and
          look for a snipe's nest. When you have found it, take out one of
          the young birds and keep it beside you for three days. Then go back
          into the wood and set the snipe free. The fever will leave you at
          once. The snipe has taken it away. So in Vedic times the Hindoos of
          old sent consumption away with a blue jay. They said, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“O consumption, fly away, fly away with the blue jay!
          With the wild rush of the storm and the whirlwind, oh, vanish
          away!”</span><a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href=
          "#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name=
          "Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In Oldenburg they
          sometimes hang up a goldfinch or a turtle-dove in the room of a
          consumptive patient, hoping that the bird may draw away the malady
          from the sufferer to itself.<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169"
          href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> A
          prescription for a cough in Sunderland is to shave the patient's
          head and hang the hair on a bush. When the birds carry the hair to
          their nests, they will carry the cough with it.<a id="noteref_170"
          name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> In
          the Mark of Brandenburg a cure for headache is to tie a thread
          thrice round your head and then hang it in a loop from a tree; if a
          bird flies through the loop, it will take your headache away with
          it.<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href=
          "#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> A
          Saxon remedy for rupture in a child is to take a snail, thrust it
          at sunset into a hollow tree, and stop up the hole with clay. Then
          as the snail perishes the child recovers. But this cure must be
          accompanied by the recitation of a proper form of words; otherwise
          it has no effect.<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href=
          "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> A
          Bohemian remedy for jaundice is as follows. Take a living tench,
          tie it to your bare back and carry it about with you for a whole
          day. The tench will turn quite yellow and die. Then throw it into
          running water, and your jaundice will depart with it.<a id=
          "noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href="#note_173"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> In
          the village of Llandegla in Wales there is a church dedicated to
          the virgin martyr St. Tecla, where the falling sickness is, or used
          to be, cured by being transferred to a fowl. The patient first
          washed his limbs in a sacred well hard by, dropped fourpence into
          it as an offering, walked thrice round the well, and thrice
          repeated the Lord's prayer. Then the fowl, which was a cock or a
          hen according as the patient was a man or a woman, was put into a
          basket and carried round first the well and afterwards the church.
          Next the sufferer entered the church and lay down under
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name=
          "Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the communion table
          till break of day. After that he offered sixpence and departed,
          leaving the fowl in the church. If the bird died, the sickness was
          supposed to have been transferred to it from the man or woman, who
          was now rid of the disorder. As late as 1855 the old parish clerk
          of the village remembered quite well to have seen the birds
          staggering about from the effects of the fits which had been
          transferred to them.<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href=
          "#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> In
          South Glamorgan and West Pembrokeshire it is thought possible to
          get rid of warts by means of a snail. You take a snail with a black
          shell, you rub it on each wart and say,</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wart, wart, on the
                snail's shell black,</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Go away soon, and never
                come back.</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then you put the
          snail on the branch of a tree or bramble and you nail it down with
          as many thorns as you have warts. When the snail has rotted away on
          the bough, your warts will have vanished. Another Welsh cure for
          warts is to impale a frog on a stick and then to rub the warts on
          the creature. The warts disappear as the frog expires.<a id=
          "noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> In
          both these cases we may assume that the warts are transferred from
          the human sufferer to the suffering animal.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness and ill-luck transferred
              to inanimate objects.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Often the
          sufferer seeks to shift his burden of sickness or ill-luck to some
          inanimate object. In Athens there is a little chapel of St. John
          the Baptist built against an ancient column. Fever patients resort
          thither, and by attaching a waxed thread to the inner side of the
          column believe that they transfer the fever from themselves to the
          pillar.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href=
          "#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> In
          the Mark of Brandenburg they say that if you suffer from giddiness
          you should strip yourself naked and run thrice round a flax-field
          after sunset; in that way the flax will get the giddiness and you
          will be rid of it.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href=
          "#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a>
          Sometimes an attempt is made to transfer the mischief, whatever it
          may be, to the moon. In Oldenburg a peasant related how he rid
          himself of a bony excrescence by stroking it thrice crosswise in
          the name of the Trinity, and then making a gesture as if
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name=
          "Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he were seizing the
          deformity and hurling it towards the moon. In the same part of
          Germany a cure for warts is to stand in the light of a waxing moon
          so that you cannot see your own shadow, then hold the disfigured
          hand towards the moon, and stroke it with the other hand in the
          direction of the luminary. Some say that in doing this you should
          pronounce these words, <span class="tei tei-q">“Moon, free me from
          these vermin.”</span><a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href=
          "#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness and trouble transferred
              to trees and bushes.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But perhaps the
          thing most commonly employed in Europe as a receptacle for sickness
          and trouble of all sorts is a tree or bush. The modes of
          transferring the mischief to it are many. For example, the
          Esthonians say that you ought not to go out of the house on a
          spring morning before you have eaten or drunk; for if you do, you
          may chance to hear one of <span class="tei tei-q">“the sounds which
          are not heard in winter,”</span> such as the song of a bird, and
          that would be unlucky. They think that if you thus let yourself be
          deceived or outwitted, as they call it, by a bird, you will be
          visited by all sorts of ill-luck during the year; indeed it may
          very well happen that you will fall sick and die before another
          spring comes round. However, there is a way of averting the evil.
          You have merely to embrace a tree or go thrice round it, biting
          into the bark each time or tearing away a strip of the bark with
          your teeth. Thus the bad luck passes from you to the tree, which
          accordingly withers away.<a id="noteref_179" name="noteref_179"
          href="#note_179"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> In
          Sicily it is believed that all kinds of marvellous cures can be
          effected on the night which precedes Ascension Day. For example,
          people who suffer from goitre bite the bark of a peach-tree just at
          the moment when the clocks are striking midnight. Thus the malady
          is transferred to the sap of the tree, and its leaves wither away
          in exact proportion as the patient recovers. But in order that the
          cure may be successful it is absolutely essential that the bark
          should be bitten at midnight precisely; a bite before or after that
          witching hour is labour thrown away.<a id="noteref_180" name=
          "noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> On
          St. George's Day, South Slavonian lads and lasses <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> climb thrice up and down a cornel-tree,
          saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“My laziness and sleepiness to you,
          cornel-tree, but health and booty (?) to me.”</span> Then as they
          wend homewards they turn once more towards the tree and call out,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Cornel-tree! cornel-tree! I leave you my
          laziness and sleepiness.”</span><a id="noteref_181" name=
          "noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> The
          same people attempt to cure fever by transferring it to a dwarf
          elder-bush. Having found such a bush with three shoots springing
          from the root, the patient grasps the points of the three shoots in
          his hand, bends them down to the ground, and fastens them there
          with a stone. Under the arch thus formed he creeps thrice; then he
          cuts off or digs up the three shoots, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“In three shoots I cut three sicknesses out. When these
          three shoots grow young again, may the fever come
          back.”</span><a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href=
          "#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> A
          Bulgarian cure for fever is to run thrice round a willow-tree at
          sunrise, crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“The fever shall shake
          thee, and the sun shall warm me.”</span><a id="noteref_183" name=
          "noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> In
          the Greek island of Karpathos the priest ties a red thread round
          the neck of a sick person. Next morning the friends of the patient
          remove the thread and go out to the hillside, where they tie the
          thread to a tree, thinking that they thus transfer the sickness to
          the tree.<a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href=
          "#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a>
          Italians attempt to cure fever in like manner by fastening it to a
          tree. The sufferer ties a thread round his left wrist at night, and
          hangs the thread on a tree next morning. The fever is thus believed
          to be tied up to the tree, and the patient to be rid of it; but he
          must be careful not to pass by that tree again, otherwise the fever
          would break loose from its bonds and attack him afresh.<a id=
          "noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> An
          old French remedy for fever was to bind the patient himself to a
          tree and leave him there for a time; some said that the ceremony
          should be performed fasting and early in the morning, that the cord
          or straw rope with which the person was bound to the tree should be
          left there to rot, and that the sufferer should bite the bark of
          the tree before returning home.<a id="noteref_186" name=
          "noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> In
          Bohemia the friends of a fever patient will sometimes carry him
          head <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name=
          "Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> foremost, by means
          of straw ropes, to a bush, on which they dump him down. Then he
          must jump up and run home. The friends who carried him also flee,
          leaving the straw ropes and likewise the fever behind them on the
          bush.<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href=
          "#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness transferred to trees by
              means of knots.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the
          sickness is transferred to the tree by making a knot in one of its
          boughs. Thus in Mecklenburg a remedy for fever is to go before
          sunrise to a willow-tree and tie as many knots in one of its
          branches as the fever has lasted days; but going and coming you
          must be careful not to speak a word.<a id="noteref_188" name=
          "noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> A
          Flemish cure for the ague is to go early in the morning to an old
          willow, tie three knots in one of its branches, say, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Good-morrow, Old One, I give thee the cold;
          good-morrow, Old One,”</span> then turn and run away without
          looking round.<a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href=
          "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> In
          Rhenish Bavaria the cure for gout is similar. The patient recites a
          spell or prayer while he stands at a willow-bush holding one of its
          boughs. When the mystic words have been spoken, he ties a knot in
          the bough and departs cured. But all his life long he must never go
          near that willow-bush again, or the gout will come back to
          him.<a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href=
          "#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> In
          Sonnenberg, if you would rid yourself of gout you should go to a
          young fir-tree and tie a knot in one of its twigs, saying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“God greet thee, noble fir. I bring thee my
          gout. Here will I tie a knot and bind my gout into it. In the
          name,”</span> etc.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href=
          "#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> Not
          far from Marburg, at a place called Neuhof, there is a wood of
          birches. Thither on a morning before sunrise, in the last quarter
          of the moon, bands of gouty people may often be seen hobbling in
          silence. Each of them takes his stand before a separate tree and
          pronounces these solemn words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Here stand
          I before the judgment bar of God and tie up all my gout. All the
          disease in my body shall remain tied up in this birch-tree.”</span>
          Meanwhile the good physician ties a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> knot in a birch-twig, repeating thrice,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“In the name of the Father,”</span>
          etc.<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href=
          "#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness transferred to trees by
              means of the patient's hair or nails.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another way of
          transferring gout from a man to a tree is this. Pare the nails of
          the sufferer's fingers and clip some hairs from his legs. Bore a
          hole in an oak, stuff the nails and hair in the hole, stop up the
          hole again, and smear it with cow's dung. If, for three months
          thereafter, the patient is free of gout, you may be sure the oak
          has it in his stead.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href=
          "#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> A
          German cure for toothache is to bore a hole in a tree and cram some
          of the sufferer's hair into it.<a id="noteref_194" name=
          "noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> In
          these cases, though no doubt the tree suffers the pangs of gout or
          toothache respectively, it does so with a sort of stoical
          equanimity, giving no outward and visible sign of the pains that
          rack it inwardly. It is not always so, however. The tree cannot
          invariably suppress every symptom of its suffering. It may hide its
          toothache, but it cannot so easily hide its warts. In Cheshire if
          you would be rid of warts, you have only to rub them with a piece
          of bacon, cut a slit in the bark of an ash-tree, and slip the bacon
          under the bark. Soon the warts will disappear from your hand, only
          however to reappear in the shape of rough excrescences or knobs on
          the bark of the tree.<a id="noteref_195" name="noteref_195" href=
          "#note_195"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> Again
          in Beauce and Perche, two provinces of France, fever may be
          transferred to a young aspen by inserting the parings of the
          patient's nails in the tree and then plastering up the hole to
          prevent the fever from getting out. But the operation must be
          performed by night.<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href=
          "#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> How
          subject an aspen is to fever must be obvious to the meanest
          capacity from the trembling of its leaves in every breath of wind;
          nothing therefore can be easier or more natural than to transfer
          the malady, with its fits of shaking, to the tree. At
          Berkhampstead, in Hertfordshire, there used to be certain oak-trees
          which were long celebrated for the cure of ague. The transference
          of the malady to the tree was simple but painful. A lock of the
          sufferer's hair was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg
          058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          pegged into an oak; then by a sudden wrench he left his hair and
          his ague behind him in the tree.<a id="noteref_197" name=
          "noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Toothache, headache, and fevers
              plugged up in trees.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It seems clear
          that, though you may stow away your pain or sickness in a tree,
          there is a considerable risk of its coming out again. To obviate
          this danger common prudence suggests that you should plug or bung
          up the hole as tight as you can. And this, as we should naturally
          expect, is often done. A German cure for toothache or headache is
          to wrap some of the sufferer's cut hair and nails in paper, make a
          hole in the tree, stuff the parcel into it, and stop up the hole
          with a plug made from a tree which has been struck by
          lightning.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href=
          "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> In
          Bohemia they say that, if you feel the fever coming on, you should
          pull out some of your hair, tear off a strip of a garment you are
          wearing, and bore a hole in a willow-tree. Having done so, you put
          the hair and the rag in the hole and stop it up with a wedge of
          hawthorn. Then go home without looking back, and if a voice calls
          to you, be sure not to answer. When you have complied with this
          prescription, the fever will cease.<a id="noteref_199" name=
          "noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> In
          Oldenburg a common remedy for fever is to bore a hole in a tree,
          breathe thrice into the hole, and then plug it up. Once a man who
          had thus shut up his fever in a tree was jeered at by a sceptical
          acquaintance for his credulity. So he went secretly to the tree and
          drew the stopper, and out came that fever and attacked the
          sceptic.<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href=
          "#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a>
          Sometimes they say that the tree into which you thus breathe your
          fever or ague should be a hollow willow, and that in going to the
          tree you should be careful not to utter a word, and not to cross
          water.<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href=
          "#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a>
          Again, we read of a man who suffered acute pains in his arm. So
          <span class="tei tei-q">“they beat up red corals with oaken leaves,
          and having kept them on the part affected till suppuration, they
          did in the morning put this mixture into an hole bored with an
          auger in the root of an oak, respecting the east, and stop up this
          hole with a peg made of the same tree; from thenceforth the pain
          did altogether cease, and when they took out the <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> amulet immediately the torments
          returned sharper than before.”</span><a id="noteref_202" name=
          "noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> These
          facts seem to put it beyond the reach of reasonable doubt that the
          pain or malady is actually in the tree and waiting to pop out, if
          only it gets the chance.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. The Nailing of
          Evils.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sickness and pain pegged or nailed
              into trees.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Often the
          patient, without troubling to bore a hole in the tree, merely
          knocks a wedge, a peg, or a nail into it, believing that he thus
          pegs or nails the sickness or pain into the wood. Thus a Bohemian
          cure for fever is to go to a tree and hammer a wedge into it with
          the words <span class="tei tei-q">“There, I knock you in, that you
          may come no more out to me.”</span><a id="noteref_203" name=
          "noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> A
          German way of getting rid of toothache is to go in silence before
          sunrise to a tree, especially a willow-tree, make a slit in the
          bark on the north side of the tree, or on the side that looks
          towards the sunrise, cut out a splinter from the place thus laid
          bare, poke the splinter into the aching tooth till blood comes,
          then put back the splinter in the tree, fold down the bark over it,
          and tie a string round the trunk, that the splinter may grow into
          the trunk as before. As it does so, your pain will vanish; but you
          must be careful not to go near the tree afterwards, or you will get
          the toothache again. And any one who pulls the splinter out will
          also get the toothache. He has in fact uncorked the toothache which
          was safely bottled up in the tree, and he must take the natural
          consequence of his rash act.<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204"
          href="#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> A
          simpler plan, practised in Persia as well as in France and Germany,
          is merely to scrape the aching tooth with a nail or a twig till it
          bleeds, and then hammer the nail or the twig into a tree. In the
          Vosges, in Voigtland, and probably elsewhere, it is believed that
          any person who should draw out such a nail or twig would get the
          toothache.<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href=
          "#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> An
          old lime-tree at <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg
          060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Evessen, in Brunswick, is studded with nails of various shapes,
          including screw-nails, which have been driven into it by persons
          who suffered from aching teeth.<a id="noteref_206" name=
          "noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> In
          the Mark of Brandenburg they say that the ceremony should be
          performed when the moon is on the wane, and that the bloody nail
          should be knocked, without a word being spoken, into the north side
          of an oak-tree, where the sun cannot shine on it; after that the
          person will have no more toothache so long as the tree remains
          standing.<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href=
          "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> Here
          it is plainly implied that the toothache is bottled up in the tree.
          If further proof were needed that in such cases the malady is
          actually transferred to the tree and stowed away in its trunk, it
          would be afforded by the belief that if the tree is cut down the
          toothache will return to the original sufferer.<a id="noteref_208"
          name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a>
          Rupture as well as toothache can be nailed to an oak. For that
          purpose all that need be done is to take a coffin-nail and touch
          with it the injured part of the patient; then set the sufferer
          barefoot before an oak-tree, and knock the nail into the trunk
          above his head. That transfers the rupture to the tree, and that is
          why you may often see the boles of ancient oaks studded with
          nails.<a id="noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href=
          "#note_209"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Ghosts and gods bunged up in
              India. Demon plugged up and ghost nailed down.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such remedies
          are not confined to Europe. At Bilda in Algeria, there is a sacred
          old olive-tree, in which pilgrims, especially women, knock nails
          for the purpose of ridding themselves of their ailments and
          troubles.<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href=
          "#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a>
          Again, the Majhwars, a Dravidian tribe in the hill country of South
          Mirzapur, believe that all disease is due to ghosts, but that
          ghosts, when they become troublesome, can be shut up in a certain
          tree, which grows on a little islet in a very deep pool of the
          Sukandar, a tributary of the Kanhar river. Accordingly, when the
          country is infested by ghosts, in other words when disease is
          raging, a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg
          061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          skilful wizard seeks for a piece of deer-horn in the jungle. When
          he has found it, he hammers it with a stone into the tree and thus
          shuts up the ghost. The tree is covered with hundreds of such
          pieces of horn.<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href=
          "#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a>
          Again, when a new settlement is being made in some parts of the
          North-Western Provinces of India, it is deemed necessary to
          apprehend and lay by the heels the local deities, who might
          otherwise do a deal of mischief to the intruders on their domain. A
          sorcerer is called in to do the business. For days he marches about
          the place mustering the gods to the tuck of drum. When they are all
          assembled, two men known as the Earthman and the Leafman, who
          represent the gods of the earth and of the trees respectively,
          become full of the spirit, being taken possession of bodily by the
          local deities. In this exalted state they shout and caper about in
          a fine frenzy, and their seemingly disjointed ejaculations, which
          are really the divine voice speaking through them, are interpreted
          by the sorcerer. When the critical moment has come, the wizard
          rushes in between the two incarnations of divinity, clutches at the
          spirits which are hovering about them in the air, and pours grains
          of sesame through their hands into a perforated piece of the wood
          of the sacred fig-tree. Then without a moment's delay he plasters
          up the hole with a mixture of clay and cow-dung, and carefully
          buries the piece of wood on the spot which is to be the shrine of
          the local deities. Needless to say that the gods themselves are
          bunged up in the wood and are quite incapable of doing further
          mischief, provided always that the usual offerings are made to them
          at the shrine where they live in durance vile.<a id="noteref_212"
          name="noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> In
          this case the source of mischief is imprisoned, not in a tree, but
          in a piece of one; but the principle is clearly the same. Similarly
          in Corea an English lady observed at a cross-road a small log with
          several holes like those of a mouse-trap, one of which was plugged
          up doubly with bungs of wood. She was told that a demon, whose
          ravages spread <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg
          062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          sickness in a family, had been inveigled by a sorceress into that
          hole and securely bunged up. It was thought proper for all
          passers-by to step over the incarcerated devil, whether to express
          their scorn and abhorrence of him, or more probably as a means of
          keeping him forcibly down.<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213"
          href="#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> In
          Cochinchina a troublesome ghost can be confined to the grave by the
          simple process of knocking a nail or thrusting a bar of iron into
          the earth at the point where the head of the corpse may be presumed
          to repose.<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href=
          "#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Evils nailed into stones, walls,
              door-posts, and so on.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From knocking
          the mischief into a tree or a log it is only a step to knocking it
          into a stone, a door-post, a wall, or such like. At the head of
          Glen Mor, near Port Charlotte, in Islay, there may be seen a large
          boulder, and it is said that whoever drives a nail into this stone
          will thereafter be secure from attacks of toothache. A farmer in
          Islay told an enquirer some years ago how a passing stranger once
          cured his grandmother of toothache by driving a horse-nail into the
          lintel of the kitchen door, warning her at the same time to keep
          the nail there, and if it should come loose just to tap it with a
          hammer till it had a grip again. She had no more toothache for the
          rest of her life.<a id="noteref_215" name="noteref_215" href=
          "#note_215"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> In
          Brunswick it is open to any one to nail his toothache either into a
          wall or into a tree, as he thinks fit; the pain is cured quite as
          well in the one way as in the other.<a id="noteref_216" name=
          "noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> So in
          Beauce and Perche a healer has been known to place a new nail on
          the aching tooth of a sufferer and then knock the nail into a door,
          a beam, or a joist.<a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" href=
          "#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> The
          procedure in North Africa is similar. You write certain Arabic
          letters and numbers on the wall; then, while the patient puts a
          finger on the aching tooth, you knock a nail, with a light tap of a
          hammer, into the first letter on the wall, reciting a verse of the
          Coran as you do so. Next you ask the sufferer whether the pain is
          now abated, and if he says <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes”</span> you
          draw out the nail entirely. But if he says <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“No,”</span> you shift the nail to the next letter in
          the wall, and so on, till the pain goes away, which it always
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name=
          "Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> does, sooner or
          later.<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href=
          "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> A
          Bohemian who fears he is about to have an attack of fever will
          snatch up the first thing that comes to hand and nail it to the
          wall. That keeps the fever from him.<a id="noteref_219" name=
          "noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Devils and ghosts nailed down in
              Morocco, Tunis, and Egypt. Headache nailed into a door or a
              wall. Plague pegged into a hole.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As in Europe we
          nail toothache or fever to a wall, so in Morocco they nail devils.
          A house in Mogador having been infested with devils, who threw
          stones about it in a way that made life a burden to the inmates, a
          holy man was called in to exorcise them, which he did effectually
          by pronouncing an incantation and driving a nail into the wall; at
          every stroke of the hammer a hissing sound announced that another
          devil had received his quietus.<a id="noteref_220" name=
          "noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> Among
          the modern Arabs the soul of a murdered man must be nailed down.
          Thus if a man be murdered in Egypt, his ghost will rise from the
          ground where his blood was shed: but it can be prevented from doing
          so by driving a new nail, which has never been used, into the earth
          at the spot where the murder was committed. In Tripoli the practice
          is similar. Some years ago a native was murdered close to the door
          of a little Italian inn. Immediately the Arabs of the neighbourhood
          thronged thither and effectually laid the ghost with hammer and
          nail. When the innkeeper rashly attempted to remove the nail, he
          was warned that to do so would be to set the ghost free.<a id=
          "noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> In
          modern Egypt numbers of people afflicted with headache used to
          knock a nail into the great wooden door of the old south gate of
          Cairo, for the purpose of charming away the pain; others who
          suffered from toothache used to extract a tooth and insert it in a
          crevice of the door, or fix it in some other way, in order to be
          rid of toothache for the future. A holy and miraculous personage,
          invisible to mortal eyes, was supposed to have <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one of his stations at this gate.<a id=
          "noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> In
          Mosul also a sheikh can cure headache by first laying his hands on
          the sufferer's head and then hammering a nail into a wall.<a id=
          "noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> Not
          far from Neuenkirchen, in Oldenburg, there is a farmhouse to which,
          while the Thirty Years' War was raging, the plague came lounging
          along from the neighbouring town in the shape of a bluish vapour.
          Entering the house it popped into a hole in the door-post of one of
          the rooms. The farmer saw his chance, and quick as thought he
          seized a peg and hammered it into the hole, so that the plague
          could not possibly get out. After a time, however, thinking the
          danger was past, he drew out the peg. Alas! with the peg came
          creeping and curling out of the hole the blue vapour once more. The
          plague thus let loose seized on every member of the family in that
          unhappy house and left not one of them alive.<a id="noteref_224"
          name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a>
          Again, the great plague which devastated the ancient world in the
          reign of Marcus Antoninus is said to have originated in the
          curiosity and greed of some Roman soldiers, who, pillaging the city
          of Seleucia, came upon a narrow hole in a temple and incautiously
          enlarged the opening in the expectation of discovering treasure.
          But that which came forth from the hole was not treasure but the
          plague. It had been pent up in a secret chamber by the magic art of
          the Chaldeans; but now, released from its prison by the rash act of
          the spoilers, it stalked abroad and spread death and destruction
          from the Euphrates to the Nile and the Atlantic.<a id="noteref_225"
          name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Plague nailed down in ancient
              Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The simple
          ceremony, in which to this day the superstition of European
          peasants sees a sovereign remedy for plague and fever and
          toothache, has come down to us from a remote antiquity; for in days
          when as yet Paris and London were not, when France still revered
          the Druids as the masters of all knowledge, human and divine, and
          when our own country was still covered with virgin forests, the
          home of savage beasts and savage men, the same ceremony
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name=
          "Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was solemnly
          performed from time to time by the highest magistrate at Rome, to
          stay the ravages of pestilence or retrieve disaster that threatened
          the foundations of the national life. In the fourth century before
          our era the city of Rome was desolated by a great plague which
          raged for three years, carrying off some of the highest dignitaries
          and a great multitude of common folk. The historian who records the
          calamity informs us that when a banquet had been offered to the
          gods in vain, and neither human counsels nor divine help availed to
          mitigate the violence of the disease, it was resolved for the first
          time in Roman history to institute dramatical performances as an
          appropriate means of appeasing the wrath of the celestial powers.
          Accordingly actors were fetched from Etruria, who danced certain
          simple and decorous dances to the music of a flute. But even this
          novel spectacle failed to amuse or touch, to move to tears or
          laughter the sullen gods. The plague still raged, and at the very
          moment when the actors were playing their best in the circus beside
          the Tiber, the yellow river rose in angry flood and drove players
          and spectators, wading and splashing through the fast-deepening
          waters, away from the show. It was clear that the gods spurned
          plays as well as prayers and banquets; and in the general
          consternation it was felt that some more effectual measure should
          be taken to put an end to the scourge. Old men remembered that a
          plague had once been stayed by the knocking of a nail into a wall;
          and accordingly the Senate resolved that now in their extremity,
          when all other means had failed, a supreme magistrate should be
          appointed for the sole purpose of performing this solemn ceremony.
          The appointment was made, the nail was knocked, and the plague
          ceased, sooner or later.<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226"
          href="#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> What
          better proof could be given of the saving virtue of a nail?</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Pestilence and civil discord
              nailed into a wall in Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Twice more
          within the same century the Roman people had recourse to the same
          venerable ceremony as a cure for public calamities with which the
          ordinary remedies, civil and religious, seemed unable to cope. One
          of these occasions was a pestilence;<a id="noteref_227" name=
          "noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> the
          other was a strange mortality among <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the leading men, which public opinion traced,
          rightly or wrongly, to a series of nefarious crimes perpetrated by
          noble matrons, who took their husbands off by poison. The crimes,
          real or imaginary, were set down to frenzy, and nothing could be
          thought of so likely to minister to minds diseased as the knocking
          of a nail into a wall. Search among the annals of the city proved
          that in a season of civil discord, when the state had been rent by
          party feud, the same time-honoured remedy, the same soothing balm,
          had been applied with the happiest results to the jarring interests
          and heated passions of the disputants. Accordingly the old nostrum
          was tried once more, and again success appeared to justify the
          experiment.<a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href=
          "#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The annual ceremony of knocking in
              a nail at Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the Romans in
          the fourth century before Christ thus deemed it possible to rid
          themselves of pestilence, frenzy, and sedition by hammering them
          into a wall, even as French and German peasants still rid
          themselves of fever and toothache by knocking them into a tree,
          their prudent ancestors appear to have determined that so salutary
          a measure should not be restricted in its scope to meeting special
          and urgent emergencies as they arose, but should regularly diffuse
          its benefits over the community by anticipating and, as it were,
          nipping in the bud evils which, left unchecked, might grow to
          dangerous proportions. This, we may conjecture, was the original
          intention of an ancient Roman law which ordained that the highest
          magistrate of the republic should knock in a nail every year on the
          thirteenth day of September. The law might be seen, couched in
          old-fashioned language, engraved on a tablet which was fastened to
          a wall of the temple of Capitoline Jupiter; and although the place
          where the nails were driven in is nowhere definitely stated by
          classical writers, there are some grounds for thinking that it may
          have been the same wall on which the law that sanctioned the custom
          was exhibited. Livy tells us that the duty of affixing the nail, at
          one time discharged by the consuls, was afterwards committed to
          dictators, whose higher rank consorted better with the dignity and
          importance of the function. At a later time the custom fell into
          abeyance, and the ancient ceremony was revived only from time to
          time in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg
          067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          seasons of grave peril or extraordinary calamity, which seemed to
          attest the displeasure of the gods at modern ways, and disposed men
          to bethink them of ancestral lore and to walk in the old
          paths.<a id="noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href=
          "#note_229"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The ceremony was probably a
              purificatory rite designed to disarm and disable all evils that
              might threaten the Roman state in the course of the year. Roman
              cure for epilepsy.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In antiquity the
          annual practice of hammering a nail into a wall was not confined to
          Rome. It was observed also at Vulsinii, in Etruria, where the nails
          thus fixed in the temple of the goddess Nortia served as a
          convenient means of recording and numbering the years.<a id=
          "noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> To
          Roman antiquaries of a later period it seemed, naturally enough,
          that such a practice had indeed no other object than that of
          marking the flight of time in ages when writing was but little
          used.<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href=
          "#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> Yet a
          little reflection will probably convince us that this, though it
          was doubtless a useful consequence of the custom, can hardly have
          been its original intention. For it will scarcely be disputed that
          the annual observance of the custom cannot be wholly dissociated
          from its occasional observance in seasons of great danger or
          calamity, and that whatever explanation we give of the one ought to
          apply to the other also. Now it is plain that if we start from the
          annual observance and regard it as no more than a timekeeper or
          mode of recording the years, we shall never reach an adequate
          explanation of the occasional observance. If the nails were merely
          ready reckoners of the years, how could they come to be used as
          supreme remedies for pestilence, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> frenzy, and sedition, resorted to by the
          state in desperate emergencies when all the ordinary resources of
          policy and religion had failed? On the other hand, if we start from
          the occasional observance and view it, in accordance with modern
          analogies, as a rude attempt to dispose of intangible evils as if
          they were things that could be handled and put away out of sight,
          we can readily understand how such an attempt, from being made
          occasionally, might come to be repeated annually for the sake of
          wiping out all the old troubles and misfortunes of the past year
          and enabling the community to start afresh, unencumbered by a
          fardel of ills, at the beginning of a new year. Fortunately we can
          shew that the analogy which is thus assumed to exist between the
          Roman custom and modern superstition is not a merely fanciful one;
          in other words, it can be proved that the Romans, like modern
          clowns, did believe in the possibility of nailing down trouble, in
          a literal and physical sense, into a material substance. Pliny
          tells us that an alleged cure for epilepsy, or the falling
          sickness, was to drive an iron nail into the ground on the spot
          which was first struck by the patient's head as he fell.<a id=
          "noteref_232" name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> In
          the light of the modern instances which have come before us, we can
          hardly doubt that the cure was supposed to consist in actually
          nailing the disease into the earth in such a way that it could not
          get up and attack the sufferer again. Precisely parallel is a
          Suffolk cure for ague. You must go by night alone to a cross-road,
          and just as the clock strikes the midnight hour you must turn
          yourself about thrice and drive a tenpenny nail up to the head into
          the ground. Then walk away backwards from the spot before the clock
          is done striking twelve, and you will miss the ague; but the next
          person who passes over the nail will catch the malady in your
          stead.<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href=
          "#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> Here
          it is plainly assumed that the ague of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> which the patient is relieved has been left
          by him nailed down into the earth at the cross-road, and we may
          fairly suppose that a similar assumption underlay the Roman cure
          for epilepsy. Further, we seem to be now justified in holding that
          originally, when a Roman dictator sought to stay a plague, to
          restore concord, or to terminate an epidemic of madness by knocking
          a nail into a wall, he was doing for the commonwealth exactly what
          any private man might do for an epileptic patient by knocking a
          nail into the ground on the spot where his poor friend had
          collapsed. In other words, he was hammering the plague, the
          discord, or the madness into a hole from which it could not get out
          to afflict the community again.<a id="noteref_234" name=
          "noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Knocking nails into idols as a
              means of attracting the attention of the deity or
              spirit.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Different in
          principle from the foregoing customs appears to be the Loango
          practice of sticking nails into wooden idols or fetishes. The
          intention of knocking a nail into a worshipful image is said to be
          simply to attract the notice of the deity in a forcible manner to
          the request of his worshipper; it is like pinching a man or running
          a pin into his leg as a hint that you desire to speak with him.
          Hence in order to be quite sure of riveting the god's attention the
          nails are sometimes made red-hot.<a id="noteref_235" name=
          "noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> Even
          the most absent-minded deity could hardly overlook a petition urged
          in so importunate a fashion. The practice is resorted to in many
          emergencies. For example, when a man has been robbed, he will go
          and get a priest to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg
          070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          knock a nail into an idol. The sharp pang naturally exasperates the
          deity and he seeks to wreak his wrath on the thief, who is the real
          occasion of his suffering. So when the thief hears of what has been
          done, he brings back the stolen goods in fear and trembling.
          Similarly a nail may be knocked into an idol for the purpose of
          making somebody fall ill; and if a sick man fancies that his
          illness is due to an enemy who has played him this trick, he will
          send to the priest of the idol and pay him to remove the
          nail.<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href=
          "#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> This
          mode of refreshing the memory and stimulating the activity of a
          supernatural being is not confined to the negroes of Loango; it is
          practised also by French Catholics, as we learn from Sir John Rhys.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Some years ago,”</span> he writes,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“when I was on a visit at the late Ernest
          Renan's house at Rosmapamon, near Perros-Guirec on the north coast
          of Brittany, our genial host took his friends one day to see some
          of the sights of that neighbourhood. Among other things which he
          showed us was a statue of St. Guirec standing at the head of an
          open creek. It was of wood, and altogether a very rude work of art,
          if such it might be called; but what attracted our attention most
          was the fact that it had innumerable pins stuck into it. We asked
          M. Renan what the pins meant, and his explanation was exceedingly
          quaint. He said that when any young woman in the neighbourhood made
          up her mind that she should marry, she came there and asked the
          saint to provide her with a husband, and to do so without undue
          delay. She had every confidence in the willingness and ability of
          the saint to oblige her, but she was haunted by the fear that he
          might be otherwise engaged and forget her request. So she would
          stick pins into him, and thus goad him, as she fancied, to exert
          himself on her behalf. This is <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> why the saint's statue was full of
          pins.”</span><a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href=
          "#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a>
          Similarly in Japan sufferers from toothache sometimes stick needles
          into a willow-tree, <span class="tei tei-q">“believing that the
          pain caused to the tree-spirit will force it to exercise its power
          to cure.”</span><a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href=
          "#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Two different spiritual
              applications of nails or pins.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it would
          seem that we must distinguish at least two uses of nails or pins in
          their application to spirits and spiritual influences. In one set
          of cases the nails act as corks or bungs to bottle up and imprison
          a troublesome spirit; in the other set of cases they act as spurs
          or goads to refresh his memory and stimulate his activity. But so
          far as the evidence which I have cited allows us to judge, the use
          of nails as spiritual bungs appears to be commoner than their use
          as mental refreshers.</p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name=
      "Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter II. The Omnipresence of
        Demons.</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Attempts to get rid of the
            accumulated sorrows of a whole people.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the foregoing
        chapter the primitive principle of the transference of ills to
        another person, animal, or thing was explained and illustrated. A
        consideration of the means taken, in accordance with this principle,
        to rid individuals of their troubles and distresses led us to believe
        that at Rome similar means had been adopted to free the whole
        community, at a single blow of the hammer, from diverse evils that
        afflicted it. I now propose to shew that such attempts to dismiss at
        once the accumulated sorrows of a people are by no means rare or
        exceptional, but that on the contrary they have been made in many
        lands, and that from being occasional they tend to become periodic
        and annual.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sorrows conceived of as the work of
            demons.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It needs some
        effort on our part to realise the frame of mind which prompts these
        attempts. Bred in a philosophy which strips nature of personality and
        reduces it to the unknown cause of an orderly series of impressions
        on our senses, we find it hard to put ourselves in the place of the
        savage, to whom the same impressions appear in the guise of spirits
        or the handiwork of spirits. For ages the army of spirits, once so
        near, has been receding further and further from us, banished by the
        magic wand of science from hearth and home, from ruined cell and
        ivied tower, from haunted glade and lonely mere, from the riven murky
        cloud that belches forth the lightning, and from those fairer clouds
        that pillow the silver moon or fret with flakes of burning red the
        golden eve. The spirits are gone even from their last stronghold in
        the sky, whose blue arch no longer passes, except with children, for
        the screen that hides from mortal <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> eyes the glories of the celestial world. Only
        in poets' dreams or impassioned flights of oratory is it given to
        catch a glimpse of the last flutter of the standards of the
        retreating host, to hear the beat of their invisible wings, the sound
        of their mocking laughter, or the swell of angel music dying away in
        the distance. Far otherwise is it with the savage. To his imagination
        the world still teems with those motley beings whom a more sober
        philosophy has discarded. Fairies and goblins, ghosts and demons,
        still hover about him both waking and sleeping. They dog his
        footsteps, dazzle his senses, enter into him, harass and deceive and
        torment him in a thousand freakish and mischievous ways. The mishaps
        that befall him, the losses he sustains, the pains he has to endure,
        he commonly sets down, if not to the magic of his enemies, to the
        spite or anger or caprice of the spirits. Their constant presence
        wearies him, their sleepless malignity exasperates him; he longs with
        an unspeakable longing to be rid of them altogether, and from time to
        time, driven to bay, his patience utterly exhausted, he turns
        fiercely on his persecutors and makes a desperate effort to chase the
        whole pack of them from the land, to clear the air of their swarming
        multitudes, that he may breathe more freely and go on his way
        unmolested, at least for a time. Thus it comes about that the
        endeavour of primitive people to make a clean sweep of all their
        troubles generally takes the form of a grand hunting out and
        expulsion of devils or ghosts. They think that if they can only shake
        off these their accursed tormentors, they will make a fresh start in
        life, happy and innocent; the tales of Eden and the old poetic golden
        age will come true again.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Primitive belief in the omnipresence
            of demons.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence, before we
        review some examples of these spirit-hunts, it may be well to adduce
        evidence of the deep hold which a belief in the omnipresence and
        malignity of spirits has upon the primitive mind. The reader will be
        better able to understand the savage remedy when he has an inkling of
        the nature of the evil which it is designed to combat. In citing the
        evidence I shall for the most part reproduce the exact words of my
        authorities lest I should incur the suspicion of deepening unduly the
        shadows in a gloomy picture.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Australia and West
            Africa.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in regard to
        the aborigines of Australia we are told that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the number of supernatural beings, feared if not loved,
        that they acknowledge is exceedingly great; for not only are the
        heavens peopled with such, but the whole face of the country swarms
        with them; every thicket, most watering-places, and all rocky places
        abound with evil spirits. In like manner, every natural phenomenon is
        believed to be the work of demons, none of which seem of a benign
        nature, one and all apparently striving to do all imaginable mischief
        to the poor blackfellow.”</span><a id="noteref_239" name=
        "noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The negro,”</span> says another writer,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“is wont to regard the whole world around him
        as peopled with invisible beings, to whom he imputes every misfortune
        that happens to him, and from whose harmful influence he seeks to
        protect himself by all kinds of magic means.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> The
        Bantu negroes of Western Africa <span class="tei tei-q">“regard their
        god as the creator of man, plants, animals, and the earth, and they
        hold that having made them, he takes no further interest in the
        affair. But not so the crowd of spirits with which the universe is
        peopled, they take only too much interest, and the Bantu wishes they
        would not and is perpetually saying so in his prayers, a large
        percentage whereof amounts to, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Go away, we
        don't want you.’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘Come not into this
        house, this village, or its plantations.’</span>?”</span> Almost all
        these subordinate spirits are malevolent.<a id="noteref_241" name=
        "noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> A
        similar but fuller account of the West African creed is given by a
        German writer, whose statements apply particularly to the
        Ewe-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast. He says: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Thus the term fetishism denotes the attitude of the
        Ewes, or of West African negro tribes in general, towards magic; it
        forms one of the principal constituents of their religion. The other
        main constituent is their attitude to the gods, which is properly
        demonolatry. The Ewe names the gods <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">drowo</span></span>, that is, intermediaries,
        namely, between a Supreme Being, whom he calls <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Mawu</span></span>
        (<span class="tei tei-q">‘the Unsurpassable’</span>), and mankind.
        The drowo with whom the Ewe has to do, to whom his offerings
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075"
        id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and his respects are paid, are
        thus subordinate deities, who according to the etymological meaning
        of the word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">dro</span></span> are conceived as judging,
        composing disputes, and mediating among men. The existence of a
        Supreme Being is by no means unfamiliar to the Ewe; he has his
        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mawu</span></span> often in his mouth,
        especially in talking with the missionary, and he willingly
        acknowledges that <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mawu</span></span> created him and the gods. But
        he can only conceive of this Supreme Being on the analogy of his own
        personality and not as omnipresent and so forth. It is impossible
        that this Mawu can trouble himself about details in the creation or
        even about every individual man and his petty affairs; what would be
        the use of the many higher and lower spirits with which the world is
        filled before his eyes? The West African perhaps conceives of God as
        transcendant, but not as immanent; a creation he possibly apprehends,
        but not an omnipresent government of the world by the Supreme Being.
        That government is carried on by Mawu at a distance by means of the
        many spirits or subordinate gods whom he has created for the
        purpose.... A portion of the gods fills the air, wherefore the forces
        and the phenomena of nature are deified as their manifestations. The
        elements are thought to be moved by the gods of the air. In the storm
        and the wind, in thunder and lightning the Ewe sees the manifestation
        of particularly powerful gods. In the mysterious roll and roar of the
        deep sea the Ewe, like the negro in general, beholds the sway of a
        very mighty god or of a whole host of gods. Further, the earth itself
        is also the abode of a multitude of spirits or gods, who have in it
        their sphere of activity. They inhabit certain great mountains, great
        hollow trees, caves, rivers, and especially woods. In such woods of
        the gods no timber may be felled. Thus the gods fill not only the air
        and the sea, they also walk on earth, on all paths; they lurk under
        the trees, they terrify the lonely wayfarer, they disquiet and plague
        even the sleeper. When the negro rises from the stool on which he has
        been sitting, he never fails to turn it upside down, to prevent a
        spirit from sitting down on it.... The spirit-world falls into two
        main classes: there are good and kindly spirits, whose help is
        eagerly sought by offerings; but there are also gloomy and revengeful
        spirits, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg
        076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        whose approach and influence people eagerly endeavour to avert, and
        against whom all possible means are employed to ban them from the
        houses and villages. The people are much more zealous in their
        devotion to the evil spirits than in their devotion to the good. The
        reason is that the feeling of fear and the consciousness of guilt are
        much stronger than the emotions of love and gratitude for benefits
        received. Hence the worship of the false gods or spirits among this
        people, and among the West African negro tribes in general, is
        properly speaking a worship of demons or devils.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href="#note_242"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons on the Congo. Demons in South
            Africa.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, a
        missionary who spent fifteen years among the Boloki of the Upper
        Congo River tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the religion of
        the Boloki has its basis in their fear of those numerous invisible
        spirits which surround them on every side, and are constantly trying
        to compass their sickness, misfortune and death; and the Boloki's
        sole object in practising their religion is to cajole, or appease,
        cheat, or conquer and kill those spirits that trouble them—hence
        their <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">nganga</span></span> [medicine-men], their
        rites, their ceremonies and their charms. If there were no evil
        spirits to be circumvented there would be no need of their medicine
        men and their charms.”</span><a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243"
        href="#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Boloki folk believe they are surrounded
        by spirits which try to thwart them at every twist and turn, and to
        harm them every hour of the day and night. The rivers and creeks are
        crowded with the spirits of their ancestors, and the forests and bush
        are full also of spirits, ever seeking to injure the living who are
        overtaken by night when travelling by road or canoe. I never met
        among them a man daring enough to go at night through the forest that
        divided Monsembe from the upper villages, even though a large reward
        was offered. Their invariable reply was: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘There <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg
        077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are
        too many spirits in the bush and forest.’</span>?”</span><a id=
        "noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> The
        spirits which these people dread so much are the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">mingoli</span></span> or disembodied souls of
        the dead; the life of the Boloki is described as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“one long drawn out fear of what the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">mingoli</span></span> may next do to
        them.”</span> These dangerous beings dwell everywhere, land and water
        are full of them; they are ever ready to pounce on the living and
        carry them away or to smite them with disease and kill them. Though
        they are invisible to common eyes, the medicine-man can see them, and
        can cork them up in calabashes or cover them up with saucepans;
        indeed, if it is made worth his while, he can even destroy them
        altogether.<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href=
        "#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> Again,
        of the Bantu tribes of South Africa we read that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“nearer than the spirits of deceased chiefs or of their
        own ancestors was a whole host of hobgoblins, water sprites, and
        malevolent demons, who met the Bantu turn which way they would. There
        was no beautiful fairyland for them, for all the beings who haunted
        the mountains, the plains, and the rivers were ministers of evil. The
        most feared of these was a large bird that made love to women and
        incited those who returned its affection to cause the death of those
        who did not, and a little mischievous <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> imp who was also amorously inclined. Many
        instances could be gathered from the records of magistrates' courts
        in recent years of demented women having admitted their acquaintance
        with these fabulous creatures, as well as of whole communities living
        in terror of them.”</span><a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246"
        href="#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a>
        However, it would be no doubt a great mistake to imagine that the
        minds of the Bantu, or indeed of any savages, are perpetually
        occupied by a dread of evil spirits;<a id="noteref_247" name=
        "noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> the
        savage and indeed the civilized man is incapable, at least in his
        normal state, of such excessive preoccupation with a single idea,
        which, if prolonged, could hardly fail to end in insanity.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in South America.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Speaking of the
        spirits which the Indians of Guiana attribute to all objects in
        nature, Sir Everard F. im Thurn observes that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the whole world of the Indian swarms with these beings.
        If by a mighty mental effort we could for a moment revert to a
        similar mental position, we should find ourselves everywhere
        surrounded by a host of possibly hurtful beings, so many in number
        that to describe them as innumerable would fall ridiculously short of
        the truth. It is not therefore wonderful that the Indian fears to
        move beyond the light of his camp-fire after dark, or, if he is
        obliged to do so, carries a fire-brand with him that he may at least
        see among what enemies he walks; nor is it wonderful that
        occasionally the air round the settlement seems to the Indian to grow
        so full of beings, that a peaiman [sorcerer], who is supposed to have
        the power of temporarily driving them away, is employed to effect a
        general clearance of these beings, if only for a time. That is the
        main belief, of the kind that is generally called religious, of the
        Indians of Guiana.”</span><a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248"
        href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> The
        Lengua Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco believe in certain demons
        which they call <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kilyikhama</span></span>. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kilyikhama</span></span> are confined to no
        particular <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg
        079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        place. Time and distance do not seem to affect them in the least.
        They are held in great awe by the Indian, and whithersoever he turns,
        whether by day or night, but particularly at night, he is subject to
        their malign influences.... They live in constant dread of these
        supernatural beings, and if nothing else contributed to make their
        life miserable, this ever-present dread of the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kilyikhama</span></span> would be in itself
        quite sufficient to rob it of most of its joy.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Labrador.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very different
        from the life of these Indians of the South American forests and
        prairies is the life of the Esquimaux on the desolate shores of
        Labrador; yet they too live in like bondage to the evil creatures of
        their own imagination. <span class="tei tei-q">“All the affairs of
        life are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each of which
        rules over a certain element, and all of which are under the
        direction of a greater spirit. Each person is supposed to be attended
        by a special guardian who is malignant in character, ever ready to
        seize upon the least occasion to work harm upon the individual whom
        it accompanies. As this is an evil spirit, its good offices and
        assistance can be obtained by propitiation only. The person strives
        to keep the good-will of the evil spirit by offerings of food, water,
        and clothing.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Besides this class of
        spirits, there are the spirits of the sea, the land, the sky (for be
        it understood that the Eskimo know nothing of the air), the winds,
        the clouds, and everything in nature. Every cove of the sea-shore,
        every point, island, and prominent rock has its guardian spirit. All
        are of the malignant type, and to be propitiated only by acceptable
        offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality where it is
        supposed to reside. Of course some of the spirits are more powerful
        than others, and these are more to be dreaded than those able to
        inflict less harm. These minor spirits are under the control of the
        great spirit, whose name is Tung ak. This one great spirit is more
        powerful than all the rest besides. The lesser spirits are
        immediately under his control and ever ready to obey his command. The
        shaman (or conjuror) alone is supposed to be able to deal with the
        Tung ak. While the shaman does not profess to be superior to the Tung
        ak, he is able to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg
        080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        enlist his assistance and thus be able to control all the
        undertakings his profession may call for. This Tung ak is nothing
        more or less than death, which ever seeks to torment and harass the
        lives of people that their spirits may go to dwell with
        him.”</span><a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href=
        "#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Polynesia. Demons in New
            Zealand.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brighter at first
        sight and more pleasing is the mythology of the islanders of the
        Pacific, as the picture of it is drawn for us by one who seems to
        have felt the charm of those beliefs which it was his mission to
        destroy. <span class="tei tei-q">“By their rude mythology,”</span> he
        says, <span class="tei tei-q">“each lovely island was made a sort of
        fairy-land, and the spells of enchantment were thrown over its varied
        scenes. The sentiment of the poet that</span></p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
              "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
              "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
              "text-align: left"><span style=
              "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Millions of spiritual
              creatures walk the earth,</span></span></span></span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
              "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi"
              style="text-align: left"><span style=
              "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Unseen, both when we wake,
              and when we sleep</span></span><span style=
              "font-size: 90%">,</span><span style=
              "font-size: 90%">’</span></span></span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">was one familiar to their minds; and it is impossible not
        to feel interested in a people who were accustomed to consider
        themselves surrounded by invisible intelligences, and who recognized
        in the rising sun—the mild and silver moon—the shooting star—the
        meteor's transient flame—the ocean's roar—the tempest's blast, or the
        evening breeze—the movements of mighty spirits. The mountain's
        summit, and the fleecy mists that hang upon its brows—the rocky
        defile—the foaming cataract—and the lonely dell—were all regarded as
        the abode or resort of these invisible beings.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> Yet the
        spiritual powers which compassed the life of the islanders on every
        side appear to have been far from friendly to man. Speaking of their
        beliefs touching the souls of the dead, the same writer says that the
        Polynesians <span class="tei tei-q">“imagined they lived in a world
        of spirits, which surrounded them night and day, watching every
        action of their lives, and ready to avenge the slightest neglect or
        the least disobedience to their injunctions, as proclaimed by their
        priests. These dreaded beings were seldom thought to resort to the
        habitations of men on errands of benevolence.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> The
        Tahitians, when they were visited by Captain Cook, believed that
        <span class="tei tei-q">“sudden deaths and all other accidents are
        effected by the immediate action of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> some divinity. If a man only stumble against a
        stone and hurt his toe, they impute it to an <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Eatooa</span></span>; so that they may be
        literally said, agreeably to their system, to tread enchanted
        ground.”</span><a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href=
        "#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Maori gods,”</span> says a well-informed
        writer, <span class="tei tei-q">“were demons, whose evil designs
        could only be counteracted by powerful spells and charms; these
        proving effectual, sacrifices and offerings were made to soothe the
        vanquished spirits and appease their wrath.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The gods in general appeared in the whirlwind and
        lightning, answering their votaries in the clap of thunder. The
        inferior beings made themselves visible in the form of lizards,
        moths, butterflies, spiders, and even flies; when they spoke it was
        in a low whistling tone. They were supposed to be so numerous as to
        surround the living in crowds, <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kei te muia nga
        wairua penei nga wairoa</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the
        spirits throng like mosquitoes,’</span> ever watching to inflict
        evil.”</span><a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href=
        "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in the Pelew Islands.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, we are
        informed that the popular religion of the Pelew Islanders
        <span class="tei tei-q">“has reference to the gods (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kaliths</span></span>) who may be useful or
        harmful to men in all their doings. Their imagination peoples the
        sea, the wood, the earth with numerous gods, and whatever a man
        undertakes, be it to catch fish or fell a tree, he must first
        propitiate the deities, or rather guard himself against their
        spiteful anger, which can only be done by means of certain spells and
        incantations. The knowledge of these incantations is limited to a
        very few persons, and forms in fact the secret of the arts and
        industries which are plied in the islands. A master of his craft is
        not he who can build a good house or a faultless canoe, but he who
        possesses the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">golay</span></span> or magic power to ban the
        tree-gods, that they may not prove hurtful to the workmen and to the
        people who afterwards use the things. All these gods of the earth,
        the woods, the mountains, the brooks are very mischievous and
        dangerous, and most diseases are caused by them. Hence the persons
        who possess the magic power are dreaded, frequently employed, and
        well paid; but in extreme cases they are regarded as sorcerers
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082"
        id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and treated accordingly. If
        one of them builds a house for somebody and is dissatisfied with his
        remuneration, he stirs up the tree-god to avenge him. So the
        inhabitants of the house he has built fall sick, and if help is not
        forthcoming they die.”</span><a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255"
        href="#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> Of the
        Mortlock Islanders we are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“their
        imagination peopled the whole of nature with spirits and deities, of
        whom the number was past finding out.”</span><a id="noteref_256"
        name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in the Philippines and in
            Melanesia.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Speaking of the
        natives of the Philippine Islands a writer observes that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the basis of all the superstitious beliefs of the
        Negritos, what might else be termed their religion, is the constant
        presence of the spirits of the dead near where they lived when alive.
        All places are inhabited by the spirits. All adverse circumstances,
        sickness, failure of crops, unsuccessful hunts, are attributed to
        them.”</span><a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href=
        "#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> As to
        the Melanesians of New Britain we read that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“another deeply rooted belief which exercises an
        extraordinary influence on the life and customs of these people is a
        belief in demons. To their thinking the demons, <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">tambaran</span></span> (a word synonymous with
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘poor wretch,’</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘sufferer’</span>) are spirits entirely perverse,
        deceitful, maleficent, and ceaselessly occupied in injuring us.
        Diseases, death, the perturbations of nature, all unfortunate events
        are imputed to them. The demons exist in legions; they live
        everywhere, especially in the forests, desert places, and the depths
        of the sea.”</span><a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href=
        "#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> The
        beliefs and customs of one particular tribe of this great island—the
        Livuans, who occupy the eastern coast of the Gazelle Peninsula in New
        Britain—have been described by a Catholic missionary in similar
        terms. <span class="tei tei-q">“The distrustful natives,”</span> he
        tells us, <span class="tei tei-q">“have not attained to a belief in a
        beneficent, compassionate deity. All the more numerous, however, are
        the evil spirits with which they people the universe. These are
        legion. The power which the natives ascribe to these spirits extends
        not merely to the property of mankind but also to life and death. The
        Livuan always believes that he can trace the pernicious <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> influence of these <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">tambaran</span></span> (devils) on his actions.
        In his conviction, the whole thoughts and endeavours of the evil
        spirits have no other object than to injure men in every possible
        way. This dismal, comfortless superstition weighs heavy on the
        native.”</span><a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href=
        "#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> Again,
        another writer who lived for thirty years among the Melanesians of
        the Bismarck Archipelago, of which New Britain forms part, observes
        that <span class="tei tei-q">“we often find the view expressed that
        the native is a being who lives only for the day, without cares of
        any kind. The view is very erroneous, for in fact he leads a life
        which is plagued by cares of all sorts. Amongst the greatest plagues
        of his life is his bottomless superstition. He sees himself
        surrounded at every step by evil spirits and their influences. He
        trusts nobody, for who knows whether his nearest neighbour, his
        professedly best friend, is not plotting to bring trouble, sickness,
        and even death on him by means of magic? Everywhere he sees snares
        set for him, everywhere he scents treachery and guile. We need not
        wonder, therefore, that mistrust is a leading feature in the
        character not only of the New Britons, but of the Melanesians
        generally.... The native is simply not accessible to rational
        motives. The only motive he understands is sorcery on the part of
        malicious men or the influence of evil spirits.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Dutch New Guinea and
            German New Guinea.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A Dutch
        missionary, who spent twenty-five years among the natives of Dutch
        New Guinea, tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“in their ignorance
        of a living God the Papuans people earth and air, land and sea with
        mysterious malignant powers, which take up their abode in stones and
        trees or in men and cause all kinds of misfortunes, especially
        sickness and death.”</span><a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261"
        href="#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> Again,
        speaking of the Bukaua, a tribe of German New Guinea, a German
        missionary writes that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Bukaua knows
        himself to be surrounded by spirits (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">balum</span></span>) at every step. An insight
        into the life and mode of thought of the natives, <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as the latter is expressed especially in
        their stories, confirms this view completely. What wonder that the
        fear of spirits dominates the whole existence of the Bukaua and
        causes him to tremble even in the hour of death? There are spirits of
        the beach, the water, the fields, the forests, spirits that reside in
        the villages and particular places, and a sort of vagabonds, who can
        take up their abode even in lifeless things.”</span> Then after
        describing the demons of the beach, the water, and the field, the
        writer proceeds as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“Of forest
        spirits the number is infinite; for it is above all in the mysterious
        darkness, the tangled wildernesses of the virgin forest that the
        spirits love to dwell. They hold their meetings in what are called
        evil places. They are never bent on good. Especially at nightfall the
        native fancies he hears the voice of the spirits in the hum and
        chirping of the insects in the forest. They lure hunting dogs from
        the trail. They make wild boars rabid; in the form of snakes they
        make inroads into human dwellings; they drive men crazy or into fits;
        they play roguish tricks of all sorts.”</span><a id="noteref_262"
        name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in British New Guinea.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the tribes
        who inhabit the south-eastern coasts of New Guinea <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“a death in a village is the occasion of bringing plenty
        of ghosts to escort their new companion, and perhaps fetch some one
        else. All night the friends of the deceased sit up and keep the drums
        going to drive away the spirits. When I was sleeping one night at
        Hood Bay, a party of young men and boys came round with sticks,
        striking the fences and posts of houses all through the village. This
        I found was always done when any one died, to drive back the spirits
        to their own quarters on the adjacent mountain tops. But it is the
        spirits of the inland tribes, the aborigines of the country, that the
        coast tribes most fear. The road from the interior to Port Moresby
        passed close to our house, and the natives told us that the barking
        of our English dog at night had frightened the evil spirits so
        effectually that they had had no ghostly visitors since we came. I
        was camping out one night in the bush with some coast natives, at a
        time when a number of the natives of the interior were hunting in the
        neighbourhood; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg
        085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        noticing that the men with me did not go to sleep, I asked if they
        were afraid of the mountain men. <span class="tei tei-q">‘No,’</span>
        they replied, <span class="tei tei-q">‘but the whole plain is full of
        the spirits who come with them.’</span> All calamities are attributed
        to the power and malice of these evil spirits. Drought and famine,
        storm and flood, disease and death are all supposed to be brought by
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Vata’</span> and his hosts.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Timor and Celebes.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The inhabitants of
        Timor, an island to the south-west of New Guinea, revere the lord of
        heaven, the sun, the mistress of the earth, and the spirits of the
        dead. <span class="tei tei-q">“These last dwell, some with the
        mistress of the earth under ground, others on graves, others in
        stones and springs and woods, some on mountains and some in the
        habitations of their kinsfolk, where they take up their abode in the
        middle of the principal post of the house or in copper cymbals, in
        swords and pikes. Others again assume the shape of pigs and deer and
        bees; men who have fallen in battle love especially to turn into
        bees, that they may roam over the earth at will. The ghosts who
        reside with the mistress of the earth are male and female, and their
        offspring swarm by myriads in the air, so that the people think you
        cannot stir without striking against one of them. According to their
        whim of the moment the ghosts are good or bad.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“All diseases which are not due to infection or
        transmitted by inheritance are ascribed to the mistress of the earth,
        to the ghosts, and to their wicked offspring, who inflict them as
        punishments for insults and injuries, for insufficient food, for the
        killing of deer and of wild pigs, in which the ghosts take up their
        abode temporarily, and also for the sale of cymbals, swords and
        pikes, in which a ghost had settled.”</span><a id="noteref_264" name=
        "noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> The
        natives of Amboyna think that <span class="tei tei-q">“woods,
        mountains, trees, stones, indeed the whole universe, is inhabited by
        a multitude of spirits, of whom many are the souls of the
        dead.”</span><a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href=
        "#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> In
        Bolang Mongondo, a district of Celebes, <span class="tei tei-q">“all
        calamities, great and small, of whatever kind, and by whatever name
        they are called, that befall men and animals, villages, gardens and
        so <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name=
        "Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> forth, are attributed
        to evil or angry spirits. The superstition is indescribably great.
        The smallest wound, the least indisposition, the most trifling
        adversity in the field, at the fishing, on a journey or what not, is
        believed by the natives to be traceable to the anger of their
        ancestors. The superstition cripples every effort to remedy the
        calamities except by sacrifice. There is perhaps no country the
        inhabitants of which know so little about simples as Bolang Mongondo.
        What a native of Bolang Mongondo calls medicine is nothing but
        sacrifice, magic, and talismans. And the method of curing a sick man
        always consists in the use of magic, or in the propitiation of angry
        ancestral spirits by means of offerings, or in the banishment of evil
        spirits. The application of one or other of these three methods
        depends again on the decision of the sorcerer, who plays a great part
        in every case of sickness.”</span><a id="noteref_266" name=
        "noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Bali and Java.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the island of
        Bali <span class="tei tei-q">“all the attention paid to the sick has
        its root solely in the excessive superstition of these islanders,
        which leads them to impute every unpleasantness in life, every
        adversity to the influence of evil spirits or of men who are in some
        way in league with them. The belief in witches and wizards is
        everywhere great in the Indies, but perhaps nowhere is it so
        universal and so strong as in Bali.”</span><a id="noteref_267" name=
        "noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> In
        Java, we are told, it is not merely great shady trees that are
        believed to be the abode of spirits. <span class="tei tei-q">“In
        other places also, where the vital energy of nature manifests itself
        strikingly and impressively, a feeling of veneration is stirred, as
        on the sea-shore, in deep woods, on steep mountain sides. All such
        spots are supposed to be the abode of spirits of various kinds, whose
        mighty power is regarded with reverence and awe, whose anger is
        dreaded, and whose favour is hoped for. But wherever they dwell,
        whether in scenes of loveliness that move the heart, or in spots that
        affect the mind with fright and horror, the nature and disposition of
        these spirits appear not to differ. They are a source of fear and
        anxiety in the one case just as much as in the other. To none of them
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087"
        id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> did I ever hear moral
        qualities ascribed. They are mighty, they are potentates, and
        therefore it is well with him who has their favour and ill with him
        who has it not; this holds true of them all.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The number of the spirits is innumerable and
        inconceivable. All the phenomena of nature, which we trace to fixed
        laws and constant forces, are supposed by the Javanese to be wrought
        by spirits.”</span><a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href=
        "#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Borneo and Sumatra.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The natives of the
        valley of the Barito in Borneo hold that <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        air is filled with countless <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">hantoes</span></span> (spirits). Every object
        has such a spirit which watches over it and seeks to defend it from
        danger. It is these spirits especially that bring sickness and
        misfortune on men, and for that reason offerings are often made to
        them and also to the powerful <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sangsangs</span></span> (angels), whereas the
        supreme God, the original fountain of all good, is
        neglected.”</span><a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href=
        "#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> Of the
        Battas or Bataks of Sumatra we are told that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the key-note of their religious mood is fear of the
        unknown powers, a childish feeling of dependence, the outcome of a
        belief in supernatural influences to which man is constantly exposed,
        in wonders and witchcraft, which hamper his free action. They feel
        themselves continually surrounded by unseen beings and dependent on
        them for everything.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Every
        misfortune bespeaks the ill-will of the hostile spirits. The whole
        world is a meeting-place of demons, and most of the phenomena of
        nature are an expression of their power. The only means of remedying
        or counteracting their baleful influence is to drive away the spirits
        by means of certain words, as well as by the use of amulets and the
        offering of sacrifices to the guardian spirits.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href="#note_270"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> To the
        same effect another authority on the religion of the Battas remarks
        that <span class="tei tei-q">“the common man has only a very dim and
        misty notion of his triune god, and troubles himself far more about
        the legions of spirits which people the whole world around him, and
        against which he must always be protected by <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> magic spells.”</span><a id="noteref_271" name=
        "noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> Again,
        speaking of the same people, a Dutch missionary observes that
        <span class="tei tei-q">“if there is still any adherent of Rousseau's
        superficial theories about the idyllically happy and careless life of
        people <span class="tei tei-q">‘in a state of nature,’</span> he
        ought to come and spend a little time among the Bataks and keep his
        eyes and ears open. He would soon be convinced of the hollowness and
        falsehood of these phrases and would learn to feel a deep compassion
        for human beings living in perpetual fear of evil
        spirits.”</span><a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href=
        "#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in the Nicobars, in the Malay
            Peninsula, and in Kamtchatka..</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The religion of
        the Nicobar Islanders <span class="tei tei-q">“is an undisguised
        animism, and the whole of their very frequent and elaborate
        ceremonies and festivals are aimed at exorcising and scaring spirits
        (<span class="tei tei-q">‘devils,’</span> as they have been taught to
        call them). Fear of spirits and ghosts (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">iwi</span></span>)
        is the guide to all ceremonies, and the life of the people is
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">very</span></em> largely taken up with
        ceremonials and feasts of all kinds. These are usually held at night,
        and whether directly religious or merely convivial, seem all to have
        an origin in the overmastering fear of spirits that possesses the
        Nicobarese. It has so far proved ineradicable, for two centuries of
        varied and almost continuous missionary effort has had no appreciable
        effect on it.”</span><a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href=
        "#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> The
        Mantras, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“find or put a spirit everywhere, in the air they
        breathe, in the land they cultivate, in the forests they inhabit, in
        the trees they cut down, in the caves of the rocks. According to
        them, the demon is the cause of everything that turns out ill. If
        they are sick, a demon is at the bottom of it; if an accident
        happens, it is still the spirit who is at work; thereupon the demon
        takes the name of the particular evil of which he is supposed to be
        the cause. Hence the demon being assumed as the author of every ill,
        all their superstitions resolve themselves into enchantments and
        spells to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg
        089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        appease the evil spirit, to render mild and tractable the fiercest
        beasts.”</span><a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href=
        "#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> To the
        mind of the Kamtchatkan every corner of earth and heaven seemed full
        of spirits, whom he revered and dreaded more than God.<a id=
        "noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in India. The high gods come
            and go, but demons remain.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In India from the
        earliest times down to the present day the real religion of the
        common folk appears always to have been a belief in a vast multitude
        of spirits, of whom many, if not most, are mischievous and harmful.
        As in Europe beneath a superficial layer of Christianity a faith in
        magic and witchcraft, in ghosts and goblins has always survived and
        even flourished among the weak and ignorant, so it has been and so it
        is in the East. Brahmanism, Buddhism, Islam may come and go, but the
        belief in magic and demons remains unshaken through them all, and, if
        we may judge of the future from the past, is likely to survive the
        rise and fall of other historical religions. For the great faiths of
        the world, just in so far as they are the outcome of superior
        intelligence, of purer morality, of extraordinary fervour of
        aspiration after the ideal, fail to touch and move the common man.
        They make claims upon his intellect and his heart to which neither
        the one nor the other is capable of responding. The philosophy they
        teach is too abstract, the morality they inculcate too exalted for
        him. The keener minds embrace the new philosophy, the more generous
        spirits are fired by the new morality; and as the world is led by
        such men, their faith sooner or later becomes the professed faith of
        the multitude. Yet with the common herd, who compose the great bulk
        of every people, the new religion is accepted only in outward show,
        because it is impressed upon them by their natural leaders whom they
        cannot choose but follow. They yield a dull assent to it with their
        lips, but in their heart they never really abandon their old
        superstitions; in these they cherish a faith such as they cannot
        repose in the creed which they nominally profess; and to these, in
        the trials and emergencies of life, they have recourse as to
        infallible remedies, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg
        090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        when the promises of the higher faith have failed them, as indeed
        such promises are apt to do.<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276"
        href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in ancient India.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To establish for
        India in particular the truth of the propositions which I have just
        advanced, it may be enough to cite the evidence of two writers of
        high authority, one of whom deals with the most ancient form of
        Indian religion known to us, while the other describes the popular
        religion of the Hindoos at the present day. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“According to the creed of the Vedic ages,”</span> says
        Professor Oldenberg, <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole world in
        which man lives is animated. Sky and earth, mountain, forest, trees
        and beasts, the earthly water and the heavenly water of the
        clouds,—all is filled with living spiritual beings, who are either
        friendly or hostile to mankind. Unseen or embodied in visible form,
        hosts of spirits surround and hover about human habitations,—bestial
        or misshapen goblins, souls of dead friends and souls of foes,
        sometimes as kindly guardians, oftener as mischief-makers, bringing
        disease and misfortune, sucking the blood and strength of the living.
        A soul is attributed even to the object fashioned by human hands,
        whose functions are felt to be friendly or hostile. The warrior pays
        his devotion to the divine war-chariot, the divine arrow, the drum;
        the ploughman to the ploughshare; the gambler to the dice; the
        sacrificer, about whom naturally we have the most exact information,
        reveres the stone that presses out the juice of the Soma, the straw
        on which the gods recline, the post to which the sacrificial victim
        is bound, and the divine doors <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> through which the gods come forth to enjoy the
        sacrifice. At one time the beings in whose presence man feels himself
        are regarded by him as really endowed with souls; at another time, in
        harmony with a more advanced conception of the world, they are
        imagined as substances or fluids invested with beneficent or
        maleficent properties: belief oscillates to and fro between the one
        mode of thought and the other. The art of turning to account the
        operations of these animated beings, the play of these substances and
        forces, is magic rather than worship in the proper sense of the word.
        The foundations of this faith and of this magic are an inheritance
        from the remotest past, from a period, to put it shortly, of
        shamanistic faith in spirits and souls, of shamanistic magic. Such a
        period has been passed through by the forefathers of the
        Indo-Germanic race as well as by other peoples.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in modern India.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Coming down to the
        Hindoos of the present day, we find that their attitude towards the
        spiritual world is described as follows by Professor Monier Williams.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The plain fact undoubtedly is that the great
        majority of the inhabitants of India are, from the cradle to the
        burning-ground, victims of a form of mental disease which is best
        expressed by the term demonophobia. They are haunted and oppressed by
        a perpetual dread of demons. They are firmly convinced that evil
        spirits of all kinds, from malignant fiends to merely mischievous
        imps and elves, are ever on the watch to harm, harass, and torment
        them, to cause plague, sickness, famine, and disaster, to impede,
        injure, and mar every good work.”</span><a id="noteref_278" name=
        "noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a>
        Elsewhere the same writer has expressed the same view somewhat more
        fully. <span class="tei tei-q">“In fact,”</span> he says,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“a belief in every kind of demoniacal
        influence has always been from the earliest times an essential
        ingredient in Hindu religious thought. The idea probably had its
        origin in the supposed peopling of the air by spiritual beings—the
        personifications or companions of storm and tempest. Certainly no one
        who has ever been brought into close contact with the Hindus in their
        own country can doubt the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg
        092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        fact that the worship of at least ninety per cent. of the people of
        India in the present day is a worship of fear. Not that the existence
        of good deities presided over by one Supreme Being is doubted; but
        that these deities are believed to be too absolutely good to need
        propitiation; just as in ancient histories of the Slav races, we are
        told that they believed in a white god and a black god, but paid
        adoration to the last alone, having, as they supposed, nothing to
        apprehend from the beneficence of the first or white deity. The
        simple truth is that evil of all kinds, difficulties, dangers and
        disasters, famines, diseases, pestilences and death, are thought by
        an ordinary Hindu to proceed from demons, or, more properly speaking,
        from devils, and from devils alone. These malignant beings are held,
        as we have seen, to possess varying degrees of rank, power, and
        malevolence. Some aim at destroying the entire world, and threaten
        the sovereignty of the gods themselves. Some delight in killing men,
        women, and children, out of a mere thirst for human blood. Some take
        a mere mischievous pleasure in tormenting, or revel in the infliction
        of sickness, injury, and misfortune. All make it their business to
        mar or impede the progress of good works and useful
        undertakings.”</span><a id="noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href=
        "#note_279"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Bengal, Assam, the Chin
            Hills Sikhim, Tibet, and Travancore.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be easy
        but tedious to illustrate in detail this general account of the dread
        of demons which prevails among the inhabitants of India at the
        present day. A very few particular statements must suffice. Thus, we
        are told that the Oraons, a Dravidian race in Bengal, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“acknowledge a Supreme God, adored as Dharmi or Dharmesh,
        the Holy One, who is manifest in the sun, and they regard Dharmesh as
        a perfectly pure, beneficent being, who created us and would in his
        goodness and mercy preserve us, but that his benevolent designs are
        thwarted by malignant spirits whom mortals must propitiate, as
        Dharmesh cannot or does not interfere, if the spirit of evil once
        fastens upon us. It is, therefore, of no use to pray to Dharmesh or
        to offer <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg
        093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        sacrifices to him; so though acknowledged, recognised, and
        reverenced, he is neglected, whilst the malignant spirits are
        adored.”</span> Again, it is said of these Oraons that, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“as the sole object of their religious ceremonies is the
        propitiation of the demons who are ever thwarting the benevolent
        intentions of Dharmesh, they have no notion of a service of
        thanksgiving.”</span> Once more, after giving a list of Oraon demons,
        the same writer goes on: <span class="tei tei-q">“Besides this
        superstitious dread of the spirits above named, the Oraon's
        imagination tremblingly wanders in a world of ghosts. Every rock,
        road, river, and grove is haunted.”</span><a id="noteref_280" name=
        "noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> Again,
        a missionary who spent many years among the Kacharis of Assam tells
        us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the religion of the Kachári race is
        distinctly of the type commonly known as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘animistic’</span> and its underlying principle is
        characteristically one of fear or dread. The statement <span lang=
        "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Timor fecit deos</span></span> certainly holds
        good of this people in its widest and strictest sense; and their
        religion thus stands in very marked, not to say violent, contrast
        with the teaching of the Faith in Christ. In the typical Kachári
        village as a rule neither idol nor place of worship is to be found;
        but to the Kachári mind and imagination earth, air, and sky are alike
        peopled with a vast number of invisible spiritual beings, known
        usually as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Modai</span></span>, all possessing powers and
        faculties far greater than those of man, and almost invariably
        inclined to use these powers for malignant and malevolent, rather
        than benevolent, purposes. In a certain stage of moral and spiritual
        development men are undoubtedly influenced far more by what they fear
        than by what they love; and this truth certainly applies to the
        Kachári race in the most unqualified way.”</span><a id="noteref_281"
        name="noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> Again,
        the Siyins, who inhabit the Chin Hills of north-eastern India, on the
        borders of Burma, <span class="tei tei-q">“say that there is no
        Supreme God and no other world save this, which is full of evil
        spirits who inhabit the fields, infest the houses, and haunt the
        jungles. These spirits must be propitiated or bribed to refrain from
        doing the particular harm of which each is capable, for one can
        destroy crops, another can make women barren, and a third cause a
        lizard to enter <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg
        094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        stomach and devour the bowels.”</span><a id="noteref_282" name=
        "noteref_282" href="#note_282"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Like most mountaineers, the people of Sikhim
        and the Tibetans are thorough-going demon-worshippers. In every nook,
        path, big tree, rock, spring, waterfall and lake there lurks a devil;
        for which reason few individuals will venture out alone after dark.
        The sky, the ground, the house, the field, the country have each
        their special demons, and sickness is always attributed to malign
        demoniacal influence.”</span><a id="noteref_283" name="noteref_283"
        href="#note_283"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Even the purest of all the Lamaist sects—the
        Ge-lug-pa—are thorough-paced devil-worshippers, and value Buddhism
        chiefly because it gives them the whip-hand over the devils which
        everywhere vex humanity with disease and disaster, and whose ferocity
        weighs heavily on all.”</span><a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284"
        href="#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> The
        Lushais of Assam believe in a beneficent spirit named Pathian, who
        made everything but troubles himself very little about men. Far more
        important in ordinary life are the numerous demons (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">huai</span></span>), who inhabit every stream,
        mountain, and forest, and are all malignant. To their agency are
        ascribed all the illnesses and misfortunes that afflict humanity, and
        a Lushai's whole life is spent in propitiating them. It is the
        sorcerer (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">puithiam</span></span>) who knows what demon is
        causing any particular trouble, and it is he who can prescribe the
        sort of sacrifice which will appease the wrath of the fiend. Every
        form of sickness is set down to the influence of some demon or other,
        and all the tales about these spiritual foes begin or end with the
        recurrent phrase, <span class="tei tei-q">“There was much sickness in
        our village.”</span><a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href=
        "#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> In
        Travancore <span class="tei tei-q">“the minor superstitions connected
        with demon-worship are well-nigh innumerable; they enter into all the
        feelings, and are associated with the whole life of these people.
        Every disease, accident, or misfortune is attributed to the agency of
        the devils, and great caution is exercised to avoid arousing their
        fury.”</span><a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href=
        "#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Ceylon.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With regard to the
        inhabitants of Ceylon we are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        fiends which they conceive to be hovering around <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them are without number. Every disease or
        trouble that assails them is produced by the immediate agency of the
        demons sent to punish them: while, on the other hand, every blessing
        or success comes directly from the hands of the beneficent and
        supreme God. To screen themselves from the power of the inferior
        deities, who are all represented as wicked spirits, and whose power
        is by no means irresistible, they wear amulets of various
        descriptions; and employ a variety of charms and spells to ward off
        the influence of witchcraft and enchantments by which they think
        themselves beset on all sides.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It is
        probable that, by degrees, intercourse with Europeans will entirely
        do away these superstitious fears, as the Cinglese of the towns have
        already made considerable progress in subduing their gloomy
        apprehensions. Not so the poor wretched peasants who inhabit the more
        mountainous parts of the country, and live at a distance from our
        settlements. These unhappy people have never for a moment their minds
        free from the terror of those demons who seem perpetually to hover
        around them. Their imaginations are so disturbed by such ideas that
        it is not uncommon to see many driven to madness from this cause.
        Several Cinglese lunatics have fallen under my own observation; and
        upon inquiring into the circumstances which had deprived them of
        their reason, I universally found that their wretched state was to be
        traced solely to the excess of their superstitious fears. The spirits
        of the wicked subordinate demons are the chief objects of fear among
        the Ceylonese; and impress their minds with much more awe than the
        more powerful divinities who dispense blessings among them. They
        indeed think that their country is in a particular manner delivered
        over to the dominion of evil spirits.”</span><a id="noteref_287"
        name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Burma.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Eastern as well
        as Southern Asia the same view of nature as pervaded by a multitude
        of spirits, mostly mischievous and malignant, has survived the
        nominal establishment of a higher faith. <span class="tei tei-q">“In
        spite of their long conversion, their sincere belief in, and their
        pure form of, Buddhism, which expressly repudiates and forbids such
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096"
        id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> worship, the Burmans and
        Taleins (or Mons) have in a great measure kept their ancient spirit
        or demon worship. With the Taleins this is more especially the case.
        Indeed, with the country population of Pegu the worship, or it should
        rather be said the propitiation, of the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘nats’</span> or spirits, enters into every act of their
        ordinary life, and Buddha's doctrine seems kept for sacred days and
        their visits to the kyoung (monastery) or to the
        pagoda.”</span><a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href=
        "#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> Or, as
        another writer puts it, <span class="tei tei-q">“the propitiating of
        the nats is a question of daily concern to the lower class Burman,
        while the worship at the pagoda is only thought of once a week. For
        the nat may prove destructive and hostile at any time, whereas the
        acquisition of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">koothoh</span></span> [merit] at the pagoda is a
        thing which may be set about in a business-like way, and at proper
        and convenient seasons.”</span><a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289"
        href="#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> But the
        term worship, we are informed, hardly conveys a proper notion of the
        attitude of the Burmese towards the nats or spirits. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Even the Karens and Kachins, who have no other form of
        belief, do not regard them otherwise than as malevolent beings who
        must be looked up to with fear, and propitiated by regular offerings.
        They do not want to have anything to do with the nats; all they seek
        is to be let alone. The bamboo pipes of spirit, the bones of
        sacrificial animals, the hatchets, swords, spears, bows and arrows
        that line the way to a Kachin village, are placed there not with the
        idea of attracting the spirits, but of preventing them from coming
        right among the houses in search of their requirements. If they want
        to drink, the rice spirit has been poured out, and the bamboo stoup
        is there in evidence of the libation; the blood-stained skulls of
        oxen, pigs, and the feathers of fowls show that there has been no
        stint of meat offerings; should the nats wax quarrelsome, and wish to
        fight, there are the axes and dahs with which to commence the fray.
        Only let them be grateful, and leave their trembling worshippers in
        peace and quietness.”</span><a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290"
        href="#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Siam and
            Indo-China.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly the Lao
        or Laosians of Siam, though they are nominally Buddhists, and have
        monks and pagodas with images of Buddha, are said to pay more respect
        to spirits or demons than to these idols.<a id="noteref_291" name=
        "noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The desire to propitiate the good spirits
        and to exorcise the bad ones is the prevailing influence upon the
        life of a Laosian. With <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">phees</span></span> [evil spirits] to right of
        him, to left of him, in front of him, behind him, all round him, his
        mind is haunted with a perpetual desire to make terms with them, and
        to ensure the assistance of the great Buddha, so that he may preserve
        both body and soul from the hands of the spirits.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Independently of the demons who are in hell,
        the Siamese recognise another sort of devils diffused in the air:
        they call them <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">phi</span></span>; these are, they say, the
        demons who do harm to men and who appear sometimes in horrible
        shapes. They put down to the account of these malign spirits all the
        calamities which happen in the world. If a mother has lost a child,
        it is a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">phi</span></span> who has done the ill turn; if
        a sick man is given over, it is a <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">phi</span></span>
        that is at the bottom of it. To appease him, they invoke him and make
        him offerings which they hang up in desert places.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> As to
        the Thay, a widely spread race of Indo-China,<a id="noteref_294"
        name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> a
        French missionary writes as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“It may
        be said that the Thay lives in constant intercourse with the
        invisible world. There is hardly an act of his life which is not
        regulated by some religious belief. There are two worships, the
        worship of the spirits and the worship of the dead, which, however,
        are scarcely distinguishable from each other, since the dead become
        spirits by the mere fact of their death. His simple imagination
        represents to him the world of spirits as a sort of double of the
        state of things here below. At the summit is Po Then, the father of
        the empyrean. Below him are the Then—Then Bun, Then Kum, Then Kom, of
        whom the chief is Then Luong, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the great
        Then.’</span> The dead go and cultivate his rice-fields in heaven and
        clear his mountains, just as they did their own in their life on
        earth. He has to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg
        098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        wife a goddess Me Bau. Besides these heavenly spirits, the Thay
        reckons a multitude of others under the name of <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">phi</span></span>.
        His science being not very extensive, many things seem extraordinary
        to him. If he cannot explain a certain natural phenomenon, his
        perplexity does not last long. It is the work of a <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">phi</span></span>,
        he says, and his priests take care not to dissuade him. Hence he sees
        spirits everywhere. There are <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">phi</span></span>
        on the steep mountains, in the deep woods, the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">phi
        bai</span></span> who, by night on the mountain, imitate the rain and
        the storms and leave no trace of their passage. If they shew
        themselves, they appear in the form of gigantic animals and cause
        terrible stomach troubles, such as diarrhœa, dysentery, and so on....
        The large animals of the forest, wild oxen and buffaloes,
        rhinoceroses, elephants, and so on, have their guardian spirits.
        Hence the prudent hunter learns at the outset to exorcise them in
        order that, when he has killed these animals, he may be able to cut
        them up and eat their flesh without having to fear the vengeance of
        their invisible guardian. Spirits also guard the clearings whither
        the deer come by night to drink. The hunter should sacrifice a fowl
        to them from time to time, if he would bring down his game with ease.
        The gun itself has a spirit who looks to it that the powder explodes.
        In short, the Thay cannot take a single step without meeting a spirit
        on the path.”</span><a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href=
        "#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus the life of the Thay seems regulated
        down to its smallest details by custom founded on his belief in the
        spirits. Spirits perpetually watch him, ready to punish his
        negligences, and he is afraid. Fear is not only for him the beginning
        of wisdom, it is the whole of his wisdom. Love has only a very
        moderate place in it. Even the respect in which he holds his dead,
        and the honours which he pays them on various occasions, seem to be
        dominated by a superstitious fear. It seems that the sacrifices which
        he offers to them aim rather at averting from himself the evils which
        he dreads than at honouring worthily the memory of his deceased
        kinsfolk and at paying them the tribute of his affection and
        gratitude. Once they sleep their last sleep yonder in the shadow of
        the great trees of the forest, none goes to shed a tear and murmur a
        prayer on their grave. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg
        099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Nothing but calamity suffices to rescue them from the oblivion into
        which they had fallen in the memory of the living.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in China.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The dogma, prevailing in China from the earliest times,
        that the universe is filled in all its parts with <span lang="zh"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">shen</span></span> and <span lang="zh" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kwei</span></span>, naturally implies that
        devils and demons must also swarm about the homes of men in numbers
        inestimable. It is, in fact, an axiom which constantly comes out in
        conversing with the people, that they haunt every frequented and
        lonely spot, and that no place exists where man is safe from
        them.”</span><a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href=
        "#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The worship and propitiation of the gods,
        which is the main part of China's religion, has no higher purpose
        than that of inducing the gods to protect man against the world of
        evil, or, by descending among men, to drive spectres away by their
        intimidating presence. This cult implies invocation of happiness; but
        as happiness merely means absence of misfortune which the spectres
        cause, such a cult is tantamount to the disarming of spectres by
        means of the gods.... Taoism may then actually be defined as
        Exorcising Polytheism, a cult of the gods with which Eastern Asiatic
        imagination has filled the universe, connected with a highly
        developed system of magic, consisting for a great part in exorcism.
        This cult and magic is, of course, principally in the hands of
        priests. But, besides, the lay world, enslaved to the intense belief
        in the perilous omnipresence of spectres, is engaged every day in a
        restless defensive and offensive war against those
        beings.”</span><a id="noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href=
        "#note_298"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in Corea.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Corea,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“among the reasons which render the shaman a
        necessity are these. In Korean belief, earth, air, and sea are
        peopled by demons. They haunt every umbrageous tree, shady ravine,
        crystal spring, and mountain crest. On green hill-slopes, in peaceful
        agricultural valleys, in grassy dells, on wooded uplands, by lake and
        stream, by road and river, in north, south, east, and west, they
        abound, making <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg
        100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        malignant sport of human destinies. They are on every roof, ceiling,
        fireplace, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kang</span></span> and beam. They fill the
        chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen—they are on every
        shelf and jar. In thousands they waylay the traveller as he leaves
        his home, beside him, behind him, dancing in front of him, whirring
        over his head, crying out upon him from earth, air, and water. They
        are numbered by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">thousands of billions</span></em>, and it has
        been well said that their ubiquity is an unholy travesty of the
        Divine Omnipresence. This belief, and it seems to be the only one he
        has, keeps the Korean in a perpetual state of nervous apprehension,
        it surrounds him with indefinite terrors, and it may truly be said of
        him that he <span class="tei tei-q">‘passes the time of his
        sojourning here in fear.’</span> Every Korean home is subject to
        demons, here, there, and everywhere. They touch the Korean at every
        point in life, making his well-being depend on a continual series of
        acts of propitiation, and they avenge every omission with merciless
        severity, keeping him under this yoke of bondage from birth to
        death.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Koreans attribute every ill
        by which they are afflicted to demoniacal influence. Bad luck in any
        transaction, official malevolence, illness, whether sudden or
        prolonged, pecuniary misfortune, and loss of power or position, are
        due to the malignity of demons. It is over such evils that the
        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Pan-su</span></span> [shaman] is supposed to
        have power, and to be able to terminate them by magical rites, he
        being possessed by a powerful demon, whose strength he is able to
        wield.”</span><a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href=
        "#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons among the Koryaks.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the nomadic
        Koryaks of north-eastern Asia it is said that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“all their religious customs have only reference to the
        evil spirits of the earth. Their religion is thus a cunning diplomacy
        or negotiation with these spirits in order, as far as possible, to
        deter them from actions which would be injurious to men. Everywhere,
        on every mountain, in the sea, by the rivers, in the forest, and on
        the plains their fancy sees demons lurking, whom they picture to
        themselves as purely malignant and very greedy. Hence the frequent
        offerings by which they seek to satisfy the greed of these
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101"
        id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> insatiable beings, and to
        redeem that which they value and hold dear. Those of the people who
        are believed to be able to divine most easily the wishes of the evil
        ones and who enjoy their favour to a certain extent are called
        shamans, and the religious ceremonies which they perform are
        shamanism. In every case the shamans must give their advice as to how
        the devils are to be got rid of, and must reveal the wishes of the
        demons.”</span><a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href=
        "#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> As to
        these demons of the earth, who infest the Koryaks, we are told that
        <span class="tei tei-q">“when visiting the houses to cause diseases
        and to kill people, they enter from under ground, through the
        hearth-fire, and return the same way. It happens at times that they
        steal people, and carry them away. They are invisible to human
        beings, and are capable of changing their size. They are sometimes so
        numerous in houses, that they sit on the people, and fill up all
        corners. With hammers and axes they knock people over their heads,
        thus causing headaches. They bite, and cause swellings. They shoot
        invisible arrows, which stick in the body, causing death, if a shaman
        does not pull them out in time. The <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kalau</span></span> [demons] tear out pieces of
        flesh from people, thus causing sores and wounds to form on their
        bodies.”</span><a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href=
        "#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons among the Gilyaks.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Gilyaks of the
        Amoor valley in eastern Asia believe that besides the gods
        <span class="tei tei-q">“there are evil supernatural beings who do
        him harm. They are devils, called <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">mil'k</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">kinr</span></span>. These beings appear in the
        most varied forms and are distinguished according to the degree of
        their harmfulness. They appear now in the form of a Gilyak, now in
        the form of an animal, from a bear down to a toad and a lizard. They
        exist on the land and in the sea, under the earth and in the sky.
        Some of them form special tribes of treacherous beings whose
        essential nature it is to be destructive. Others are isolated
        individuals, ruined beings, <span class="tei tei-q">‘lost
        sons’</span> of families of beneficent beings, who are exceptional in
        their hostility to man. The former class <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> are naturally the most dangerous. Some are
        wholly occupied in robbing the Gilyak on the road (the spirits of
        loss—<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">gerniwuch-en</span></span>); others empty his
        barns, his traps, his pitfalls, and so on; lastly there are such
        also, the most dreadful of all, who lie in wait for his life and
        bring sickness and death. Were there no such beings, men would not
        die. A natural death is impossible. Death is the result of the wiles
        of these treacherous beings.”</span><a id="noteref_302" name=
        "noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in ancient Babylonia and
            Assyria.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the more
        westerly parts of the old world the same belief in the omnipresence
        and mischievous power of spirits has prevailed from antiquity to the
        present day. If we may judge from the fragments of their literature
        which have been deciphered, few people seem to have suffered more
        from the persistent assaults of demons than the ancient Babylonians
        and Assyrians, and the evil spirits that preyed on them were of a
        peculiarly cruel and malignant sort; even the gods themselves were
        not exempt from their attacks. These baleful beings lurked in
        solitary places, in graves, in the shadow of ruins and on the tops of
        mountains. They dwelt in the wilderness, in the holes and dens of the
        earth, they issued from the lower parts of the ground. Nothing could
        resist them in heaven above, nothing could withstand them on earth
        below. They roamed the streets, they leaped from house to house. The
        high and thick fences they penetrated like a flood, the door could
        not stay them, nor the bolt make them turn back. They glided through
        the door like a serpent, they pierced through the planks like the
        wind. There was no place, however small, which they could not invade,
        none so large that they could not fill. And their wickedness was
        equal to their power. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are wicked, they
        are wicked,”</span> says an incantation. No prayers could move them,
        no supplications could make them relent; for they knew no pity, they
        hearkened not to reason, they knew no troth. To them all manner of
        evil was ascribed. Their presence was felt not only in the terrible
        winds that swept the land, in the fevers bred of the marshes, and in
        the diseases engendered by the damp heat of summer. All the petty
        annoyances of life—a sudden fall, an unlucky <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> word, a headache, a paltry quarrel—were set
        down to the agency of fiends; and all the fierce emotions that rend
        the mind—love, hate, jealousy, and madness—were equally the work of
        these invisible tormentors. Men and women stood in constant danger of
        them. They tore the wife from the bosom of her husband, the son from
        the knees of his father. They ate the flesh and drank the blood of
        men, they prevented them from sleeping or taking food, and to adopt a
        metaphor from one of the texts, <span class="tei tei-q">“they ground
        the country like flour.”</span> Almost every part of the human frame
        was menaced by a special fiend. One demon assailed the head, another
        the neck, another the hips, and so on. They bound a man's hands, they
        fettered his feet, they spat poison and gall on him. Day and night
        must he wander without rest; sighs and lamentations were his food.
        They attacked even the animals. They drove doves from their
        dovecotes, and swallows from their nests; they smote the bull and the
        ass. They pursued the cattle to their stalls: they lodged with the
        horses in the stable: they caused the she-ass to miscarry, and the
        young ass at its mother's dugs to pine away. Even lifeless things
        could be possessed by them; for there were demons that rushed against
        houses and took walls by storm, that shut themselves up in doors, and
        hid themselves under bolts. Indeed they threatened the whole world
        with destruction, and there was none that could deliver from them
        save only the mighty god Marduk.<a id="noteref_303" name=
        "noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in ancient and modern
            Egypt.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the opinion of
        the ancient Egyptians <span class="tei tei-q">“there were good
        spirits as well as bad, but the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Book of the Dead</span></span> practically
        ignores the former, and its magical formulae were directed entirely
        against the operations of evil spirits. Though naturally of a gay and
        light-hearted disposition, the Egyptian must have lived in a
        perpetual state of fear of spirits of all kinds, spirits of calamity,
        disease, and sickness, spirits of angry gods and ancestors, and above
        all the spirit of Death. His imagination filled the world with
        spirits, whose acts <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg
        104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        seemed to him to be generally malevolent, and his magical and
        religious literature and his amulets testify to the very real terror
        with which he regarded his future existence in the world of spirits.
        Escape from such spirits was impossible, for they could not
        die.”</span><a id="noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href=
        "#note_304"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> In
        modern Egypt the jinn, a class of spiritual beings intermediate
        between angels and men, are believed to pervade the solid matter of
        the earth as well as the firmament, and they inhabit rivers, ruined
        houses, wells, baths, ovens, and so forth. So thickly do they swarm
        that in pouring water or other liquids on the ground an Egyptian will
        commonly exclaim or mutter <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Destoor!</span></span>”</span> thereby asking
        the permission or craving the pardon of any jinn who might chance to
        be there, and who might otherwise resent being suddenly soused with
        water or unsavoury fluids. So too when people light a fire, let down
        a bucket into a well, or perform other necessary functions, they will
        say <span class="tei tei-q">“Permission!”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Permission, ye blessed!”</span><a id="noteref_305" name=
        "noteref_305" href="#note_305"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> Again,
        in Egypt it is not considered proper to sweep out a house at night,
        lest in doing so you should knock against a jinnee, who might avenge
        the insult.<a id="noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href=
        "#note_306"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in ancient Greece and
            mediaeval Europe.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The earliest of
        the Greek philosophers, Thales, held that the world is full of gods
        or spirits;<a id="noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href=
        "#note_307"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> and the
        same primitive creed was expounded by one of the latest pagan
        thinkers of antiquity. Porphyry declared that demons appeared in the
        likeness of animals, that every house and every body was full of
        them, and that forms of ceremonial purification, such as beating the
        air and so forth, had no other object but that of driving away the
        importunate swarms of these invisible but dangerous beings. He
        explained that evil spirits delighted in food, especially in blood
        and impurities, that they settled like flies on us at meals, and that
        they could only be kept at a distance by ceremonial observances,
        which were directed, not to pleasing the gods, but simply and solely
        to beating off devils.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href=
        "#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> His
        theory of religious purification seems <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> faithfully to reflect the creed of the savage
        on this subject,<a id="noteref_309" name="noteref_309" href=
        "#note_309"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> but a
        philosopher is perhaps the last person whom we should expect to find
        acting as a mirror of savagery. It is less surprising to meet with
        the same venerable doctrine, the same world-wide superstition in the
        mouth of a mediaeval abbot; for we know that a belief in devils has
        the authority of the founder of Christianity and is sanctioned by the
        teaching of the church. No Esquimau on the frozen shores of Labrador,
        no Indian in the sweltering forests of Guiana, no cowering Hindoo in
        the jungles of Bengal, could well have a more constant and abiding
        sense of the presence of malignant demons everywhere about him than
        had Abbot Richalm, who ruled over the Cistercian monastery of
        Schönthal in the first half of the thirteenth century. In the curious
        work to which he gave the name of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Revelations</span></span>, he set forth how he
        was daily and hourly infested by devils, whom, though he could not
        see, he heard, and to whom he imputed all the ailments of his flesh
        and all the frailties of his spirit. If he felt squeamish, he was
        sure that the feeling was wrought in him by demoniacal agency. If
        puckers appeared on his nose, if his lower lip drooped, the devils
        had again to answer for it; a cough, a cold in the head, a hawking
        and spitting, could have none but a supernatural and devilish origin.
        If, pacing in his orchard on a sunny autumn morning, the portly abbot
        stooped to pick up the mellow fruit that had fallen in the night, the
        blood that mounted to his purple face was sent coursing thither by
        his invisible foes. If the abbot tossed on his sleepless couch, while
        the moonlight, streaming in at the window, cast the shadows of the
        stanchions like black bars on the floor of his cell, it was not the
        fleas and so forth that kept him awake—oh no! <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Vermin,”</span> said he sagely, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“do not really bite”</span>; they seem to bite indeed,
        but it is all the work of devils. If a monk snored in the dormitory,
        the unseemly noise proceeded not from him, but from a demon lurking
        in his person. Especially dangerous were <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the demons of intoxication. These subtle fiends
        commonly lodged at the taverns in the neighbouring town, but on feast
        days they were apt to slip through the monastery gates and glide
        unseen among the monks seated at the refectory table, or gathered
        round the roaring fire on the hearth, while the bleak wind whistled
        in the abbey towers, and a more generous vintage than usual glowed
        and sparkled in the flagons. If at such times a jolly, rosy-faced
        brother appeared to the carnal eye and ear to grow obstreperous or
        maudlin, to speak thick or to reel and stagger in his gait, be sure
        it was not the fiery spirit of the grape that moved the holy man; it
        was a spirit of quite a different order. Holding such views on the
        source of all bodily and mental indisposition, it was natural enough
        that the abbot should prescribe remedies which are not to be found in
        the pharmacopœia, and which would be asked for in vain at an
        apothecary's. They consisted chiefly of holy water and the sign of
        the cross; this last he recommended particularly as a specific for
        flea-bites.<a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href=
        "#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in modern Europe.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is easy to
        suggest that the abbot's wits were unsettled, that he suffered from
        hallucinations, and so forth. This may have been so; yet a mode of
        thought like his seems to be too common over a great part of the
        world to allow us to attribute it purely to mental derangement. In
        the Middle Ages, when the general level of knowledge was low, a state
        of mind like Richalm's may have been shared by multitudes even of
        educated people, who have not, however, like him, left a monument of
        their folly to posterity. At the present day, through the advance and
        spread of knowledge, it might be difficult to find any person of
        acknowledged sanity holding the abbot's opinions on the subject of
        demons; but in remote parts of Europe a little research might shew
        that the creed of Porphyry and Richalm is still held, with but little
        variation, by the mass of the people. Thus we are told that the
        Roumanians of Transylvania <span class="tei tei-q">“believe
        themselves to be surrounded on all sides by whole legions of evil
        spirits. These devils are furthermore assisted by <span lang="ro"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ro"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">ismejus</span></span> (another sort of dragon),
        witches, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg
        107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and
        goblins, and to each of these dangerous beings are ascribed
        particular powers on particular days and at certain places. Many and
        curious are therefore the means by which the Roumanians endeavour to
        counteract these baleful influences; and a whole complicated study,
        about as laborious as the mastering of an unknown language, is
        required in order to teach an unfortunate peasant to steer clear of
        the dangers by which he supposes himself to be beset on all
        sides.”</span><a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href=
        "#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons in modern Armenia.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar beliefs
        are held to this day by the Armenians, who, though they are not a
        European people, have basked in the light of Christianity from a time
        when Central and Northern Europe was still plunged in heathen
        darkness. All the activities, we are told, of these professing
        Christians <span class="tei tei-q">“are paralyzed after sunset,
        because at every step they quake with fear, believing that the evil
        demons are everywhere present in the air, in the water, on the earth.
        By day the evil ones are under the earth, therefore boiling hot water
        may not be poured on the ground, because it sinks into the earth and
        burns the feet of the children of the evil spirits. But in the
        evening the superstitious Armenian will pour no water at all on the
        earth, because the evil ones are everywhere present on the earth.
        Some of them are walking about, others are sitting at table and
        feasting, so that they might be disturbed by the pouring out of
        water, and they would take vengeance for it. Also by night you should
        not smite the ground with a stick, nor sweep out the house, nor
        remove the dung from the stable, because without knowing it you might
        hit the evil spirits. But if you are compelled to sweep by night, you
        singe the tip of the broom so as to frighten the evil ones away in
        time. You must not go out at night bareheaded, for the evil ones
        would smite you on the head. It is also dangerous to drink water out
        of a vessel in the dark, especially when the water is drawn from a
        brook or river; for the evil ones in the water hit out, or they pass
        with the water into a man. Therefore in drinking you <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> should hold a knife with three blades or
        a piece of iron in the water. The baleful influence of the nocturnal
        demons extends also to useful objects; hence after sunset people do
        not lend salt or fire and do not shake out the tablecloth, because
        thereby the salt would lose its savour and the welfare of the house
        would depart.”</span><a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href=
        "#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a></p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name=
      "Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter III. The Public Expulsion of
        Evils.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Occasional Expulsion of
          Evils.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">General clearances of evils take
              the form of expulsions of demons.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can now
          understand why those general clearances of evil, to which from time
          to time the savage resorts, should commonly take the form of a
          forcible expulsion of devils. In these evil spirits primitive man
          sees the cause of many if not of most of his troubles, and he
          fancies that if he can only deliver himself from them, things will
          go better with him. The public attempts to expel the accumulated
          ills of a whole community may be divided into two classes,
          according as the expelled evils are immaterial and invisible or are
          embodied in a material vehicle or scapegoat. The former may be
          called the direct or immediate expulsion of evils; the latter the
          indirect or mediate expulsion, or the expulsion by scapegoat. We
          begin with examples of the former.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">General expulsions of demons in
              Melanesia, Australia and South Africa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the island of
          Rook, between New Guinea and New Britain, when any misfortune has
          happened, all the people run together, scream, curse, howl, and
          beat the air with sticks to drive away the devil (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Marsába</span></span>), who is supposed to be
          the author of the mishap. From the spot where the mishap took place
          they drive him step by step to the sea, and on reaching the shore
          they redouble their shouts and blows in order to expel him from the
          island. He generally retires to the sea or to the island of
          Lottin.<a id="noteref_313" name="noteref_313" href=
          "#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> The
          natives of New Britain ascribe sickness, drought, the failure of
          crops, and in short all misfortunes, to the influence of
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name=
          "Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wicked spirits. So
          at times when many people sicken and die, as at the beginning of
          the rainy season, all the inhabitants of a district, armed with
          branches and clubs, go out by moonlight to the fields, where they
          beat and stamp on the ground with wild howls till morning,
          believing that this drives away the devils; and for the same
          purpose they rush through the village with burning torches.<a id=
          "noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a> The
          natives of New Caledonia are said to believe that all evils are
          caused by a powerful and malignant spirit; hence in order to rid
          themselves of him they will from time to time dig a great pit,
          round which the whole tribe gathers. After cursing the demon, they
          fill up the pit with earth, and trample on the top with loud
          shouts. This they call burying the evil spirit.<a id="noteref_315"
          name="noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> Among
          the Dieri tribe of Central Australia, when a serious illness
          occurs, the medicine-men expel Cootchie or the devil by beating the
          ground in and outside of the camp with the stuffed tail of a
          kangaroo, until they have chased the demon away to some distance
          from the camp.<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href=
          "#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> In
          some South African tribes it is a general rule that no common man
          may meddle with spirits, whether good or bad, except to offer the
          customary sacrifices. Demons may haunt him and make his life a
          burden to him, but he must submit to their machinations until the
          matter is taken up by the proper authorities. A baboon may be sent
          by evil spirits and perch on a tree within gunshot, or regale
          itself in his maize-field; but to fire at the beast would be worse
          than suicide. So long as a man remains a solitary sufferer, he has
          little chance of redress. It is supposed that he has committed some
          crime, and that the ancestors in their wrath have sent a demon to
          torment him. But should his neighbours also suffer; should the
          baboon from choice or necessity (for men do sometimes pluck up
          courage to scare the brutes) select a fresh field for its
          depredations, or the roof of another man's barn for its perch, the
          case begins to wear a different complexion. The magicians now deal
          with the matter seriously. One man may be haunted for his sins by a
          demon, but a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg
          111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          whole community infested by devils is another matter. To shoot the
          baboon, however, would be useless; it would merely enrage the demon
          and increase the danger. The first thing to do is to ascertain the
          permanent abode of the devil. It is generally a deep pool with
          overhanging banks and dark recesses. There the villagers assemble
          with the priests and magicians at their head, and set about pelting
          the demon with stones, men, women, and children all joining in the
          assault, while they load the object of their fear and hate with the
          foulest abuse. Drums too are beaten, and horns blown at intervals,
          and when everybody has been worked up to such a frenzy of
          excitement that some even fancy they see the imp dodging the
          missiles, he suddenly takes to flight, and the village is rid of
          him for a time. After that, the crops may be protected and baboons
          killed with impunity.<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href=
          "#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">General expulsion of demons in
              Minahassa, Halmahera, and the Kei Islands.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a village
          has been visited by a series of disasters or a severe epidemic, the
          inhabitants of Minahassa in Celebes lay the blame upon the devils
          who are infesting the village and who must be expelled from it.
          Accordingly, early one morning all the people, men, women, and
          children, quit their homes, carrying their household goods with
          them, and take up their quarters in temporary huts which have been
          erected outside the village. Here they spend several days, offering
          sacrifices and preparing for the final ceremony. At last the men,
          some wearing masks, others with their faces blackened, and so on,
          but all armed with swords, guns, pikes, or brooms, steal cautiously
          and silently back to the deserted village. Then, at a signal from
          the priest, they rush furiously up and down the streets and into
          and under the houses (which are raised on piles above the ground),
          yelling and striking on walls, doors, and windows, to drive away
          the devils. Next, the priests and the rest of the people come with
          the holy fire and march nine times round each house and thrice
          round the ladder <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg
          112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          that leads up to it, carrying the fire with them. Then they take
          the fire into the kitchen, where it must burn for three days
          continuously. The devils are now driven away, and great and general
          is the joy.<a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" href=
          "#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a> The
          Alfoors of Halmahera attribute epidemics to the devil who comes
          from other villages to carry them off. So, in order to rid the
          village of the disease, the sorcerer drives away the devil. From
          all the villagers he receives a costly garment and places it on
          four vessels, which he takes to the forest and leaves at the spot
          where the devil is supposed to be. Then with mocking words he bids
          the demon abandon the place.<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319"
          href="#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a> In
          the Kei Islands to the south-west of New Guinea, the evil spirits,
          who are quite distinct from the souls of the dead, form a mighty
          host. Almost every tree and every cave is the lodging-place of one
          of these fiends, who are moreover extremely irascible and apt to
          fly out on the smallest provocation. To speak loudly in passing
          their abode, to ease nature near a haunted tree or cave, is enough
          to bring down their wrath on the offender, and he must either
          appease them by an offering or burn the scrapings of a buffalo's
          horn or the hair of a Papuan slave, in order that the smell may
          drive the foul fiends away. The spirits manifest their displeasure
          by sending sickness and other calamities. Hence in times of public
          misfortune, as when an epidemic is raging, and all other remedies
          have failed, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg
          113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the whole population go forth with the priest at their head to a
          place at some distance from the village. Here at sunset they erect
          a couple of poles with a cross-bar between them, to which they
          attach bags of rice, wooden models of pivot-guns, gongs, bracelets,
          and so on. Then, when everybody has taken his place at the poles
          and a death-like silence reigns, the priest lifts up his voice and
          addresses the spirits in their own language as follows:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ho! ho! ho! ye evil spirits who dwell in
          the trees, ye evil spirits who live in the grottoes, ye evil
          spirits who lodge in the earth, we give you these pivot-guns, these
          gongs, etc. Let the sickness cease and not so many people die of
          it.”</span> Then everybody runs home as fast as their legs can
          carry them.<a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href=
          "#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in
              Nias.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the island of
          Nias, when a man is seriously ill and other remedies have been
          tried in vain, the sorcerer proceeds to exorcise the devil who is
          causing the illness. A pole is set up in front of the house, and
          from the top of the pole a rope of palm-leaves is stretched to the
          roof of the house. Then the sorcerer mounts the roof with a pig,
          which he kills and allows to roll from the roof to the ground. The
          devil, anxious to get the pig, lets himself down hastily from the
          roof by the rope of palm-leaves, and a good spirit, invoked by the
          sorcerer, prevents him from climbing up again. If this remedy
          fails, it is believed that other devils must still be lurking in
          the house. So a general hunt is made after them. All the doors and
          windows in the house are closed, except a single dormer-window in
          the roof. The men, shut up in the house, hew and slash with their
          swords right and left to the clash of gongs and the rub-a-dub of
          drums. Terrified at this onslaught, the devils escape by the
          dormer-window, and sliding down the rope of palm-leaves take
          themselves off. As all the doors and windows, except the one in the
          roof, are shut, the devils cannot get into the house again. In the
          case of an epidemic, the proceedings are similar. All the gates of
          the village, except one, are closed; every voice is <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> raised, every gong and drum beaten,
          every sword brandished. Thus the devils are driven out and the last
          gate is shut behind them. For eight days thereafter the village is
          in a state of siege, no one being allowed to enter it.<a id=
          "noteref_321" name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Spiritual quarantine against
              demons of sickness in Nias.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The means
          adopted in Nias to exclude an epidemic from a village which has not
          yet been infected by it are somewhat similar; but as they exhibit
          an interesting combination of religious ritual with the purely
          magical ceremony of exorcism, it may be worth while to describe
          them. When it is known that a village is suffering from the ravages
          of a dangerous malady, the other villages in the neighbourhood take
          what they regard as effective measures for securing immunity from
          the disease. Some of these measures commend themselves to us as
          rational and others do not. In the first place, quarantine is
          established in each village, not only against the inhabitants of
          the infected village, but against all strangers; no person from
          outside is allowed to enter. In the second place, a feast is made
          by the people for one of their idols who goes by the name of
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fangeroe wõchõ</span></span>, or Protector
          from sickness. All the people of the village must participate in
          the sacrifice and bear a share of the cost. The principal idol,
          crowned with palm-leaves, is set up in front of the chief's house,
          and all the inhabitants who can do so gather about it. The names of
          those who cannot attend are mentioned, apparently as a substitute
          for their attendance in person. While the priest is reciting the
          spells for the banishment of the evil spirits, all persons present
          come forward and touch the image. A pig is then killed and its
          flesh furnishes a common meal. The mouth of the idol is smeared
          with the bloody heart of the pig, and a dishful of the cooked pork
          is set before him. Of the flesh thus consecrated to the idol none
          but priests and chiefs may <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> partake. Idols called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">daha</span></span>, or branches of the
          principal idol, are also set up in front of all the other houses in
          the village. Moreover, bogies made of black wood with white eyes,
          to which the broken crockery of the inhabitants has freely
          contributed, are placed at the entrances of the village to scare
          the demon and prevent him from entering. All sorts of objects
          whitened with chalk are also hung up in front of the houses to keep
          the devil out. When eight days have elapsed, it is thought that the
          sacrifice has taken effect, and the priest puts an end to the
          quarantine. All boys and men now assemble for the purpose of
          expelling the evil spirit. Led by the priest, they march four
          times, with a prodigious noise and uproar, from one end of the
          village to the other, slashing the air with their knives and
          stabbing it with their spears to frighten the devil away. If all
          these efforts prove vain, and the dreaded sickness breaks out, the
          people think it must be because they have departed from the ways of
          their fathers by raising the price of victuals and pigs too high or
          by enriching themselves with unjust gain. Accordingly a new idol is
          made and set up in front of the chief's house; and while the priest
          engages in prayer, the chief and the magnates of the village touch
          the image, vowing as they do so to return to the old ways and
          cursing all such as may refuse their consent or violate the new law
          thus solemnly enacted. Then all present betake themselves to the
          river and erect another idol on the bank. In presence of this
          latter idol the weights and measures are compared, and any that
          exceed the lawful standard are at once reduced to it. When this has
          been done, they rock the image to and fro to signify, or perhaps
          rather to ensure, thereby that he who does not keep the new law
          shall suffer misfortune, or fall sick, or be thwarted in some way
          or other. Then a pig is killed and eaten on the bank of the river.
          The feast being over, each family contributes a certain sum in
          token that they make restitution of their unlawful gains. The money
          thus collected is tied in a bundle, and the priest holds the bundle
          up towards the sky and down towards the earth to satisfy the god of
          the upper and the god of the nether world that justice has now been
          done. After that he either flings the bag of money into the river
          or buries it in the ground <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> beside the idol. In the latter case the money
          naturally disappears, and the people explain its disappearance by
          saying that the evil spirit has come and fetched it.<a id=
          "noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href="#note_322"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> A
          method like that which at the present day the people of Nias adopt
          for the sake of conjuring the demon of disease was employed in
          antiquity by the Caunians of Asia Minor to banish certain foreign
          gods whom they had imprudently established in their country. All
          the men of military age assembled under arms, and with
          spear-thrusts in the air drove the strange gods step by step from
          the land and across the boundaries.<a id="noteref_323" name=
          "noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in the
              Solomon Islands, Burma, India, China.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Solomon
          Islanders of Bougainville Straits believe that epidemics are
          always, or nearly always, caused by evil spirits; and accordingly
          when the people of a village have been suffering generally from
          colds, they have been known to blow conch-shells, beat tins, shout,
          and knock on the houses for the purpose of expelling the demons and
          so curing their colds.<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" href=
          "#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> When
          cholera has broken out in a Burmese village the able-bodied men
          scramble on the roofs and lay about them with bamboos and billets
          of wood, while all the rest of the population, old and young, stand
          below and thump drums, blow trumpets, yell, scream, beat floors,
          walls, tin pans, everything to make a din. This uproar, repeated on
          three successive nights, is thought to be very effective in driving
          away the cholera demons.<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325"
          href="#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a> The
          Shans of Kengtung, a province of Upper Burma, imagine that
          epidemics are brought about by the prowling ghosts of wicked men,
          such as thieves and murderers, who cannot rest but go about doing
          all the harm they can to the living. Hence when sickness is rife,
          the people take steps to expel these dangerous spirits. The
          Buddhist priests exert themselves actively in the beneficent
          enterprise. They assemble in a body at the Town Court and read the
          scriptures. Guns are fired <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> and processions march to the city gates, by
          which the fiends are supposed to take their departure. There small
          trays of food are left for them, but the larger offerings are
          deposited in the middle of the town.<a id="noteref_326" name=
          "noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> When
          smallpox first appeared amongst the Kumis of South-Eastern India,
          they thought it was a devil come from Aracan. The villages were
          placed in a state of siege, no one being allowed to leave or enter
          them. A monkey was killed by being dashed on the ground, and its
          body was hung at the village gate. Its blood, mixed with small
          river pebbles, was sprinkled on the houses, the threshold of every
          house was swept with the monkey's tail, and the fiend was adjured
          to depart.<a id="noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href=
          "#note_327"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a>
          During the hot summer cholera is endemic in Southern China, and
          from time to time, when the mortality is great, vigorous attempts
          are made to expel the demons who do all the mischief. For this
          salutary purpose processions parade the streets by night; images of
          the gods are borne in them, torches waved, gongs beaten, guns
          fired, crackers popped, swords brandished, demon-dispelling
          trumpets blown, and priests in full canonicals trot up and down
          jingling hand-bells, winding blasts on buffalo horns, and reciting
          exorcisms. Sometimes the deities are represented in these
          processions by living men, who are believed to be possessed by the
          divine spirit. Such a man-god may be seen naked to the waist with
          his dishevelled hair streaming down his back; long daggers are
          stuck in his cheeks and arms, so that the blood drips from them. In
          his hand he carries a two-edged sword, with which he deals doughty
          blows at the invisible foes in the air; but sometimes he inflicts
          bloody wounds on his own back with the weapon or with a ball which
          is studded with long sharp nails. Other inspired men are carried in
          armchairs, of which the seat, back, arms, and foot-rest are set
          with nails or composed of rows of parallel sword-blades, that cut
          into the flesh of the wretches seated on them: others are stretched
          at full length on beds of nails. For hours these bleeding votaries
          are carried about the city. Again, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> it is not uncommon to see in the procession a
          medium or man-god with a thick needle thrust through his tongue.
          His bloody spittle drips on sheets of paper, which the crowd
          eagerly scrambles for, knowing that with the blood they have
          absorbed the devil-dispelling power inherent in the man-god. The
          bloody papers, pasted on the lintel, walls, or beds of a house or
          on the bodies of the family, are supposed to afford complete
          protection against cholera. Such are the methods by which in
          Southern China the demons of disease are banished the city.<a id=
          "noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href="#note_328"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in
              Japan, Corea and Tonquin.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Japan the
          old-fashioned method of staying an epidemic is to expel the demon
          of the plague from every house into which he has entered. The
          treatment begins with the house in which the malady has appeared in
          the mildest form. First of all a Shinto priest makes a preliminary
          visit to the sick-room and extracts from the demon a promise that
          he will depart with him at his next visit. The day after he comes
          again, and, seating himself near the patient, beseeches the evil
          spirit to come away with him. Meanwhile red rice, which is used
          only on special occasions, has been placed at the sufferer's head,
          a closed litter made of pine boughs has been brought in, and four
          men equipped with flags or weapons have taken post in the four
          corners of the room to prevent the demon from seeking refuge there.
          All are silent but the priest. The prayer being over, the sick
          man's pillow is hastily thrown into the litter, and the priest
          cries, <span class="tei tei-q">“All right now!”</span> At that the
          bearers double with it into the street, the people within and
          without beat the air with swords, sticks, or anything that comes to
          hand, while others assist in the cure by banging away at drums and
          gongs. A procession is now formed in which only men take part, some
          of them carrying banners, others provided with a drum, a bell, a
          flute, a horn, and all of them wearing fillets and horns of twisted
          straw to keep the demon away from themselves. As the procession
          starts an old man chants, <span class="tei tei-q">“What god are you
          bearing away?”</span> To which the others respond in chorus,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The god of the pest we are bearing
          away!”</span> Then to the music of the drum, the bell, the
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name=
          "Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> flute, and the horn
          the litter is borne through the streets. During its passage all the
          people in the town who are not taking part in the ceremony remain
          indoors, every house along the route of the procession is carefully
          closed, and at the cross-roads swordsmen are stationed, who guard
          the street by hewing the air to right and left with their blades,
          lest the demon should escape by that way. The litter is thus
          carried to a retired spot between two towns and left there, while
          all who escorted it thither run away. Only the priest remains
          behind for half an hour to complete the exorcism and the cure. The
          bearers of the litter spend the night praying in a temple. Next day
          they return home, but not until they have plunged into a cold bath
          in the open air to prevent the demon from following them. The same
          litter serves to convey the evil spirit from every house in the
          town.<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href=
          "#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> In
          Corea, when a patient is recovering from the smallpox, a farewell
          dinner is given in honour of the departing spirit of the disease.
          Friends and relations are invited, and the spirit's share of the
          good things is packed on the back of a hobby-horse and despatched
          to the boundary of the town or village, while respectful farewells
          are spoken and hearty good wishes uttered for his prosperous
          journey to his own place.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330"
          href="#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> In
          Tonquin also a banquet is sometimes given to the demon of sickness
          to induce him to go quietly away from the house. The most
          honourable place at the festive board is reserved for the fiend;
          prayers, caresses, and presents are lavished on him; but if he
          proves obdurate, they assail him with coarse abuse and drive him
          from the house with musket-shots.<a id="noteref_331" name=
          "noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in
              Africa, America.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When an epidemic
          is raging on the Gold Coast of West Africa, the people will
          sometimes turn out, armed with clubs and torches, to drive the evil
          spirits away. At a given signal the whole population begin with
          frightful yells to beat in every corner of the houses, then rush
          like mad into the streets waving torches and striking frantically
          in the empty air. The uproar goes on till somebody reports that the
          cowed and daunted demons have made good their escape by a gate of
          the town or village; the people stream out after them, pursue them
          for some distance into the forest, and warn them never to return.
          The expulsion of the devils is followed by a general massacre of
          all the cocks in the village or town, lest by their unseasonable
          crowing they should betray to the banished demons the direction
          they must take to return to their old homes. For in that country
          the forest grows so thick or the grass so high that you can seldom
          see a village till you are close upon it; and the first warning of
          your approach to human habitations is the crowing of the
          cocks.<a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href=
          "#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> At
          Great Bassam, in Guinea, the French traveller Hecquard witnessed
          the exorcism of the evil spirit who was believed to make women
          barren. The women who wished to become mothers offered to the
          fetish wine-vessels or statuettes representing women suckling
          children. Then being assembled in the fetish hut, they were
          sprinkled with rum by the priest, while young men fired guns and
          brandished swords to drive away the demon.<a id="noteref_333" name=
          "noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a> When
          smallpox breaks out in a village of the Cameroons, in West Africa,
          the spirit of the disease is driven out of the village by a
          <span class="tei tei-q">“bushman”</span> or member of the oppressed
          Bassa tribe, the members of which are reputed to possess high
          magical powers. The mode of expulsion consists in drumming and
          dancing for several days. Then the village is enclosed by ropes
          made of creepers in order that the disease may not return. Over the
          principal paths arches of bent poles are made, and fowls are buried
          as sacrifices. Plants of various sorts and the mushroom-shaped
          nests of termite ants are hung from the <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> arches, and a dog, freshly killed, is
          suspended over the middle of the entrance.<a id="noteref_334" name=
          "noteref_334" href="#note_334"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> The
          Gallas try to drive away fever by firing guns, shouting, and
          lighting great fires.<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href=
          "#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> When
          sickness was prevalent in a Huron village, and all other remedies
          had been tried in vain, the Indians had recourse to the ceremony
          called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lonouyroya</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“which is the principal invention and most proper
          means, so they say, to expel from the town or village the devils
          and evil spirits which cause, induce, and import all the maladies
          and infirmities which they suffer in body and mind.”</span>
          Accordingly, one evening the men would begin to rush like madmen
          about the village, breaking and upsetting whatever they came across
          in the wigwams. They threw fire and burning brands about the
          streets, and all night long they ran howling and singing without
          cessation. Then they all dreamed of something, a knife, dog, skin,
          or whatever it might be, and when morning came they went from
          wigwam to wigwam asking for presents. These they received silently,
          till the particular thing was given them which they had dreamed
          about. On receiving it they uttered a cry of joy and rushed from
          the hut, amid the congratulations of all present. The health of
          those who received what they had dreamed of was believed to be
          assured; whereas those who did not get what they had set their
          hearts upon regarded their fate as sealed.<a id="noteref_336" name=
          "noteref_336" href="#note_336"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Flight from the demons of
              sickness.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes,
          instead of chasing the demon of disease from their homes, savages
          prefer to leave him in peaceable possession, while they themselves
          take to flight and attempt to prevent him from following in their
          tracks. Thus when the Patagonians were attacked by smallpox, which
          they attributed to the machinations of an evil spirit, they used to
          abandon their sick and flee, slashing the air with their weapons
          and throwing water about in order to keep off the dreadful pursuer;
          and when after several days' march they reached a place where they
          hoped to be beyond his reach, they used by way of precaution to
          plant all their cutting weapons with the sharp edges turned towards
          the quarter from which they had come, as if they were repelling a
          charge of cavalry.<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href=
          "#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a>
          Similarly, when the Lules or Tonocotes Indians of the Gran Chaco
          were attacked by an epidemic, they regularly sought to evade it by
          flight, but in so doing they always followed a <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sinuous, not a straight, course;
          because they said that when the disease made after them he would be
          so exhausted by the turnings and windings of the route that he
          would never be able to come up with them.<a id="noteref_338" name=
          "noteref_338" href="#note_338"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> When
          the Indians of New Mexico were decimated by smallpox or other
          infectious disease, they used to shift their quarters every day,
          retreating into the most sequestered parts of the mountains and
          choosing the thorniest thickets they could find, in the hope that
          the smallpox would be too afraid of scratching himself on the
          thorns to follow them.<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href=
          "#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> When
          some Chins on a visit to Rangoon were attacked by cholera, they
          went about with drawn swords to scare away the demon, and they
          spent the day hiding under bushes so that he might not be able to
          find them.<a id="noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href=
          "#note_340"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a></p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Periodic Expulsion of
          Evils.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The periodic expulsion of evils.
              Annual expulsion of ghosts in Australia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The expulsion of
          evils, from being occasional, tends to become periodic. It comes to
          be thought desirable to have a general riddance of evil spirits at
          fixed times, usually once a year, in order that the people may make
          a fresh start in life, freed from all the malignant influences
          which have been long accumulating about them. Some of the
          Australian blacks annually expelled the ghosts of the dead from
          their territory. The ceremony was witnessed by the Rev. W. Ridley
          on the banks of the River Barwan. <span class="tei tei-q">“A chorus
          of twenty, old and young, were singing and beating time with
          boomerangs.... Suddenly, from under a sheet of bark darted a man
          with his body whitened by pipeclay, his head and face coloured with
          lines of red and yellow, and a tuft of feathers fixed by means of a
          stick two feet above the crown of his head. He stood twenty minutes
          perfectly still, gazing upwards. An aboriginal who stood by told me
          he was looking for the ghosts of dead men. At last he began to move
          very slowly, and soon rushed to and fro at full <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> speed, flourishing a branch as if to
          drive away some foes invisible to us. When I thought this pantomime
          must be almost over, ten more, similarly adorned, suddenly appeared
          from behind the trees, and the whole party joined in a brisk
          conflict with their mysterious assailants.... At last, after some
          rapid evolutions in which they put forth all their strength, they
          rested from the exciting toil which they had kept up all night and
          for some hours after sunrise; they seemed satisfied that the ghosts
          were driven away for twelve months. They were performing the same
          ceremony at every station along the river, and I am told it is an
          annual custom.”</span><a id="noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href=
          "#note_341"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of Tuña among the
              Esquimaux of Alaska.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Certain seasons
          of the year mark themselves naturally out as appropriate moments
          for a general expulsion of devils. Such a moment occurs towards the
          close of an Arctic winter, when the sun reappears on the horizon
          after an absence of weeks or months. Accordingly, at Point Barrow,
          the most northerly extremity of Alaska, and nearly of America, the
          Esquimaux choose the moment of the sun's reappearance to hunt the
          mischievous spirit Tuña from every house. The ceremony was
          witnessed by the members of the United States Polar Expedition, who
          wintered at Point Barrow. A fire was built in front of the
          council-house, and an old woman was posted at the entrance to every
          house. The men gathered round the council-house, while the young
          women and girls drove the spirits out of every house with their
          knives, stabbing viciously under the bunk and deer-skins, and
          calling upon Tuña to be gone. When they thought he had been driven
          out of every hole and corner, they thrust him down through the hole
          in the floor and chased him into the open air with loud cries and
          frantic gestures. Meanwhile the old woman at the entrance of the
          house made passes with a long knife in the air to keep him from
          returning. Each party drove the spirit towards the fire and invited
          him to go into it. All were by this time drawn up in a semicircle
          round the fire, when several of the leading men made specific
          charges against the spirit; and each after his speech brushed his
          clothes violently, calling on the spirit to leave <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> him and go into the fire. Two men now
          stepped forward with rifles loaded with blank cartridges, while a
          third brought a vessel of urine and flung it on the flames. At the
          same time one of the men fired a shot into the fire; and as the
          cloud of steam rose it received the other shot, which was supposed
          to finish Tuña for the time being.<a id="noteref_342" name=
          "noteref_342" href="#note_342"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of Sedna among
              the Esquimaux of Baffin Land.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In late autumn,
          when storms rage over the land and break the icy fetters by which
          the frozen sea is as yet but slightly bound, when the loosened
          floes are driven against each other and break with loud crashes,
          and when the cakes of ice are piled in wild disorder one upon
          another, the Esquimaux of Baffin Land fancy they hear the voices of
          the spirits who people the mischief-laden air. Then the ghosts of
          the dead knock wildly at the huts, which they cannot enter, and woe
          to the hapless wight whom they catch; he soon sickens and dies.
          Then the phantom of a huge hairless dog pursues the real dogs,
          which expire in convulsions and cramps at sight of him. All the
          countless spirits of evil are abroad, striving to bring sickness
          and death, foul weather and failure in hunting on the Esquimaux.
          Most dreaded of all these spectral visitants are Sedna, mistress of
          the nether world, and her father, to whose share dead Esquimaux
          fall. While the other spirits fill the air and the water, she rises
          from under ground. It is then a busy season for the wizards. In
          every house you may hear them singing and praying, while they
          conjure the spirits, seated in a mystic gloom at the back of the
          hut, which is dimly lit by a lamp burning low. The hardest task of
          all is to drive away Sedna, and this is reserved for the most
          powerful enchanter. A rope is coiled on the floor of a large hut in
          such a way as to leave a small opening at the top, which represents
          the breathing hole of a seal. Two enchanters stand beside it, one
          of them grasping a spear as if he were watching a seal-hole in
          winter, the other holding the harpoon-line. A third <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sorcerer sits at the back of the hut
          chanting a magic song to lure Sedna to the spot. Now she is heard
          approaching under the floor of the hut, breathing heavily; now she
          emerges at the hole; now she is harpooned and sinks away in angry
          haste, dragging the harpoon with her, while the two men hold on to
          the line with all their might. The struggle is severe, but at last
          by a desperate wrench she tears herself away and returns to her
          dwelling in Adlivun. When the harpoon is drawn up out of the hole
          it is found to be splashed with blood, which the enchanters proudly
          exhibit as a proof of their prowess. Thus Sedna and the other evil
          spirits are at last driven away, and next day a great festival is
          celebrated by old and young in honour of the event. But they must
          still be cautious, for the wounded Sedna is furious and will seize
          any one she may find outside of his hut; so they all wear amulets
          on the top of their hoods to protect themselves against her. These
          amulets consist of pieces of the first garments that they wore
          after birth.<a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" href=
          "#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons among
              the Koryaks.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Koryaks of
          the Taigonos Peninsula, in north-eastern Asia, celebrate annually a
          festival after the winter solstice. Rich men invite all their
          neighbours to the festival, offer a sacrifice to <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The-One-on-High,”</span> and slaughter many reindeer
          for their guests. If there is a shaman present he goes all round
          the interior of the house, beating the drum and driving away the
          demons (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kalau</span></span>). He searches all the
          people in the house, and if he finds a demon's arrow sticking in
          the body of one of them, he pulls it out, though naturally the
          arrow is invisible to common eyes. In this way he protects them
          against disease and death. If there is no <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> shaman present, the demons may be expelled by
          the host or by a woman skilled in incantations.<a id="noteref_344"
          name="noteref_344" href="#note_344"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons among
              the Iroquois and the Cherokees..</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Iroquois
          inaugurated the new year in January, February, or March (the time
          varied) with a <span class="tei tei-q">“festival of dreams”</span>
          like that which the Hurons observed on special occasions.<a id=
          "noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> The
          whole ceremonies lasted several days, or even weeks, and formed a
          kind of saturnalia. Men and women, variously disguised, went from
          wigwam to wigwam smashing and throwing down whatever they came
          across. It was a time of general license; the people were supposed
          to be out of their senses, and therefore not to be responsible for
          what they did. Accordingly, many seized the opportunity of paying
          off old scores by belabouring obnoxious persons, drenching them
          with ice-cold water, and covering them with filth or hot ashes.
          Others seized burning brands or coals and flung them at the heads
          of the first persons they met. The only way of escaping from these
          persecutors was to guess what they had dreamed of. On one day of
          the festival the ceremony of driving away evil spirits from the
          village took place. Men clothed in the skins of wild beasts, their
          faces covered with hideous masks, and their hands with the shell of
          the tortoise, went from hut to hut making frightful noises; in
          every hut they took the fuel from the fire and scattered the embers
          and ashes about the floor with their hands. The general confession
          of sins which preceded the festival was probably a preparation for
          the public expulsion of evil influences; it was a way of stripping
          the people of their moral burdens, that these might be collected
          and cast out. This New Year festival is still celebrated by some of
          the heathen Iroquois, though it has been shorn of its former
          turbulence. A conspicuous feature in the ceremony is now the
          sacrifice of the White Dog, but this appears to have been added to
          the festival in comparatively modern times, and does not figure in
          the oldest descriptions of the ceremonies. We shall return to it
          later on.<a id="noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href=
          "#note_346"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> A
          great annual festival of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg
          128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the Cherokee Indians was the Propitiation, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Cementation,”</span> or Purification festival.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“It was celebrated shortly after the first
          new moon of autumn, and consisted of a multiplicity of rigorous
          rites, fastings, ablutions, and purifications. Among the most
          important functionaries on the occasion were seven exorcisers or
          cleansers, whose duty it was, at a certain stage of the
          proceedings, to drive away evil and purify the town. Each one bore
          in his hand a white rod of sycamore. <span class="tei tei-q">‘The
          leader, followed by the others, walked around the national
          heptagon, and coming to the treasure or store-house to the west of
          it, they lashed the eaves of the roofs with their rods. The leader
          then went to another house, followed by the others, singing, and
          repeated the same ceremony until every house was purified.’</span>
          This ceremony was repeated daily during the continuance of the
          festival. In performing their ablutions they went into the water,
          and allowed their old clothes to be carried away by the stream, by
          which means they supposed their impurities removed.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_347" name="noteref_347" href="#note_347"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of evils among
              the Incas of Peru.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In September the
          Incas of Peru celebrated a festival called Situa, the object of
          which was to banish from the capital and its vicinity all disease
          and trouble. The festival fell in September because the rains begin
          about this time, and with the first rains there was generally much
          sickness. And the melancholy begotten by the inclemency of the
          weather and the sickliness of the season may well have been
          heightened by the sternness of a landscape which at all times is
          fitted to oppress the mind with a sense of desolation and gloom.
          For Cuzco, the capital of the Incas and the <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> scene of the ceremony, lies in a high
          upland valley, bare and treeless, shut in on every side by the most
          arid and forbidding mountains.<a id="noteref_348" name=
          "noteref_348" href="#note_348"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> As a
          preparation for the festival the people fasted on the first day of
          the moon after the autumnal equinox. Having fasted during the day,
          and the night being come, they baked a coarse paste of maize. This
          paste was made of two sorts. One was kneaded with the blood of
          children aged from five to ten years, the blood being obtained by
          bleeding the children between the eyebrows. These two kinds of
          paste were baked separately, because they were for different uses.
          Each family assembled at the house of the eldest brother to
          celebrate the feast; and those who had no elder brother went to the
          house of their next relation of greater age. On the same night all
          who had fasted during the day washed their bodies, and taking a
          little of the blood-kneaded paste, rubbed it over their head, face,
          breast, shoulders, arms, and legs. They did this in order that the
          paste might take away all their infirmities. After this the head of
          the family anointed the threshold with the same paste, and left it
          there as a token that the inmates of the house had performed their
          ablutions and cleansed their bodies. Meantime the High Priest
          performed the same ceremonies in the temple of the Sun. As soon as
          the Sun rose, all the people worshipped and besought him to drive
          all evils out of the city, and then they broke their fast with the
          paste that had been kneaded without blood. When they had paid their
          worship and broken their fast, which they did at a stated hour, in
          order that all might adore the Sun as one man, an Inca of the blood
          royal came forth from the fortress, as a messenger of the Sun,
          richly dressed, with his mantle girded round his body, and a lance
          in his hand. The lance was decked with feathers of many hues,
          extending from the blade to the socket, and fastened with rings of
          gold. He ran down the hill from the fortress brandishing his lance,
          till he reached the centre of the great square, where stood the
          golden urn, like a fountain, that was used for the sacrifice of the
          fermented <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg
          130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          juice of the maize. Here four other Incas of the blood royal
          awaited him, each with a lance in his hand, and his mantle girded
          up to run. The messenger touched their four lances with his lance,
          and told them that the Sun bade them, as his messengers, drive the
          evils out of the city. The four Incas then separated and ran down
          the four royal roads which led out of the city to the four quarters
          of the world. While they ran, all the people, great and small, came
          to the doors of their houses, and with great shouts of joy and
          gladness shook their clothes, as if they were shaking off dust,
          while they cried, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the evils be gone.
          How greatly desired has this festival been by us. O Creator of all
          things, permit us to reach another year, that we may see another
          feast like this.”</span> After they had shaken their clothes, they
          passed their hands over their heads, faces, arms, and legs, as if
          in the act of washing. All this was done to drive the evils out of
          their houses, that the messengers of the Sun might banish them from
          the city; and it was done not only in the streets through which the
          Incas ran, but generally in all quarters of the city. Moreover,
          they all danced, the Inca himself amongst them, and bathed in the
          rivers and fountains, saying that their maladies would come out of
          them. Then they took great torches of straw, bound round with
          cords. These they lighted, and passed from one to the other,
          striking each other with them, and saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Let all harm go away.”</span> Meanwhile the runners
          ran with their lances for a quarter of a league outside the city,
          where they found four other Incas ready, who received the lances
          from their hands and ran with them. Thus the lances were carried by
          relays of runners for a distance of five or six leagues, at the end
          of which the runners washed themselves and their weapons in rivers,
          and set up the lances, in sign of a boundary within which the
          banished evils might not return.<a id="noteref_349" name=
          "noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons among
              the negroes of Guinea.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The negroes of
          Guinea annually banish the devil from all their towns with much
          ceremony at a time set apart for the purpose. At Axim, on the Gold
          Coast, this annual expulsion is preceded by a feast of eight days,
          during which mirth and jollity, skipping, dancing, and singing
          prevail, and <span class="tei tei-q">“a perfect lampooning liberty
          is allowed, and scandal so highly exalted, that they may freely
          sing of all the faults, villanies, and frauds of their superiors as
          well as inferiors, without punishment, or so much as the least
          interruption.”</span> On the eighth day they hunt out the devil
          with a dismal cry, running after him and pelting him with sticks,
          stones, and whatever comes to hand. When they have driven him far
          enough out of the town, they all return. In this way he is expelled
          from more than a hundred towns at the same time. To make sure that
          he does not return to their houses, the women wash and scour all
          their wooden and earthen vessels, <span class="tei tei-q">“to free
          them from all uncleanness and the devil.”</span><a id="noteref_350"
          name="noteref_350" href="#note_350"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a> A
          later writer tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“on the Gold
          Coast there are stated occasions, when the people turn out
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">en
          masse</span></span> (generally at night) with clubs and torches to
          drive away the evil spirits from their towns. At a given signal,
          the whole community start up, commence a most hideous howling, beat
          about in every nook and corner of their dwellings, then rush into
          the streets, with their torches and clubs, like so many frantic
          maniacs, beat the air, and scream at the top of their voices, until
          some one announces the departure of the spirits through some gate
          of the town, when they are pursued several miles into the woods,
          and warned not to come back. After this the people breathe easier,
          sleep more quietly, have better health, and the town is once more
          cheered by an abundance of food.”</span><a id="noteref_351" name=
          "noteref_351" href="#note_351"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              Benin.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ceremony as
          it is practised at Gatto, in Benin, has been described by an
          English traveller. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“It was
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name=
          "Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> about this time that
          I witnessed a strange ceremony, peculiar to this people, called the
          time of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘grand devils.’</span> Eight
          men were dressed in a most curious manner, having a dress made of
          bamboo about their bodies, and a cap on the head, of various
          colours and ornamented with red feathers taken from the parrot's
          tail; round the legs were twisted strings of shells, which made a
          clattering noise as they walked, and the face and hands of each
          individual were covered with a net. These strange beings go about
          the town, by day and by night, for the term of one month, uttering
          the most discordant and frightful noises; no one durst venture out
          at night for fear of being killed or seriously maltreated by these
          fellows, who are then especially engaged in driving the evil
          spirits from the town. They go round to all the chief's houses, and
          in addition to the noise they make, perform some extraordinary
          feats in tumbling and gymnastics, for which they receive a few
          cowries.”</span><a id="noteref_352" name="noteref_352" href=
          "#note_352"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons at Cape
              Coast Castle.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Cape Coast
          Castle, on the Gold Coast, the ceremony was witnessed on the ninth
          of October 1844 by an Englishman, who has described it as follows:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“To-night the annual custom of driving the
          evil spirit, Abonsam, out of the town has taken place. As soon as
          the eight o'clock gun fired in the fort the people began firing
          muskets in their houses, turning all their furniture out of doors,
          beating about in every corner of the rooms with sticks, etc., and
          screaming as loudly as possible, in order to frighten the devil.
          Being driven out of the houses, as they imagine, they sallied forth
          into the streets, throwing lighted torches about, shouting,
          screaming, beating sticks together, rattling old pans, making the
          most horrid noise, in order to drive him out of the town into the
          sea. The custom is preceded by four weeks' dead silence; no gun is
          allowed to be fired, no drum to be beaten, no palaver to be made
          between man and man. If, during these weeks, two natives should
          disagree and make a noise in the town, they are immediately taken
          before the king and fined heavily. If a dog or pig, sheep or goat
          be found at large in the street, it may be killed, or taken by
          anyone, the former owner not being allowed to demand any
          compensation. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg
          133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          This silence is designed to deceive Abonsam, that, being off his
          guard, he may be taken by surprise, and frightened out of the
          place. If anyone die during the silence, his relatives are not
          allowed to weep until the four weeks have been
          completed.”</span><a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href=
          "#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of evils on the
              Niger and in Abyssinia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Onitsha, on
          the Niger, Mr. J. C. Taylor witnessed the celebration of New Year's
          Day by the negroes. It fell on the twentieth of December 1858.
          Every family brought a firebrand out into the street, threw it
          away, and exclaimed as they returned, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          gods of the new year! New Year has come round again.”</span> Mr.
          Taylor adds, <span class="tei tei-q">“The meaning of the custom
          seems to be that the fire is to drive away the old year with its
          sorrows and evils, and to embrace the new year with hearty
          reception.”</span><a id="noteref_354" name="noteref_354" href=
          "#note_354"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> Of
          all Abyssinian festivals that of Mascal or the Cross is celebrated
          with the greatest pomp. During the whole of the interval between
          St. John's day and the feast a desultory warfare is waged betwixt
          the youth of opposite sexes in the towns. They all sally out in the
          evenings, the boys armed with nettles or thistles and the girls
          with gourds containing a filthy solution of all sorts of
          abominations. When any of the hostile parties meet, they begin by
          reviling each other in the foulest language, from which they
          proceed to personal violence, the boys stinging the girls with
          their nettles, while the girls discharge their stink-pots in the
          faces of their adversaries. These hostilities may perhaps be
          regarded as a preparation for the festival of the Cross. The eve of
          the festival witnesses a ceremony which doubtless belongs to the
          world-wide class of customs we are dealing with. At sunset a
          discharge of firearms takes place from all the principal houses.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Then every one provides himself with a
          torch, and during the early part of the night bonfires are kindled,
          and the people parade the town, carrying their lighted torches in
          their hands. They go through their houses, too, poking a light into
          every dark corner in the hall, under the couches, in the stables,
          kitchen, etc., as if looking for something lost, and <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> calling out, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘Akho, akhoky! turn out the spinage, and bring in the
          porridge; Mascal is come!’</span>... After this they play, and poke
          fun and torches at each other.”</span> Next morning, while it is
          still dark, bonfires are kindled on the heights near the towns, and
          people rise early to see them. The rising sun of Mascal finds the
          whole population of Abyssinia awake.<a id="noteref_355" name=
          "noteref_355" href="#note_355"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of spirits at the
              yam harvest in New Guinea. Annual expulsion of demons among the
              Hos of West Africa before eating the new yams.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the
          date of the annual expulsion of devils is fixed with reference to
          the agricultural seasons. Thus at Kiriwina, in South-Eastern New
          Guinea, when the new yams had been harvested, the people feasted
          and danced for many days, and a great deal of property, such as
          armlets, native money, and so forth, was displayed conspicuously on
          a platform erected for the purpose. When the festivities were over,
          all the people gathered together and expelled the spirits from the
          village by shouting, beating the posts of the houses, and
          overturning everything under which a wily spirit might be supposed
          to lurk. The explanation which the people gave to a missionary was
          that they had entertained and feasted the spirits and provided them
          with riches, and it was now time for them to take their departure.
          Had they not seen the dances, and heard the songs, and gorged
          themselves on the souls of the yams, and appropriated the souls of
          the money and all the other fine things set out on the platform?
          What more could the spirits want? So out they must go.<a id=
          "noteref_356" name="noteref_356" href="#note_356"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> Among
          the Hos of Togoland in West Africa the expulsion of evils is
          performed annually before the people eat the new yams.<a id=
          "noteref_357" name="noteref_357" href="#note_357"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a> The
          chiefs meet together and summon the priests and magicians. They
          tell them that the people are now to eat the new yams and to be
          merry, therefore they must cleanse the town and remove the evils.
          For that purpose they take leaves of the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">adzu</span></span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">wo</span></span>
          trees, together with creepers and ashes. The leaves and creepers
          they bind fast to a pole of an <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">adzu</span></span> tree, while they pray that
          the evil spirits, the witches, and all the ills in the town may
          pass into the bundle and be bound. Then they make a paste out of
          the ashes and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg
          135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          smear it on the bundle, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“We smear
          it on the face of all the evil ones who are in this bundle, in
          order that they may not be able to see.”</span> With that they
          throw the bundle, that is, the pole wrapt in leaves and creepers,
          on the ground and they all mock at it. Then they prepare a medicine
          and take the various leaf-wrapt poles, into which they have
          conjured and bound up all mischief, carry them out of the town, and
          set them up in the earth on various roads leading into the town.
          When they have done this, they say that they have banished the
          evils from the town and shut the door in their face. With the
          medicine, which the elders have prepared, all men, women, children
          and chiefs wash their faces. After that everybody goes home to
          sweep out his house and homestead. The ground in front of the
          homesteads is also swept, so that the town is thoroughly cleansed.
          All the stalks of grass and refuse of stock yams that have been
          swept together they cast out of the town, and they rail at the
          stock yams. In the course of the night the elders assemble and bind
          a toad to a young palm-leaf. They say that they will now sweep out
          the town and end the ceremony. For that purpose they drag the toad
          through the whole town in the direction of Mount Adaklu. When that
          has been done, the priests say that they will now remove the
          sicknesses. In the evening they give public notice that they are
          about to go on the road, and that therefore no one may light a fire
          on the hearth or eat food. Next morning the women of the town sweep
          out their houses and hearths and deposit the sweepings on broken
          wooden plates. Many wrap themselves in torn mats and tattered
          clothes; others swathe themselves in grass and creepers. While they
          do so, they pray, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“All ye
          sicknesses that are in our body and plague us, we are come to-day
          to throw you out.”</span> When they start to do so, the priest
          gives orders that everybody is to scream once and at the same time
          to smite his mouth. In a moment they all scream, smite their
          mouths, and run as fast as they can in the direction of Mount
          Adaklu. As they run, they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Out to-day!
          Out to-day! That which kills anybody, out to-day! Ye evil spirits,
          out to-day! and all that causes our heads to ache, out to-day! Anlo
          and Adaklu are the places <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg
          136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          whither all ill shall betake itself!”</span> Now on Mount Adaklu
          there grows a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">klo</span></span> tree, and when the people
          have come to the tree they throw everything away and return home.
          On their return they wash themselves with the medicine which is set
          forth in the streets; then they enter their houses.<a id=
          "noteref_358" name="noteref_358" href="#note_358"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons among
              the Hos of North-Eastern India at harvest.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Hos of
          North-Eastern India the great festival of the year is the harvest
          home, held in January, when the granaries are full of grain, and
          the people, to use their own expression, are full of devilry.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“They have a strange notion that at this
          period, men and women are so overcharged with vicious propensities,
          that it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the person to let
          off steam by allowing for a time full vent to the passions.”</span>
          The ceremonies open with a sacrifice to the village god of three
          fowls, a cock and two hens, one of which must be black. Along with
          them are offered flowers of the Palas tree (<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Butea frondosa</span></span>), bread made from
          rice-flour, and sesamum seeds. These offerings are presented by the
          village priest, who prays that during the year about to begin they
          and their children may be preserved from all misfortune and
          sickness, and that they may have seasonable rain and good crops.
          Prayer is also made in some places for the souls of the dead. At
          this time an evil spirit is supposed to infest the place, and to
          get rid of it men, women, and children go in procession round and
          through every part of the village with sticks in their hands, as if
          beating for game, singing a wild chant, and shouting vociferously,
          till they feel assured that the evil spirit must have fled. Then
          they give themselves up to feasting and drinking rice-beer, till
          they are in a fit state for the wild debauch which follows. The
          festival now <span class="tei tei-q">“becomes a saturnale, during
          which servants forget their duty to their masters, children their
          reverence for parents, men their <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> respect for women, and women all notions of
          modesty, delicacy, and gentleness; they become raging
          bacchantes.”</span> Usually the Hos are quiet and reserved in
          manner, decorous and gentle to women. But during this festival
          <span class="tei tei-q">“their natures appear to undergo a
          temporary change. Sons and daughters revile their parents in gross
          language, and parents their children; men and women become almost
          like animals in the indulgence of their amorous
          propensities.”</span> The festival is not held simultaneously in
          all the villages. The time during which it is celebrated in the
          different villages of a district may be from a month to six weeks,
          and by a preconcerted arrangement the celebration begins at each
          village on a different date and lasts three or four days; so the
          inhabitants of each may take part in a long series of orgies. On
          these occasions the utmost liberty is given to the girls, who may
          absent themselves for days with the young men of another village;
          parents at such times never attempt to lay their daughters under
          any restraint. The Mundaris, kinsmen and neighbours of the Hos,
          keep the festival in much the same manner. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The resemblance to a Saturnale is very complete, as at
          this festival the farm labourers are feasted by their masters, and
          allowed the utmost freedom of speech in addressing them. It is the
          festival of the harvest home; the termination of one year's toil,
          and a slight respite from it before they commence
          again.”</span><a id="noteref_359" name="noteref_359" href=
          "#note_359"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons among
              the Hindoo Koosh tribes at harvest. Annual expulsion of demons
              among the Khonds at sowing.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst some of
          the Hindoo Koosh tribes, as among the Hos and Mundaris, the
          expulsion of devils takes place after harvest. When the last crop
          of autumn has been got in, it is thought necessary to drive away
          evil spirits from the granaries. A kind of porridge called
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mool</span></span> is eaten, and the head of
          the family takes his matchlock and fires it into the floor. Then,
          going outside, he sets to work loading and firing till his
          powder-horn is exhausted, while all his neighbours are similarly
          employed. The next day is spent in rejoicings. In Chitral this
          festival is called <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“devil-driving.”</span><a id="noteref_360" name=
          "noteref_360" href="#note_360"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name=
          "Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> On the other hand
          the Khonds of India expel the devils at seed-time instead of at
          harvest. At this time they worship Pitteri Pennu, the god of
          increase and of gain in every shape. On the first day of the
          festival a rude car is made of a basket set upon a few sticks, tied
          upon bamboo rollers for wheels. The priest takes this car first to
          the house of the lineal head of the tribe, to whom precedence is
          given in all ceremonies connected with agriculture. Here he
          receives a little of each kind of seed and some feathers. He then
          takes the car to all the other houses in the village, each of which
          contributes the same things. Lastly, the car is conducted to a
          field without the village, attended by all the young men, who beat
          each other and strike the air violently with long sticks. The seed
          thus carried out is called the share of the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“evil spirits, spoilers of the seed.”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“These are considered to be driven out with
          the car; and when it and its contents are abandoned to them, they
          are held to have no excuse for interfering with the rest of the
          seed-corn.”</span> Next day each household kills a hog over the
          seed for the year, and prays to Pitteri Pennu, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“O Pitteri Pennu! this seed we shall sow to-morrow.
          Some of us, your suppliants, will have a great return, some a small
          return. Let the least favoured have a full basket, let the most
          favoured have many baskets. Give not this seed to ant, or rat, or
          hog. Let the stems which shall spring from it be so stout that the
          earth shall tremble under them. Let the rain find no hole or outlet
          whereby to escape from our fields. Make the earth soft like the
          ashes of cow-dung. To him who has no iron wherewith to shoe his
          plough, make the wood of the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">doh</span></span>-tree like iron. Provide
          other food than our seed for the parrot, the crow, and all the
          fowls and beasts of the jungle. Let not the white ant destroy the
          roots, nor the wild hog crush the stem to get at the fruit; and
          make our crops of all kinds have a better flavour than that of
          those of any other country.”</span> The elders then feast upon the
          hogs. The young men are excluded from the repast, but enjoy the
          privilege of waylaying and pelting with jungle-fruit their elders
          as they return from the feast. Upon the third day the lineal head
          of the tribe goes <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg
          139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          out and sows his seed, after which all the rest may do so.<a id=
          "noteref_361" name="noteref_361" href="#note_361"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of disease in
              Chota Nagpur. Annual expulsion of demons among the Mossos of
              China.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Ranchi, a
          district of Chota Nagpur in Bengal, a ceremony is performed every
          year by one of the clans to drive away disease. Should it prove
          ineffectual, all the villagers assemble by night and walk about the
          village in a body armed with clubs, searching for the disease.
          Everything they find outside of the houses they smash. Hence on
          that day the people throw out their chipped crockery, old pots and
          pans, and other trash into the courtyard, so that when the search
          party comes along they may belabour the heap of rubbish to their
          heart's content; the crash of shattered crockery and the clatter of
          shivered pans indicates, we are told, that the disease has
          departed; perhaps it might be more strictly accurate to say that
          they have frightened it away. At all events a very loud noise is
          made <span class="tei tei-q">“so that the disease may not remain
          hidden anywhere.”</span><a id="noteref_362" name="noteref_362"
          href="#note_362"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a> In a
          village of the Mossos, an aboriginal tribe of south-western China,
          a French traveller witnessed the annual ceremony of the expulsion
          of devils. Two magicians, wearing mitres of red pasteboard, went
          from house to house, attended by a troop of children, their faces
          smeared with flour, some of whom carried torches and others
          cymbals, while all made a deafening noise. After dancing a wild
          dance in the courtyard of the house, they entered the principal
          room, where the performers were regaled with a draught of ardent
          spirits, of which they sprinkled a few drops on the floor. Then the
          magicians recited their spells to oblige the evil spirits to quit
          the chamber and the good spirits to enter it. At the end of each
          phrase, the children, speaking for the spirits, answered with a
          shout, <span class="tei tei-q">“We go”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“We come.”</span> That concluded the ceremony in the
          house, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg
          140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          and the noisy procession filed out to repeat it in the next.<a id=
          "noteref_363" name="noteref_363" href="#note_363"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Periodical expulsion of demons in
              Bali.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people of
          Bali, an island to the east of Java, have periodical expulsions of
          devils upon a great scale. Generally the time chosen for the
          expulsion is the day of the <span class="tei tei-q">“dark
          moon”</span> in the ninth month. When the demons have been long
          unmolested the country is said to be <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“warm,”</span> and the priest issues orders to expel
          them by force, lest the whole of Bali should be rendered
          uninhabitable. On the day appointed the people of the village or
          district assemble at the principal temple. Here at a cross-road
          offerings are set out for the devils. After prayers have been
          recited by the priests, the blast of a horn summons the devils to
          partake of the meal which has been prepared for them. At the same
          time a number of men step forward and light their torches at the
          holy lamp which burns before the chief priest. Immediately
          afterwards, followed by the bystanders, they spread in all
          directions and march through the streets and lanes crying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Depart! go away!”</span> Wherever they
          pass, the people who have stayed at home hasten, by a deafening
          clatter on doors, beams, rice-blocks, and so forth, to take their
          share in the expulsion of devils. Thus chased from the houses, the
          fiends flee to the banquet which has been set out for them; but
          here the priest receives them with curses which finally drive them
          from the district. When the last devil has taken his departure, the
          uproar is succeeded by a dead silence, which lasts during the next
          day also. The devils, it is thought, are anxious to return to their
          old homes, and in order to make them think that Bali is not Bali
          but some desert island, no one may stir from his own abode for
          twenty-four hours. Even ordinary household work, including cooking,
          is discontinued. Only the watchmen may shew themselves in the
          streets. Wreaths of thorns and leaves are hung at all the entrances
          to warn strangers from entering. Not till the third day is this
          state of siege raised, and even then it is forbidden to work at the
          rice-fields or to buy and sell <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the market. Most people still stay at
          home, striving to while away the time with cards and dice.<a id=
          "noteref_364" name="noteref_364" href="#note_364"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of the
              fire-spirit among the Shans. Annual ceremony in Fiji. Annual
              ceremony in Tumleo.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Shans of
          Southern China annually expel the fire-spirit. The ceremony was
          witnessed by the English Mission under Colonel Sladen on the
          thirteenth of August 1868. Bullocks and cows were slaughtered in
          the market-place; the meat was all sold, part of it was cooked and
          eaten, while the rest was fired out of guns at sundown. The pieces
          of flesh which fell on the land were supposed to become mosquitoes,
          those which fell in the water were believed to turn into leeches.
          In the evening the chief's retainers beat gongs and blew trumpets;
          and when darkness had set in, torches were lit, and a party,
          preceded by the musicians, searched the central court for the
          fire-spirit, who is supposed to lurk about at this season with evil
          intent. They then ransacked all the rooms and the gardens, throwing
          the light of the torches into every nook and corner where the evil
          spirit might find a hiding-place.<a id="noteref_365" name=
          "noteref_365" href="#note_365"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Fiji an annual ceremony took place which has much the
          aspect of an expulsion of devils. The time of its celebration was
          determined by the appearance of a certain fish or sea-slug
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">balolo</span></span>) which swarms out in
          dense shoals from the coral reefs on a single day of the year,
          usually in the last quarter of the moon in November. The appearance
          of the sea-slugs was the signal for a general feast at those places
          where they were taken. An influential <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> man ascended a tree and prayed to the spirit
          of the sky for good crops, fair winds, and so on. Thereupon a
          tremendous clatter, with drumming and shouting, was raised by all
          the people in their houses for about half an hour. This was
          followed by a dead quiet for four days, during which the people
          feasted on the sea-slug. All this time no work of any kind might be
          done, not even a leaf plucked nor the offal removed from the
          houses. If a noise was made in any house, as by a child crying, a
          forfeit was at once exacted by the chief. At daylight on the expiry
          of the fourth night the whole town was in an uproar; men and boys
          scampered about, knocking with clubs and sticks at the doors of the
          houses and crying <span class="tei tei-q">“Sinariba!”</span> This
          concluded the ceremony.<a id="noteref_366" name="noteref_366" href=
          "#note_366"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a> The
          natives of Tumleo, a small <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> island off German New Guinea, also catch the
          sea-slug in the month of November, and at this season they observe
          a curious ceremony, which may perhaps be explained as an expulsion
          of evils or demons. The lads, and sometimes grown men with them, go
          in troops into the forest to search for grass-arrows (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">räng</span></span>). When they have collected
          a store of these arrows, they take sides and, armed with little
          bows, engage in a regular battle. The arrows fly as thick as hail,
          and though no one is killed, many receive skin wounds and are
          covered with blood. The Catholic missionary who reports the custom
          could not ascertain the reasons for observing it. Perhaps one set
          of combatants represents the demons or embodied evils of the year,
          who are defeated and driven away by the champions of the people.
          The month in which these combats take place (November and the
          beginning of December) is sometimes named after the grass-arrows
          and sometimes after the sea-slug.<a id="noteref_367" name=
          "noteref_367" href="#note_367"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              Japan.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the last
          night of the year there is observed in most Japanese houses a
          ceremony called <span class="tei tei-q">“the exorcism of the evil
          spirit.”</span> It is performed by the head of the family. Clad in
          his finest robes, with a sword, if he has the right of bearing one,
          at his waist, he goes through all the rooms at the hour of
          midnight, carrying in his left hand a box of roasted beans on a
          lacquered stand. From time to time he dips his right hand into the
          box and scatters a handful of beans on a mat, pronouncing a
          cabalistic form of words of which the meaning is, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Go forth, demons! Enter riches!”</span><a id=
          "noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href="#note_368"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a>
          According to another account, the ceremony takes place on the night
          before the beginning of spring, and the roasted beans are flung
          against the walls as well as on the floors of the houses.<a id=
          "noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href="#note_369"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a> While
          the duty of expelling the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg
          144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          devils should, strictly speaking, be discharged by the head of the
          house, it is often delegated to a servant. Whether master or
          servant, the performer goes by the name of year-man (<span lang=
          "ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">toshi-otoko</span></span>), the rite being
          properly performed on the last day of the year. The words
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Out with the devils”</span> (<span lang=
          "ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Oni ha soto</span></span>) are pronounced by
          him in a loud voice, but the words <span class="tei tei-q">“In with
          the luck”</span> (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fuku ha uchi</span></span>)
          in a low tone. In the Shogun's palace the ceremony was performed by
          a year-man specially appointed for the purpose, who scattered
          parched beans in all the principal rooms. These beans were picked
          up by the women of the palace, who wrapped as many of them in paper
          as they themselves were years old, and then flung them backwards
          out of doors. Sometimes people who had reached an unlucky year
          would gather these beans, one for each year of their life and one
          over, and wrap them in paper together with a small copper coin
          which had been rubbed over their body to transfer the ill-luck. The
          packet was afterwards thrown away at a cross-road. This was called
          <span class="tei tei-q">“flinging away ill-luck”</span>
          (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yaku sute</span></span>).<a id="noteref_370"
          name="noteref_370" href="#note_370"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a>
          According to Lafcadio Hearn, the casting-out of devils from the
          houses is performed by a professional exorciser for a small fee,
          and the peas which he scatters about the house are afterwards swept
          up and carefully kept until the first peal of thunder is heard in
          spring, when it is customary to cook and eat some of them. After
          the demons have been thoroughly expelled from a house, a charm is
          set up over the door to prevent them from returning: it consists of
          a wooden skewer with a holly leaf and the dried head of a fish like
          a sardine stuck on it.<a id="noteref_371" name="noteref_371" href=
          "#note_371"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of poverty and
              demons in China, India, and Persia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the third day
          of the tenth month in every year the Hak-Ka, a native race in the
          province of Canton, sweep their houses and turn the accumulated
          filth out of doors, together with three sticks of incense and some
          mock money made of paper. At the same time they call out,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the devil of poverty depart! Let the
          devil of poverty depart!”</span> By performing this ceremony they
          hope to preserve their homes from penury.<a id="noteref_372" name=
          "noteref_372" href="#note_372"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a> Among
          some of the Hindoos of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> Punjaub on the morning after Diwali or the
          festival of lamps, at which the souls of ancestors are believed to
          visit the house, the oldest woman of the family takes a corn-sieve
          or winnowing basket and a broom, to both of which magical virtues
          are ascribed, and beats them in every corner of the house,
          exclaiming, <span class="tei tei-q">“God abide, and poverty
          depart!”</span> The sieve is then carried out of the village,
          generally to the east or north, and being thrown away is supposed
          to bear away with it the poverty and distress of the household. Or
          the woman flings all the sweepings and rubbish out of doors,
          saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let all dirt and wretchedness
          depart from here, and all good fortune come in.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_373" name="noteref_373" href="#note_373"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a> The
          Persians used annually to expel the demons or goblins (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dives</span></span>) from their houses in the
          month of December. For this purpose the Magi wrote certain words
          with saffron on a piece of parchment or paper and then held the
          writing over a fire into which they threw cotton, garlic, grapes,
          wild rue, and the horn of an animal that had been killed on the
          sixteenth of September. The spell thus prepared was nailed or glued
          to the inside of the door, and the door was painted red. Next the
          priest took some sand and spread it out with a knife, while he
          muttered certain prayers. After that he strewed the sand on the
          floor, and the enchantment was complete. The demons now immediately
          vanished, or at least were deprived of all their malignant
          power.<a id="noteref_374" name="noteref_374" href=
          "#note_374"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              China at the end of the year.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For ages it has
          been customary in China to expel the demons from house and home,
          from towns and cities, at the end of every year. Such general
          expulsions of devils go by the name of <span lang="zh" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">no</span></span>. They are often mentioned and
          described in Chinese literature. For example, under the Han
          dynasty, in the second century of our era, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“it was ordered that <span lang="zh" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">fang-siang shi</span></span> with four eyes of
          gold, masked with bearskins, and wearing black coats with red
          skirts, bearing lances and brandishing shields, should always
          perform at the end of the year in the twelfth month the <span lang=
          "zh" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">no</span></span> of the season, in the rear of
          hundreds of official servants and boys, and search the interior
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name=
          "Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the palace, in
          order to expel the demons of plague. With bows of peach wood and
          arrows of the thorny jujube they shoot at the spectres, and with
          porcelain drums they drum at them; moreover they throw red balls
          and cereals at them, in order to remove disease and
          calamity.”</span><a id="noteref_375" name="noteref_375" href=
          "#note_375"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a>
          Again, in a poem of the same period we read that <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“at the end of the year the great <span lang="zh"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">no</span></span> takes place for the purpose
          of driving off all spectres. The <span lang="zh" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">fang-siang</span></span> carry their spears,
          <span lang="zh" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">wu</span></span> and <span lang="zh" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="zh"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">hih</span></span> hold their bundles of reed.
          Ten thousand lads with red heads and black clothes, with bows of
          peach wood and arrows of thorny jujube shoot at random all around.
          Showers of potsherds and pebbles come down like rain, infallibly
          killing strong spectres as well as the weak. Flaming torches run
          after these beings, so that a sparkling and streaming glare chases
          the red plague to all sides; thereupon they destroy them in the
          imperial moats and break down the suspension bridges (to prevent
          their return).”</span><a id="noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href=
          "#note_376"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a> At a
          later period Chinese historians inform us that the house of Tsi
          caused the annual expulsion of demons to be performed on the last
          day of the year by two groups, each of one hundred and twenty lads,
          and twelve animals headed by drums and wind instruments. The gates
          of the wards and of the city walls were flung open, and the emperor
          witnessed the ceremony seated on his throne in the midst of his
          officers. With rolling drums the procession entered the palace
          through the western gate, and passed through all parts of it in two
          divisions, even ascending the towers, while they hopped, jumped and
          shrieked; and on quitting the palace they spread out in six
          directions till they reached the city walls.<a id="noteref_377"
          name="noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a> At
          the present time it is customary in every part of China to fire off
          crackers on the last day and night of the year for the purpose of
          terrifying and expelling the devils: enormous quantities of the
          explosives are consumed at this season: the people seem to vie with
          one another as to who shall let off the most crackers and make the
          most noise. Sometimes long strings of these fireworks hang from
          balconies and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg
          147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          eaves and keep up a continuous crackling for half an hour together
          or more; in great cities the prolonged and ear-splitting din is
          very annoying to foreigners. To the ears of the Chinese the noise
          appears to be agreeable, if not for its own sake, at least for the
          beneficial effect it is supposed to produce by driving demons away.
          Indeed they seem to be of opinion that any noise, provided it be
          sufficiently harsh and loud, serves this useful purpose. The sound
          of brass instruments is particularly terrifying to devils; hence
          the great use which the Chinese make of gongs in rites of exorcism.
          The clash of gongs, we are told, resounds through the Chinese
          empire daily, especially in summer, when a rise in the death-rate,
          which ignorant Europeans attribute to mere climatic influences,
          stimulates the people to redouble their efforts for the banishment
          of the fiends, who are the real cause of all the mischief. At such
          times you may see and hear groups of benevolent and public-spirited
          men and women banging gongs, clashing cymbals, and drubbing drums
          for hours together. No protest is made by their neighbours, no
          complaint that they disturb the night's rest of the sick and the
          tired. People listen with resignation or rather with gratitude and
          complacency to the deafening uproar raised by these generous
          philanthropists, who thus devote their services gratuitously to the
          cause of the public health.<a id="noteref_378" name="noteref_378"
          href="#note_378"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a> In
          Corea, also, the devils are driven out of the towns on New Year's
          Eve by the firing of guns and the popping of crackers.<a id=
          "noteref_379" name="noteref_379" href="#note_379"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              Tonquin.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Tonquin a
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">theckydaw</span></span> or general expulsion
          of malevolent spirits commonly took place once a year, especially
          if there was a great mortality amongst men, the elephants or horses
          of the general's stable, or the cattle of the country, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the cause of which they attribute to the malicious
          spirits of such men as have been put to death for treason,
          rebellion, and conspiring the death of the king, general, or
          princes, and that in revenge of the punishment they have suffered,
          they are bent to destroy everything and commit horrible violence.
          To <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name=
          "Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> prevent which their
          superstition has suggested to them the institution of this
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">theckydaw</span></span>, as a proper means to
          drive the devil away, and purge the country of evil
          spirits.”</span> The day appointed for the ceremony was generally
          the twenty-fifth of February, one month after the beginning of the
          new year, which fell on the twenty-fifth of January. The
          intermediate month was a season of feasting, merry-making of all
          kinds, and general licence. During the whole month the great seal
          was kept shut up in a box, face downwards, and the law was, as it
          were, laid asleep. All courts of justice were closed; debtors could
          not be seized; small crimes, such as petty larceny, fighting, and
          assault, escaped with impunity; only treason and murder were taken
          account of and the malefactors detained till the great seal should
          come into operation again. At the close of the saturnalia the
          wicked spirits were driven away. Great masses of troops and
          artillery having been drawn up with flying colours and all the pomp
          of war, <span class="tei tei-q">“the general beginneth then to
          offer meat offerings to the criminal devils and malevolent spirits
          (for it is usual and customary likewise amongst them to feast the
          condemned before their execution), inviting them to eat and drink,
          when presently he accuses them in a strange language, by characters
          and figures, etc., of many offences and crimes committed by them,
          as to their having disquieted the land, killed his elephants and
          horses, etc., for all which they justly deserve to be chastised and
          banished the country. Whereupon three great guns are fired as the
          last signal; upon which all the artillery and musquets are
          discharged, that, by their most terrible noise the devils may be
          driven away; and they are so blind as to believe for certain, that
          they really and effectually put them to flight.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_380" name="noteref_380" href="#note_380"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              Cambodia and Siam.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Cambodia the
          expulsion of evil spirits took place in March. Bits of broken
          statues and stones, considered as the abode of the demons, were
          collected and brought to the capital. Here as many elephants were
          collected as could be got together. On the evening of the full moon
          volleys of musketry were fired and the elephants charged furiously
          to put the devils to flight. The ceremony was performed on three
          successive days.<a id="noteref_381" name="noteref_381" href=
          "#note_381"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a> In
          Siam the banishment of demons is annually carried into effect on
          the last day of the old year. A signal gun is fired from the
          palace; it is answered from the next station, and so on from
          station to station, till the firing has reached the outer gate of
          the city. Thus the demons are driven out step by step. As soon as
          this is done a consecrated rope is fastened round the circuit of
          the city walls to prevent the banished demons from returning. The
          rope is made of tough couch-grass and is painted in alternate
          stripes of red, yellow, and blue.<a id="noteref_382" name=
          "noteref_382" href="#note_382"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a>
          According to a more recent account, the Siamese ceremony takes
          place at the New Year holidays, which are three in number,
          beginning with the first of April. For the feasting which
          accompanies these holidays a special kind of cake <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is made, <span class="tei tei-q">“which
          is as much in demand as our own Shrove-Tuesday pancakes or our
          Good-Friday hot cross-buns. The temples are thronged with women and
          children making offerings to Buddha and his priests. The people
          inaugurate their New Year with numerous charitable and religious
          deeds. The rich entertain the monks, who recite appropriate prayers
          and chants. Every departed soul returns to the bosom of his family
          during these three days, freed from any fetters that may have bound
          him in the regions of indefinable locality. On the third day the
          religious observances terminate, and the remaining hours are
          devoted to <span class="tei tei-q">‘the world, the flesh, and the
          devil.’</span> Gambling is not confined to the licensed houses, but
          may be indulged in anywhere. Games of chance hold powerful sway in
          every house as long as the licence to participate in them lasts.
          Priests in small companies occupy posts at regular intervals round
          the city wall, and spend their time in chanting away the evil
          spirits. On the evening of the second day, the ghostly visitors
          from the lower realms lose the luxury of being exorcised with
          psalms. Every person who has a gun may fire it as often as he
          pleases, and the noise thus made is undoubtedly fearful enough in
          its intensity to cause any wandering traveller from the far-off
          fiery land to retrace his steps with speed. The bang and rattle of
          pistols, muskets, shot-guns, and rifles cease not till the break of
          day, by which time the city is effectually cleared of all its
          infernal visitors.”</span><a id="noteref_383" name="noteref_383"
          href="#note_383"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a> From
          this account we learn that among the spirits thus banished are the
          souls of the dead, who revisit their living friends once a year. To
          the same effect, apparently, Bishop Bruguière, writing from Bangkok
          in 1829, tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the three first
          days of the moon of April are days of solemn festivity for the
          pious Siamese. That day Lucifer opens all the gates of the abyss,
          the souls of the dead, which are shut up there, come forth and
          partake of a repast in the bosom of their family. They are treated
          splendidly. One of these three days a monk repairs to the palace to
          preach before the king. At the end of the sermon a preconcerted
          signal is given, and in a moment the cannons are fired in all the
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name=
          "Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> quarters of the city
          to chase the devil out of the walls or to kill him, if he dares to
          resist. On the first day a temporary king is named, who bears the
          title of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">phaja-phollathep</span></span>; during these
          three days he enjoys all the royal prerogatives, the real king
          remaining shut up in his palace.”</span><a id="noteref_384" name=
          "noteref_384" href="#note_384"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual reception and expulsion of
              the spirits of the dead in Japan.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A similar belief
          and a similar custom prevail in Japan. There, too, the souls of the
          departed return to their old homes once a year, and a festival
          called the Feast of Lanterns is made to welcome them. They come at
          evening on the thirteenth day of the seventh month of the old
          calendar, which falls towards the end of August. It is needful to
          light them on their way. Accordingly bamboos with pretty coloured
          lanterns attached to them are fastened on the tombs, and being
          thickly set they make an illumination on the hills, where the
          burying-grounds are generally situated. Lamps of many hues or rows
          of tapers are also lit and set out in front of the houses and in
          the gardens, and small fires are kindled in the streets, so that
          the whole city is in a blaze of light. After the sun has set, a
          great multitude issues from the town, for every family goes forth
          to meet its returning dead. When they come to the spot where they
          believe the souls to be, they welcome the unseen visitors and
          invite them to rest after their journey, and to partake of
          refreshments which they offer to them. Having allowed the souls
          time enough to satisfy their hunger and recover from their fatigue,
          they escort them by torchlight, chatting gaily with them, into the
          city and to the houses where they lived and died. These are also
          illuminated with brilliant lanterns; a banquet is spread on the
          tables; and the places of the dead, who are supposed to absorb the
          ethereal essence of the food, are laid for them as if they were
          alive. After the repast the living go from house to house to visit
          the souls of their dead friends and neighbours; and thus they spend
          the night running about the town. On the evening of the third day
          of the festival, which is the fifteenth day of the month, the time
          has come for the souls <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg
          152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          to return to their own place. Fires again blaze in the streets to
          light them on the road; the people again escort them ceremoniously
          to the spot where they met them two days before; and in some places
          they send the lanterns floating away on rivers or the sea in
          miniature boats, which are laden with provisions for the spirits on
          their way to their long home. But there is still a fear that some
          poor souls may have lagged behind, or even concealed themselves in
          a nook or corner, loth to part from the scenes of their former life
          and from those they love. Accordingly steps are taken to hunt out
          these laggards and send them packing after their fellow-ghosts.
          With this intention the people throw stones on the roofs of their
          houses in great profusion; and going through every room armed with
          sticks they deal swashing blows all about them in the empty air to
          chase away the lingering souls. This they do, we are told, out of a
          regard for their own comfort quite as much as from the affection
          they bear to the dead; for they fear to be disturbed by
          unseasonable apparitions if they suffered the airy visitors to
          remain in the house.<a id="noteref_385" name="noteref_385" href=
          "#note_385"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual reception and expulsion of
              the spirits of the dead in ancient Greece and Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in spite of
          the kindly welcome given to the souls, the fear which they inspire
          comes out plainly in the pains taken to ensure their departure; and
          this fear justifies us in including such forced departures among
          the ceremonies for the expulsion of evils with which we are here
          concerned. It may be remembered that the annual banishment of
          ghosts has been practised by savages so low in the scale of
          humanity as the Australian aborigines.<a id="noteref_386" name=
          "noteref_386" href="#note_386"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a> At
          the other end of the scale it was observed in classical antiquity
          by the civilized Greeks and Romans. The Athenians believed that at
          the festival of the Anthesteria the souls of the dead came back
          from the nether world and went about the city. Accordingly ropes
          were fastened round the temples to keep out <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the wandering ghosts; and with a like
          intention the people chewed buckthorn in the morning and smeared
          the doors of their houses with pitch, apparently thinking that any
          rash spirits who might attempt to enter would stick fast in the
          pitch and be glued, like so many flies, to the door. But at the end
          of the festival the souls were bidden to depart in these words:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Out of the door with you, souls. The
          Anthesteria is over.”</span><a id="noteref_387" name="noteref_387"
          href="#note_387"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a> Yet
          for the entertainment of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg
          154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the unseen guests during their short stay earthenware pots full of
          boiled food appear to have been everywhere prepared throughout the
          city; but probably these were placed in the street outside the
          houses, in order to give the ghosts no excuse for entering and
          disturbing the inmates. No priest would eat of the food thus
          offered to the dead,<a id="noteref_388" name="noteref_388" href=
          "#note_388"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a> but
          prowling beggars probably had no such scruples. Similarly when the
          Sea Dyaks of Sarawak celebrate their great Festival of Departed
          Spirits at intervals which vary from one to three or four years,
          food is prepared for the dead and they are summoned from their
          far-off home to partake of it; but it is put outside at the
          entrance of the house. And before the general arrival of the souls,
          while the people are busy brewing the drink for the feast, each
          family takes care to hang an earthenware pot full of the liquor
          outside of the single room which it occupies in the large common
          house, lest some thirsty soul should arrive prematurely from the
          other world, and, forcing his way into the domestic circle, should
          not merely slake his thirst but carry off one of the living.<a id=
          "noteref_389" name="noteref_389" href="#note_389"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a>
          During three days in May the Romans held a festival in honour of
          the ghosts. The temples were shut, doubtless to keep out the
          ghostly swarms; but, as in Japan, every house seems to have been
          thrown open to receive the spirits of its own departed. When the
          reception <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg
          155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          was over, each head of a family arose at dead of night, washed his
          hands, and having made with fingers and thumb certain magic signs
          to ward off ghosts, he proceeded to throw black beans over his
          shoulder without looking behind him. As he did so, he said nine
          times, <span class="tei tei-q">“With these beans I redeem me and
          mine”</span>; and the ghosts, following unseen at his heels, picked
          up the beans and left him and his alone. Then he dipped his hands
          again in water, clashed bronze vessels together to make a din, and
          begged the ghosts to depart from his house, saying nine times,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Go forth, paternal shades!”</span> After
          that he looked behind him, and the ceremony was over: the ghosts
          had taken their leave for another year.<a id="noteref_390" name=
          "noteref_390" href="#note_390"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of Satan among
              the Wotyaks and Cheremiss of Russia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Annual
          expulsions of demons, witches, or evil influences appear to have
          been common among the heathen of Europe, if we may judge from the
          relics of such customs among their descendants at the present day.
          Thus among the heathen Wotyaks, a Finnish people of Eastern Russia,
          all the young girls of the village assemble on the last day of the
          year or on New Year's Day, armed with sticks, the ends of which are
          split in nine places. With these they beat every corner of the
          house and yard, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“We are driving
          Satan out of the village.”</span> Afterwards the sticks are thrown
          into the river below the village, and as they float down stream
          Satan goes with them to the next village, from which he must be
          driven out in turn. In some villages the expulsion is managed
          otherwise. The unmarried men receive from every house in the
          village groats, flesh, and brandy. These they take to the fields,
          light a fire under a fir-tree, boil the groats, and eat of the food
          they have brought with them, after pronouncing the words,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Go away into the wilderness, come not into
          the house.”</span> Then they return to the village and enter every
          house where there are young women. They take hold of the young
          women and throw them into the snow, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“May the spirits of disease leave you.”</span> The
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name=
          "Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> remains of the
          groats and the other food are then distributed among all the houses
          in proportion to the amount that each contributed, and each family
          consumes its share. According to a Wotyak of the Malmyz district
          the young men throw into the snow whomever they find in the houses,
          and this is called <span class="tei tei-q">“driving out
          Satan”</span>; moreover, some of the boiled groats are cast into
          the fire with the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“O god, afflict us
          not with sickness and pestilence, give us not up as a prey to the
          spirits of the wood.”</span> But the most antique form of the
          ceremony is that observed by the Wotyaks of the Kasan Government.
          First of all a sacrifice is offered to the Devil at noon. Then all
          the men assemble on horseback in the centre of the village, and
          decide with which house they shall begin. When this question, which
          often gives rise to hot disputes, is settled, they tether their
          horses to the paling, and arm themselves with whips, clubs of
          lime-wood, and bundles of lighted twigs. The lighted twigs are
          believed to have the greatest terrors for Satan. Thus armed, they
          proceed with frightful cries to beat every corner of the house and
          yard, then shut the door, and spit at the ejected fiend. So they go
          from house to house, till the Devil has been driven from every one.
          Then they mount their horses and ride out of the village, yelling
          wildly and brandishing their clubs in every direction. Outside of
          the village they fling away the clubs and spit once more at the
          Devil.<a id="noteref_391" name="noteref_391" href=
          "#note_391"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a> The
          Cheremiss, another Finnish people of Eastern Russia, chase Satan
          from their dwellings by beating the walls with cudgels of
          lime-wood. For the same purpose they fire guns, stab the ground
          with knives, and insert burning chips of wood in the crevices. Also
          they leap over bonfires, shaking out their garments as they do so;
          and in some districts they blow on long trumpets of lime-tree bark
          to frighten him away. When he has fled to the wood, they pelt the
          trees with some of the cheese-cakes and eggs which furnished the
          feast.<a id="noteref_392" name="noteref_392" href=
          "#note_392"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches and
              other powers of evil in Christian Europe.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Christian
          Europe the old heathen custom of expelling <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the powers of evil at certain times of the
          year has survived to modern times. Thus in some villages of
          Calabria the month of March is inaugurated with the expulsion of
          the witches. It takes place at night to the sound of the church
          bells, the people running about the streets and crying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“March is come.”</span> They say that the
          witches roam about in March, and the ceremony is repeated every
          Friday evening during the month.<a id="noteref_393" name=
          "noteref_393" href="#note_393"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a>
          Often, as might have been anticipated, the ancient pagan rite has
          attached itself to church festivals. For example, in Calabria at
          Eastertide every family provides itself in time with a supply of
          holy water, and when the church bells proclaim the resurrection of
          Christ the people sprinkle the house with the water, saying in a
          loud voice, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="it" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Esciti fora sùrici uorvi, esciti fora
          tentaziuni, esca u malu ed entri u bene</span></span>.”</span> At
          the same time they knock on doors and windows, on chests and other
          articles of furniture.<a id="noteref_394" name="noteref_394" href=
          "#note_394"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a>
          Again, in Albania on Easter Eve the young people light torches of
          resinous wood and march in procession, swinging them, through the
          village. At last they throw the torches into the river, crying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ha, Kore! we throw you into the river,
          like these torches, that you may never return.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_395" name="noteref_395" href="#note_395"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a>
          Silesian peasants believe that on Good Friday the witches go their
          rounds and have great power for mischief. Hence about Oels, near
          Strehlitz, the people on that day arm themselves with old brooms
          and drive the witches from house and home, from farmyard and
          cattle-stall, making a great uproar and clatter as they do
          so.<a id="noteref_396" name="noteref_396" href=
          "#note_396"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Widespread fear of witches and
              wizards in Europe.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The belief in
          the maleficent power and activity of witches and wizards would seem
          to have weighed almost as heavily on the heathen of Central and
          Northern Europe in prehistoric times as it still weighs on the
          minds of African negroes and other savages in many parts of the
          world. But while these unhallowed beings were always with our
          forefathers, there were times and seasons of the year when
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name=
          "Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> they were supposed
          to be particularly mischievous, and when accordingly special
          precautions had to be taken against them. Among such times were the
          twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, the Eve of St. George,
          the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), and Midsummer Eve.<a id=
          "noteref_397" name="noteref_397" href="#note_397"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches on
              Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day), on May Day in the
              Tyrol.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Central
          Europe it was apparently on Walpurgis Night, the Eve of May Day,
          above all other times that the baleful powers of the witches were
          exerted to the fullest extent; nothing therefore could be more
          natural than that men should be on their guard against them at that
          season, and that, not content with merely standing on their
          defence, they should boldly have sought to carry the war into the
          enemy's quarters by attacking and forcibly expelling the uncanny
          crew. Amongst the weapons with which they fought their invisible
          adversaries in these grim encounters were holy water, the fumes of
          incense or other combustibles, and loud noises of all kinds,
          particularly the clashing of metal instruments, amongst which the
          ringing of church bells was perhaps the most effectual.<a id=
          "noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href="#note_398"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a> Some
          of these strong measures are still in use among the peasantry, or
          were so down to recent years, and there seems no reason to suppose
          that their magical virtue has been at all impaired by lapse of
          time. In the Tyrol, as in other places, the expulsion of the powers
          of evil at this season goes by the name of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Burning out the Witches.”</span> It takes place on May
          Day, but people have been busy with their preparations for days
          before. On a Thursday at midnight bundles are made up of resinous
          splinters, black and red spotted hemlock, caperspurge, rosemary,
          and twigs of the sloe. These are kept and burned on May Day by men
          who must first have received plenary absolution from the Church. On
          the last three days of April all the houses are cleansed and
          fumigated with juniper berries and rue. On May Day, when the
          evening bell has rung and the twilight is falling, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the ceremony of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Burning out the Witches”</span> begins. Men and boys
          make a racket with whips, bells, pots, and pans; the women carry
          censers; the dogs are unchained and run barking and yelping about.
          As soon as the church bells begin to ring, the bundles of twigs,
          fastened on poles, are set on fire and the incense is ignited. Then
          all the house-bells and dinner-bells are rung, pots and pans are
          clashed, dogs bark, every one must make a noise. And amid this
          hubbub all scream at the pitch of their voices,</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Witch flee, flee from
                here,</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Or it will go ill with
                thee.</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then they run
          seven times round the houses, the yards, and the village. So the
          witches are smoked out of their lurking-places and driven
          away.<a id="noteref_399" name="noteref_399" href=
          "#note_399"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches on
              Walpurgis Night in Bavaria and Voigtland.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of
          expelling the witches on Walpurgis Night is still, or was down to
          thirty or forty years ago, observed in many parts of Bavaria and
          among the Germans of Bohemia. Thus in the Böhmerwald Mountains,
          which divide Bavaria from Bohemia, all the young fellows of the
          village assemble after sunset on some height, especially at a
          cross-road, and crack whips for a while in unison with all their
          strength. This drives away the witches; for so far as the sound of
          the whips is heard, these maleficent beings can do no harm. The
          peasants believe firmly in the efficacy of <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> this remedy. A yokel will tell his sons to be
          sure to crack their whips loudly and hit the witches hard; and to
          give more sting to every blow the whip-lashes are knotted. On
          returning to the village the lads often sing songs and collect
          contributions of eggs, lard, bread, and butter. In some places,
          while the young fellows are cracking their whips, the herdsmen wind
          their horns, and the long-drawn notes, heard far-off in the silence
          of night, are very effectual for banning the witches. In other
          places, again, the youth blow upon so-called shawms made of peeled
          willow-wood in front of every house, especially in front of such
          houses as are suspected of harbouring a witch.<a id="noteref_400"
          name="noteref_400" href="#note_400"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a> In
          Voigtland, a bleak mountainous region of Central Germany<a id=
          "noteref_401" name="noteref_401" href="#note_401"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a>
          bordering on the Frankenwald Mountains, the belief in witchcraft is
          still widely spread. The time when the witches are particularly
          dreaded is Walpurgis Night, but they play their pranks also on
          Midsummer Eve, St. Thomas's Eve, and Christmas Eve. On these days
          they try to make their way into a neighbour's house and to borrow
          or steal something from it; and woe betide the man in whose house
          they have succeeded in their nefarious errand! It is on Walpurgis
          Night and Midsummer Eve that they ride through the air astride of
          pitchforks and churn-dashers. They also bewitch the cattle; so to
          protect the poor beasts from their hellish machinations the people
          on these days chalk up three crosses on the doors of the
          cattle-stalls or hang up St. John's wort, marjoram, and so forth.
          Very often, too, the village youth turn out in a body and drive the
          witches away with the cracking of whips, the firing of guns, and
          the waving of burning besoms through the air, not to mention shouts
          and noises of all sorts.<a id="noteref_402" name="noteref_402"
          href="#note_402"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a> Such
          customs appear to be observed generally in Thüringen, of which
          Voigtland is a part. The people think that the blows of the whip
          actually fall on the witches hovering unseen in the air, and that
          so far as the cracking of the whips is heard, the crops will be
          good and nothing will be struck by <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> lightning,<a id="noteref_403" name=
          "noteref_403" href="#note_403"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a> no
          doubt because the witches have been banished by the sound.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Burning of the Witches</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">on
              Walpurgis Night in Bohemia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Bohemia many
          are the precautions taken by the peasantry, both German and Czech,
          to guard themselves and their cattle against the witches on
          Walpurgis Night. Thorny branches are laid on the thresholds of
          cow-houses and dwellings to keep out the infernal crew, and after
          sunset boys armed with whips and guns drive them from the villages
          with a prodigious uproar and burn them in bonfires on the
          neighbouring heights. It is true that the witches themselves are
          not seen, though effigies of them are sometimes consumed in the
          bonfires. This <span class="tei tei-q">“Burning of the
          Witches,”</span> as it is called, protects the crops from their
          ravages. German lads also employ goats' horns as a means of driving
          away the witches at the moment when they issue forth from
          kitchen-chimneys on their way to the witches' Sabbath.<a id=
          "noteref_404" name="noteref_404" href="#note_404"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a> Some
          minor variations in the mode of expelling the witches on Walpurgis
          Night have been noted in the German villages of Western Bohemia.
          Thus in Absrot the village youth go out to cross-roads and there
          beat the ground with boards, no doubt for the purpose of thrashing
          the witches who are commonly supposed to assemble at such spots. In
          Deslawen, after the evening bells have rung, people go through the
          houses beating the walls or floors with boards; then they issue
          forth into the roads, headed by a boy who carries the effigy of a
          witch made up of rags. Thereupon grown-up folk crack whips and fire
          shots. In Schönwert the young people go in bands through the
          village and the meadows, making a great noise with bells, flutes,
          and whips, for the more noise they make the more effectual is the
          ceremony supposed to be. Meantime the older men are busy firing
          shots over the fields and the dungheaps. In Hochofen troops of
          children go from house to house on Walpurgis Evening, making a
          great clatter with tin cans and kettles, while they scream,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Witch, go out, your house is
          burning.”</span> This is called <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“Driving out the
          Witches.”</span><a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" href=
          "#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a> The
          German peasants of Moravia, also, universally believe that on
          Walpurgis Night the witches ride through the air on broomsticks and
          pitchforks in order to revel with Satan, their master, at the old
          heathen places of sacrifice, which are commonly on heights. To
          guard the cattle and horses from their insidious attacks it is
          usual to put knives under the thresholds and to stick sprigs of
          birch in the dungheaps. Formerly lads used to gather on the heights
          where the witches were believed to assemble; and by hurling besoms,
          dipped in pitch and ignited, they attempted to banish the invisible
          foe.<a id="noteref_406" name="noteref_406" href=
          "#note_406"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Burning of the Witches</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">on
              Walpurgis Night in Silesia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Silesia also,
          we are told, the belief in witchcraft still occupies a large space
          in the minds of the people. It is on Walpurgis Night that the
          witches are let loose and all the powers of magic have full sway.
          At that time the cottagers not uncommonly see a witch astride a
          hayfork or broomstick emerging from the chimney. Hence people are
          careful to remove all utensils from the fireplace, or the witches
          would ride on them, when they go with the Evil One to a cross-road
          or a gallows-hill, there to dance wild dances in a circle on the
          snow or to cut capers on the corn-fields. Steps are taken to guard
          village, house, and farmyard against their incursions. Three
          crosses are chalked up on every door, and little birch-trees
          fastened over the house-door, because the witches must count every
          leaf on the tree before they can cross the threshold, and while
          they are still counting, the day breaks and their power is gone. On
          that evening the cattle are especially exposed to the attacks of
          the witches, and prudent farmers resort to many expedients for the
          sake of protecting the animals from the wiles of these malignant
          beings. No wise man would sell milk or butter on Walpurgis Night;
          if he did, his cows would certainly be bewitched. And all the work
          of the byres should be finished and the cattle fed before sundown,
          which is the time when the witches begin to swarm in the air.
          Besides the usual crosses chalked on the door of the byre, it is
          customary to fasten over it three horse-shoes, or a holed flint, or
          a goat's horns with four branches; it is well, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> too, to nail bits of buckthorn
          crosswise over every entrance, and to lean pitchforks and harrows
          against the doors with the sharp points turned outwards. A sod
          freshly cut from a meadow and sprinkled with marsh-marigolds has
          likewise a very good effect when it is placed before a threshold.
          Moreover in the Grünberg district young men go clanking chains
          through the village and farmyards, for iron scares the witches;
          also they knock at the doors and they prance through the yards
          astride on pitchforks and broomsticks, all to drive away the
          witches, but in doing so they must be sure not to speak a word. A
          very powerful means of keeping witches at bay are the Walpurgis
          bonfires, which are still kindled in the Hoyerswerda district and
          the Iser Mountains. The fires are fed with the stumps of old
          brooms, and the people dance round them and wave burning besoms,
          just as they do at the Midsummer bonfires. About Hoyerswerda they
          call these fires, as usual, <span class="tei tei-q">“Burning the
          Witches.”</span><a id="noteref_407" name="noteref_407" href=
          "#note_407"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Burning of the Witches</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">on
              Walpurgis Night among the Wends of Saxony.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Wends of
          Saxony adopt very similar precautions against witches on the
          evening of Walpurgis Day. Any one who has been in Lusatia on the
          last day of April must remember the fires which he saw blazing on
          the mountains and in the valleys and the plains. That is the
          Witch-burning (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kuzlarnice palic</span></span>). For weeks
          before that the boys and lads have been collecting old brooms, and
          when the time comes they sally forth and dance with the burning
          besoms on the fields; the fire is thought to ban the witches and
          foul fiends. Also on that day people march about the fields and
          meadows clinking stones on scythes; for the noise is also deemed
          effectual in driving the witches away.<a id="noteref_408" name=
          "noteref_408" href="#note_408"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> At
          Penzance in Cornwall boys run about blowing horns on the thirtieth
          of April (Walpurgis Day), and when questioned why they do so they
          say that they are <span class="tei tei-q">“scaring away the
          devil.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg
          164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          The horns used for this purpose are made of tin and shaped like a
          herald's trumpet; they vary in length from a foot to a yard and can
          give forth a very loud blast.<a id="noteref_409" name="noteref_409"
          href="#note_409"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a> The
          custom is probably a relic of a general expulsion of witches and
          demons on that day.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches during
              the Twelve Days from Christmas to Epiphany.</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Burning out the Old Year</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">at
              Biggar.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another witching
          time is the period of twelve days between Christmas (the
          twenty-fifth of December) and Epiphany (the sixth of January). A
          thousand quaint superstitions cluster round that mystic season. It
          is then that the Wild Huntsman sweeps through the air, the powers
          of evil are let loose, werewolves are prowling round, and the
          witches work their wicked will. Hence in some parts of Silesia the
          people burn pine-resin all night long between Christmas and the New
          Year in order that the pungent smoke may drive witches and evil
          spirits far away from house and homestead; and on Christmas Eve and
          New Year's Eve they fire shots over fields and meadows, into shrubs
          and trees, and wrap straw round the fruit-trees, to prevent the
          spirits from doing them harm.<a id="noteref_410" name="noteref_410"
          href="#note_410"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> On
          New Year's Eve, which is Saint Sylvester's Day, Bohemian lads,
          armed with guns, form themselves into circles and fire thrice into
          the air. This is called <span class="tei tei-q">“Shooting the
          Witches”</span> and is supposed to frighten the witches away. While
          the young fellows are rendering this service to the community, the
          housewives go about their houses sprinkling holy water <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in all the rooms and chalking three
          crosses on every door,<a id="noteref_411" name="noteref_411" href=
          "#note_411"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a> no
          doubt to accelerate the departure of the witches, and to prevent
          their return. At Trieste on St. Sylvester's Eve people form
          processions and drive the evil spirits with sticks and brooms out
          of the houses, while they invite the good spirits and good luck to
          come and dwell there.<a id="noteref_412" name="noteref_412" href=
          "#note_412"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a> In
          the town of Biggar, in Lanarkshire, it has been customary from time
          immemorial to celebrate a custom called <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“burning out the Old Year”</span> on the thirty-first
          of December. A large bonfire, to which all the onlookers think it
          their duty to contribute fuel, is kindled in the evening at the
          town cross, and fires are also lighted on the adjacent hills.<a id=
          "noteref_413" name="noteref_413" href="#note_413"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> When
          we remember how common it is in Central Europe to kindle fires at
          critical seasons for the purpose of burning the witches, we may
          suspect that what the good people of Biggar originally intended to
          burn on the last night of the year was not the Old Year but the
          witches. It would have been well for Scotland and for Europe if the
          practice of burning witches had always been carried out in this
          harmless fashion. A visitor to Scotland in 1644 saw nine witches of
          flesh and blood burned at one time on Leith Links.<a id=
          "noteref_414" name="noteref_414" href="#note_414"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches and
              demons in Switzerland and France.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last of the
          mystic twelve days is Epiphany or Twelfth Night, and it has been
          selected as a proper season for the expulsion of the powers of evil
          in various parts of Europe. Thus at Brunnen on the Lake of Lucerne
          the boys go about in procession on Twelfth Night, carrying torches
          and lanterns, and making a great noise with horns, cow-bells,
          whips, and so forth. This is said to frighten away the two female
          spirits of the wood, Strudeli and Strätteli. Of these two names
          Strudeli seems to mean <span class="tei tei-q">“witch”</span> and
          Strätteli <span class="tei tei-q">“nightmare.”</span> The people
          believe that if they do not make enough noise, there will be little
          fruit that year.<a id="noteref_415" name="noteref_415" href=
          "#note_415"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name=
          "Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> On the same day the
          inhabitants of the Muota Valley, immediately to the east of
          Brunnen, used to make a similar racket, no doubt for a similar
          purpose. They collected chains, pots and pans, cow-bells, horns,
          and such like musical instruments. He who could borrow a number of
          horse's bells and wear them on his person so that the jangling
          sounded afar off was deemed uncommonly lucky. Thus equipped parties
          of people marched about making all the din they could; sometimes
          they would meet and joining all their efforts in one concerted
          burst of harmony or discord would raise such a hubbub that the
          surrounding rocks rang again with the sound.<a id="noteref_416"
          name="noteref_416" href="#note_416"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a> In
          Labruguière, also, a canton of Southern France, the evil spirits
          are expelled at the same season. The canton lies in the picturesque
          and little-known region of the Black Mountains, which form a sort
          of link between the Pyrenees and the Cevennes, and have preserved
          in their remote recesses certain types of life which have long
          disappeared elsewhere. On the eve of Twelfth Day the inhabitants
          rush through the streets jangling bells, clattering kettles, and
          doing everything to make a discordant noise. Then by the light of
          torches and blazing faggots they set up a prodigious hue and cry,
          an ear-splitting uproar, hoping thereby to chase all the wandering
          ghosts and devils from the town.<a id="noteref_417" name=
          "noteref_417" href="#note_417"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Befana in the Piazza Navona at
              Rome, in the Tuscan Romagna.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this noisy
          ceremony we may compare a similar custom which is still observed
          year by year at the same season in the long and spacious Piazza
          Navona at Rome. There on the night before Epiphany a dense crowd
          assembles, and diverts itself by raising a hideous uproar. Soon
          after supper troops of young folk and others march through the
          streets, preceded by puppets or pasteboard figures and all making
          the utmost possible din. They converge from different quarters on
          the Piazza Navona, there to unite in one prolonged and deafening
          outburst of clangorous discord. The favourite musical instruments
          employed in this cats' concert are penny trumpets, of which,
          together with tambourines, bells, and so forth, the shops take care
          to provide <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg
          167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a
          large stock as a preparation for the pandemonium of the evening.
          The ceremony is supposed to be in honour of a certain mythical old
          hag called Befana, effigies of whom, made of rags, are put by women
          and children in the windows on Twelfth Night. Her name Befana is
          clearly a popular corruption of Epiphany, the ecclesiastical name
          of the festival; but viewed in connexion with the popular
          celebrations which we have examined she may be suspected to be of
          heathen rather than Christian origin. In fact we may conjecture
          that she was of old a witch, and that the noisy rite in the Piazza
          Navona is nothing but a relic of an annual expulsion of witches at
          this season.<a id="noteref_418" name="noteref_418" href=
          "#note_418"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> A
          ceremony of the same sort is annually observed on the same evening,
          the Eve of Epiphany, by the peasantry who inhabit the mountains of
          the Tuscan Romagna. A troop of lads parade the streets of the
          village making a fiendish noise by means of bells and kitchen
          utensils of tin and brass, while others blow blasts on horns and
          reed-pipes. They drag about a cart containing an effigy of an old
          woman made up of rags and tow, which represents Befana (Epiphany).
          When they come to the village square they put fire to the effigy,
          which soon vanishes in smoke and flames amid a chorus of cries,
          shrieks, and other forms of rustic melody.<a id="noteref_419" name=
          "noteref_419" href="#note_419"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a>
          Similar ceremonies are probably observed on the same evening in
          other parts of Italy.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Expulsion of the Trows in Shetland
              on Up-helly-a', the twenty-fourth day after Christmas.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Shetland
          Islands the Yule or Christmas holidays begin, or used to begin,
          seven days before Christmas and last till Antinmas, that is, the
          twenty-fourth day after Christmas. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> In the Shetland parlance these holidays are
          known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Yules.”</span> On the first
          night, called Tul-ya's e'en, seven days before Christmas, certain
          mischievous elves, whom the Shetlanders name Trows, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“received permission to leave their homes in the heart
          of the earth and dwell, if it so pleased them, above ground. There
          seemed to have been no doubt that those creatures preferred
          disporting themselves among the dwellings of men to residing in
          their own subterranean abodes, for they availed themselves of every
          permission given, and created no little disturbance among the
          mortals whom they visited. One of the most important of all
          Yule-tide observances was the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘saining’</span> required to guard life or property
          from the Trows. If the proper observances were omitted, the
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘grey-folk’</span> were sure to take
          advantage of the opportunity.”</span><a id="noteref_420" name=
          "noteref_420" href="#note_420"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a> On
          the last day of the holidays, the twenty-fourth day after
          Christmas, which in Shetland goes by the name of Up-helly-a',
          Uphellia, or Uphaliday, <span class="tei tei-q">“the doors were all
          opened, and a great deal of pantomimic chasing and driving and
          dispersing of unseen creatures took place. Many pious ejaculations
          were uttered, and iron was ostentatiously displayed, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘for Trows can never abide the sight o' iron.’</span>
          The Bible was read and quoted. People moved about in groups or
          couples, never singly, and infants were carefully guarded as well
          as sained by vigilant and learned <span class="tei tei-q">‘wise
          women.’</span> Alas, the poor Trows! their time of frolic and
          liberty was ended, and on Twenty-fourth night they retired to their
          gloomy abodes beneath the sod, seldom finding opportunity to
          reappear again, and never with the same licence, until the Yules
          returned. All that pantomime, all that invoking of holier Powers,
          were but methods of <span class="tei tei-q">‘speeding the parting
          guest,’</span> and mortals were rejoicing that the unbidden,
          unwelcome grey-folk must depart. When day <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> dawned after Twenty-fourth night the Trows
          had vanished and the Yules were ended.”</span><a id="noteref_421"
          name="noteref_421" href="#note_421"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a> Of
          late years Up-helly-a' has been celebrated in Lerwick with pompous
          and elaborate masquerades. The chief event of the evening is a
          torch-light procession of maskers or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“guizers,”</span> as they are called, who escort the
          model of a Norse galley through the streets, and finally set it on
          fire by throwing their torches into it. But in this form the
          celebration seems to date only from the latter part of the
          nineteenth century; in former times an old boat filled with tar and
          ignited was dragged about and blazing tar-barrels were drawn or
          kicked through the streets.<a id="noteref_422" name="noteref_422"
          href="#note_422"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a> The
          fire, however procured, was probably in origin intended to chase
          away the lingering Trows from the town at the end of the
          holidays.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of witches and
              demons in Europe.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it would
          seem that the custom of annually banishing witches and demons on a
          day or night set apart for the purpose has not been confined to
          Central Europe, but can be traced from Calabria and Rome in the
          south to the Shetland Islands in the far north.</p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name=
      "Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. Public
        Scapegoats.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Expulsion of Embodied
          Evils.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The expulsion of embodied
              evils.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far we have
          dealt with that class of the general expulsion of evils which I
          have called direct or immediate. In this class the evils are
          invisible, at least to common eyes, and the mode of deliverance
          consists for the most part in beating the empty air and raising
          such a hubbub as may scare the mischievous spirits and put them to
          flight. It remains to illustrate the second class of expulsions, in
          which the evil influences are embodied in a visible form or are at
          least supposed to be loaded upon a material medium, which acts as a
          vehicle to draw them off from the people, village, or town.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Expulsion of demons personified by
              men among the American Indians. Expulsion of a demon embodied
              in an image among the Mayas of Yucatan.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Pomos of
          California celebrate an expulsion of devils every seven years, at
          which the devils are represented by disguised men. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Twenty or thirty men array themselves in harlequin rig
          and barbaric paint, and put vessels of pitch on their heads; then
          they secretly go out into the surrounding mountains. These are to
          personify the devils. A herald goes up to the top of the
          assembly-house, and makes a speech to the multitude. At a signal
          agreed upon in the evening the masqueraders come in from the
          mountains, with the vessels of pitch flaming on their heads, and
          with all the frightful accessories of noise, motion, and costume
          which the savage mind can devise in representation of demons. The
          terrified women and children flee for life, the men huddle them
          inside a circle, and, on the principle of fighting the devil with
          fire, they swing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg
          171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          blazing firebrands in the air, yell, whoop, and make frantic dashes
          at the marauding and bloodthirsty devils, so creating a terrific
          spectacle, and striking great fear into the hearts of the assembled
          hundreds of women, who are screaming and fainting and clinging to
          their valorous protectors. Finally the devils succeed in getting
          into the assembly-house, and the bravest of the men enter and hold
          a parley with them. As a conclusion of the whole farce, the men
          summon courage, the devils are expelled from the assembly-house,
          and with a prodigious row and racket of sham fighting are chased
          away into the mountains.”</span><a id="noteref_423" name=
          "noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> In
          spring, as soon as the willow-leaves were full grown on the banks
          of the river, the Mandan Indians celebrated their great annual
          festival, one of the features of which was the expulsion of the
          devil. A man, painted black to represent the devil, entered the
          village from the prairie, chased and frightened the women, and
          acted the part of a buffalo bull in the buffalo dance, the object
          of which was to ensure a plentiful supply of buffaloes during the
          ensuing year. Finally he was chased from the village, the women
          pursuing him with hisses and gibes, beating him with sticks, and
          pelting him with dirt.<a id="noteref_424" name="noteref_424" href=
          "#note_424"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> The
          Mayas of Yucatan divided the year into eighteen months of twenty
          days each, and they added five supplementary days at the end of the
          year in order to make a total of three hundred and sixty-five days.
          These five supplementary days were deemed unlucky. In the course of
          them the people banished the evils that might threaten them in the
          year on which they were about to enter. For that purpose they made
          a clay image of the demon of evil Uuayayab, that is <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">u-uayab-haab</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“He by whom the year is poisoned,”</span> confronted it
          with the deity who had supreme power over the coming year, and then
          carried it out of the village in the direction of that cardinal
          point to which, on the system of the Mayan calendar, the particular
          year was supposed to belong. Having thus rid themselves of the
          demon, they looked forward to a happy New Year.<a id="noteref_425"
          name="noteref_425" href="#note_425"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Expulsion of a demon personified
              by a man among the aborigines of Queensland. Expulsion of
              demons embodied in effigies in India and Russia. Expulsion of
              demons embodied in animals or boys in Esthonia and
              Spain.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the
          native tribes of Central Queensland believe in a noxious being
          called Molonga, who prowls unseen and would kill men and violate
          women if certain ceremonies were not performed. These ceremonies
          last for five nights and consist of dances, in which only men,
          fantastically painted and adorned, take part. On the fifth night
          Molonga himself, personified by a man tricked out with red ochre
          and feathers and carrying a long feather-tipped spear, rushes forth
          from the darkness at the spectators and makes as if he would run
          them through. Great is the excitement, loud are the shrieks and
          shouts, but after another feigned attack the demon vanishes in the
          gloom.<a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" href=
          "#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a> On
          the last night of the year the palace of the Kings of Cambodia is
          purged of devils. Men painted as fiends are chased by elephants
          about the palace courts. When they have been expelled, a
          consecrated thread of cotton is stretched round the palace to keep
          them out.<a id="noteref_427" name="noteref_427" href=
          "#note_427"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a> In
          Munzerabad, a district of Mysore in Southern India, when cholera or
          smallpox has broken out in a parish, the inhabitants assemble and
          conjure the demon of the disease into a wooden image, which they
          carry, generally at midnight, into the next parish. The inhabitants
          of that parish in like manner pass the image on to their
          neighbours, and thus the demon is expelled from one village after
          another, until he comes to the bank of a river into which he is
          finally thrown.<a id="noteref_428" name="noteref_428" href=
          "#note_428"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a>
          Russian villagers seek to protect themselves against epidemics,
          whether of man or beast, by drawing a furrow with a plough right
          round the village. The plough is dragged by four widows and the
          ceremony is performed at night; all fires and lights must be
          extinguished while the plough is going the round. The people think
          that no unclean spirit can pass the furrow which has thus been
          traced. In the village of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg
          173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Dubrowitschi a puppet is carried before the plough with the cry,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Out of the village with the unclean
          spirit!”</span> and at the end of the ceremony it is torn in pieces
          and the fragments scattered about.<a id="noteref_429" name=
          "noteref_429" href="#note_429"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a> No
          doubt the demon of the disease is supposed to be in the puppet and
          to be destroyed with it. Sometimes in an Esthonian village a rumour
          will get about that the Evil One himself has been seen in the
          place. Instantly the whole village is in an uproar, and the entire
          population, armed with sticks, flails, and scythes, turns out to
          give him chase. They generally expel him in the shape of a wolf or
          a cat, occasionally they brag that they have beaten the devil to
          death.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" href=
          "#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> At
          Carmona, in Andalusia, on one day of the year, boys are stripped
          naked and smeared with glue in which feathers are stuck. Thus
          disguised, they run from house to house, the people trying to avoid
          them and to bar their houses against them.<a id="noteref_431" name=
          "noteref_431" href="#note_431"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a> The
          ceremony is probably a relic of an annual expulsion of devils.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of the demon of
              plague among the Khasis of Assam. The Tug of War probably a
              contest with demons represented by human beings. The Tug of War
              at funerals in Chittagong and Burma.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the
          Khasis of Assam annually expel the demon of plague. The ceremony is
          called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beh-dieng-khlam</span></span>, that is
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Driving away (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">beh</span></span>) the plague (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">khlam</span></span>) with sticks (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">dieng</span></span>)”</span>; it takes place
          in the Deep-water month (June). On the day fixed for the expulsion
          the men rise early and beat the roof with sticks, calling upon the
          demon of the plague to leave the house. Later in the day they go
          down to the stream where the goddess Aitan dwells. Then long poles
          or bamboos, newly cut, are laid across the stream and the people
          jump on them, trying to break them; when they succeed, they give a
          great shout. Next a very large pole or bamboo is similarly laid
          across the stream, and the people divide themselves into two
          parties, one on each side of the stream, and pull against each
          other at opposite ends of the pole. According to one account the
          party which succeeds in dragging the pole to their side of the
          stream is supposed to gain health and prosperity during the coming
          year. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name=
          "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> According to another
          account, if the people on the east bank win in the contest or
          <span class="tei tei-q">“tug-of-war,”</span> good luck and
          prosperity are assured; but if the people on the west bank are
          victorious, then everything will go wrong. On this occasion the
          people disguise themselves as giants and wild beasts, and they
          parade images of serpents, elephants, tigers, peacocks, and so on.
          The men dance with enthusiasm, and the girls, dressed in their
          best, look on. Before the assembly breaks up, the men play a sort
          of game of hockey with wooden balls.<a id="noteref_432" name=
          "noteref_432" href="#note_432"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a> In
          this ceremonial contest or <span class="tei tei-q">“tug of
          war”</span> between two parties of the people, we may conjecture
          that the one party represents the expelled demons of the plague;
          and if that is so, we may perhaps assume that in the struggle the
          representatives of the demons generally allow themselves to be
          overcome by their adversaries, in order that the village may be
          free from pestilence in the coming year. Similarly in autumn the
          Central Esquimaux divide themselves into two parties, representing
          summer and winter respectively, which pull at opposite ends of a
          rope; and they draw omens of the weather to be expected in the
          coming winter according as the party of summer or of winter
          prevails in the struggle.<a id="noteref_433" name="noteref_433"
          href="#note_433"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> That
          in such contests, resembling our English game of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“French and English”</span> or the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tug of War,”</span> the one side may represent demons
          is proved by a custom observed by the Chukmas, a tribe of the
          Chittagong Hill Tracts in South-Eastern India. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“On the death of a Dewan or of a priest a curious sport
          is customary at the funeral. The corpse is conveyed to the place of
          cremation on a car; to this car ropes are attached, and the persons
          attending the ceremony are divided into two equal bodies and set to
          work to pull in opposite directions. One side represents the good
          spirits; the other, the powers of evil. The contest is so arranged
          that the former are victorious. Sometimes, however, the young men
          representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously, but a
          stick generally quells this unseemly <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> ardour in the cause of evil.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_434" name="noteref_434" href="#note_434"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a> The
          contest is like that between the angels and devils depicted in the
          frescoes of the Campo Santo at Pisa. In Burma a similar struggle
          takes place at the funeral of a Buddhist monk who passed for a
          saint in the popular estimation: ropes are attached to opposite
          ends of the car on which the coffin is placed, all the able-bodied
          men of the neighbourhood hold on to one or other of the two ends
          and pull as if for dear life against each other; even the women and
          girls sometimes join in the tug of war, and policemen have been
          seen, in a state of frantic excitement, waving their batons to
          encourage the combatants and dragging back shirkers by main force
          into the fighting line. The struggle is sometimes prolonged for
          hours or even days.<a id="noteref_435" name="noteref_435" href=
          "#note_435"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> With
          the example of the Chukmas before us, we may conjecture that the
          original motive of this internecine strife was a persuasion that
          the eternal happiness or misery of the departed saint depended on
          the issue of this contest between the powers of good and evil for
          the possession of his mortal remains.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Tug of War as a rain-making
              ceremony in Burma and else where.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in Burma the
          tug of war has been employed for more secular purposes than the
          salvation or perdition of souls. <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          inhabitants,”</span> we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“still
          have a custom of pulling a rope to produce rain. A rain party and a
          drought party tug against each other, the rain party being allowed
          the victory, which in the popular notion is generally followed by
          rain.”</span><a id="noteref_436" name="noteref_436" href=
          "#note_436"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a> The
          mode in which this salutary result follows from tugging at a rope
          is explained by the Burmese doctrine of <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">nats</span></span> or spirits who cause rain.
          But it is only when these spirits sport in the air that rain falls;
          when they shut themselves up in their houses there is drought. Now
          in some Burmese writings <span class="tei tei-q">“it is said, that
          when the sun is in the path of the goat, these <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat</span></span> do not chuse to leave their
          houses on account of the great heat, whence there is then no rain.
          For this reason, the inhabitants of the Burma <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> empire, in times of drought, are wont
          to assemble in great numbers, with drums and a long cable. Dividing
          themselves into two parties, with a vast shouting and noise, they
          drag the cable contrary ways, the one party endeavouring to get the
          better of the other: and they think, by this means, to invite the
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat</span></span> to come out from their
          houses, and to sport in the air. The thunder and lightning, which
          frequently precede rain, are the clashing and shining of the arms
          of these <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat</span></span>, who sometimes sport in mock
          battles.”</span><a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" href=
          "#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a>
          Apparently, therefore, in the tug of war, practised as a
          rain-charm, the one party represent the spirits who have to be
          dragged reluctantly from their houses in order to make rain in the
          sky. Similarly in the Timor-laut Islands, when the people want a
          rainy wind from the west, the population of the village, men,
          women, and children divide into two parties and pull against each
          other at the end of a long bamboo. But the party at the eastern end
          must pull the harder, in order to draw the desired wind out of the
          west.<a id="noteref_438" name="noteref_438" href=
          "#note_438"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a> We
          can now perhaps understand why among the Khasis the victory of the
          eastern side in the tug of war is thought to prognosticate good
          luck and prosperity, and why the victory of the western side is
          believed to portend the contrary; the distinction is at once
          intelligible when we remember that in the country of the Khasis the
          rainy wind is the monsoon which blows from the south-west, whereas
          the wind which blows from the south-east is hot and dry.<a id=
          "noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href="#note_439"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a> Thus
          a victory of the eastern party in the tug of war means that they
          have drawn rain and consequently fertility into the country from
          the west; whereas a victory of the western party signifies that
          they have dragged drought and consequently dearth into the country
          from the east.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Tug of War between the sexes.
              The Tug of War in Kamtchatka and New Guinea.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, a
          somewhat different turn is given to the <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> ceremony of rope-pulling in the East Indies
          by another writer, who informs us, that while the contest only
          takes place in some of these islands when rain is wanted, it is
          closely connected with those licentious rites performed for the
          fertilization of the ground which have been described in another
          part of this work.<a id="noteref_440" name="noteref_440" href=
          "#note_440"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a>
          According to this account the men and women appear to take opposite
          sides in the tug of war, and in pulling against each other they
          imitate by their movements the union of the sexes.<a id=
          "noteref_441" name="noteref_441" href="#note_441"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a> If
          that is so, it would seem that the rite is a magical ceremony
          designed to promote the fertility of the ground by means of
          homoeopathic or imitative magic. The same may perhaps be the
          intention of the tug of war as it is practised for the benefit of
          the crops by some of the Naga tribes of Assam, and this is the more
          likely because in the case of these tribes we are definitely told
          that the sexes take opposite sides, the women and girls tugging
          against the men and boys. This is done by the Tangkhuls of Assam a
          month after the rice has been sown; the ceremony is performed
          <span class="tei tei-q">“in order to take the omens for the future
          of the crops,”</span> and it <span class="tei tei-q">“is followed
          by considerable license.”</span> The tug of war between the sexes
          with its attendant license is repeated before the first-fruits are
          cut by the sacred headman.<a id="noteref_442" name="noteref_442"
          href="#note_442"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> In
          Corea about the fifteenth day of the first month villages engage in
          the same kind of contest with each other, and it is thought that
          the village which wins will have a good harvest. The rope which
          they pull is made of straw, two feet in diameter, with its ends
          divided into branches. The men lay hold of the main stem, while the
          women grasp the branches, and they often tug harder than the men,
          for they load their skirts with stones, <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> which adds weight to the force of their
          muscles.<a id="noteref_443" name="noteref_443" href=
          "#note_443"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a> In
          Kamtchatka, when the fishing season is over, the people used to
          divide into two parties, one of which tried to pull a birch-tree by
          a strap through the smoke-hole into their subterranean winter
          dwelling, while the other party outside, pulling at the end of the
          tree, endeavoured to hinder them. If the party in the house
          succeeded, they raised shouts of joy and set up a grass effigy of a
          wolf, which they preserved carefully throughout the year, believing
          that it espoused their young women and prevented them from giving
          birth to twins. For they deem the birth of twins a dreadful
          misfortune and a horrible sin; they put it down to the wolf in the
          forest, and all who chance to be in the house at the time shew a
          clean pair of heels, leaving the mother and her infants to shift
          for themselves. Should the twins be both girls, the calamity is
          even greater.<a id="noteref_444" name="noteref_444" href=
          "#note_444"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> In
          the village of Doreh, in Dutch New Guinea, when some of the
          inhabitants have gone on a long journey, the people who stay at
          home engage in a Tug of War among themselves to determine whether
          the journey will be prosperous or not. One side represents the
          voyagers and the other side those who are left behind. They pull at
          opposite ends of a long bamboo, and if the bamboo breaks or the
          side which represents the people at home is obliged to let go, the
          omen is favourable.<a id="noteref_445" name="noteref_445" href=
          "#note_445"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Tug of War in Morocco to
              procure rain or sunshine.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Morocco,
          also, the Tug of War is resorted to as a means of influencing the
          weather, sometimes in order to procure rain and sometimes to
          procure sunshine; and here men and women appear usually to take
          opposite sides in the contest. For example, among the Igliwa, a
          Berber people of the Great Atlas, when rain is wanted, they take a
          rope and the men pull at one end and women at the other. While they
          are tugging away, a man suddenly cuts the rope and the women fall
          down. The same device for procuring rain in time of drought is
          practised by the Ait Warain, another Berber tribe of Morocco; but
          among them in the heat of the contest the women as well as the men
          will sometimes <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg
          179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          let go the rope and allow the opposite party to fall on their
          backs. However, the Tsûl, another Berber tribe of Morocco, employ
          the Tug of War for the opposite purpose of ensuring a supply of
          sunshine and heat in autumn, when they wish to dry their figs and
          grapes; the contest takes place at night by the light of the
          moon.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href=
          "#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a> The
          apparent contradiction of employing the same procedure for opposite
          purposes vanishes if we suppose that, as the Assamese custom seems
          to indicate, the intention is to draw either a rainy or a dry wind
          out of the quarters from which the breezes that bring rain or
          sunshine usually blow, and which will usually be on opposite sides
          of the sky. Hence in order fully to understand the Tug of War, when
          it is practised for the purpose of influencing the weather, we
          should know, first, the directions from which the rainy and the dry
          winds respectively come in the country under consideration, and
          second, the direction in which the rope is stretched between the
          contending parties. If, for example, as happens in Assam, the rainy
          wind blows from the west, and a victory of the eastern party in the
          Tug of War is an omen of prosperity, we may conclude with a fair
          degree of probability that the intention of the contest is to draw
          the rain from the quarter of the sky in which it is lingering. But
          these niceties of observation have usually escaped the attention of
          those who have described the Tug of War.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Games of ball in Morocco to
              procure rain or sunshine.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In various parts
          of Morocco games of ball are played for the sake now of procuring
          rain and now of procuring dry weather; the ball is sometimes
          propelled with sticks and sometimes with the feet of the
          competitors. An Arab questioned as to why a game of ball should
          bring on rain explained that the ball is dark like a
          rain-cloud.<a id="noteref_447" name="noteref_447" href=
          "#note_447"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a>
          Perhaps the answer furnishes the clue to the meaning of the rite.
          If in such games played to influence the weather the ball
          represents a rain-cloud, the success or failure of the charm
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name=
          "Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> will depend on which
          side contrives to get the ball home in the enemy's quarters. For
          example, if rain is desired and the rainy wind blows in Morocco, as
          may perhaps be assumed, from the west, then should the western side
          succeed in driving the ball through the eastern goal, there will be
          rain; but if the eastern party wins, then the rain is driven away
          and the drought will continue. Thus a game of ball would in theory
          and practice answer exactly to the Tug of War practised for the
          same purposes.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Tug of War in Morocco to
              ensure prosperity.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Morocco,
          however, the Tug of War is apparently used also for the purpose of
          ensuring prosperity in general without any special reference to the
          weather. Dr. Westermarck was informed by an old Arab from the
          Hiaina that the Tug of War <span class="tei tei-q">“is no longer
          practised at the Great Feast, as it was in his childhood, but that
          it is performed in the autumn when the threshing is going on and
          the fruits are ripe. Then men and women have a tug of war by
          moonlight so that the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">bäs</span></span>, or evil, shall go away,
          that the year shall be good, and that the people shall live in
          peace. Some man secretly cuts two of the three cords of which the
          rope is made, with the result that both parties tumble
          down.”</span><a id="noteref_448" name="noteref_448" href=
          "#note_448"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a> In
          this contest one party perhaps represents the powers of good and
          the other the powers of evil in general. But why in these Moroccan
          cases of the Tug of War the rope should be so often cut and one or
          both sides laid on their backs, is not manifest. Perhaps the simple
          device of suddenly slacking the rope in order to make the opposite
          side lose their footing, and so to haul the rope away from them
          before they can recover themselves, may have led to the more
          trenchant measure of cutting it with a knife for the same
          purpose.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Spiritual significance of the Tug
              of War. The Tug of War in French Guiana, in North-Western
              India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These examples
          make it probable that wherever the Tug of War is played only at
          certain definite seasons or on certain particular occasions, it was
          originally performed, not as a mere pastime, but as a magical
          ceremony designed to work some good for the community. Further, we
          may surmise that in many cases the two contending parties represent
          respectively the powers of good and evil struggling against each
          other for the mastery, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> as the community has always an interest in
          the prevalence of the powers of good, it may well happen that the
          powers of evil do not always get fair play in these conflicts;
          though no doubt when it comes to be <span class="tei tei-q">“pull
          devil, pull baker,”</span> the devil is apt, in the spirit of a
          true sportsman, to tug with as hearty good will as his far more
          deserving adversary the baker. To take cases in which the game is
          played without any alleged practical motive, the Roocooyen Indians
          of French Guiana engage in the Tug of War as a sort of interlude
          during the ceremonial tortures of the youth.<a id="noteref_449"
          name="noteref_449" href="#note_449"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> Among
          the Cingalese the game <span class="tei tei-q">“is connected with
          the superstitious worship of the goddess Patiné; and is more
          intended for a propitiation to that deity, than considered as an
          indulgence, or pursued as an exercise. Two opposite parties procure
          two sticks of the strongest and toughest wood, and so crooked as to
          hook into one another without slipping; they then attach strong
          cords or cable-rattans of sufficient length to allow of every one
          laying hold of them. The contending parties then pull until one of
          the sticks gives way.”</span> The victorious piece of wood is gaily
          decorated, placed in a palanquin, and borne through the village
          amid noisy rejoicings, often accompanied with coarse and obscene
          expressions.<a id="noteref_450" name="noteref_450" href=
          "#note_450"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a> The
          use of foul language on this occasion suggests that the ceremony is
          here, as elsewhere, observed for the purpose of ensuring fertility.
          In the North-Western provinces of India the game is played on the
          fourteenth day of the light half of the month Kuar. The rope
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">barra</span></span>) is made of the grass
          called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">makra</span></span>, and is thicker than a
          man's arm. The various quarters of a village pull against each
          other, and the one which is victorious keeps possession of the rope
          during the ensuing year. It is chiefly in the east of these
          provinces that the game is played; in the west it is unknown.<a id=
          "noteref_451" name="noteref_451" href="#note_451"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a>
          Sometimes the contest is between the inhabitants of neighbouring
          villages, and the rope is stretched across the boundary;
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name=
          "Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> plenty is supposed
          to attend the victorious side.<a id="noteref_452" name=
          "noteref_452" href="#note_452"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> At
          the Great Feast, a yearly sacrificial festival of the Mohammedan
          world, some tribes in Morocco practise a Tug of War. Thus among the
          Ait Sadden it is observed on the first day of the festival before
          the sacrifice; among the Ait Yusi it is performed either before the
          religious service or in the afternoon of the same day, and also in
          the morning of the Little Feast. Both sexes generally take part in
          the contest, the men tugging at one end of the rope and the women
          at the other, and sometimes the weaker party applies for help to
          persons of the same sex in a neighbouring village. When they are
          all hard at it, the men may suddenly let go the rope and so send
          the women sprawling on their backs.<a id="noteref_453" name=
          "noteref_453" href="#note_453"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Tug of War in Shropshire and
              Radnorshire. Contests for a ball (</span><span lang="fr" class=
              "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">soule</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">)
              in Normandy.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Ludlow in
          Shropshire a grand Tug of War used to take place on Shrove Tuesday
          between the inhabitants of Broad Street Ward on the one side and of
          Corve Street Ward on the other. The rope was three inches thick and
          thirty-six yards long, with a red knob at one end and a blue knob
          at the other. The rope was paid out by the Mayor in person from a
          window in the Market Hall at four o'clock in the afternoon. The
          shops then put up their shutters, and the population engaged in the
          struggle with enthusiasm, gentle and simple, lawyers and parsons
          bearing a hand on one side or the other, till their clothes were
          torn to tatters on their backs. The injured were carried into the
          neighbouring houses, where their hurts were attended to. If the
          party of the Red Knob won, they carried the rope in triumph to the
          River Leme and dipped it in the water. Finally, the rope was sold,
          the money which it brought in was devoted to the purchase of beer,
          and drinking, squabbling, and fighting ended the happy day. This
          ancient and highly popular pastime was suppressed in 1851 on the
          frivolous pretext that it gave rise to disorderly scenes and
          dangerous accidents.<a id="noteref_454" name="noteref_454" href=
          "#note_454"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a> A
          similar custom has long been observed on Shrove Tuesday at
          Presteign in Radnorshire. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg
          183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          The rope is pulled by two parties representing the upper and the
          lower portions of the town, who strive to drag it either to a point
          in the west wall or to another point in Broad Street, where the
          River Lugg is reached.<a id="noteref_455" name="noteref_455" href=
          "#note_455"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a> In
          the Bocage of Normandy most desperate struggles used to take place
          between neighbouring parishes on Shrove Tuesday for the possession
          of a large leathern ball stuffed with bran and called a <span lang=
          "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">soule</span></span>. The ball was launched on
          the village green and contended for by representatives of different
          parishes, who sometimes numbered seven or eight hundred, while five
          or six thousand people might assemble to witness the combat; for
          indeed it was a fight rather than a game. The conflict was
          maintained with the utmost fury; old scores were paid off between
          personal enemies; there were always many wounded, and sometimes
          there were deaths. The aim of each side was to drive the ball over
          a stream and to lodge it in a house of their own parish. It was
          thought that the parish which was victorious in the struggle would
          have a better crop of apples that year than its neighbours. At
          Lande-Patry the ball was provided by the bride who had been last
          married, and she had the honour of throwing it into the arena. The
          scene of the fiercest battles was St. Pierre d'Entremont, on the
          highroad between Condé and Tinchebray. After several unsuccessful
          attempts the custom was suppressed at that village in 1852 with the
          help of four or five brigades of police. It is now everywhere
          extinct.<a id="noteref_456" name="noteref_456" href=
          "#note_456"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a> The
          belief that the parish which succeeded in carrying the ball home
          would have a better crop of apples that year raises a presumption
          that these conflicts were originally practised as magical rites to
          ensure fertility. The local custom of Lande-Patry, which required
          that the ball should be provided and thrown by the last
          bride,<a id="noteref_457" name="noteref_457" href=
          "#note_457"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a>
          points in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg
          184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          same direction. It is possible that the popular English, or rather
          Scotch, game of football had a similar origin: the winning side may
          have imagined that they secured good crops, good weather, or other
          substantial advantages to their village or ward.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual sham fights may represent
              contests with demons.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In like manner,
          wherever a sham or a real conflict takes place between two parties
          annually, above all at the New Year, we may suspect that the old
          intention was to ensure prosperity in some form for the people
          throughout the following year, whether by obtaining possession of a
          material object in which the luck of the year was supposed to be
          embodied, or by defeating and driving away a band of men who
          personated the powers of evil. For example, among the Tenggerese of
          eastern Java the New Year festival regularly includes a sham fight
          fought between two bands of men, who are armed with spears and
          swords and advance against each other again and again at a dancing
          step, thrusting at their adversaries with their spears, but always
          taking care to miss their aim.<a id="noteref_458" name=
          "noteref_458" href="#note_458"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a>
          Again, in Ferghana, a province of Turkestan, it is or used to be
          customary on the first day of the year for the king and chiefs to
          divide into two parties, each of which chose a champion. Then the
          two champions, clad in armour, engaged in a combat with each other,
          while the crowd joined in with bricks and stones. When one of them
          was slain the scrimmage stopped, and omens were drawn as to whether
          the year on which they had entered would be prosperous or the
          reverse.<a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" href=
          "#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> In
          these combats it seems probable that one side represents the demons
          or other powers of evil whom the people hope to vanquish and expel
          at the beginning of the New Year.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oftener,
          however, the expelled demons are not represented at all, but are
          understood to be present invisibly in the material and visible
          vehicle which conveys them away. Here, again, it will be convenient
          to distinguish between occasional and periodical expulsions. We
          begin with the former.</p>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name=
        "Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Occasional Expulsion of
          Evils in a Material Vehicle.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in a
              small ship in Ceram.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vehicle
          which conveys away the demons may be of various kinds. A common one
          is a little ship or boat. Thus, in the southern district of the
          island of Ceram, when a whole village suffers from sickness, a
          small ship is made and filled with rice, tobacco, eggs, and so
          forth, which have been contributed by all the people. A little sail
          is hoisted on the ship. When all is ready, a man calls out in a
          very loud voice, <span class="tei tei-q">“O all ye sicknesses, ye
          smallpoxes, agues, measles, etc., who have visited us so long and
          wasted us so sorely, but who now cease to plague us, we have made
          ready this ship for you and we have furnished you with provender
          sufficient for the voyage. Ye shall have no lack of food nor of
          betel-leaves nor of areca nuts nor of tobacco. Depart, and sail
          away from us directly; never come near us again; but go to a land
          which is far from here. Let all the tides and winds waft you
          speedily thither, and so convey you thither that for the time to
          come we may live sound and well, and that we may never see the sun
          rise on you again.”</span> Then ten or twelve men carry the vessel
          to the shore, and let it drift away with the land-breeze, feeling
          convinced that they are free from sickness for ever, or at least
          till the next time. If sickness attacks them again, they are sure
          it is not the same sickness, but a different one, which in due time
          they dismiss in the same manner. When the demon-laden bark is lost
          to sight, the bearers return to the village, whereupon a man cries
          out, <span class="tei tei-q">“The sicknesses are now gone,
          vanished, expelled, and sailed away.”</span> At this all the people
          come running out of their houses, passing the word from one to the
          other with great joy, beating on gongs and on tinkling
          instruments.<a id="noteref_460" name="noteref_460" href=
          "#note_460"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in a
              small ship in Timor-laut, in a ship in Buru, removed from the
              persons of the sufferers.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar
          ceremonies are commonly resorted to in other East Indian islands.
          Thus in Timor-laut, to mislead the demons who are causing sickness,
          a small proa, containing the image of a man and provisioned for a
          long voyage, is allowed to drift away with wind and tide. As it is
          being <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name=
          "Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> launched, the people
          cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“O sickness, go from here; turn back;
          what do you here in this poor land?”</span> Three days after this
          ceremony a pig is killed, and part of the flesh is offered to
          Dudilaa, who lives in the sun. One of the oldest men says,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Old sir, I beseech you make well the
          grandchildren, children, women, and men, that we may be able to eat
          pork and rice and to drink palm-wine. I will keep my promise. Eat
          your share, and make all the people in the village well.”</span> If
          the proa is stranded at any inhabited spot, the sickness will break
          out there. Hence a stranded proa excites much alarm amongst the
          coast population, and they immediately burn it, because demons fly
          from fire.<a id="noteref_461" name="noteref_461" href=
          "#note_461"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a> In
          the island of Buru the proa which carries away the demons of
          disease is about twenty feet long, rigged out with sails, oars,
          anchor, and so on, and well stocked with provisions. For a day and
          a night the people beat gongs and drums, and rush about to frighten
          the demons. Next morning ten stalwart young men strike the people
          with branches, which have been previously dipped in an earthen pot
          of water. As soon as they have done so, they run down to the beach,
          put the branches on board the proa, launch another boat in great
          haste, and tow the disease-burdened bark far out to sea. There they
          cast it off, and one of them calls out, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Grandfather Smallpox, go away—go willingly away—go
          visit another land; we have made you food ready for the voyage, we
          have now nothing more to give.”</span> When they have landed, all
          the people bathe together in the sea.<a id="noteref_462" name=
          "noteref_462" href="#note_462"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a> In
          this ceremony the reason for striking the people with the branches
          is clearly to rid them of the disease-demons, which are then
          supposed to be transferred to the branches. Hence the haste with
          which the branches are deposited in the proa and towed away to sea.
          So in the inland districts of Ceram, when smallpox or other
          sickness is raging, the priest strikes all the houses with
          consecrated branches, which are then thrown into the river, to be
          carried down to the sea;<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463"
          href="#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a>
          exactly as amongst the Wotyaks of Russia the sticks which have been
          used for expelling the devils from the village are thrown
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name=
          "Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> into the river, that
          the current may sweep the baleful burden away.<a id="noteref_464"
          name="noteref_464" href="#note_464"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> In
          Amboyna, for a similar purpose, the whole body of the patient is
          rubbed with a live white cock, which is then placed on a little
          proa and committed to the waves;<a id="noteref_465" name=
          "noteref_465" href="#note_465"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a> and
          in the Babar archipelago the bark which is to carry away to sea the
          sickness of a whole village contains a bowl of ashes taken from
          every kitchen in the village, and another bowl into which all the
          sick people have spat.<a id="noteref_466" name="noteref_466" href=
          "#note_466"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a> The
          plan of putting puppets in the boat to represent sick persons, in
          order to lure the demons after them, is not uncommon.<a id=
          "noteref_467" name="noteref_467" href="#note_467"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a> For
          example, most of the pagan tribes on the coast of Borneo seek to
          drive away epidemic disease as follows. They carve one or more
          rough human images from the pith of the sago palm and place them on
          a small raft or boat or full-rigged Malay ship together with rice
          and other food. The boat is decked with blossoms of the areca palm
          and with ribbons made from its leaves, and thus adorned the little
          craft is allowed to float out to sea with the ebb-tide, bearing, as
          the people fondly think or hope, the sickness away with it.<a id=
          "noteref_468" name="noteref_468" href="#note_468"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of disease expelled in a
              ship in Selangor.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Selangor, one
          of the native states in the Malay Peninsula, the ship employed in
          the export of disease is, or used to be, a model of a special kind
          of Malay craft called a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">lanchang</span></span>. This was a two-masted
          vessel with galleries fore and aft, armed with cannon, and used by
          Malay rajahs on the coast of Sumatra. So gallant a ship would be
          highly acceptable to the spirits, and to make it still more
          beautiful in their eyes it was not uncommonly stained yellow with
          turmeric or saffron, for among the Malays yellow is the royal
          colour. Some years ago a very fine model of a <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">lanchang</span></span>, with its cargo of
          sickness, was towed down the river to sea by the Government steam
          launch. A common spell uttered at the launching of one of these
          ships runs as follows:—</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ho, elders of the upper
                reaches,</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Elders of the lower reaches,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Elders of the dry land</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">,</span>
              </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg
              188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class=
              "tei tei-anchor"></a>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Elders of the river-flats,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Assemble ye, O people, lords of hill and
                hill-foot,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Lords of cavern and hill-locked basin,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Lords of the deep primeval forest,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Lords of the river-bends,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Come on board this</span></span> <span style=
                "font-size: 90%">lanchang,</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"
                style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">assembling in your
                multitudes.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                So may ye depart with the ebbing stream,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Depart on the passing breeze,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Depart in the yawning earth,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Depart in the red-dyed earth.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Go ye to the ocean which has no wave,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                And the plain where no green herb grows,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                And never return hither.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                But if ye return hither,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Ye shall be consumed by the curse.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                At sea ye shall get no drink,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Ashore ye shall get no food,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">But gape in vain about
                the world</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">.</span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_469" name=
                "noteref_469" href="#note_469"><span class="tei tei-noteref"
                style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in
              small ships in New Guinea, the Philippines, Tikopia, and the
              Nicobar Islands.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The practice of
          sending away diseases in boats is known outside the limits of the
          Malay region. Thus when smallpox raged among the Yabim of German
          New Guinea, they used to make a little model of a canoe with mast,
          sail, and rudder. Then they said to the small vessel, on which the
          spirit of smallpox was supposed to have taken his passage,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Bear him away to another village. When the
          people come forth to draw you ashore, give them <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘the thing’</span> and do to them what you have done to
          us.”</span> Lest the spirit should be hungry on the voyage, they
          put some taro on board, and to make sure of getting rid of the
          disease, they wiped their hands on the tiny canoe, after which they
          let it drift away. It often happened that the wind or <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> tide drove the vessel back to the place
          from which it started. Then there would be a deafening rub-a-dub of
          drums and blowing of shell-trumpets; and the little ship, or rather
          its invisible passenger, would be again apostrophized, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Do go away, you have already raged among us so that
          the air is poisoned with the stench of corpses.”</span> If this
          time it sailed away, they would stand on the shore and watch it
          with glad hearts disappearing; then they would climb the trees to
          get a last glimpse of it till it vanished in the distance. After
          that they came down joyfully and said to each other, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“We have had enough of it. The sickness has happily
          gone away.”</span><a id="noteref_470" name="noteref_470" href=
          "#note_470"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> When
          the Tagbanuas and other tribes of the Philippines suffered from
          epidemics, they used to make little models of ships, supply them
          with rice and fresh drinking water, and launch them on the sea, in
          order that the evil spirits might sail away in them.<a id=
          "noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href="#note_471"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> When
          the people of Tikopia, a small island in the Pacific, to the north
          of the New Hebrides, were attacked by an epidemic cough, they made
          a little canoe and adorned it with flowers. Four sons of the
          principal chiefs carried it on their shoulders all round the
          island, accompanied by the whole population, some of whom beat the
          bushes, while others uttered loud cries. On returning to the spot
          from which they had set out, they launched the canoe on the
          sea.<a id="noteref_472" name="noteref_472" href=
          "#note_472"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> In
          the Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, when there is much
          sickness in a village or no fish are caught, the blame is laid upon
          the spirits. They must be propitiated with offerings. All relations
          and friends are invited, a huge pig is roasted, and the best of it
          is eaten, but some parts are offered to the shades. The heap of
          offerings remains in front of the house till it is carried away by
          the rising tide. Then the priests, their faces reddened with paint
          and swine's blood, pretend to catch the demon of disease, and after
          a hand-to-hand tussle, force him into a model boat, made of leaves
          and decked with garlands, which is then towed so far to sea that
          neither wind nor tide is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg
          190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          likely to drive it back to the shore.<a id="noteref_473" name=
          "noteref_473" href="#note_473"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> In
          Annam, when the population of a village has been decimated by
          cholera, they make a raft and lade it with offerings of money and
          food, such as a sucking pig, bananas, and oranges. Sticks of
          incense also smoke on the floating altar; and when all is ready and
          earnest prayers have been uttered, the raft is abandoned to the
          current of the river. The people hope that the demon of cholera,
          allured and gratified by these offerings, will float away on the
          raft and trouble them no more.<a id="noteref_474" name=
          "noteref_474" href="#note_474"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Demons of sickness expelled in the
              form of animals in India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Often the
          vehicle which carries away the collected demons or ills of a whole
          community is an animal or scapegoat. In the Central Provinces of
          India, when cholera breaks out in a village, every one retires
          after sunset to his house. The priests then parade the streets,
          taking from the roof of each house a straw, which is burnt with an
          offering of rice, ghee, and turmeric, at some shrine to the east of
          the village. Chickens daubed with vermilion are driven away in the
          direction of the smoke, and are believed to carry the disease with
          them. If they fail, goats are tried, and last of all pigs.<a id=
          "noteref_475" name="noteref_475" href="#note_475"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a> When
          cholera rages among the Bhars, Malians, and Kurmis of India, they
          take a goat or a buffalo—in either case the animal must be a
          female, and as black as possible—then having tied some grain,
          cloves, and red lead in a yellow cloth on its back they turn it out
          of the village. The animal is conducted beyond the boundary and not
          allowed to return.<a id="noteref_476" name="noteref_476" href=
          "#note_476"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a>
          Sometimes the buffalo is marked with a red pigment and driven to
          the next village, where he carries the plague with him.<a id=
          "noteref_477" name="noteref_477" href="#note_477"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a> The
          people of the city and cantonments of Sagar being <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> afflicted with a violent influenza,
          General Sir William Sleeman received a request from the old Queen
          Dowager of Sagar <span class="tei tei-q">“to allow of a noisy
          religious procession for the purpose of imploring deliverance from
          this great calamity. Men, women, and children in this procession
          were to do their utmost to add to the noise by <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘raising their voices in psalmody,’</span> beating upon
          their brass pots and pans with all their might, and discharging
          firearms where they could get them; and before the noisy crowd was
          to be driven a buffalo, which had been purchased by general
          subscription, in order that every family might participate in the
          merit. They were to follow it out for eight miles, where it was to
          be turned loose for any man who would take it. If the animal
          returned, the disease, it was said, must return with it, and the
          ceremony be performed over again.... It was, however, subsequently
          determined that the animal should be a goat, and he was driven
          before the crowd accordingly. I have on several occasions been
          requested to allow of such noisy <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pujas</span></span> in cases of
          epidemics.”</span><a id="noteref_478" name="noteref_478" href=
          "#note_478"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a> Once,
          when influenza was raging in Pithoria, a village to the north-west
          of Sagar, a man had a small carriage made, after a plan of his own,
          for a pair of scapegoats, which were harnessed to it and driven to
          a wood at some distance, where they were let loose. From that hour
          the disease entirely ceased in the town. The goats never returned;
          had they done so, it was affirmed that the disease must have come
          back with them.<a id="noteref_479" name="noteref_479" href=
          "#note_479"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">479</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Goats and cocks employed as
              scapegoats in various parts of India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The use of a
          scapegoat is not uncommon in the hills of the Eastern Ghats. In
          1886, during a severe outbreak of smallpox, the people of Jepur did
          reverence to a goat, marched it to the Ghats, and let it loose on
          the plains.<a id="noteref_480" name="noteref_480" href=
          "#note_480"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">480</span></span></a> In
          Southern Konkan, on the appearance of cholera, the villagers went
          in procession from the temple to the extreme boundaries of the
          village, carrying a basket of cooked rice covered with red powder,
          a wooden doll representing the pestilence, and a cock. The head of
          the cock was cut off at the village <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> boundary, and the body was thrown away. When
          cholera had thus been transferred from one village to another, the
          second village observed the same ceremony and passed on the scourge
          to its neighbours, and so on through a number of villages.<a id=
          "noteref_481" name="noteref_481" href="#note_481"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">481</span></span></a> Among
          the Korwas of Mirzapur, when cholera has broken out, the priest
          offers a black cock or, if the disease is very malignant, a black
          goat, at the shrine of the local deity, and then drives the animal
          away in the direction of some other village. But it has not gone
          far before he overtakes it, kills it, and eats it; which he may do
          with perfect safety in virtue of his sacred office. Again, when
          cholera is raging among the Pataris, an aboriginal Dravidian race
          of South Mirzapur, the wizard and the village elders feed a black
          cock with grain and drive it beyond the boundaries, ordering the
          fowl to take the disease away with it. A little oil, red lead, and
          a spangle worn by a woman on her forehead are usually fastened to
          the bird's head before it is let loose. The cost of purchasing the
          cock is defrayed by public subscription. When such a bird of
          ill-omen appears in a village, the priest takes it to the shrine of
          the local deity and sacrifices it there; but sometimes he merely
          bows before it at the shrine and passes it on to some other
          village. If a murrain attacks their cattle, the Kharwars of
          Northern India take a black cock and put red lead on its head,
          antimony on its eyes, a spangle on its forehead, and a pewter
          bangle on its leg; thus arrayed they let it loose, calling out to
          the disease, <span class="tei tei-q">“Mount on the fowl and go
          elsewhere into the ravines and thickets; destroy the sin.”</span>
          Perhaps, as has been suggested, this tricking out of the bird with
          women's ornaments may be a relic of some grosser form of expiation
          in which a human being was sacrificed or banished.<a id=
          "noteref_482" name="noteref_482" href="#note_482"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">482</span></span></a>
          Charms of this sort in India no doubt date from a remote antiquity.
          An ancient Indian book of magic, known as the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kausika
          Sutra</span></span>, describes a ceremony of letting loose against
          a hostile army a white-footed ewe in which the power of disease was
          believed to be <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg
          193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          incarnate.<a id="noteref_483" name="noteref_483" href=
          "#note_483"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">483</span></span></a> In
          the same treatise we read of a mode of getting rid of ill-luck by
          fastening a hook to the left leg of a crow, attaching a sacrificial
          cake to the hook, and then letting the bird fly away in a
          south-westerly direction, while the priest or magician recites as
          usual the appropriate formula.<a id="noteref_484" name=
          "noteref_484" href="#note_484"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">484</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Cows, toads, and llamas as
              scapegoats in Africa and America.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the
          Dinkas, a pastoral people of the White Nile, each family possesses
          a sacred cow. When the country is threatened with war, famine, or
          any other public calamity, the chiefs of the village require a
          particular family to surrender their sacred cow to serve as a
          scapegoat. The animal is driven by the women to the brink of the
          river and across it to the other bank, there to wander in the
          wilderness and fall a prey to ravening beasts. Then the women
          return in silence and without looking behind them; were they to
          cast a backward glance, they imagine that the ceremony would have
          no effect.<a id="noteref_485" name="noteref_485" href=
          "#note_485"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">485</span></span></a> When
          influenza broke out in a virulent form among the negroes of
          Togoland during the winter of 1892, the natives set the trouble
          down to the machinations of evil spirits, who must be expelled the
          country. The principal instrument of expulsion was a fat toad,
          which was dragged through the streets of every town or village,
          followed by an elder who sprinkled holy water to right and left.
          All the evil was thus concentrated in the toad, which was finally
          thrown away into the forest. Thus the natives expected to rid the
          village of the influenza.<a id="noteref_486" name="noteref_486"
          href="#note_486"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">486</span></span></a> In
          1857, when the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru were suffering
          from a plague, they loaded a black llama with the clothes of the
          plague-stricken people, sprinkled brandy on the clothes, and then
          turned the animal loose on the mountains, hoping that it would
          carry the pest away with it.<a id="noteref_487" name="noteref_487"
          href="#note_487"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">487</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Goddess of disease expelled in a
              toy chariot.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of
          India a principal means of expelling <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> an epidemic is a little toy chariot called a
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ratha</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">rath</span></span>, in which the goddess of
          the disease is supposed to be carted away. It is carried or drawn
          in procession to the next village, the inhabitants of which pass it
          on in like manner, with great alacrity, to their neighbours. Thus
          the goddess and the plague are transferred from village to village,
          until at last they come to one which is so far away from its next
          neighbour that the people do not care to undertake the long weary
          journey. In that case they content themselves with conveying the
          chariot to a place so shut in by hills that the disease cannot
          possibly escape, and there they leave it to die. Or if the village
          is near the sea, they drown the sickness by throwing the chariot
          into the water. However, in Central India the real home of the
          goddess of cholera is at Unkareshwar; and accordingly the chariot
          in which she is politely escorted out of a village is finally
          deposited at or near that place. It is usual and proper for the
          people of a village to give a friendly notice to their neighbours
          that they are going to cart the cholera, smallpox, or whatever it
          may be, to their village, so that the inhabitants may be ready to
          receive the goddess with due honour and to escort her on her
          progress. But some unneighbourly folk, without giving notice, go by
          night and stealthily deposit the chariot on the outskirts of the
          next village. If the inhabitants are not on the watch, and suffer
          the fatal little vehicle to remain there, the disease will
          naturally cleave to them. Sometimes, perhaps generally, the
          procession with the chariot is accompanied by a goat, a cock, and a
          pot of native beer or wine, which serve as additional attractions
          to the goddess to set out on her travels.<a id="noteref_488" name=
          "noteref_488" href="#note_488"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">488</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats in Uganda.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Occasionally the
          scapegoat is a man. For example, from time to time the gods used to
          warn the King of Uganda that his foes the Banyoro were working
          magic against him and his people to make them die of disease. To
          avert such a catastrophe the king would send a scapegoat
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name=
          "Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to the frontier of
          Bunyoro, the land of the enemy. The scapegoat consisted of either a
          man and a boy or a woman and her child, chosen because of some mark
          or bodily defect, which the gods had noted and by which the victims
          were to be recognized. With the human victims were sent a cow, a
          goat, a fowl, and a dog; and a strong guard escorted them to the
          land which the god had indicated. There the limbs of the victims
          were broken and they were left to die a lingering death in the
          enemy's country, being too crippled to crawl back to Uganda. The
          disease or plague was thought to have been thus transferred to the
          victims and to have been conveyed back in their persons to the land
          from which it came. So, too, after a war the gods sometimes advised
          the king to send back a scapegoat in order to free the warriors
          from some evil that had attached itself to the army. One of the
          women slaves, a cow, a goat, a fowl, and a dog would be chosen from
          among the captives and sent back to the borders of the country
          whence they had come; there they were maimed and left to die. After
          that the army would be pronounced clean and allowed to return to
          the capital. In each case a bundle of herbs would be rubbed over
          the people and the cattle, and would then be tied to the victims,
          who would thus carry back the evil with them.<a id="noteref_489"
          name="noteref_489" href="#note_489"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">489</span></span></a> A
          similar use of scapegoats, human and animal, was regularly made
          after a King of Uganda had been crowned. Two men were brought to
          the king; one of them he wounded slightly with an arrow shot from a
          bow. The man was then sent away, under a strong guard, as a
          scapegoat to Bunyoro, the enemy's country, and with him were sent a
          cow, a goat, and a dog. On his sad journey he took with him the
          dust and ashes of the sacred fire, which had burned day and night
          at the entrance to the late king's enclosure and had been
          extinguished, as usual, at his death. Arrived at their destination,
          the man and the animals were maimed and left to die. They were
          believed to bear away with them any uncleanness that might cleave
          to the new King or Queen.<a id="noteref_490" name="noteref_490"
          href="#note_490"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">490</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats in China and
              India. Indian ceremony of sliding down a rope.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some of the
          aboriginal tribes of China, as a protection against pestilence,
          select a man of great muscular strength to act the part of
          scapegoat. Having besmeared his face with paint, he performs many
          antics with the view of enticing all pestilential and noxious
          influences to attach themselves to him only. He is assisted by a
          priest. Finally the scapegoat, hotly pursued by men and women
          beating gongs and tom-toms, is driven with great haste out of the
          town or village.<a id="noteref_491" name="noteref_491" href=
          "#note_491"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">491</span></span></a> In
          the Punjaub a cure for the murrain is to hire a man of the Chamar
          caste, turn his face away from the village, brand him with a
          red-hot sickle, and let him go out into the jungle taking the
          murrain with him. He must not look back.<a id="noteref_492" name=
          "noteref_492" href="#note_492"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">492</span></span></a> When
          disease breaks out among a herd, the Oraons take the herdsman
          himself, tie a wooden bell from one of the cows round his neck,
          beat him with sticks, and drive him out of the village to a
          cross-road, where the bell and sticks are deposited.<a id=
          "noteref_493" name="noteref_493" href="#note_493"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">493</span></span></a> In
          the territory of Kumaon, lying on the southern slopes of the
          Western Himalayas, the custom of employing a human scapegoat
          appears to have taken a somewhat peculiar form in the ceremony
          known as Barat. First of all a thick rope of grass is stretched
          from the top of a cliff to the valley beneath, where it is made
          fast to posts driven into the ground. Next a wooden saddle, with a
          very sharp ridge and unpadded, is attached by thongs to the cable,
          along which it runs in a deep groove. A man now seats himself on
          the saddle and is strapped to it, while sand-bags or heavy stones
          are suspended from his feet to secure his balance. Then, after
          various ceremonies have been performed and a kid sacrificed, he
          throws himself as far back in the saddle as he can go, and is
          started off to slide down the rope into the valley. Away he shoots
          at an ever-increasing speed; the saddle under him, however well
          greased, emits volumes of smoke during the greater part of his
          progress; and he is nearly senseless when he reaches the bottom.
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name=
          "Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Here men are waiting
          to catch him and run forward with him some distance in order to
          break gradually the force of his descent. This ceremony, regarded
          as a propitiation of Mahadeva, is performed as a means of
          delivering a community from present or impending calamity. Thus,
          for example, it was performed when cholera was raging at Almora,
          and the people traced the immunity they enjoyed to the due
          observance of the rite. Each district has its hereditary Badi, as
          the performer is called; he is supported by annual contributions in
          grain from the inhabitants, as well as by special payments for each
          performance. When the ceremony is over, the grass rope is cut up
          and distributed among the villagers, who hang the pieces as charms
          at the eaves of their houses; and they preserve the hair of the
          Badi for a similar purpose. Yet while his severed locks bring
          fertility to other people's lands, he entails sterility on his own;
          and it is firmly believed that no seed sown by his hand could ever
          sprout. Formerly the rule prevailed that, if a Badi had the
          misfortune to fall from the rope in the course of his flying
          descent, he was immediately despatched with a sword by the
          spectators. The rule has naturally been abolished by the English
          Government; but its former observance seems to indicate that the
          custom of letting a man slide down a rope as a charm to avert
          calamity is only a mitigation of an older custom of putting him to
          death.<a id="noteref_494" name="noteref_494" href=
          "#note_494"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">494</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Tibetan New Year ceremony of
              sliding down a rope.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A somewhat
          similar ceremony is annually performed at Lhasa a few days after
          the beginning of the Tibetan New Year, which falls in spring. The
          scene of the performance is Potala Hill, on the summit and slope of
          which is built the superb castle of the Grand Lama of Tibet, a
          massive and imposing pile of buildings which attracts the eye and
          dominates the landscape from afar. On the day in question a rope of
          hide is stretched from the top to the bottom of the steep hill, and
          men from a distant province of Tibet climb up it with the agility
          of monkeys. They are called Flying <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> Spirits. Arrived at the top, each of them
          places a piece of wood on his breast, stretches out his hands and
          feet, and letting himself go shoots down the rope (in the words of
          a Chinese writer) <span class="tei tei-q">“like the bolt flying
          from the bow, or the swallow skimming the water. 'Tis a wondrous
          sight!”</span> Considering that these performers are called
          Spirits, and that the performance takes place a few days after the
          New Year, a season so commonly selected for the expulsion of
          demons, we may conjecture that the Flying Spirits represent the
          powers of evil who are thus shot out of the Tibetan pope's palace
          at the beginning of the year.<a id="noteref_495" name="noteref_495"
          href="#note_495"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">495</span></span></a></p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Periodic Expulsion of Evils
          in a Material Vehicle.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Periodic expulsion of evils in a
              material vehicle. Periodic expulsion of spirits in rafts from
              Perak.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this last
          case the expulsion of evils, if I am right in so interpreting the
          ceremony, is periodic, not occasional, being repeated every spring
          at the beginning of a new year. It brings us accordingly to the
          consideration of a whole class of such cases, for the mediate
          expulsion of evils by means of a scapegoat or other material
          vehicle, like the immediate expulsion of them in invisible form,
          tends to become periodic, and for a like reason. Thus in Perak, a
          state on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, it was in ancient
          times the custom to perform periodically a ceremony intended to
          ensure the prosperity of the country by the propitiation of
          friendly spirits and the expulsion of evil influences. The writer
          who records the custom is uncertain as to the period which elapsed
          between two successive celebrations; he suggests with hesitation
          that the rite was performed once in seven years or once in a
          Rajah's reign. The name of the ceremony was <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pelas
          negri</span></span>, which means <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          cleansing of the country from evils.”</span> When the time came,
          the Rajah, the chiefs, and a great following of people assembled at
          a point as far up the river as possible, but short of the rapids
          which further up impede navigation. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> There a number of rafts were prepared, some
          of them elaborately built with houses on them. Four of them were
          devoted to the four great classes of spirits which are found in
          Perak, namely the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hantu Blian</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tiger-spirits,”</span> the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Hantu
          Sungkei</span></span>, the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Hantu
          Malayu</span></span>, and the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Jin
          Raja</span></span>. In each of these rafts a number of wizards
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pawangs</span></span>) took up their post,
          according to the particular class of demon which they affected. The
          procession was headed by the raft devoted to the Tiger-spirits; and
          in it was set up a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">prah</span></span> tree with all its branches,
          kept erect by stays. It was followed by the three rafts dedicated
          to the other three classes of spirits, and behind them came a train
          of other rafts bearing mere common mortals, the royal bandsmen, the
          Rajah himself, the chiefs, and the people. As the long procession
          floated down the river with the current, the wizards, standing on
          sheets of tin, waved white cloths and shouted invocations to the
          spirits and demons who inhabited the country through which the
          rafts were drifting seaward. The burden of the invocations was to
          invite the spirits and demons to come aboard the rafts and partake
          of the food which had been considerately made ready for them. At
          every village on the bank large enough to possess a mosque (for the
          Malays of Perak are professing Mohammedans) the procession halted;
          a buffalo, subscribed for by the inhabitants, was slaughtered, and
          its head placed on one of the spirit-barks, while people feasted on
          the flesh. The ceremony ended at Bras Basah, a village on the left
          bank of the Perak river, not far from its mouth. There the rafts
          were abandoned to the current, which swept them out to sea,<a id=
          "noteref_496" name="noteref_496" href="#note_496"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">496</span></span></a>
          doubtless bearing with them the hapless demons who had been lured
          by the tempting viands to embark and were now left to toss forlorn
          on the great deep at the mercy of the waves and the winds.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of evils in small
              ships in the Indian Archipelago.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, every
          year, generally in March, the people of Leti, Moa, and Lakor,
          islands of the Indian Archipelago, send away all their diseases to
          sea. They make a proa about six feet long, rig it with sails, oars,
          rudder, and other gear, and every family deposits in it some rice,
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name=
          "Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fruit, a fowl, two
          eggs, insects that ravage the fields, and so on. Then they let it
          drift away to sea, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Take away from
          here all kinds of sickness, take them to other islands, to other
          lands, distribute them in places that lie eastward, where the sun
          rises.”</span><a id="noteref_497" name="noteref_497" href=
          "#note_497"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">497</span></span></a> The
          Biajas of Borneo annually send to sea a little bark laden with the
          sins and misfortunes of the people. The crew of any ship that falls
          in with the ill-omened bark at sea will suffer all the sorrows with
          which it is laden.<a id="noteref_498" name="noteref_498" href=
          "#note_498"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">498</span></span></a> A
          like custom is annually observed by the Dusuns of the Tuaran
          district in British North Borneo. The ceremony is the most
          important of the whole year. Its aim is to bring good luck to the
          village during the ensuing year by solemnly expelling all the evil
          spirits that may have collected in or about the houses throughout
          the last twelve months. The task of routing out the demons and
          banishing them devolves chiefly on women, who indeed play the
          principal part in all religious ceremonies among the Dusuns, while
          the humble duty of beating drums and banging gongs is discharged by
          members of the inferior sex. On this momentous occasion a
          procession of women, in full ceremonial dress, goes from house to
          house, stopping at each to go through their performances. At the
          head of the procession marches a boy carrying a spear on which is
          impaled a bundle of palm leaves containing rice. He is followed by
          two men, who carry a large gong and a drum slung on a pole between
          them. Then come the women. One of them carries a small sucking pig
          in a basket on her back; and all of them bear wands, with which
          they belabour the little pig at the appropriate moment; its squeals
          help to attract the vagrant spirits. At every house the women dance
          and sing, clashing castanets or cymbals of brass and jingling
          bunches of little brass bells in both hands. When the performance
          has been repeated at every house in the village, the procession
          defiles down to the river and all the evil spirits, which the
          performers have chased from the houses, follow them to the edge of
          the water. There a raft has been made ready and moored to the bank.
          It contains <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg
          201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          offerings of food, cloth, cooking-pots, and swords; and the deck is
          crowded with figures of men, women, animals, and birds, all made
          out of the leaves of the sago palm. The evil spirits now embark on
          the raft, and when they are all aboard, it is pushed off and
          allowed to float down with the current, carrying the demons with
          it. Should the raft run aground near the village, it is shoved off
          with all speed, lest the invisible passengers should seize the
          opportunity of landing and returning to the village. Finally, the
          sufferings of the little pig, whose squeals served to decoy the
          demons from their lurking-places, are terminated by death, for it
          is killed and its carcase thrown away.<a id="noteref_499" name=
          "noteref_499" href="#note_499"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">499</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons in
              little ships in the Nicobar Islands.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Every year, at
          the beginning of the dry season, the Nicobar Islanders carry the
          model of a ship through their villages. The devils are chased out
          of the huts, and driven on board the little ship, which is then
          launched and suffered to sail away with the wind.<a id=
          "noteref_500" name="noteref_500" href="#note_500"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">500</span></span></a> The
          ceremony has been described by a catechist, who witnessed it at Car
          Nicobar in July 1897. For three days the people were busy preparing
          two very large floating cars, shaped like canoes, fitted with
          sails, and loaded with certain leaves, which possessed the valuable
          property of expelling devils. While the young people were thus
          engaged, the exorcists and the elders sat in a house singing songs
          by turns; but often they would come forth, pace the beach armed
          with rods, and forbid the devil to enter the village. The fourth
          day of the solemnity bore the name of <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Into-nga-Siya</span></span>, which means
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Expelling the Devil by Sails.”</span> In
          the evening all the villagers assembled, the women bringing baskets
          of ashes and bunches of devil-expelling leaves. These leaves were
          then distributed to everybody, old and young. When all was ready, a
          band of robust men, attended by a guard of exorcists, carried one
          of the cars down to the sea on the right side of the village
          graveyard, and set it floating in the water. As soon as they had
          returned, another band of men carried the other car to the beach
          and floated it similarly in the sea to the left of the graveyard.
          The demon-laden <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg
          202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          barks being now launched, the women threw ashes from the shore, and
          the whole crowd shouted, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Fly away,
          devil, fly away, never come again!”</span> The wind and the tide
          being favourable, the canoes sailed quickly away; and that night
          all the people feasted together with great joy, because the devil
          had departed in the direction of Chowra. A similar expulsion of
          devils takes place once a year in other Nicobar villages; but the
          ceremonies are held at different times in different places.<a id=
          "noteref_501" name="noteref_501" href="#note_501"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">501</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of embodied evils
              in India, China, and Corea. Annual expulsion or destruction of
              demons embodied in images in Tibet.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Sucla-Tirtha,
          in India, an earthen pot containing the accumulated sins of the
          people is (annually?) set adrift on the river. Legend says that the
          custom originated with a wicked priest who, after atoning for his
          guilt by a course of austerities and expiatory ceremonies, was
          directed to sail upon the river in a boat with white sails. If the
          white sails turned black, it would be a sign that his sins were
          forgiven him. They did so, and he joyfully allowed the boat to
          drift with his sins to sea.<a id="noteref_502" name="noteref_502"
          href="#note_502"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">502</span></span></a>
          Amongst many of the aboriginal tribes of China, a great festival is
          celebrated in the third month of every year. It is held by way of a
          general rejoicing over what the people believe to be a total
          annihilation of the ills of the past twelve months. The destruction
          is supposed to be effected in the following way. A large
          earthenware jar filled with gunpowder, stones, and bits of iron is
          buried in the earth. A train of gunpowder, communicating with the
          jar, is then laid; and a match being applied, the jar and its
          contents are blown up. The stones and bits of iron represent the
          ills and disasters of the past year, and the dispersion of them by
          the explosion is believed to remove the ills and disasters
          themselves. The festival is attended with much revelling and
          drunkenness.<a id="noteref_503" name="noteref_503" href=
          "#note_503"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">503</span></span></a> On
          New Year's Day people in Corea seek to rid themselves of all their
          distresses by painting images on paper, writing against them their
          troubles of body or mind, and afterwards giving the papers to a boy
          to burn. Another method of effecting the same object at the same
          season is to make rude dolls of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> straw, stuff them with a few copper coins,
          and throw them into the street. Whoever picks up such an effigy
          gets all the troubles and thereby relieves the original
          sufferer.<a id="noteref_504" name="noteref_504" href=
          "#note_504"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">504</span></span></a>
          Again, on the fourteenth day of the first month the Coreans fly
          paper kites inscribed with a wish that all the ills of the year may
          fly away with them.<a id="noteref_505" name="noteref_505" href=
          "#note_505"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">505</span></span></a> Mr.
          George Bogle, the English envoy sent to Tibet by Warren Hastings,
          witnessed the celebration of the Tibetan New Year's Day at Teshu
          Lumbo, the capital of the Teshu Lama. Monks walked in procession
          round the court to the music of cymbals, tabors, trumpets, hautboys
          and drums. Then others, clad in masquerade dress and wearing masks
          which represented the heads of animals, mostly wild beasts, danced
          with antic motions. <span class="tei tei-q">“After this, the figure
          of a man, chalked upon paper, was laid upon the ground. Many
          strange ceremonies, which to me who did not understand them
          appeared whimsical, were performed about it; and a great fire being
          kindled in a corner of the court, it was at length held over it,
          and being formed of combustibles, vanished with much smoke and
          explosion. I was told it was a figure of the devil.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_506" name="noteref_506" href="#note_506"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">506</span></span></a>
          Another Tibetan mode of expelling demons from a dwelling is to make
          a paste image, into which the lamas by their incantations conjure
          all the evil spirits that may be lurking in the house. This image
          is carried to a distance by a runner and thrown away. He is
          attended by men, who shout at the top of their voices, brandish
          swords, and fire guns, all to frighten the demons and drive them
          far from human habitations.<a id="noteref_507" name="noteref_507"
          href="#note_507"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">507</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Biennial expulsion of demons
              embodied in effigies at Old Calabar.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Old Calabar
          on the coast of Guinea, the devils and ghosts are, or used to be,
          publicly expelled once in two years. Among the spirits thus driven
          from their haunts are the souls of all the people who died since
          the last lustration of the town. About three weeks or a month
          before the expulsion, which according to one account takes place in
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name=
          "Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the month of
          November, rude effigies representing men and animals, such as
          crocodiles, leopards, elephants, bullocks, and birds, are made of
          wicker-work or wood, and being hung with strips of cloth and
          bedizened with gew-gaws, are set before the door of every house.
          About three o'clock in the morning of the day appointed for the
          ceremony the whole population turns out into the streets, and
          proceeds with a deafening uproar and in a state of the wildest
          excitement to drive all lurking devils and ghosts into the
          effigies, in order that they may be banished with them from the
          abodes of men. For this purpose bands of people roam through the
          streets knocking on doors, firing guns, beating drums, blowing on
          horns, ringing bells, clattering pots and pans, shouting and
          hallooing with might and main, in short making all the noise it is
          possible for them to raise. The hubbub goes on till the approach of
          dawn, when it gradually subsides and ceases altogether at sunrise.
          By this time the houses have been thoroughly swept, and all the
          frightened spirits are supposed to have huddled into the effigies
          or their fluttering drapery. In these wicker figures are also
          deposited the sweepings of the houses and the ashes of yesterday's
          fires. Then the demon-laden images are hastily snatched up, carried
          in tumultuous procession down to the brink of the river, and thrown
          into the water to the tuck of drums. The ebb-tide bears them away
          seaward, and thus the town is swept clean of ghosts and devils for
          another two years. This biennial expulsion of spirits goes by the
          name of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ndok</span></span>, and the effigies by which
          it is effected are called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Nabikem</span></span>
          or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nabikim</span></span>.<a id="noteref_508"
          name="noteref_508" href="#note_508"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">508</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of demons
              embodied in effigies at Porto Novo.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further to the
          west similar ceremonies are or were till recently enacted at Porto
          Novo, the seaport of Dahomey. One of them has been described by an
          eye-witness, a Catholic missionary, who interpreted the rites as a
          Funeral of Death. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Some time ago a
          curious event took place: the King had commanded to celebrate the
          funeral of Death. Every year, at the season of the rains, the
          predecessors of his sable Majesty, in order to preserve the life of
          their dear subjects, had caused the fetish of that terrible and
          pitiless enemy, who spares not even kings, to be drowned in the
          lagoon. Toffa wished to comply with the traditions of his
          ancestors.”</span> However, the ceremony as described by the
          missionary seems to conform closely to the type of the expulsion of
          ghosts and demons. Two days before the crowning act of the
          celebration the streets were carefully swept and all the filth
          which usually encumbered them was removed, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“lest Death should there find a refuge.”</span> All the
          people from the neighbouring villages assembled; their fetishes,
          daubed with red paint, were carried in great pomp through the
          streets of the capital attended by noisy processions of mummers. A
          great multitude passed the night in the public square, drinking,
          singing, and shouting. Finally, a number of rude and hideous
          effigies were escorted by a noisy crowd to the shore of the lagoon;
          there canoes were waiting to receive them and paddle them out to
          deep water, where they were flung overboard. These effigies the
          missionary regarded as so many images of Death, who thus received
          his passport and was dismissed from the territory of Porto Novo.
          But more probably they represented the hosts of demons and ghosts
          who were believed to lurk about the town and to massacre people
          under the form of sickness and disease. Having made a clean sweep
          of the whole baleful crew the inhabitants no doubt thought that
          they had removed the principal, if not the only, cause of death,
          and that accordingly they had taken out a new lease of life.<a id=
          "noteref_509" name="noteref_509" href="#note_509"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">509</span></span></a> It is
          not without interest to observe that in cleansing their streets the
          people did actually retrench one of the most fruitful sources of
          disease and death, especially in the sweltering <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> heat of a damp tropical climate; hence
          the measures they took for the prolongation of their lives were
          really to a certain extent effectual, though they did not
          accomplish their object in the precise way they imagined. So
          curiously does it often happen that the savage reaches the goal of
          his wishes by a road which to civilized man might appear at first
          sight to lead far away from it.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of embodied evils
              among the Hos of Togoland.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the Hos
          of Togoland, to the west of Dahomey, celebrate their festival of
          the new yams, which has been described in another part of this
          work,<a id="noteref_510" name="noteref_510" href=
          "#note_510"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">510</span></span></a> they
          say that it is necessary to clean the town and to put it in order.
          The way in which they do so is this. They take leaves of two
          particular sorts of trees (the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">adzu</span></span> and the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">wo</span></span>), together with creepers and
          ashes, and bind all the leaves fast to a pole of the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">adzu</span></span> tree. As they do so they
          pray or command the evil spirits, the witches, and all other evils
          in the town to enter into the band and be bound with it. Then they
          make a paste out of the ashes mixed with urine and smear it on the
          bundle of leaves, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“We smear it on
          the face of the Evil Ones who are in this bundle, in order that
          they may not be able to see any more.”</span> Then they throw the
          bundle on the ground and mock at it. Next they take all the similar
          poles, wrapt in creepers, in which they have bound up all the evil
          powers, and carry them out of the town and stick them in the ground
          on the various roads leading into the town. When they have done
          this, they say that they have driven the evils out of the town and
          shut the door against them. After that they wash the faces of all
          the people with a medicine which has been prepared by the oldest
          men. Thereupon they all return home to sweep out their houses and
          yards; they sweep even the ground in front of the yards, so that
          the whole town is thoroughly clean. All the grass-stalks and refuse
          of stock-yams which have been swept together are carried out of the
          town, and the people rail at the stock-yams. In the course of the
          night the oldest men assemble and tie a toad to a young palm-leaf.
          They say that they wish now to sweep the town and finish the
          ceremony. So they drag the toad behind them through the whole town
          in the direction of Mount <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg
          207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Adaklu. When that has been done, the priests say that they will now
          remove the sicknesses. In the evening they give public notice that
          they are about to take to the road, so nobody may light a fire on
          the hearth or eat. At dead of night, when people are asleep, three
          men go through the town. One of them drags behind them a toad
          fastened to a bunch of herbs; another carries a calabash of holy
          herbs and water, with which he sprinkles the streets; and the third
          whistles softly. As soon as they have thus passed through the whole
          town, they throw away the toad and the holy herbs in the direction
          of Mount Adaklu. Next morning the women sweep out their houses and
          hearths and set the sweepings on broken wooden plates. Many put on
          torn mats or torn clothes; others tie grasses and creepers about
          them. While they do so, they pray, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“All ye sicknesses which are in our body and plague us,
          we are come this day to cast you out!”</span> When they set out so
          to do, the priest commands every man to cry out thrice and thereby
          to smite himself on the mouth. In a moment they all cry out, smite
          themselves on the mouth, and run as fast as their legs can carry
          them in the direction of Mount Adaklu. As they run, they say,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Out to-day! Out to-day! What kills
          anybody, out to-day! Ye evil spirits, out to-day! And all that
          makes our heads to ache, out to-day! Anlo and Adaklu are the places
          whither all evil ought to go.”</span> Now on Mount Adaklu there
          stands a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">klo</span></span> tree; and when they have
          come thither they throw everything away and return home. After
          their return every man washes himself with the medicine which is
          set forth for that purpose in the public street; then he goes into
          his house. Such is the ceremony by which the Hos prepare themselves
          to eat the new yams.<a id="noteref_511" name="noteref_511" href=
          "#note_511"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">511</span></span></a> Thus
          among the Hos the public expulsion of evils is definitely connected
          with the crops and therefore takes place every year, not every two
          years, as at Old Calabar.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of embodied evils
              among the gypsies.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar annual
          expulsions of embodied evils are not unknown in Europe. On the
          evening of Easter Sunday <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg
          208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the gypsies of Southern Europe take a wooden vessel like a
          band-box, which rests cradle-wise on two cross pieces of wood. In
          this they place herbs and simples, together with the dried carcase
          of a snake, or lizard, which every person present must first have
          touched with his fingers. The vessel is then wrapt in white and red
          wool, carried by the oldest man from tent to tent, and finally
          thrown into running water, not, however, before every member of the
          band has spat into it once, and the sorceress has uttered some
          spells over it. They believe that by performing this ceremony they
          dispel all the illnesses that would otherwise have afflicted them
          in the course of the year; and that if any one finds the vessel and
          opens it out of curiosity, he and his will be visited by all the
          maladies which the others have escaped.<a id="noteref_512" name=
          "noteref_512" href="#note_512"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">512</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of evils in an
              animal scapegoat among the Garos of Assam.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scapegoat by
          means of which the accumulated ills of a whole year are publicly
          expelled is sometimes an animal. For example, among the Garos of
          Assam, <span class="tei tei-q">“besides the sacrifices for
          individual cases of illness, there are certain ceremonies which are
          observed once a year by a whole community or village, and are
          intended to safeguard its members from dangers of the forest, and
          from sickness and mishap during the coming twelve months. The
          principal of these is the Asongtata ceremony. Close to the
          outskirts of every big village a number of stones may be noticed
          stuck into the ground, apparently without order or method. These
          are known by the name of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">asong</span></span>, and on them is offered
          the sacrifice which the Asongtata demands. The sacrifice of a goat
          takes place, and a month later, that of a <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">langur</span></span> (<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Entellus</span></span> monkey) or a bamboo-rat
          is considered necessary. The animal chosen has a rope fastened
          round its neck and is led by two men, one on each side of it, to
          every house in the village. It is taken inside each house in turn,
          the assembled villagers, meanwhile, beating the walls from the
          outside, to frighten and drive out any evil spirits which may have
          taken up their residence within. The round of the village having
          been made in this manner, the monkey or rat is led to the outskirts
          of the village, killed by a blow of a <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">dao</span></span>, which disembowels it, and
          then crucified on bamboos set up in the <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> ground. Round the crucified animal long,
          sharp bamboo stakes are placed, which form <span lang="fr" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">chevaux de frise</span></span> round about it.
          These commemorate the days when such defences surrounded the
          villages on all sides to keep off human enemies, and they are now a
          symbol to ward off sickness and dangers to life from the wild
          animals of the forest. The <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">langur</span></span> required for the purpose
          is hunted down some days before, but should it be found impossible
          to catch one, a brown monkey may take its place; a hulock may not
          be used.”</span><a id="noteref_513" name="noteref_513" href=
          "#note_513"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">513</span></span></a> Here
          the crucified ape or rat is the public scapegoat, which by its
          vicarious sufferings and death relieves the people from all
          sickness and mishap in the coming year.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dogs as scapegoats in India,
              Scotland and America. The Jewish scapegoat.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, on one
          day of the year the Bhotiyas of Juhar, in the Western Himalayas,
          take a dog, intoxicate him with spirits and bhang or hemp, and
          having fed him with sweetmeats, lead him round the village and let
          him loose. They then chase and kill him with sticks and stones, and
          believe that, when they have done so, no disease or misfortune will
          visit the village during the year.<a id="noteref_514" name=
          "noteref_514" href="#note_514"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">514</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Breadalbane it was formerly the custom on New Year's
          Day to take a dog to the door, give him a bit of bread, and drive
          him out, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Get away, you dog!
          Whatever death of men or loss of cattle would happen in this house
          to the end of the present year, may it all light on your
          head!”</span><a id="noteref_515" name="noteref_515" href=
          "#note_515"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">515</span></span></a> It
          appears that the white dogs annually sacrificed by the Iroquois at
          their New Year Festival are, or have been, regarded as scapegoats.
          According to Mr. J. V. H. Clark, who witnessed the ceremony in
          January 1841, on the first day of the festival all the fires in the
          village were extinguished, the ashes scattered to the winds, and a
          new fire kindled with flint and steel. On a subsequent day, men
          dressed in fantastic costumes went round the village, gathering the
          sins of the people. When the morning of the last day of the
          festival was come, two white dogs, decorated with red paint,
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name=
          "Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wampum, feathers,
          and ribbons, were led out. They were soon strangled, and hung on a
          ladder. Firing and yelling succeeded, and half an hour later the
          animals were taken into a house, <span class="tei tei-q">“where the
          people's sins were transferred to them.”</span> The carcases were
          afterwards burnt on a pyre of wood.<a id="noteref_516" name=
          "noteref_516" href="#note_516"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">516</span></span></a>
          According to the Rev. Mr. Kirkland, who wrote in the eighteenth
          century, the ashes of the pyre upon which one of the white dogs was
          burnt were carried through the village and sprinkled at the door of
          every house.<a id="noteref_517" name="noteref_517" href=
          "#note_517"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">517</span></span></a>
          Formerly, however, as we have seen, the Iroquois expulsion of evils
          was immediate and not by scapegoat.<a id="noteref_518" name=
          "noteref_518" href="#note_518"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">518</span></span></a> On
          the Day of Atonement, which was the tenth day of the seventh month,
          the Jewish high-priest laid both his hands on the head of a live
          goat, confessed over it all the iniquities of the Children of
          Israel, and, having thereby transferred the sins of the people to
          the beast, sent it away into the wilderness.<a id="noteref_519"
          name="noteref_519" href="#note_519"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">519</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats formerly put to
              death every year in Africa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scapegoat
          upon whom the sins of the people are periodically laid, may also be
          a human being. At Onitsha, on the Niger, two human beings used to
          be annually sacrificed to take away the sins of the land. The
          victims were purchased by public subscription. All persons who,
          during the past year, had fallen into gross sins, such as
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name=
          "Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> incendiarism, theft,
          adultery, witchcraft, and so forth, were expected to contribute 28
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ngugas</span></span>, or a little over £2. The
          money thus collected was taken into the interior of the country and
          expended in the purchase of two sickly persons <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“to be offered as a sacrifice for all these abominable
          crimes—one for the land and one for the river.”</span> A man from a
          neighbouring town was hired to put them to death. On the
          twenty-seventh of February 1858 the Rev. J. C. Taylor witnessed the
          sacrifice of one of these victims. The sufferer was a woman, about
          nineteen or twenty years of age. They dragged her alive along the
          ground, face downwards, from the king's house to the river, a
          distance of two miles, the crowds who accompanied her crying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Wickedness! wickedness!”</span> The
          intention was <span class="tei tei-q">“to take away the iniquities
          of the land. The body was dragged along in a merciless manner, as
          if the weight of all their wickedness was thus carried
          away.”</span><a id="noteref_520" name="noteref_520" href=
          "#note_520"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">520</span></span></a>
          Similar customs are said to be still secretly practised every year
          by many tribes on the delta of the Niger in spite of the vigilance
          of the British Government.<a id="noteref_521" name="noteref_521"
          href="#note_521"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">521</span></span></a> Among
          the Yoruba negroes of West Africa <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          human victim chosen for sacrifice, and who may be either a
          free-born or a slave, a person of noble or wealthy parentage, or
          one of humble birth, is, after he has been chosen and marked out
          for the purpose, called an <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Oluwo</span></span>. He is always well fed and
          nourished and supplied with whatever he should desire during the
          period of his confinement. When the occasion arrives for him to be
          sacrificed and offered up, he is commonly led about and paraded
          through the streets of the town or city of the Sovereign who would
          sacrifice him for the well-being of his government and of every
          family and individual under it, in order that he might carry off
          the sin, guilt, misfortune and death of all without exception.
          Ashes and chalk would be employed to hide his identity by the one
          being freely thrown over his head, and his face painted with the
          latter, whilst individuals would often rush out of their
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name=
          "Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> houses to lay their
          hands upon him that they might thus transfer to him their sin,
          guilt, trouble, and death. This parading done, he is taken through
          a temporary sacred shed of palm and other tree branches, and
          especially of the former, the Igbodu<a id="noteref_522" name=
          "noteref_522" href="#note_522"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">522</span></span></a> and
          to its first division, where many persons might follow him, and
          through a second where only the chiefs and other very important
          persons might escort and accompany him to, and to a third where
          only the Babalawo [priest] and his official assistant, the
          Ajigbona, are permitted to enter with him. Here, after he himself
          has given out or started his last song, which is to be taken up by
          the large assembly of people who will have been waiting to hear his
          last word or his last groan, his head is taken off and his blood
          offered to the gods. The announcement of his last word or his last
          groan heard and taken up by the people, would be a signal for joy,
          gladness, and thanksgiving, and for drum beating and dancing, as an
          expression of their gratification because their sacrifice has been
          accepted, the divine wrath is appeased, and the prospect of
          prosperity or increased prosperity assured.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_523" name="noteref_523" href="#note_523"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">523</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats formerly put to
              death every year in Siam. Annual human scapegoats in Japan and
              Sumatra.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Siam it used
          to be the custom on one day of the year to single out a woman
          broken down by debauchery, and carry her on a litter through all
          the streets to the music of drums and hautboys. The mob insulted
          her and pelted her with dirt; and after having carried her through
          the whole city, they threw her on a dunghill or a hedge of thorns
          outside the ramparts, forbidding her ever to enter the walls again.
          They believed that the woman thus drew upon herself all the malign
          influences of the air and of evil spirits.<a id="noteref_524" name=
          "noteref_524" href="#note_524"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">524</span></span></a> In
          Japan the <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="ja" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tsuina</span></span> or <span lang="ja" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">oni-yarahi</span></span>, that is to say,
          demon expelling, is a sort of drama in which disease, or more
          generally ill-luck, is personified, and driven away with threats
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name=
          "Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and a show of
          violence. Like the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">oho-harahi</span></span>,<a id="noteref_525"
          name="noteref_525" href="#note_525"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">525</span></span></a> it
          was performed on the last day of the year. This association is only
          natural. The demons of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tsuina</span></span>
          are personified wintry influences, with the diseases which they
          bring with them, while the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">oho-harahi</span></span> is intended to
          cleanse the people from sin and uncleanness, things closely related
          to disease, as well as from disease itself. Though probably of
          Chinese origin, the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tsuina</span></span>
          is a tolerably ancient rite. It is alluded to in the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>
          under the date <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 689. It was at one
          time performed at Court on an imposing scale. Four bands of twenty
          youths, each wearing a four-eyed mask, and each carrying a halberd
          in the left hand, marched simultaneously from the four gates of the
          palace, driving the devils before them. Another account of this
          ceremony says that a man disguised himself as the demon of
          pestilence, in which garb he was shot at and driven off by the
          courtiers armed with peach-wood bows and arrows of reed. Peach-wood
          staves were used for the same purpose. There was formerly a
          practice at Asakusa in Tokio on the last day of the year for a man
          got up as a devil to be chased round the pagoda there by another
          wearing a mask. After this 3,000 tickets were scrambled for by the
          spectators. These were carried away and pasted up over the doors as
          a charm against pestilence.”</span><a id="noteref_526" name=
          "noteref_526" href="#note_526"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">526</span></span></a> The
          Battas of Sumatra offer either a red horse or a buffalo as a public
          sacrifice to purify the land and obtain the favour of the gods.
          Formerly, it is said, a man was bound to the same stake as the
          buffalo, and when they killed the animal, the man was driven away;
          no one might receive him, converse with him, or give him
          food.<a id="noteref_527" name="noteref_527" href=
          "#note_527"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">527</span></span></a>
          Doubtless he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg
          214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          was supposed to carry away the sins and misfortunes of the
          people.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual human scapegoats in Europe.
              The expulsion of Posterli in Switzerland.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Human
          scapegoats, as we shall see presently, were well known in classical
          antiquity, and even in mediæval Europe the custom seems not to have
          been wholly extinct. In the town of Halberstadt, in Thüringen,
          there was a church said to have been founded by Charlemagne. In
          this church every year they chose a man, who was believed to be
          stained with heinous sins. On the first day of Lent he was brought
          to the church, dressed in mourning garb, with his head muffled up.
          At the close of the service he was turned out of the church. During
          the forty days of Lent he perambulated the city barefoot, neither
          entering the churches nor speaking to any one. The canons took it
          in turn to feed him. After midnight he was allowed to sleep in the
          streets. On the day before Good Friday, after the consecration of
          the holy oil, he was readmitted to the church and absolved from his
          sins. The people gave him money. He was called Adam, and was now
          believed to be in a state of innocence.<a id="noteref_528" name=
          "noteref_528" href="#note_528"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">528</span></span></a> At
          Entlebuch, in Switzerland, down to the close of the eighteenth
          century, the custom of annually expelling a scapegoat was preserved
          in the ceremony of driving <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Posterli”</span> from the village into the lands of
          the neighbouring village. <span class="tei tei-q">“Posterli”</span>
          was represented by a lad disguised as an old witch or as a goat or
          an ass. Amid a deafening noise of horns, clarionets, bells, whips,
          and so forth, he was driven out. Sometimes <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Posterli”</span> was represented by a puppet, which
          was drawn on a sledge and left in a corner of the neighbouring
          village. The ceremony took place on the Thursday evening of the
          last week but one before Christmas.<a id="noteref_529" name=
          "noteref_529" href="#note_529"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">529</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of the devil,
              personified by a man, from Munich on Ascension Day.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Munich down
          to about a hundred years ago the expulsion of the devil from the
          city used to be annually enacted on Ascension Day. On the Eve of
          Ascension Day a man disguised as a devil was chased through the
          streets, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg
          215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          which were then narrow and dirty in contrast to the broad,
          well-kept thoroughfares, lined with imposing buildings, which now
          distinguish the capital of Bavaria. His pursuers were dressed as
          witches and wizards and provided with the indispensable crutches,
          brooms, and pitchforks which make up the outfit of these uncanny
          beings. While the devil fled before them, the troop of maskers made
          after him with wild whoops and halloos, and when they overtook him
          they ducked him in puddles or rolled him on dunghills. In this way
          the demon at last succeeded in reaching the palace, where he put
          off his hideous and now filthy disguise and was rewarded for his
          vicarious sufferings by a copious meal. The devilish costume which
          he had thrown off was then stuffed with hay and straw and conveyed
          to a particular church (the Frauenkirche), where it was kept over
          night, being hung by a rope from a window in the tower. On the
          afternoon of Ascension Day, before the Vesper service began, an
          image of the Saviour was drawn up to the roof of the church, no
          doubt to symbolize the event which the day commemorates. Then
          burning tow and wafers were thrown on the people. Meantime the
          effigy of the devil, painted black, with a pair of horns and a
          lolling red tongue, had been dangling from the church tower, to the
          delight of a gaping crowd of spectators gathered before the church.
          It was now flung down into their midst, and a fierce struggle for
          possession of it took place among the rabble. Finally, it was
          carried out of the town by the Isar gate and burned on a
          neighbouring height, <span class="tei tei-q">“in order that the
          foul fiend might do no harm to the city.”</span> The custom died
          out at Munich towards the end of the eighteenth century; but it is
          said that similar ceremonies are observed to this day in some
          villages of Upper Bavaria.<a id="noteref_530" name="noteref_530"
          href="#note_530"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">530</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The pardoned criminal at Rouen on
              Ascension Day may have been a public scapegoat.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This quaint
          ceremony suggests that the pardoned criminal who used to play the
          principal part in a solemn religious procession on Ascension Day at
          Rouen<a id="noteref_531" name="noteref_531" href=
          "#note_531"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">531</span></span></a> may
          in like manner have originally served, if not as a representative
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name=
          "Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the devil, at
          least as a public scapegoat, who relieved the whole people of their
          sins and sorrows for a year by taking them upon himself. This would
          explain why the gaol had to be raked in order to furnish one who
          would parade with the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries in their
          gorgeous vestments through the streets of Rouen, while the church
          bells pealed out, the clergy chanted, banners waved, and every
          circumstance combined to enhance the pomp and splendour of the
          pageant. It would add a pathetic significance to the crowning act
          of the ceremony, when on a lofty platform in the public square,
          with the eyes of a great and silent multitude turned upon him, the
          condemned malefactor received from the Church the absolution and
          remission of his sins; for if the rite is to be interpreted in the
          way here suggested, the sins which were thus forgiven were those
          not of one man only but of the whole people. No wonder, then, that
          when the sinner, now a sinner no more, rose from his knees and
          thrice lifted the silver shrine of St. Romain in his arms, the
          whole vast assembly in the square broke out into joyous cries of
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Noel! Noel!
          Noel!</span></span>”</span> which they understood to signify,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“God be with us!”</span> In Christian
          countries no more appropriate season could be selected for the
          ceremony of the human scapegoat than Ascension Day, which
          commemorates the departure from earth of Him who, in the belief of
          millions, took away the sins of the world.<a id="noteref_532" name=
          "noteref_532" href="#note_532"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">532</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Divine animals as scapegoats in
              India and ancient Egypt.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the
          scapegoat is a divine animal. The people of Malabar share the
          Hindoo reverence for the cow, to kill and eat which <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“they esteem to be a crime as heinous as homicide or
          wilful murder.”</span> Nevertheless the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Bramans transfer the sins of the people into one or
          more Cows, which are then carry'd away, both the Cows and the Sins
          wherewith these Beasts are charged, to what place the Braman shall
          appoint.”</span><a id="noteref_533" name="noteref_533" href=
          "#note_533"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">533</span></span></a> When
          the ancient Egyptians sacrificed a bull, they invoked upon its head
          all the evils that might otherwise befall themselves and the land
          of Egypt, and thereupon they either sold the bull's head to the
          Greeks or cast it into the river.<a id="noteref_534" name=
          "noteref_534" href="#note_534"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">534</span></span></a> Now,
          it cannot be said that in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> times known to us the Egyptians worshipped
          bulls in general, for they seem to have commonly killed and eaten
          them.<a id="noteref_535" name="noteref_535" href=
          "#note_535"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">535</span></span></a> But a
          good many circumstances point to the conclusion that originally all
          cattle, bulls as well as cows, were held sacred by the Egyptians.
          For not only were all cows esteemed holy by them and never
          sacrificed, but even bulls might not be sacrificed unless they had
          certain natural marks; a priest examined every bull before it was
          sacrificed; if it had the proper marks, he put his seal on the
          animal in token that it might be sacrificed; and if a man
          sacrificed a bull which had not been sealed, he was put to death.
          Moreover, the worship of the black bulls Apis and Mnevis,
          especially the former, played an important part in Egyptian
          religion; all bulls that died a natural death were carefully buried
          in the suburbs of the cities, and their bones were afterwards
          collected from all parts of Egypt and interred in a single spot;
          and at the sacrifice of a bull in the great rites of Isis all the
          worshippers beat their breasts and mourned.<a id="noteref_536"
          name="noteref_536" href="#note_536"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">536</span></span></a> On
          the whole, then, we are perhaps entitled to infer that bulls were
          originally, as cows were always, esteemed sacred by the Egyptians,
          and that the slain bull upon whose head they laid the misfortunes
          of the people was once a divine scapegoat. It seems not improbable
          that the lamb annually slain by the Madis of Central Africa is a
          divine scapegoat, and the same supposition may partly explain the
          Zuni sacrifice of the turtle.<a id="noteref_537" name="noteref_537"
          href="#note_537"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">537</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Divine men as scapegoats among the
              Gonds of India and the Albanians of the Caucasus.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lastly, the
          scapegoat may be a divine man. Thus, in November the Gonds of India
          worship Ghansyam Deo, the protector of the crops, and at the
          festival the god himself is said to descend on the head of one of
          the worshippers, who is suddenly seized with a kind of fit and,
          after staggering about, rushes off into the jungle, where it is
          believed that, if left to himself, he would die mad. However, they
          bring him back, but he does not recover his senses for one or two
          days. The people think that one man is thus singled out as a
          scapegoat <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg
          218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          for the sins of the rest of the village.<a id="noteref_538" name=
          "noteref_538" href="#note_538"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">538</span></span></a> In
          the temple of the Moon the Albanians of the Eastern Caucasus kept a
          number of sacred slaves, of whom many were inspired and prophesied.
          When one of these men exhibited more than usual symptoms of
          inspiration or insanity, and wandered solitary up and down the
          woods, like the Gond in the jungle, the high priest had him bound
          with a sacred chain and maintained him in luxury for a year. At the
          end of the year he was anointed with unguents and led forth to be
          sacrificed. A man whose business it was to slay these human victims
          and to whom practice had given dexterity, advanced from the crowd
          and thrust a sacred spear into the victim's side, piercing his
          heart. From the manner in which the slain man fell, omens were
          drawn as to the welfare of the commonwealth. Then the body was
          carried to a certain spot where all the people stood upon it as a
          purificatory ceremony.<a id="noteref_539" name="noteref_539" href=
          "#note_539"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">539</span></span></a> This
          last circumstance clearly indicates that the sins of the people
          were transferred to the victim, just as the Jewish priest
          transferred the sins of the people to the scapegoat by laying his
          hands on the animal's head; and since the man was believed to be
          possessed by the divine spirit, we have here an undoubted example
          of a man-god slain to take away the sins and misfortunes of the
          people.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual human scapegoats in Tibet.
              The Jalno, the temporary ruler of Lhasa.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Tibet the
          ceremony of the scapegoat presents some remarkable features. The
          Tibetan new year begins with the new moon which appears about the
          fifteenth of February. For twenty-three days afterwards the
          government of Lhasa, the capital, is taken out of the hands of the
          ordinary rulers and entrusted to the monk of the Debang monastery
          who offers to pay the highest sum for the privilege. The successful
          bidder is called the Jalno, and he announces his accession to power
          in person, going through the streets of Lhasa with a silver stick
          in his hand. Monks from all the neighbouring monasteries and
          temples assemble to pay him homage. The Jalno exercises his
          authority in the most arbitrary manner for his own benefit, as all
          the fines which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg
          219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          he exacts are his by purchase. The profit he makes is about ten
          times the amount of the purchase money. His men go about the
          streets in order to discover any conduct on the part of the
          inhabitants that can be found fault with. Every house in Lhasa is
          taxed at this time, and the slightest offence is punished with
          unsparing rigour by fines. This severity of the Jalno drives all
          working classes out of the city till the twenty-three days are
          over. But if the laity go out, the clergy come in. All the Buddhist
          monasteries of the country for miles round about open their gates
          and disgorge their inmates. All the roads that lead down into Lhasa
          from the neighbouring mountains are full of monks hurrying to the
          capital, some on foot, some on horseback, some riding asses or
          lowing oxen, all carrying their prayer-books and culinary utensils.
          In such multitudes do they come that the streets and squares of the
          city are encumbered with their swarms, and incarnadined with their
          red cloaks. The disorder and confusion are indescribable. Bands of
          the holy men traverse the streets chanting prayers or uttering wild
          cries. They meet, they jostle, they quarrel, they fight; bloody
          noses, black eyes, and broken heads are freely given and received.
          All day long, too, from before the peep of dawn till after darkness
          has fallen, these red-cloaked monks hold services in the dim
          incense-laden air of the great Machindranath temple, the cathedral
          of Lhasa; and thither they crowd thrice a day to receive their
          doles of tea and soup and money. The cathedral is a vast building,
          standing in the centre of the city, and surrounded by bazaars and
          shops. The idols in it are richly inlaid with gold and precious
          stones.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Jalno and the King of the
              Years. Expulsion of the King of the Years.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Twenty-four days
          after the Jalno has ceased to have authority, he assumes it again,
          and for ten days acts in the same arbitrary manner as before. On
          the first of the ten days the priests again assemble at the
          cathedral, pray to the gods to prevent sickness and other evils
          among the people, <span class="tei tei-q">“and, as a
          peace-offering, sacrifice one man. The man is not killed purposely,
          but the ceremony he undergoes often proves fatal.<a id=
          "noteref_540" name="noteref_540" href="#note_540"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">540</span></span></a> Grain
          is thrown against <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg
          220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          his head, and his face is painted half white, half black.”</span>
          Thus grotesquely disguised, and carrying a coat of skin on his arm,
          he is called the King of the Years, and sits daily in the
          market-place, where he helps himself to whatever he likes and goes
          about shaking a black yak's tail over the people, who thus transfer
          their bad luck to him. On the tenth day, all the troops in Lhasa
          march to the great temple and form in line before it. The King of
          the Years is brought forth from the temple and receives small
          donations from the assembled multitude. He then ridicules the
          Jalno, saying to him, <span class="tei tei-q">“What we perceive
          through the five senses is no illusion. All you teach is
          untrue,”</span> and the like. The Jalno, who represents the Grand
          Lama for the time being, contests these heretical opinions; the
          dispute waxes warm, and at last both agree to decide the questions
          at issue by a cast of the dice, the Jalno offering to change places
          with the scapegoat should the throw be against him. If the King of
          the Years wins, much evil is prognosticated; but if the Jalno wins,
          there is great rejoicing, for it proves that his adversary has been
          accepted by the gods as a victim to bear all the sins of the people
          of Lhasa. Fortune, however, always favours the Jalno, who throws
          sixes with unvarying success, while his opponent turns up only
          ones. Nor is this so extraordinary as at first sight it might
          appear; for the Jalno's dice are marked with nothing but sixes and
          his adversary's with nothing but ones. When he sees the finger of
          Providence thus plainly pointed against him, the King of the Years
          is terrified and flees away upon a white horse, with a white dog, a
          white bird, salt, and so forth, which have all been provided for
          him by the government. His face is still painted half white and
          half black, and he still wears his leathern coat. The whole
          populace pursues him, hooting, yelling, and firing blank shots in
          volleys after him. Thus driven out of the city, he is detained for
          seven days in the great chamber of horrors at the Samyas monastery,
          surrounded by monstrous and terrific images of devils and skins of
          huge serpents and wild beasts. Thence he goes away into the
          mountains of Chetang, where he has to remain an outcast for several
          months or a year in a narrow den. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> If he dies before the time is out, the people
          say it is an auspicious omen; but if he survives, he may return to
          Lhasa and play the part of scapegoat over again the following
          year.<a id="noteref_541" name="noteref_541" href=
          "#note_541"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">541</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Grand Lama, the Jalno, and the
              King of the Years in their relations to each other. Probability
              that of old the Tibetan scapegoat was put to death as a
              substitute for the Grand Lama.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This quaint
          ceremonial, still annually observed in the secluded capital of
          Buddhism—the Rome of Asia—is interesting because it exhibits, in a
          clearly marked religious stratification, a series of divine
          redeemers themselves redeemed, of vicarious sacrifices vicariously
          atoned for, of gods undergoing a process of fossilization, who,
          while they retain the privileges, have disburdened themselves of
          the pains and penalties of divinity. In the Jalno we may without
          undue straining discern a successor of those temporary kings, those
          mortal gods, who purchase a short lease of power and glory at the
          price of their lives. That he is the temporary substitute of the
          Grand Lama is certain; that he is, or was once, liable to act as
          scapegoat for the people is made nearly certain by his offer to
          change places with the real scapegoat—the King of the Years—if the
          arbitrament of the dice should go against him. It is true that the
          conditions under which the question is now put to the hazard have
          reduced the offer to an idle form. But such forms are no mere
          mushroom growths, springing up of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> themselves in a night. If they are now
          lifeless formalities, empty husks devoid of significance, we may be
          sure that they once had a life and a meaning; if at the present day
          they are blind alleys leading nowhere, we may be certain that in
          former days they were paths that led somewhere, if only to death.
          That death was the goal to which of old the Tibetan scapegoat
          passed after his brief period of licence in the market-place, is a
          conjecture that has much to commend it. Analogy suggests it; the
          blank shots fired after him, the statement that the ceremony often
          proves fatal, the belief that his death is a happy omen, all
          confirm it. We need not wonder then that the Jalno, after paying so
          dear to act as deputy-deity for a few weeks, should have preferred
          to die by deputy rather than in his own person when his time was
          up. The painful but necessary duty was accordingly laid on some
          poor devil, some social outcast, some wretch with whom the world
          had gone hard, who readily agreed to throw away his life at the end
          of a few days if only he might have his fling in the meantime. For
          observe that while the time allowed to the original deputy—the
          Jalno—was measured by weeks, the time allowed to the deputy's
          deputy was cut down to days, ten days according to one authority,
          seven days according to another. So short a rope was doubtless
          thought a long enough tether for so black or sickly a sheep; so few
          sands in the hour-glass, slipping so fast away, sufficed for one
          who had wasted so many precious years. Hence in the jack-pudding
          who now masquerades with motley countenance in the market-place of
          Lhasa, sweeping up misfortune with a black yak's tail, we may
          fairly see the substitute of a substitute, the vicar of a vicar,
          the proxy on whose back the heavy burden was laid when it had been
          lifted from nobler shoulders. But the clue, if we have followed it
          aright, does not stop at the Jalno; it leads straight back to the
          pope of Lhasa himself, the Grand Lama, of whom the Jalno is merely
          the temporary vicar. The analogy of many customs in many lands
          points to the conclusion that, if this human divinity stoops to
          resign his ghostly power for a time into the hands of a substitute,
          it is, or rather was once, for no other reason than that the
          substitute might die in his stead. Thus through the mist of
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name=
          "Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ages unillumined by
          the lamp of history, the tragic figure of the pope of
          Buddhism—God's vicar on earth for Asia—looms dim and sad as the
          man-god who bore his people's sorrows, the Good Shepherd who laid
          down his life for the sheep.</p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name=
      "Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. On Scapegoats in
        General.</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">General remarks.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing
        survey of the custom of publicly expelling the accumulated evils of a
        village or town or country suggests a few general observations.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">First, the immediate and the mediate
            expulsions of evil are identical in intention.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first
        place, it will not be disputed that what I have called the immediate
        and the mediate expulsions of evil are identical in intention; in
        other words, that whether the evils are conceived of as invisible or
        as embodied in a material form, is a circumstance entirely
        subordinate to the main object of the ceremony, which is simply to
        effect a total clearance of all the ills that have been infesting a
        people. If any link were wanting to connect the two kinds of
        expulsion, it would be furnished by such a practice as that of
        sending the evils away in a litter or a boat. For here, on the one
        hand, the evils are invisible and intangible; and, on the other hand,
        there is a visible and tangible vehicle to convey them away. And a
        scapegoat is nothing more than such a vehicle.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Second, the annual expulsion of evil
            generally coincides with some well-marked change of season, such
            as the beginning or end of winter, the beginning or end of the
            rainy season, etc.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the second
        place, when a general clearance of evils is resorted to periodically,
        the interval between the celebrations of the ceremony is commonly a
        year, and the time of year when the ceremony takes place usually
        coincides with some well-marked change of season, such as the
        beginning or end of winter in the arctic and temperate zones, and the
        beginning or end of the rainy season in the tropics. The increased
        mortality which such climatic changes are apt to produce, especially
        amongst ill-fed, ill-clothed, and ill-housed savages, is set down by
        primitive man to the agency of demons, who must accordingly be
        expelled. Hence, in the tropical regions <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of New Britain and Peru, the devils are or were
        driven out at the beginning of the rainy season; hence, on the dreary
        coasts of Baffin Land, they are banished at the approach of the
        bitter arctic winter. When a tribe has taken to husbandry, the time
        for the general expulsion of devils is naturally made to agree with
        one of the great epochs of the agricultural year, as sowing, or
        harvest; but, as these epochs themselves naturally coincide with
        changes of season, it does not follow that the transition from the
        hunting or pastoral to the agricultural life involves any alteration
        in the time of celebrating this great annual rite. Some of the
        agricultural communities of India and the Hindoo Koosh, as we have
        seen, hold their general clearance of demons at harvest, others at
        sowing-time. But, at whatever season of the year it is held, the
        general expulsion of devils commonly marks the beginning of the new
        year. For, before entering on a new year, people are anxious to rid
        themselves of the troubles that have harassed them in the past; hence
        it comes about that in so many communities the beginning of the new
        year is inaugurated with a solemn and public banishment of evil
        spirits.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Third, the annual expulsion of evil
            is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general
            license.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the third
        place, it is to be observed that this public and periodic expulsion
        of devils is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general
        license, during which the ordinary restraints of society are thrown
        aside, and all offences, short of the gravest, are allowed to pass
        unpunished. In Guinea and Tonquin the period of license precedes the
        public expulsion of demons; and the suspension of the ordinary
        government in Lhasa previous to the expulsion of the scapegoat is
        perhaps a relic of a similar period of universal license. Amongst the
        Hos of India the period of license follows the expulsion of the
        devil. Amongst the Iroquois it hardly appears whether it preceded or
        followed the banishment of evils. In any case, the extraordinary
        relaxation of all ordinary rules of conduct on such occasions is
        doubtless to be explained by the general clearance of evils which
        precedes or follows it. On the one hand, when a general riddance of
        evil and absolution from all sin is in immediate prospect, men are
        encouraged to give the rein to their passions, trusting that the
        coming ceremony will wipe out <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the score which they are running up so fast. On
        the other hand, when the ceremony has just taken place, men's minds
        are freed from the oppressive sense, under which they generally
        labour, of an atmosphere surcharged with devils; and in the first
        revulsion of joy they overleap the limits commonly imposed by custom
        and morality. When the ceremony takes place at harvest-time, the
        elation of feeling which it excites is further stimulated by the
        state of physical wellbeing produced by an abundant supply of
        food.<a id="noteref_542" name="noteref_542" href=
        "#note_542"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">542</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Fourth, the use of a divine man or
            animal as a scapegoat is remarkable.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fourthly, the
        employment of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is especially to
        be noted; indeed, we are here directly concerned with the custom of
        banishing evils only in so far as these evils are believed to be
        transferred to a god who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg
        227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is
        afterwards slain. It may be suspected that the custom of employing a
        divine man or animal as a public scapegoat is much more widely
        diffused than appears from the examples cited. For, as has already
        been pointed out, the custom of killing a god dates from so early a
        period of human history that in later ages, even when the custom
        continues to be practised, it is liable to be misinterpreted. The
        divine character of the animal or man is forgotten, and he comes to
        be regarded merely as an ordinary victim. This is especially likely
        to be the case when it is a divine man who is killed. For when a
        nation becomes civilized, if it does not drop human sacrifices
        altogether, it at least selects as victims only such wretches as
        would be put to death at any rate. Thus the killing of a god may
        sometimes come to be confounded with the execution of a criminal.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Why a dying god should serve as a
            scapegoat.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we ask why a
        dying god should be chosen to take upon himself and carry away the
        sins and sorrows of the people, it may be suggested that in the
        practice of using the divinity as a scapegoat we have a combination
        of two customs which were at one time distinct and independent. On
        the one hand we have seen that it has been customary to kill the
        human or animal god in order to save his divine life from being
        weakened by the inroads of age. On the other hand we have seen that
        it has been customary to have a general expulsion of evils and sins
        once a year. Now, if it occurred to people to combine these two
        customs, the result would be the employment of the dying god as a
        scapegoat. He was killed, not originally to take away sin, but to
        save the divine life from the degeneracy of old age; but, since he
        had to be killed at any rate, people may have thought that they might
        as well seize the opportunity to lay upon him the burden of their
        sufferings and sins, in order that he might bear it away with him to
        the unknown world beyond the grave.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The use of a divinity as scapegoat
            explains an ambiguity in the ceremony of</span> <span class=
            "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">Carrying out Death.</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">”</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The use of the
        divinity as a scapegoat clears up the ambiguity which, as we saw,
        appears to hang about the European folk-custom of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“carrying out Death.”</span><a id="noteref_543" name=
        "noteref_543" href="#note_543"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">543</span></span></a> Grounds
        have been shewn for believing that in this ceremony the so-called
        Death was originally the spirit of vegetation, who <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was annually slain in spring, in order
        that he might come to life again with all the vigour of youth. But,
        as I pointed out, there are certain features in the ceremony which
        are not explicable on this hypothesis alone. Such are the marks of
        joy with which the effigy of Death is carried out to be buried or
        burnt, and the fear and abhorrence of it manifested by the bearers.
        But these features become at once intelligible if we suppose that the
        Death was not merely the dying god of vegetation, but also a public
        scapegoat, upon whom were laid all the evils that had afflicted the
        people during the past year. Joy on such an occasion is natural and
        appropriate; and if the dying god appears to be the object of that
        fear and abhorrence which are properly due not to himself, but to the
        sins and misfortunes with which he is laden, this arises merely from
        the difficulty of distinguishing, or at least of marking the
        distinction, between the bearer and the burden. When the burden is of
        a baleful character, the bearer of it will be feared and shunned just
        as much as if he were himself instinct with those dangerous
        properties of which, as it happens, he is only the vehicle. Similarly
        we have seen that disease-laden and sin-laden boats are dreaded and
        shunned by East Indian peoples.<a id="noteref_544" name="noteref_544"
        href="#note_544"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">544</span></span></a> Again,
        the view that in these popular customs the Death is a scapegoat as
        well as a representative of the divine spirit of vegetation derives
        some support from the circumstance that its expulsion is always
        celebrated in spring and chiefly by Slavonic peoples. For the
        Slavonic year began in spring;<a id="noteref_545" name="noteref_545"
        href="#note_545"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">545</span></span></a> and
        thus, in one of its aspects, the ceremony of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“carrying out Death”</span> would be an example of the
        widespread custom of expelling the accumulated evils of the old year
        before entering on a new one.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name=
      "Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VI. Human Scapegoats in
        Classical Antiquity.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Human Scapegoat in Ancient
          Rome.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual expulsion of</span>
              <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">the Old
              Mars</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in
              the month of March in ancient Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are now
          prepared to notice the use of the human scapegoat in classical
          antiquity. Every year on the fourteenth of March a man clad in
          skins was led in procession through the streets of Rome, beaten
          with long white rods, and driven out of the city. He was called
          Mamurius Veturius,<a id="noteref_546" name="noteref_546" href=
          "#note_546"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">546</span></span></a> that
          is, <span class="tei tei-q">“the old Mars,”</span><a id=
          "noteref_547" name="noteref_547" href="#note_547"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">547</span></span></a> and
          as the ceremony took place on the day preceding the first full moon
          of the old Roman year (which began on the first of March), the
          skin-clad man must have represented the Mars of the past year, who
          was driven out at the beginning of a new one. Now Mars was
          originally not a god of war but of vegetation. For it was to Mars
          that the Roman husbandman prayed for the prosperity of his corn and
          his vines, his fruit-trees and his copses;<a id="noteref_548" name=
          "noteref_548" href="#note_548"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">548</span></span></a> it
          was to Mars that the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg
          230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          priestly college of the Arval Brothers, whose business it was to
          sacrifice for the growth of the crops,<a id="noteref_549" name=
          "noteref_549" href="#note_549"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">549</span></span></a>
          addressed their petitions almost exclusively;<a id="noteref_550"
          name="noteref_550" href="#note_550"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">550</span></span></a> and
          it was to Mars, as we saw,<a id="noteref_551" name="noteref_551"
          href="#note_551"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">551</span></span></a> that
          a horse was sacrificed in October to secure an abundant harvest.
          Moreover, it was to Mars, under his title of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Mars of the woods”</span> (<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mars Silvanus</span></span>), that farmers
          offered sacrifice for the welfare of their cattle.<a id=
          "noteref_552" name="noteref_552" href="#note_552"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">552</span></span></a> We
          have already seen that cattle are commonly supposed to be under the
          special patronage of tree-gods.<a id="noteref_553" name=
          "noteref_553" href="#note_553"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">553</span></span></a> Once
          more, the consecration of the vernal month of March to Mars seems
          to point him out as the deity of the sprouting vegetation. Thus the
          Roman custom of expelling the old Mars at the beginning of the new
          year in spring is identical with the Slavonic custom of
          <span class="tei tei-q">“carrying out Death,”</span> if the view
          here taken of the latter custom is correct. The similarity of the
          Roman and Slavonic customs has been already remarked by scholars,
          who appear, however, to have taken Mamurius Veturius and the
          corresponding figures in the Slavonic ceremonies to be
          representatives of the old year rather than of the old god of
          vegetation.<a id="noteref_554" name="noteref_554" href=
          "#note_554"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">554</span></span></a> It is
          possible that ceremonies of this kind may have come to be thus
          interpreted in later times even by the people who practised them.
          But the personification of a period of time is too abstract an idea
          to be primitive.<a id="noteref_555" name="noteref_555" href=
          "#note_555"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">555</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name=
          "Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> However, in the
          Roman, as in the Slavonic, ceremony, the representative of the god
          appears to have been treated not only as a deity of vegetation but
          also as a scapegoat. His expulsion implies this; for there is no
          reason why the god of vegetation, as such, should be expelled the
          city. But it is otherwise if he is also a scapegoat; it then
          becomes necessary to drive him beyond the boundaries, that he may
          carry his sorrowful burden away to other lands. And, in fact,
          Mamurius Veturius appears to have been driven away to the land of
          the Oscans, the enemies of Rome.<a id="noteref_556" name=
          "noteref_556" href="#note_556"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">556</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">The Old
              Mars</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">seems to have been beaten by the Salii, the
              dancing priests of Mars. The dances of the Salii in spring and
              autumn were perhaps intended to quicken the growth of the corn
              sown at these seasons. The armed processions of the Salii may
              have been intended to rout out and expel the demons lurking in
              the city.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The blows with
          which the <span class="tei tei-q">“old Mars”</span> was expelled
          the city seem to have been administered by the dancing priests of
          Mars, the Salii. At least we know that in their songs these priests
          made mention of Mamurius Veturius;<a id="noteref_557" name=
          "noteref_557" href="#note_557"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">557</span></span></a> and
          we are told that on a day dedicated to him they beat a hide with
          rods.<a id="noteref_558" name="noteref_558" href=
          "#note_558"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">558</span></span></a> It is
          therefore highly probable that the hide which they drubbed on that
          day was the one worn by the representative of the deity whose name
          they simultaneously chanted. Thus on the fourteenth day of March
          every year Rome witnessed the curious spectacle of the human
          incarnation of a god chased by the god's own priests with blows
          from the city. The rite becomes at least intelligible on the theory
          that the man so beaten and expelled stood for the outworn deity of
          vegetation, who had to be replaced by a fresh and vigorous young
          divinity at the beginning of a New Year, when everywhere around in
          field and meadow, in wood and thicket the vernal flowers, the
          sprouting grass, and the opening buds and blossoms testified to the
          stirring of new life in nature after the long torpor and stagnation
          of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name=
          "Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> winter. The dancing
          priests of the god derived their name of Salii from the leaps or
          dances which they were bound to execute as a solemn religious
          ceremony every year in the Comitium, the centre of Roman political
          life.<a id="noteref_559" name="noteref_559" href=
          "#note_559"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">559</span></span></a> Twice
          a year, in the spring month of March and the autumn month of
          October, they discharged this sacred duty;<a id="noteref_560" name=
          "noteref_560" href="#note_560"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">560</span></span></a> and
          as they did so they invoked Saturn, the Roman god of sowing.<a id=
          "noteref_561" name="noteref_561" href="#note_561"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">561</span></span></a> As
          the Romans sowed the corn both in spring and autumn,<a id=
          "noteref_562" name="noteref_562" href="#note_562"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">562</span></span></a> and
          as down to the present time in Europe superstitious rustics are
          wont to dance and leap high in spring for the purpose of making the
          crops grow high,<a id="noteref_563" name="noteref_563" href=
          "#note_563"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">563</span></span></a> we
          may conjecture that the leaps and dances performed by the Salii,
          the priests of the old Italian god of vegetation, were similarly
          supposed to quicken the growth of the corn by homoeopathic or
          imitative magic. The Salii were not limited to Rome; similar
          colleges of dancing priests are known to have existed in many towns
          of ancient Italy;<a id="noteref_564" name="noteref_564" href=
          "#note_564"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">564</span></span></a>
          everywhere, we may conjecture, they were supposed to contribute to
          the fertility of the earth by their leaps and dances. At Rome they
          were divided into two colleges, each composed of twelve members;
          and it is not impossible that the number twelve was fixed with
          reference to the twelve months of the old lunar year;<a id=
          "noteref_565" name="noteref_565" href="#note_565"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">565</span></span></a> the
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fratres
          Arvales</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Brethren of the
          Ploughed Fields,”</span> another Roman college of priests, whose
          functions were purely agricultural, and who wore as a badge of
          their office a wreath of corn-ears, were also twelve in number,
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name=
          "Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> perhaps for a
          similar reason.<a id="noteref_566" name="noteref_566" href=
          "#note_566"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">566</span></span></a> Nor
          was the martial equipment of the Salii so alien to this peaceful
          function as a modern reader might naturally suppose. Each of them
          wore on his head a peaked helmet of bronze, and at his side a
          sword; on his left arm he carried a shield of a peculiar shape, and
          in his right hand he wielded a staff with which he smote on the
          shield till it rang again.<a id="noteref_567" name="noteref_567"
          href="#note_567"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">567</span></span></a> Such
          weapons in priestly hands may be turned against spiritual foes; in
          the preceding pages we have met with many examples of the use of
          material arms to rout the host of demons who oppress the
          imagination of primitive man, and we have seen that the clash and
          clangour of metal is often deemed particularly effective in putting
          these baleful beings to flight.<a id="noteref_568" name=
          "noteref_568" href="#note_568"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">568</span></span></a> May
          it not have been so with the martial priests of Mars? We know that
          they paraded the city for days together in a regular order, taking
          up their quarters for the night at a different place each day; and
          as they went they danced in triple time, singing and clashing on
          their shields and taking their time from a fugleman, who skipped
          and postured at their head.<a id="noteref_569" name="noteref_569"
          href="#note_569"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">569</span></span></a> We
          may conjecture that in so doing they were supposed to be expelling
          the powers of evil which had accumulated during the preceding year
          or six months, and which the people pictured to themselves in the
          form of demons lurking in the houses, temples, and the other
          edifices of the city. In savage communities such tumultuous and
          noisy processions often parade the village for a similar purpose.
          Similarly, we have seen that among the Iroquois men in fantastic
          costume used to go about collecting the sins of the people as a
          preliminary to transferring them to the scapegoat dogs; and we have
          met with many examples of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg
          234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out demons
          and evils of all kinds.<a id="noteref_570" name="noteref_570" href=
          "#note_570"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">570</span></span></a> Why
          should it not have been so also in ancient Rome? The religion of
          the old Romans is full of relics of savagery.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The demons expelled by the Salii
              may have been above all the demons of blight and infertility.
              This conjecture is supported by analogous ceremonies performed
              by savages for the purpose of driving off the demons that would
              harm the crops.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is any
          truth in this conjecture, we may suppose that, as priests of a god
          who manifested his power in the vegetation of spring, the Salii
          turned their attention above all to the demons of blight and
          infertility, who might be thought by their maleficent activity to
          counteract the genial influence of the kindly god and to endanger
          the farmer's prospects in the coming summer or winter. The
          conjecture may be supported by analogies drawn from the customs of
          modern European peasants as well as of savages. Thus, to begin with
          savages, we have seen that at the time of sowing the Khonds drive
          out the <span class="tei tei-q">“evil spirits, spoilers of the
          seed”</span> from every house in the village, the expulsion being
          effected by young men who beat each other and strike the air
          violently with long sticks.<a id="noteref_571" name="noteref_571"
          href="#note_571"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">571</span></span></a> If I
          am right in connecting the vernal and the autumnal processions of
          the Salii with the vernal and the autumnal sowing, the analogy
          between the Khond and the Roman customs would be very close. In
          West Africa the fields of the King of Whydah, according to an old
          French traveller, <span class="tei tei-q">“are hoed and sowed
          before any of his subjects has leave to hoe and sow a foot of his
          own lands. These labours are performed thrice a year. The chiefs
          lead their people before the king's palace at daybreak, and there
          they sing and dance for a full quarter of an hour. Half of these
          people are armed as in a day of battle, the other half have only
          their farm tools. They go all together singing and dancing to the
          scene of their labours, and there, keeping time to the sound of the
          instruments, they work with such speed and neatness that it is a
          pleasure to behold. At the end of the day they return and dance
          before the king's palace. This exercise refreshes them and does
          them more good than all the repose they could take.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_572" name="noteref_572" href="#note_572"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">572</span></span></a> From
          this account we might infer that the dancing was merely a
          recreation of the field-labourers, and that the music of the
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name=
          "Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> band had no other
          object than to animate them in their work by enabling them to ply
          their mattocks in time to its stirring strains. But this inference,
          though it seems to have been drawn by the traveller who has
          furnished the account, would probably be erroneous. For if half of
          the men were armed as for war, what were they doing in the fields
          all the time that the others were digging? A clue to unravel the
          mystery is furnished by the description which a later French
          traveller gives of a similar scene witnessed by him near Timbo in
          French Guinea. He saw some natives at work preparing the ground for
          sowing. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is a very curious spectacle:
          fifty or sixty blacks in a line, with bent backs, are smiting the
          earth simultaneously with their little iron tools, which gleam in
          the sun. Ten paces in front of them, marching backwards, the women
          sing a well marked air, clapping their hands as for a dance, and
          the hoes keep time to the song. Between the workers and the singers
          a man runs and dances, crouching on his hams like a clown, while he
          whirls about his musket and performs other manœuvres with it. Two
          others dance, also pirouetting and smiting the earth here and there
          with their little hoe. All that is necessary for exorcising the
          spirits and causing the grain to sprout.”</span><a id="noteref_573"
          name="noteref_573" href="#note_573"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">573</span></span></a> Here,
          while the song of the women gives the time to the strokes of the
          hoes, the dances and other antics of the armed man and his
          colleagues are intended to exorcise or ward off the spirits who
          might interfere with the diggers and so prevent the grain from
          sprouting.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dances of masked men in India,
              Borneo, and South America to promote the growth of the
              crops.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, an old
          traveller in southern India tells us that <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the men of Calicut, when they wish to sow rice,
          observe this practice. First, they plough the land with oxen as we
          do, and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the
          instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry. They
          also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils, and these unite in
          making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments, in
          order that the devil may make that rice very
          productive.”</span><a id="noteref_574" name="noteref_574" href=
          "#note_574"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">574</span></span></a> We
          may suspect that the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg
          236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          noisy music is played and the mummers cut their capers for the
          purpose rather of repelling demons than of inducing them to favour
          the growth of the rice. However, where our information is so scanty
          it would be rash to dogmatize. Perhaps the old traveller was right
          in thinking that the mummers personated devils. Among the Kayans of
          Central Borneo men disguised in wooden masks and great masses of
          green foliage certainly play the part of demons for the purpose of
          promoting the growth of the rice just before the seed is committed
          to the ground; and it is notable that among the performances which
          they give on this occasion are war dances.<a id="noteref_575" name=
          "noteref_575" href="#note_575"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">575</span></span></a>
          Again, among the Kaua and Kobeua Indians of North-Western Brazil
          masked men who represent spirits or demons of fertility perform
          dances or rather pantomimes for the purpose of stimulating the
          growth of plants, quickening the wombs of women, and promoting the
          multiplication of animals.<a id="noteref_576" name="noteref_576"
          href="#note_576"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">576</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dances in Aracan for the sake of
              the crops. Dances of the Tarahumare Indians of Mexico to
              procure rain for their crops.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, we are
          told that <span class="tei tei-q">“the natives of Aracan dance in
          order to render propitious the spirits whom they believe to preside
          over the sowing and over the harvest. There are definite times for
          doing it, and we may say that in their eyes it is, as it were, an
          act of religion.”</span><a id="noteref_577" name="noteref_577"
          href="#note_577"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">577</span></span></a>
          Another people who dance diligently to obtain good crops are the
          Tarahumare Indians of Mexico. They subsist by agriculture and their
          thoughts accordingly turn much on the supply of rain, which is
          needed for their fields. According to them, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the favour of the gods may be won by what for want of
          a better term may be called dancing, but what in reality is a
          series of monotonous movements, a kind of rhythmical exercise, kept
          up sometimes for two nights. By dint of such hard work they think
          to prevail upon the gods to grant their prayers. The dancing is
          accompanied by the song of the shaman, in which he communicates his
          wishes to the unseen world, describing the beautiful effect of the
          rain, the fog, and the mist on the vegetable world. He invokes the
          aid of all the animals, mentioning each by name, and also calls on
          them, especially the deer and the rabbit, to multiply that the
          people <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg
          237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          may have plenty to eat. As a matter of fact, the Tarahumares assert
          that the dances have been taught them by the animals. Like all
          primitive people, they are close observers of nature. To them the
          animals are by no means inferior creatures; they understand magic
          and are possessed of much knowledge, and may assist the Tarahumares
          in making rain. In spring, the singing of the birds, the cooing of
          the dove, the croaking of the frog, the chirping of the cricket,
          all the sounds uttered by the denizens of the greensward, are to
          the Indian appeals to the deities for rain. For what other reason
          should they sing or call? For the strange behaviour of many animals
          in the early spring the Tarahumares can find no other explanation
          but that these creatures, too, are interested in rain. And as the
          gods grant the prayers of the deer expressed in its antics and
          dances, and of the turkey in its curious playing, by sending the
          rain, they easily infer that to please the gods they, too, must
          dance as the deer and play as the turkey. From this it will be
          understood that dance with these people is a very serious and
          ceremonious matter, a kind of worship and incantation rather than
          amusement.”</span><a id="noteref_578" name="noteref_578" href=
          "#note_578"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">578</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dances of the Tarahumare Indians
              to cause rain to fall, corn to sprout, grass to grow, and
              animals to multiply.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two
          principal dances of these Indians, the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">rutuburi</span></span> and the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yumari</span></span>, are supposed to have
          been taught them by the turkey and the deer respectively. They are
          danced by numbers of men and women, the two sexes keeping apart
          from each other in the dance, while the shaman sings and shakes his
          rattle. But <span class="tei tei-q">“a large gathering is not
          necessary in order to pray to the gods by dancing. Sometimes the
          family dances alone, the father teaching the boys. While doing
          agricultural work, the Indians often depute one man to dance
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yumari</span></span> near the house, while the
          others attend to the work in the fields. It is a curious sight to
          see a lone man taking his devotional exercise to the tune of his
          rattle in front of an apparently deserted dwelling. The lonely
          worshipper is doing his share of the general work by bringing down
          the fructifying rain and by warding off disaster, while the rest of
          the family and their friends plant, hoe, weed, or harvest. In the
          evening, when they return from the field, they may join him for a
          little while; but often he goes on alone, dancing <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all night, and singing himself hoarse,
          and the Indians told me that this is the very hardest kind of work,
          and exhausting even to them. Solitary worship is also observed by
          men who go out hunting deer or squirrels for a communal feast.
          Every one of them dances <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yumari</span></span> alone in front of his
          house for two hours to insure success on the hunt; and when putting
          corn to sprout for the making of <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tesvino</span></span> the owner of the house
          dances for a while, that the corn may sprout well.”</span> Another
          dance is thought to cause the grass and funguses to grow, and the
          deer and rabbits to multiply; and another is supposed to draw the
          clouds together from the north and south, so that they clash and
          descend in rain.<a id="noteref_579" name="noteref_579" href=
          "#note_579"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">579</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dance of the Cora Indians at the
              sowing festival.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Cora Indians
          of Mexico celebrate a festival of sowing shortly before they commit
          the seed of the maize to the ground. The festival falls in June,
          because that is the month when the rainy season sets in, supplying
          the moisture needed for the growth of the maize. At the festival
          two old women, who represent the goddesses of sowing, dance side by
          side and imitate the process of sowing by digging holes in the
          earth with long sticks and inserting the seed of the maize in the
          holes; whereupon a man who represents the Morning Star pours water
          on the buried seeds. This solemn dance is accompanied by the
          singing of an appropriate hymn, which may be compared to the song
          of the Arval Brothers in ancient Rome.<a id="noteref_580" name=
          "noteref_580" href="#note_580"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">580</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dances and leaps of European
              peasants to make the corn grow tall.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen
          that in many parts of Germany, Austria, and France the peasants are
          still, or were till lately, accustomed to dance and leap high in
          order that the crops may grow tall. Such leaps and dances are
          sometimes performed by the sower immediately before or after he
          sows the seed; but often they are executed by the people on a fixed
          day of the year, which in some places is Twelfth Night (the sixth
          of January), or Candlemas (the second of February) or Walpurgis
          Night, that is, the Eve of May Day; but apparently the favourite
          season for these performances <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> is the last day of the Carnival, namely
          Shrove Tuesday.<a id="noteref_581" name="noteref_581" href=
          "#note_581"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">581</span></span></a> In
          such cases the leaps and dances are performed by every man for his
          own behoof; he skips and jumps merely in order that his own corn,
          or flax, or hemp may spring up and thrive. But sometimes in modern
          Europe, as (if I am right) in ancient Rome, the duty of dancing for
          the crops was committed to bands or troops of men, who cut their
          capers for the benefit of the whole community. For example, at
          Grub, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons (Graubünden), the practice
          used to be as follows. <span class="tei tei-q">“The peasants of
          Grub,”</span> we are informed, <span class="tei tei-q">“have still
          some hereditary customs, in that they assembled in some years,
          mostly at the time of the summer solstice, disguised themselves as
          maskers so as to be unrecognizable, armed themselves with weapons
          defensive and offensive, took every man a great club or cudgel,
          marched in a troop together from one village to another, and
          executed high leaps and strange antics. They ran full tilt at each
          other, struck every man his fellow with all his might, so that the
          blow resounded, and clashed their great staves and cudgels. Hence
          they were called by the country folk the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Stopfer</span></span>. These foolish pranks
          they played from a superstitious notion that their corn would
          thrive the better; but now they have left off, and these
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Stopfer</span></span> are no longer in any
          repute.”</span> Another authority, after describing the custom,
          remarks: <span class="tei tei-q">“With this custom was formerly
          connected the belief that its observance brought a fruitful
          year.”</span><a id="noteref_582" name="noteref_582" href=
          "#note_582"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">582</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dances of mummers called</span>
              <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
              "de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in
              Austria for the good of the crops. The mythical old woman
              called Perchta.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Austrian
          provinces of Salzburg and Tyrol bands of mummers wearing grotesque
          masks, with bells jingling on their persons, and carrying long
          sticks or poles in their hands, used formerly to run and leap about
          on certain days of the year for the purpose of procuring good
          crops. They were called <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, a name derived from
          Perchta, Berchta, or Percht, a mythical old woman, whether goddess
          or elf, who is well known all over South Germany; Mrs. Perchta
          (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Frau Perchta</span></span>), as they call her,
          is to be met with in Elsace, Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and
          Switzerland, but nowhere, perhaps, so commonly as in Salzburg and
          the Tyrol. In the Tyrol she appears as a little old woman with a
          very wrinkled face, bright lively eyes, and a long hooked nose; her
          hair is dishevelled, her garments tattered and torn. Hence they say
          to a slatternly wench, <span class="tei tei-q">“You are a regular
          Perchta.”</span> She goes about especially during the twelve days
          from Christmas to Twelfth Night (Epiphany), above all on the Eve of
          Twelfth Night, which is often called Perchta's Day. Many
          precautions must be observed during these mystic days in order not
          to incur her displeasure, for she is mischievous to man and beast.
          If she appears in the byre, a distemper breaks out among the cows.
          That is why during these days the byres must be kept very clean and
          straw laid on the threshold; otherwise you will find bald patches
          on your sheep and goats next morning, and next summer the hair
          which has been filched from the animals will descend in hail-stones
          from the sky. Old Mrs. Perchta also keeps a very sharp eye on
          spinners during the twelve days; she inspects all distaffs and
          spinning-wheels in the houses, and if she finds any flax or tow
          unspun on them, she tears it to bits, and she does not spare the
          lazy spinner, for she scratches her and smacks her fingers so that
          they bear the marks of it for the rest of her life. Indeed she
          sometimes does much more; for she rips up the belly of the sluggard
          and stuffs it with flax. That is the punishment with which a
          Bavarian mother will threaten an idle jade of a girl who has left
          some flax on her distaff on New Year's Eve. However, they say in
          Bavaria that if you only eat plenty of the rich juicy cakes which
          are baked for Mrs. Perchta on her day, the old woman's knife will
          glance off <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg
          241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          your body without making any impression on it. Perchta often comes
          not alone but attended by many little children, who follow her as
          chickens waddle after the mother hen; and if you should see any
          little child lagging behind the rest and blubbering, you may be
          quite sure that that child has been baptized. On the Eve of Twelfth
          Night everybody should eat pancakes baked of meal and milk or
          water. If anybody does not do so, old Mrs. Perchta comes and slits
          up his stomach, takes out the other food, fills up the vacuity so
          created with a tangled skein and bricks, and then sews up the
          orifice neatly, using, singularly enough, a ploughshare for a
          needle and an iron chain for thread. In other or the same places
          she does the same thing to anybody who does not eat herrings and
          dumplings on Twelfth Night. Some say that she rides on the storm
          like the Wild Huntsman, followed by a boisterous noisy pack, and
          carrying off people into far countries. Yet withal old Mrs. Perchta
          has her redeeming qualities. Good children who spin diligently and
          learn their lessons she rewards with nuts and sugar plums. It has
          even been affirmed that she makes the ploughed land fruitful and
          causes the cattle to thrive. When a mist floats over the fields,
          the peasants see her figure gliding along in a white mantle. On the
          Eve of Twelfth Night good people leave the remains of their supper
          for her on the table, and when they have gone to bed and all is
          quiet in the house, she comes in the likeness of an old wizened
          little woman, with all the children about her, and partakes of the
          broken victuals. But woe to the prying wight who peeps at her
          through the key-hole! Many a man has been blinded by her for a
          whole year as a punishment for his ill-timed curiosity.<a id=
          "noteref_583" name="noteref_583" href="#note_583"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">583</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The running and leaping of
              the</span> <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
              "de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">mummers
              on Twelfth Night. The Beautiful</span> <span lang="de" class=
              "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">and
              the Ugly</span> <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
              xml:lang="de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The processions
          of maskers who took their name of <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> from this quaint
          creation of the popular fancy were known as <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>-running or <span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>-leaping from the runs
          and leaps which the men took in their wild headlong course through
          the streets and over the fields. They appear to have been held in
          all the Alpine regions of Germany, but are best known to us in the
          Tyrol and Salzburg. The appropriate season for the celebration of
          the rite was Perchta's Day, that is, Twelfth Night or Epiphany, the
          sixth of January, but in some places it was held on Shrove Tuesday,
          the last day of the Carnival, the very day when many farmers of
          Central Europe jump to make the crops grow tall. Corresponding to
          the double character of Perchta as a power for good and evil, the
          maskers are divided into two sets known respectively as the
          Beautiful and the Ugly <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>. At Lienz in the Tyrol,
          where the maskers made their appearance on Shrove Tuesday, the
          Beautiful <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> were
          decked with ribbons, galloons, and so forth, while the ugly
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> made themselves as
          hideous as they could by hanging rats and mice, chains and bells
          about their persons. All wore on their heads tall pointed caps with
          bells attached to them; their faces were concealed by masks, and in
          their hands they all carried long sticks. The sticks of the
          Beautiful <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> were
          adorned with ribbons; those of the Ugly <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> ended in the heads of
          devils. Thus equipped they leaped and ran about the streets and
          went into the houses. Amongst them was a clown who blew ashes and
          soot in people's faces through a blow-pipe. It was all very merry
          and frolicsome, except when <span class="tei tei-q">“the wild
          Perchta”</span> herself came, invisible to ordinary eyes, upon the
          scene. Then her namesakes the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> grew wild and furious
          too; they scattered and fled for their lives to the nearest house,
          for as soon as they got under the gutter of a roof they were safe.
          But if she caught them, she tore them in pieces. To this
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name=
          "Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> day you may see the
          graves where the mangled bodies of her victims lie buried. When no
          such interruption took place, the noisy rout of maskers rushed
          madly about, with jingling bells and resounding cracks of whips,
          entering the houses, dancing here, drinking there, teasing
          wayfarers, or racing from village to village like the Wild Hunt
          itself in the sky; till at the close of the winter day the church
          bells rang the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ave Maria</span></span>. Then at last the wild
          uproar died away into silence. Such tumultuous masquerades were
          thought to be very beneficial to the crops; a bad harvest would be
          set down to the omission of the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> to skip and jump about
          in their usual fashion.<a id="noteref_584" name="noteref_584" href=
          "#note_584"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">584</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Ugly</span> <span lang="de"
              class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>
              <span style="font-size: 80%">in Salzburg.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the province
          of Salzburg the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>
          mummers are also divided into two sets, the Beautiful <span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> and the Ugly
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>. The Ugly <span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> are properly speaking
          twelve young men dressed in black sheepskins and wearing hoods of
          badger-skins and grotesque wooden masks, which represent either
          coarse human features with long teeth and horns, or else the
          features of fabulous animals with beaks and bristles or movable
          jaws. They all carry bells, both large and small, fastened to broad
          leathern girdles. The procession was headed by a man with a big
          drum, and after him came lads bearing huge torches and lanterns
          fastened to tall poles; for in Salzburg or some parts of it these
          mummers played their pranks by night. Behind the torchbearers came
          two Fools, a male and a female, the latter acted by a lad in
          woman's clothes. The male Fool carried a sausage-like roll, with
          which he struck at all women or girls of his acquaintance when they
          shewed themselves at the open doors or windows. Along with the
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> themselves went a train
          of young fellows cracking whips, blowing horns, or jingling bells.
          The ways might be miry and the night pitch dark, but with flaring
          lights the procession swept rapidly by, the men leaping along with
          the help of their long sticks and waking the echoes of the
          slumbering valley by their loud uproar. From <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> time to time they stopped at a farm,
          danced and cut their capers before the house, for which they were
          rewarded by presents of food and strong drink; to offer them money
          would have been an insult. By midnight the performance came to an
          end, and the tired maskers dispersed to their homes.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Beautiful</span> <span lang=
              "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>
              <span style="font-size: 80%">in Salzburg.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Beautiful
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> in Salzburg are attired
          very differently from the Ugly <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, but their costume
          varies with the district. Thus in the Pongau district the
          distinctive feature of their costume is a tall and heavy framework
          covered with bright red cloth and decorated with a profusion of
          silver jewelry and filagree work. This framework is sometimes nine
          or ten feet high and forty or fifty pounds in weight. The performer
          carries it above his head by means of iron supports resting on his
          shoulders or his back. To run or jump under the weight of such an
          encumbrance is impossible; the dancer has to content himself with
          turning round and round slowly and clumsily. Very different is the
          headdress of the Beautiful <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> in the Pinzgau district
          of Salzburg. There the performers are dressed in scarlet and wear
          straw hats, from which bunches of white feathers, arranged like
          fans, nod and flutter in the wind. Red shoes and white stockings
          complete their attire. Thus lightly equipped they hop and jump and
          stamp briskly in the dance. Unlike their Ugly namesakes, who seem
          now to be extinct, the Beautiful <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> still parade from time
          to time among the peasantry of the Salzburg highlands; but the
          intervals between their appearances are irregular, varying from
          four to seven years or more. Unlike the Ugly <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, they wear no masks and
          appear in full daylight, always on Perchta's Day (Twelfth Night,
          the sixth of January) and the two following Sundays. They are
          attended by a train of followers who make a great din with bells,
          whips, pipes, horns, rattles, and chains. Amongst them one or two
          clowns, clothed in white and wearing tall pointed hats of white
          felt with many jingling bells attached to them, play a conspicuous
          part. They carry each a sausage-shaped roll stuffed with tow, and
          with this instrument they strike lightly such women and girls among
          the spectators as they desire particularly to favour. Another
          attendant <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg
          245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          carries the effigy of a baby in swaddling bands, made of linen
          rags, and fastened to a string; this effigy he throws at women and
          girls and then pulls back again, but he does this only to women and
          girls whom he respects and to whom he wishes well. At St. Johann
          the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> carry
          drawn swords; each is attended by a lad dressed as a woman; and
          they are followed by men clad in black sheepskins, wearing the
          masks of devils, and holding chains in their hands.<a id=
          "noteref_585" name="noteref_585" href="#note_585"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">585</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Mrs. Andree-Eysn on the</span>
              <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
              "de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">;
              according to her, the processions of Perchten are intended to
              promote fertility by banishing the demons that would thwart
              it.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is the
          meaning of the quaint performances still enacted by the <span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> and their attendants in
          the Austrian highlands? The subject has been carefully investigated
          by a highly competent enquirer, Mrs. Andree-Eysn. She has visited
          the districts, witnessed the performances, collected information,
          and studied the costumes. It may be well to quote her conclusion:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“If we enquire into the inner meaning which
          underlies the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>-race
          and kindred processions, we must confess that it is not at first
          sight obvious, and that the original meaning appears blurred and
          indistinct. Nevertheless from many features which they present in
          common it can be demonstrated that the processions were held for
          the purpose of driving away demons and had for their object to
          promote fertility. In favour of this view it may be urged, first of
          all, that their appearance is everywhere greeted with joy, because
          it promises fertility and a good harvest. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘It is a good year,’</span> they say in Salzburg. If
          the processions are prevented from taking place, dearth and a bad
          harvest are to be apprehended. The peasants of the Tyrol still
          believe that the more <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> run about, the better
          will the year be, and therefore they treat them to brandy and
          cakes. In Lienz, when the harvest turns out ill, they say that they
          omitted to let the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> run over the fields,
          and for that reason the peasant in the Sarn valley gets the
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> to leap about on his
          fields, for then there will be a good year.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“If fertility and blessing are to be poured out on
          field, house, and homestead, it is obvious that everything that
          could hinder or harm must be averted and driven away. When we
          consider how even at the present time, and still <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more in times gone by, much that is
          harmful is attributed to the malevolence of invisible powers, we
          can readily understand why people should resort to measures which
          they deem effective for the purpose of disarming these malevolent
          beings. Now it is a common belief that certain masks possess the
          virtue of banning demons, and that loud noise and din are a means
          of keeping off evil spirits or hindering their activity. In the
          procession of the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> we see
          the principle of the banishment of evil carried out in practice.
          The people attack the evil spirits and seek to chase them away by
          putting on frightful masks, with which they confront the demon. For
          one sort of malevolent spirits one kind of mask appears suitable,
          and for another another; this spirit is daunted by this mask, and
          that spirit by that; and so they came to discriminate. Originally,
          particular masks may have been used against particular evil
          spirits, but in course of time they were confused, the individual
          taste of the maker of the mask counted for something, and so
          gradually it resulted in carving all kinds of horrible, fantastic,
          and hideous masks which had nothing in common but their general
          tendency to frighten away all evil spirits.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_586" name="noteref_586" href="#note_586"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">586</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The bells worn by the</span>
              <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
              "de"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">mummers
              may be intended to ban demons. Bells rung to make the grass
              grow in spring. Bells rung to make the flax grow. Whips cracked
              to make the flax grow.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In support of
          her view that the procession of the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> aims chiefly at
          banishing demons who might otherwise blight the crops, Mrs.
          Andree-Eysn lays stress on the bells which figure so prominently in
          the costume of these maskers; for the sound of bells, as she
          reminds us, is commonly believed to be a potent means of driving
          evil spirits away. The notion is too familiar to call for
          proof,<a id="noteref_587" name="noteref_587" href=
          "#note_587"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">587</span></span></a> but a
          single case from Central Africa may be cited as an illustration.
          The Teso people, who inhabit a land of rolling plains between Mount
          Elgon and Lake Kioga, <span class="tei tei-q">“make use of bells to
          exorcise the storm fiend; a person who has been injured by a flash
          or in the resulting fire wears bells round his ankles for weeks
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name=
          "Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> afterwards. Whenever
          rain threatens, and rain in Uganda almost always comes in company
          with thunder and lightning, this person will parade the village for
          an hour, with the jingling bells upon his legs and a wand of
          papyrus in his hand, attended by as many of his family as may
          happen to be at hand and not employed in necessary
          duties.”</span><a id="noteref_588" name="noteref_588" href=
          "#note_588"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">588</span></span></a> The
          resemblance of such men, with their bells and wands, to the
          Austrian <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> with
          their bells and wands is, on the theory in question, fairly close;
          both of them go about to dispel demons by the sound of their bells
          and probably also by the blows of their rods. Whatever may be
          thought of their efficacy in banning fiends, certain it is that in
          the Tyrol, where the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> play their pranks, the
          chime of bells is used for the express purpose of causing the grass
          to grow in spring. Thus in the lower valley of the Inn, especially
          at Schwaz, on the twenty-fourth of April (there reckoned St.
          George's Day) troops of young fellows go about ringing bells, some
          of which they hold in their hands, while others are attached to
          their persons; and the peasants say, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Wherever the Grass-ringers come, there the grass grows
          well, and the corn bears abundant fruit.”</span> Hence the
          bell-ringers are welcomed and treated wherever they go. Formerly,
          it is said, they wore masks, like the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, but afterwards they
          contented themselves with blackening their faces with soot.<a id=
          "noteref_589" name="noteref_589" href="#note_589"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">589</span></span></a> In
          other parts of the Tyrol the bell-ringing processions take place at
          the Carnival, but their object is the same; for <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“it is believed that by this noisy procession growth in
          general, but especially the growth of the meadows, is
          promoted.”</span><a id="noteref_590" name="noteref_590" href=
          "#note_590"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">590</span></span></a>
          Again, at Bergell, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons, children go
          in procession on the first of March ringing bells, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“in order that the grass may grow.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_591" name="noteref_591" href="#note_591"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">591</span></span></a> So in
          Hildesheim, on the afternoon of Ascension Day, young girls ascend
          the church tower and ring all the church bells, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“in order that they may get a good harvest of flax; the
          girl who, hanging on to the bell-rope, is swung highest by the
          swing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name=
          "Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the bell, will
          get the longest flax.”</span><a id="noteref_592" name="noteref_592"
          href="#note_592"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">592</span></span></a> Here
          the sound of the bells as a means of promoting the growth of the
          flax is reinforced by the upward swing of the bell, which, carrying
          with it the bell-ringer at the end of the rope, naturally causes
          the flax in like manner to rise high in the air. It is a simple
          piece of imitative magic, like the leaps and bounds which the
          peasants of Central Europe often execute for precisely the same
          purpose. Once more, in various parts of the Tyrol on Senseless
          Thursday, which is the last Thursday in Carnival, young men in
          motley attire, with whips and brooms, run about cracking their
          whips and making believe to sweep away the onlookers with their
          brooms. They are called <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Huttler</span></span> or <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Huddler</span></span>. The people say that if
          these fellows do not run about, the flax will not thrive, and that
          on the contrary the more of them run about, the better will the
          flax grow. And where there are many of them, there will be much
          maize.<a id="noteref_593" name="noteref_593" href=
          "#note_593"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">593</span></span></a> In
          this custom the cracking of the whips may be supposed to serve the
          same purpose as the ringing of the bells by frightening and
          banishing the demons of infertility and dearth. About Hall, in the
          northern Tyrol, the ceremony of the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hudel</span></span>-running, as it is called,
          is or used to be as follows. A peasant-farmer, generally well-to-do
          and respected, rigs himself out in motley and hides his face under
          a mask; round his waist he wears a girdle crammed with rolls, while
          in his hand he wields a long whip, from which more than fifty
          cracknels dangle on a string. Thus arrayed he suddenly bursts from
          the ale-house door into the public view, solicited thereto by the
          cries of the street urchins, who have been anxiously waiting for
          his appearance. He throws amongst them the string of cracknels, and
          while they are scrambling for these dainties, he lays on to them
          most liberally with his whip. Having faithfully discharged this
          public duty, he marches down between rows of peasants, who have
          meantime taken up their position in a long street. Amongst them he
          picks out one who is to run <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> before him. The man selected for the honour
          accordingly takes to his heels, hotly pursued by the other with the
          whip, who lashes the feet of the fugitive till he comes up with
          him. Having run him down, he leads him back to the alehouse, where
          he treats him to a roll and a glass of wine. After that the masker
          runs a similar race with another man; and so it goes on, one race
          after another, till the sun sets. Then the mummer doffs his mask
          and leads the dance in the alehouse. The object of these races is
          said to be to ensure a good crop of flax and maize.<a id=
          "noteref_594" name="noteref_594" href="#note_594"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">594</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Certain features in these
              processions or races of mummers seem to shew that the mummers
              represent beneficent spirits of fertility, who quicken the seed
              in the ground and offspring in the wombs of women. The view of
              W. Mannhardt.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these races
          of mummers, whether known as <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> or <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Huttler</span></span>, there are certain
          features which it is difficult to explain on the theory that the
          aim of the performers is simply to drive away demons, and that the
          hideous masks which they assume have no other intention than that
          of frightening these uncanny beings. For observe that in the last
          example the blows of the whip fall not on the airy swarms of
          invisible spirits, but on the solid persons of street urchins and
          sturdy yokels, who can hardly be supposed to receive the
          chastisement vicariously for the demons. Again, what are we to make
          of the rolls and cracknels with which in this case the mummer is
          laden, and which he distributes among his victims, as if to console
          them in one part of their person for the pain which he has
          inflicted on another? Surely this bounty seems to invest him with
          something more than the purely negative character of an exorciser
          of evil; it appears to raise him to the positive character of a
          dispenser of good. The same remark applies to the action of the
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> who strike women
          lightly, as a mark of friendship and regard, with the sausage-like
          rolls which they carry in their hands, or throw them, as a mark of
          favour, the effigy of a baby. The only probable explanation of
          these practices, as Mrs. Andree-Eysn rightly points out, is that
          the mummers thereby intend to fertilize the women whom they honour
          by these attentions.<a id="noteref_595" name="noteref_595" href=
          "#note_595"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">595</span></span></a> Here,
          again, therefore the maskers appear as the actual dispensers of
          good, the bestowers of fruitfulness, not merely the averters of
          evil. If that is so, we seem bound to infer that these masked men
          represent or <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg
          250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          embody the spirits who quicken the seed both in the earth and in
          the wombs of women. That was the view of W. Mannhardt, the highest
          authority on the agricultural superstitions of European peasantry.
          After reviewing these and many more similar processions, he
          concludes that if the comparison which he has instituted between
          them holds good, all these various mummers <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“were intended by the original founders of the
          processions to represent demons of vegetation, who by their mere
          appearance and cries drove away the powers that hinder growth and
          woke to new life the slumbering spirits of the grasses and
          corn-stalks.”</span><a id="noteref_596" name="noteref_596" href=
          "#note_596"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">596</span></span></a> Thus
          Mannhardt admitted that these noisy processions of masked men are
          really supposed to dispel the evil spirits of blight and
          infertility, while at the same time he held that the men themselves
          originally personated vegetation-spirits. And he thought it
          probable that the original significance of these performances was
          in later times misunderstood and interpreted as a simple expulsion
          of witches and other uncanny beings that haunt the fields.<a id=
          "noteref_597" name="noteref_597" href="#note_597"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">597</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Confirmations of this view. The
              use of bells and swords in these ceremonies.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole
          this conclusion of an enquirer remarkable for a rare combination of
          learning, sobriety, and insight, is perhaps the most probable that
          can now be reached with the evidence at our disposal. It is
          confirmed by some of the savage masquerades in which the maskers
          definitely represent spirits of fertility in order to promote the
          fruitfulness of the earth and of women;<a id="noteref_598" name=
          "noteref_598" href="#note_598"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">598</span></span></a> and
          it is supported by the evidence of many other rustic mummeries in
          Europe, for example, by the English rites of Plough Monday, in
          which the dancers, or rather jumpers, who wore bunches of corn in
          their hats as they leaped into the air, are most naturally
          interpreted as agents or representatives of the corn-spirit.<a id=
          "noteref_599" name="noteref_599" href="#note_599"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">599</span></span></a> It
          is, therefore, worth observing that in some places the dancers of
          Plough Monday, who attended the plough in its peregrinations
          through the streets and fields, are described as
          morris-dancers.<a id="noteref_600" name="noteref_600" href=
          "#note_600"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">600</span></span></a> If
          the description is correct, it implies that they <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had bells attached to their costume,
          which would further assimilate them to the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> and other masqueraders
          of Central Europe; for the chief characteristic of the morris-dance
          is that the performers wear bells fastened to their legs which
          jingle at every step.<a id="noteref_601" name="noteref_601" href=
          "#note_601"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">601</span></span></a> We
          may suppose that if the men who ran and capered beside the plough
          on Plough Monday really wore bells, the original intention of this
          appendage to their costume was either to dispel the demons who
          might hinder the growth of the corn, or to waken the spirits of
          vegetation from their long winter sleep. In favour of the view
          which sees in all these dances and mummeries rather the banishment
          of what is evil than the direct promotion of what is good, it may
          be urged that some of the dancers wear swords,<a id="noteref_602"
          name="noteref_602" href="#note_602"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">602</span></span></a> a
          weapon which certainly seems better fitted to combat demons than to
          prune fruit-trees or turn up the sod. Further, it deserves to be
          noted that many of the performances take place either on Twelfth
          Day or, like the celebration of Plough Monday, very shortly after
          it; and that in the Lord of Misrule, who reigned from Christmas to
          Twelfth Day,<a id="noteref_603" name="noteref_603" href=
          "#note_603"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">603</span></span></a> we
          have a clear trace of one of those periods of general licence and
          suspension of ordinary government, which so commonly occur at the
          end of the old year or the beginning of the new one in connexion
          with a general expulsion of evils.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">These masquerades originally
              intended both to stimulate vegetation in spring and to expel
              demons.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Surveying these
          masquerades and processions, as they have been or still are
          celebrated in modern Europe, we may say in general that they appear
          to have been originally intended both to stimulate the growth of
          vegetation in spring and to expel the demoniac or other evil
          influences which were thought to have accumulated during the
          preceding winter or year; and that these two motives of stimulation
          and expulsion, blended and perhaps confused together, appear to
          explain the quaint costumes of the mummers, the multitudinous
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name=
          "Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> noises which they
          make, and the blows which they direct either at invisible foes or
          at the visible and tangible persons of their fellows. In the latter
          case the beating may be supposed to serve as a means of forcibly
          freeing the sufferers from the demons or other evil things that
          cling to them unseen.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Application of these conclusions
              to the expulsion of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">the Old
              Mars</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in
              ancient Rome.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To apply these
          conclusions to the Roman custom of expelling Mamurius Veturius or
          <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Mars”</span> every year in spring,
          we may say that they lend some support to the theory which sees in
          <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Mars”</span> the outworn deity of
          vegetation driven away to make room, either for a younger and more
          vigorous personification of vernal life, or perhaps for the return
          of the same deity refreshed and renovated by the treatment to which
          he had been subjected, and particularly by the vigorous application
          of the rod to his sacred person. For, as we shall see presently,
          King Solomon was by no means singular in his opinion of the
          refreshing influence of a sound thrashing. So far as <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the Old Mars”</span> was supposed to carry away with
          him the accumulated weaknesses and other evils of the past year, so
          far would he serve as a public scapegoat, like the effigy in the
          Slavonic custom of <span class="tei tei-q">“Carrying out
          Death,”</span> which appears not only to represent the
          vegetation-spirit of the past year, but also to act as a scapegoat,
          carrying away with it a heavy load of suffering, misfortune, and
          death.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Human Scapegoat in Ancient
          Greece.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats in ancient
              Greece. The</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">Expulsion
              of Hunger</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">at
              Chaeronea.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ancient
          Greeks were also familiar with the use of a human scapegoat. In
          Plutarch's native town of Chaeronea a ceremony of this kind was
          performed by the chief magistrate at the Town Hall, and by each
          householder at his own home. It was called the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“expulsion of hunger.”</span> A slave was beaten with
          rods of the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">agnus castus</span></span>,
          and turned out of doors with the words, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Out with hunger, and in with wealth and
          health.”</span> When Plutarch held the office of chief magistrate
          of his native town he performed this ceremony at the Town Hall, and
          he has recorded the discussion to which the custom afterwards gave
          rise.<a id="noteref_604" name="noteref_604" href=
          "#note_604"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">604</span></span></a> The
          ceremony closely resembles <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Japanese, Hindoo, and Highland customs
          already described.<a id="noteref_605" name="noteref_605" href=
          "#note_605"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">605</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Human scapegoats at Marseilles.
              Human scapegoats put to death at Athens. Human scapegoats
              annually stoned to death at Abdera.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in civilized
          Greece the custom of the scapegoat took darker forms than the
          innocent rite over which the amiable and pious Plutarch presided.
          Whenever Marseilles, one of the busiest and most brilliant of Greek
          colonies, was ravaged by a plague, a man of the poorer classes used
          to offer himself as a scapegoat. For a whole year he was maintained
          at the public expense, being fed on choice and pure food. At the
          expiry of the year he was dressed in sacred garments, decked with
          holy branches, and led through the whole city, while prayers were
          uttered that all the evils of the people might fall on his head. He
          was then cast out of the city or stoned to death by the people
          outside of the walls.<a id="noteref_606" name="noteref_606" href=
          "#note_606"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">606</span></span></a> The
          Athenians regularly maintained a number of degraded and useless
          beings at the public expense; and when any calamity, such as
          plague, drought, or famine, befell the city, they sacrificed two of
          these outcasts as scapegoats. One of the victims was sacrificed for
          the men and the other for the women. The former wore round his neck
          a string of black, the latter a string of white figs. Sometimes, it
          seems, the victim slain on behalf of the women was a woman. They
          were led about the city and then sacrificed, apparently by being
          stoned to death outside the city.<a id="noteref_607" name=
          "noteref_607" href="#note_607"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">607</span></span></a> But
          such sacrifices were not confined to extraordinary occasions of
          public calamity; it <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg
          254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          appears that every year, at the festival of the Thargelia in May,
          two victims, one for the men and one for the women, were led out of
          Athens and stoned to death.<a id="noteref_608" name="noteref_608"
          href="#note_608"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">608</span></span></a> The
          city of Abdera in Thrace was publicly purified once a year, and one
          of the burghers, set apart for the purpose, was stoned to death as
          a scapegoat or vicarious sacrifice for the life of all the others;
          six days before his execution he was excommunicated, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“in order that he alone might bear the sins of all the
          people.”</span><a id="noteref_609" name="noteref_609" href=
          "#note_609"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">609</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual human scapegoats in
              Leucadia. Human scapegoats annually put to death at the
              festival of the Thargelia in Asia Minor.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the Lover's
          Leap, a white bluff at the southern end of their island, the
          Leucadians used annually to hurl a criminal into the sea as a
          scapegoat. But to lighten his fall they fastened live birds and
          feathers to him, and a flotilla of small boats waited below to
          catch him and convey him beyond the boundary. Probably these humane
          precautions were a mitigation of an earlier custom of flinging the
          scapegoat into the sea to drown, just as in Kumaon the custom of
          letting a man slide down a rope from the top of a cliff appears to
          be a modification of an older practice of putting him to death. The
          Leucadian ceremony took place at the time of a sacrifice to Apollo,
          who had a temple or sanctuary on the spot.<a id="noteref_610" name=
          "noteref_610" href="#note_610"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">610</span></span></a>
          Elsewhere it was customary to cast <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> a young man every year into the sea, with the
          prayer, <span class="tei tei-q">“Be thou our offscouring.”</span>
          This ceremony was supposed to rid the people of the evils by which
          they were beset, or according to a somewhat different
          interpretation it redeemed them by paying the debt they owed to the
          sea-god.<a id="noteref_611" name="noteref_611" href=
          "#note_611"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">611</span></span></a> As
          practised by the Greeks of Asia Minor in the sixth century before
          our era, the custom of the scapegoat was as follows. When a city
          suffered from plague, famine, or other public calamity, an ugly or
          deformed person was chosen to take upon himself all the evils which
          afflicted the community. He was brought to a suitable place, where
          dried figs, a barley loaf, and cheese were put into his hand. These
          he ate. Then he was beaten seven times upon his genital organs with
          squills and branches of the wild fig and other wild trees, while
          the flutes played a particular tune. Afterwards he was burned on a
          pyre built of the wood of forest trees; and his ashes were cast
          into the sea.<a id="noteref_612" name="noteref_612" href=
          "#note_612"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">612</span></span></a> A
          similar custom appears to have been annually celebrated by the
          Asiatic Greeks at the harvest festival of the Thargelia.<a id=
          "noteref_613" name="noteref_613" href="#note_613"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">613</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Mannhardt's interpretation of the
              custom of beating the human scapegoat on the genitals: it was
              intended to free his reproductive energies from any restraint
              laid on them by demoniacal or other malignant agency.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the ritual
          just described the scourging of the victim with squills, branches
          of the wild fig, and so forth, cannot have been intended to
          aggravate his sufferings, otherwise any stick would have been good
          enough to beat him with. The true meaning of this part of the
          ceremony has been explained by W. Mannhardt.<a id="noteref_614"
          name="noteref_614" href="#note_614"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">614</span></span></a> He
          points out that the ancients attributed to squills a magical power
          of averting evil influences, and that accordingly they hung them up
          at the doors of their houses and made use of them in purificatory
          rites.<a id="noteref_615" name="noteref_615" href=
          "#note_615"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">615</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name=
          "Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Hence the Arcadian
          custom of whipping the image of Pan with squills at a festival, or
          whenever the hunters returned empty-handed,<a id="noteref_616"
          name="noteref_616" href="#note_616"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">616</span></span></a> must
          have been meant, not to punish the god, but to purify him from the
          harmful influences which were impeding him in the exercise of his
          divine functions as a god who should supply the hunter with game.
          Similarly the object of beating the human scapegoat on the genital
          organs with squills and so on, must have been to release his
          reproductive energies from any restraint or spell under which they
          might be laid by demoniacal or other malignant agency; and as the
          Thargelia at which he was annually sacrificed was an early harvest
          festival celebrated in May,<a id="noteref_617" name="noteref_617"
          href="#note_617"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">617</span></span></a> we
          must recognize in him a representative of the creative and
          fertilizing god of vegetation. The representative of the god was
          annually slain for the purpose I have indicated, that of
          maintaining the divine life in perpetual vigour, untainted by the
          weakness of age; and before he was put to death it was not
          unnatural to stimulate his reproductive powers in order that these
          might be transmitted in full activity to his successor, the new god
          or new embodiment of the old god, who was doubtless supposed
          immediately to take the place of the one slain.<a id="noteref_618"
          name="noteref_618" href="#note_618"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">618</span></span></a>
          Similar reasoning would lead to a similar treatment of the
          scapegoat on special occasions, such as drought or famine. If the
          crops did not answer to the expectation of the husbandman, this
          would be attributed to some failure in the generative powers of the
          god whose function it was to produce the fruits of the earth. It
          might be thought that he was under a spell or was growing old and
          feeble. Accordingly he was slain in the person of his
          representative, with all the ceremonies already described, in order
          that, born young again, he might infuse his own youthful vigour
          into the stagnant energies of nature. On the <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> same principle we can understand why
          Mamurius Veturius was beaten with rods, why the slave at the
          Chaeronean ceremony was beaten with the <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">agnus castus</span></span> (a tree to which
          magical properties were ascribed),<a id="noteref_619" name=
          "noteref_619" href="#note_619"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">619</span></span></a> why
          the effigy of Death in some parts of Europe is assailed with sticks
          and stones,<a id="noteref_620" name="noteref_620" href=
          "#note_620"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">620</span></span></a> and
          why at Babylon the criminal who played the god was scourged before
          he was crucified.<a id="noteref_621" name="noteref_621" href=
          "#note_621"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">621</span></span></a> The
          purpose of the scourging was not to intensify the agony of the
          divine sufferer, but on the contrary to dispel any malignant
          influences by which at the supreme moment he might conceivably be
          beset.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">W. R. Paton's view that the human
              scapegoats at the Thargelia personated the spirits of
              fig-trees, and that the ceremony was a magical rite for the
              fertilization of fig-trees, being copied from the process of
              caprification.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far I have
          assumed that the human victims at the Thargelia represented the
          spirits of vegetation in general,<a id="noteref_622" name=
          "noteref_622" href="#note_622"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">622</span></span></a> but
          it has been well remarked by Mr. W. R. Paton that these poor
          wretches seem to have masqueraded as the spirits of fig-trees in
          particular. He points out that the process of caprification, as it
          is called, that is, the artificial fertilization of the cultivated
          fig-trees by hanging strings of wild figs among the boughs, takes
          place in Greece and Asia Minor in June about a month after the date
          of the Thargelia, and he suggests that the hanging of the black and
          white figs round the necks of the two human victims, one of whom
          represented the men and the other the women, may have been a direct
          imitation of the process of caprification designed, on the
          principle of imitative magic, to assist the fertilization of the
          fig-trees. And since caprification is in fact a marriage of the
          male fig-tree with the female fig-tree, Mr. Paton further supposes
          that the loves of the trees may, on the same principle of imitative
          magic, have been simulated by a mock or even a real marriage
          between the two human victims, one of whom appears sometimes to
          have been a woman. On this view the practice of beating the human
          victims on their genitals with branches of wild fig-trees and with
          squills was a charm intended to stimulate the generative powers of
          the man and woman who for the time being personated the male and
          the female fig-trees <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg
          258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          respectively, and who by their union in marriage, whether real or
          pretended, were believed to help the trees to bear fruit.<a id=
          "noteref_623" name="noteref_623" href="#note_623"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">623</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">This theory is confirmed by a
              comparison with the Roman rites of the</span> <span lang="la"
              class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Nonae
              Caprotinae</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The theory is
          ingenious and attractive; and to some extent it is borne out by the
          Roman celebration of the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Nonae
          Caprotinae</span></span>, which I have described in an earlier part
          of this work.<a id="noteref_624" name="noteref_624" href=
          "#note_624"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">624</span></span></a> For
          on the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Nonae
          Caprotinae</span></span>, the ninth of July, the female slaves, in
          the attire of free women, feasted under a wild fig-tree, cut a rod
          from the tree, beat each other, perhaps with the rod, and offered
          the milky juice of the tree to the goddess Juno Caprotina, whose
          surname seems to point her out as the goddess of the wild fig-tree
          (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">caprificus</span></span>). Here the rites
          performed in July by women under the wild fig-tree, which the
          ancients rightly regarded as a male and employed to fertilize the
          cultivated female fig-tree, can hardly be dissociated from the
          caprification or artificial marriage of the fig-trees which,
          according to Columella, was best performed in July; and if the
          blows which the women gave each other on this occasion were
          administered, as seems highly probable, by the rod which they cut
          from the wild fig-tree, the parallel between the Roman and the
          Greek ceremony would be still closer; since the Greeks, as we saw,
          beat the genitals of the human victims with branches of wild
          fig-trees. It is true that the human sacrifices, which formed so
          prominent a feature in the Greek celebration of the Thargelia, do
          not figure in the Roman celebration of the <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nonae Caprotinae</span></span> within
          historical times; yet a trace of them may perhaps be detected in
          the tradition that Romulus himself mysteriously disappeared on that
          very day in the midst of a tremendous thunder-storm, while he was
          reviewing his army outside the walls of Rome at the Goat's Marsh
          (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad Caprae
          paludem</span></span>”</span>), a name which suggests that the
          place was not far distant from the wild fig-tree or the goat-fig
          (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">caprificus</span></span>), as the Romans
          called it, where the slave women performed their curious
          ceremonies. The legend that he was cut in pieces by the patricians,
          who carried away the morsels of his body under their robes and
          buried them in the earth,<a id="noteref_625" name="noteref_625"
          href="#note_625"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">625</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name=
          "Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> exactly describes
          the treatment which the Khonds used to accord to the bodies of the
          human victims for the purpose of fertilizing their fields.<a id=
          "noteref_626" name="noteref_626" href="#note_626"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">626</span></span></a> Can
          the king have played at Rome the same fatal part in the
          fertilization of fig-trees which, if Mr. Paton is right, was played
          in Greece by the male victim? The traditionary time, place, and
          manner of his death all suggest it. So many coincidences between
          the Greek and Roman ceremonies and traditions can hardly be wholly
          accidental; and accordingly I incline to think that there may well
          be an element of truth in Mr. Paton's theory, though it must be
          confessed that the ancient writers who describe the Greek custom
          appear to regard it merely as a purification of the city and not at
          all as a mode of fertilizing fig-trees.<a id="noteref_627" name=
          "noteref_627" href="#note_627"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">627</span></span></a> In
          similar ceremonies, which combine the elements of purification and
          fertilization, the notion of purification apparently tends
          gradually to overshadow the notion of fertilization in the minds of
          those who practise the rites. It seems to have been so in the case
          of the annual expulsion of Mamurius Veturius from ancient Rome and
          in the parallel processions of the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> in modern Europe; it
          may have been so also in the case of the human sacrifices at the
          Thargelia.<a id="noteref_628" name="noteref_628" href=
          "#note_628"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">628</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Beating as a mode of dispelling
              evil influences.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The
          interpretation which I have adopted of the custom of beating the
          human scapegoat with certain plants is supported by many analogies.
          We have already met with examples of a practice of beating sick
          people with the leaves of certain plants or with branches in order
          to rid them of noxious influences.<a id="noteref_629" name=
          "noteref_629" href="#note_629"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">629</span></span></a> Some
          of the Dravidian tribes of Northern India, <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> who attribute epilepsy, hysteria, and similar
          maladies to demoniacal possession, endeavour to cure the sufferer
          by thrashing him soundly with a sacred iron chain, which is
          believed to have the effect of immediately expelling the
          demon.<a id="noteref_630" name="noteref_630" href=
          "#note_630"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">630</span></span></a> When
          a herd of camels refuses to drink, the Arabs will sometimes beat
          the male beasts on the back to drive away the jinn who are riding
          them and frightening the females.<a id="noteref_631" name=
          "noteref_631" href="#note_631"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">631</span></span></a> In
          Bikol, the south-western part of Luzon, it was generally believed
          that if the evil spirit Aswang were not properly exorcised he took
          possession of the bodies of the dead and tormented them. Hence to
          deliver a corpse from his clutches the native priestesses used to
          beat it with a brush or whisk made of the leaves of the aromatic
          China orange, while they chanted a certain song, throwing their
          bodies into contortions and uttering shrill cries, as if the evil
          spirit had entered into themselves. The soul of the deceased, thus
          delivered from the cruel tyranny of Aswang, was then free to roam
          at pleasure along the charming lanes or in the thick shade of the
          forest.<a id="noteref_632" name="noteref_632" href=
          "#note_632"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">632</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Beating people to rid them of
              clinging ghosts. Exorcism of ghosts by means of leaves and
              pig's blood.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes it
          appears that a beating is administered for the purpose of ridding
          people of a ghost who may be clinging too closely to their persons;
          in such cases the blows, though they descend on the bodies of the
          living, are really aimed at the spirit of the dead, and have no
          other object than to drive it away, just as a coachman will flick
          the back of a horse with his whip to rid the beast of a fly. At a
          funeral in the island of Halmahera, before the coffin is lowered
          into the grave, all the relations whip themselves on the head and
          shoulders with wands made of plants which <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> are believed to possess the power of keeping
          off evil spirits. The intention of the custom is said to be to
          bring back their own spectres or souls and to prevent them from
          following the ghost; but this may fairly be interpreted to mean
          that the blows are directed to brushing off the ghost, who would
          otherwise abstract the soul of the person on whose body he was
          allowed to settle. This interpretation is strongly confirmed by the
          practice, observed by the same people on the same occasion, of
          throwing the trunk of a banana-tree into the grave, and telling the
          dead man that it is a companion for him; for this practice is
          expressly intended to prevent the deceased from feeling lonely, and
          so coming back to fetch away a friend.<a id="noteref_633" name=
          "noteref_633" href="#note_633"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">633</span></span></a> When
          Mr. Batchelor returned to a hut after visiting the grave of an old
          Aino woman, her relations brought him a bowl of water to the door
          and requested him to wash his face and hands. While he did so, the
          women beat him and brushed him down with sacred whittled sticks
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">inao</span></span>). On enquiring into the
          meaning of this treatment, he discovered that it was intended to
          purify him from all uncleanness contracted at the grave through
          contact with the ghost of the deceased, and that the beating and
          brushing with the whittled sticks had for its object to drive away
          all evil influences and diseases with which the ghost of the old
          woman might have attempted to infect him out of spite for his
          trespassing on her domain.<a id="noteref_634" name="noteref_634"
          href="#note_634"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">634</span></span></a> The
          Banmanas of Senegambia think that the soul of a dead infant becomes
          for a time a wandering and maleficent spirit. Accordingly when a
          baby dies, all the uncircumcised children of the same sex in the
          village run about the streets in a band, each armed with three or
          four supple rods. Some of them enter every house to beg, and while
          they are doing so, one of the troop, propping himself against the
          wall with his hands, is lashed by another of the children on his
          back or legs till the blood flows. Each of the children takes it in
          turn to be thus whipped. The object of the whipping, we are told,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“appears to be to preserve the
          uncircumcised child <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg
          262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          from being carried off by its comrade who has just
          died.”</span><a id="noteref_635" name="noteref_635" href=
          "#note_635"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">635</span></span></a> The
          severe scourgings inflicted on each other by some South American
          Indians at ceremonies connected with the dead may be similarly
          intended to chase away the dangerous ghost, who is conceived as
          sticking like a leech or a bur to the skin of the living.<a id=
          "noteref_636" name="noteref_636" href="#note_636"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">636</span></span></a> The
          ancient Greeks employed the laurel very commonly as an instrument
          of ceremonial purification;<a id="noteref_637" name="noteref_637"
          href="#note_637"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">637</span></span></a> and
          from the monuments which represent the purgation of Orestes from
          the guilt of matricide<a id="noteref_638" name="noteref_638" href=
          "#note_638"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">638</span></span></a> it
          seems probable that the regular rite of cleansing a homicide
          consisted essentially in sprinkling him with pig's blood and
          beating him with a laurel bough, for the purpose, as we may
          conjecture, of whisking away the wrathful ghost of his victim, who
          was thought to buzz about him like an angry wasp in summer. If that
          was so, the Greek ritual of purification singularly resembles the
          Nicobarese ceremony of exorcism; for when a man is supposed to be
          possessed by devils, the Nicobarese rub him all over with pig's
          blood and beat him with bunches of certain leaves, to which a
          special power of exorcising demons is attributed. As fast as each
          devil is thus disengaged from his person, it is carefully folded up
          in leaves, to be afterwards thrown into the sea at daybreak.<a id=
          "noteref_639" name="noteref_639" href="#note_639"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">639</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Beating practised by South
              American Indians and others as a mode of conveying good
              qualities.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the autumn
          festival in Peru people used to strike each other with torches,
          saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let all harm go
          away.”</span><a id="noteref_640" name="noteref_640" href=
          "#note_640"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">640</span></span></a> Every
          year when the Pleiades reappeared in the sky, the Guaycurus, an
          Indian nation of the Gran Chaco, held a festival of rejoicing, at
          which men, women, and children all thrashed each other, expecting
          thereby to procure health, abundance, and victory over their
          enemies.<a id="noteref_641" name="noteref_641" href=
          "#note_641"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">641</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name=
          "Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Indians of the
          Quixos, in South America, before they set out on a long hunting
          expedition, cause their wives to whip them with nettles, believing
          that this renders them fleeter, and helps them to overtake the
          peccaries. They resort to the same proceeding as a cure for
          sickness.<a id="noteref_642" name="noteref_642" href=
          "#note_642"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">642</span></span></a> The
          Roocooyen Indians of French Guiana train up young people in the way
          they should go by causing them to be stung by ants and wasps; and
          at the ceremony held for this purpose the grown-up people improve
          the occasion by allowing themselves to be whacked by the chief with
          a stick over the arms, the legs, and the chest. They appear to
          labour under an impression that this conveys to them all sorts of
          moral and physical excellences. One of the tribe, ambitious of
          acquiring the European virtues, begged a French traveller to be so
          kind as to give him a good hiding. The traveller obligingly did his
          best to gratify him, and the face of the Indian beamed with
          gratitude as the blows fell on his naked back.<a id="noteref_643"
          name="noteref_643" href="#note_643"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">643</span></span></a> The
          Delaware Indians had two sovereign remedies for sin; one was an
          emetic, the other a thrashing. In the latter case, the remedy was
          administered by means of twelve different sticks, with which the
          sinner was belaboured from the soles of his feet up to his neck. In
          both cases the sins were supposed to be expelled from the body, and
          to pass out through the throat.<a id="noteref_644" name=
          "noteref_644" href="#note_644"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">644</span></span></a> At
          the inauguration of a king in ancient India it was customary for
          the priests to strike him lightly on the back with sticks.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“By beating him with sticks,”</span> it was
          said, <span class="tei tei-q">“they guide him safely over judicial
          punishment; whence the king is exempt from punishment, because they
          guide him safely over judicial punishment.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_645" name="noteref_645" href="#note_645"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">645</span></span></a> On
          the thirtieth of December the heathen of Harran used to receive
          three, five, or seven blows apiece from a priest with a tamarisk
          branch. After the beating had been duly administered <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the priest on behalf of the whole
          community prayed for long life, much offspring, power and glory
          over all peoples, and the restoration of their ancient
          kingdom.<a id="noteref_646" name="noteref_646" href=
          "#note_646"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">646</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Beating people with instruments
              which possess and impart special virtues.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes, in
          the opinion of those who resort to it, the effect of a beating is
          not merely the negative one of dispelling demoniac or other baneful
          influences; it confers positive benefits by virtue of certain
          useful properties supposed to inhere in the instrument with which
          the beating is administered.<a id="noteref_647" name="noteref_647"
          href="#note_647"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">647</span></span></a> Thus
          among the Kai of German New Guinea, when a man wishes to make his
          banana shoots bear fruit quickly, he beats them with a stick cut
          from a banana-tree which has already borne fruit.<a id=
          "noteref_648" name="noteref_648" href="#note_648"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">648</span></span></a> Here
          it is obvious that fruitfulness is believed to inhere in a stick
          cut from a fruitful tree and to be imparted by contact to the young
          banana plants. Similarly in New Caledonia a man will beat his taro
          plants lightly with a branch, saying as he does so, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“I beat this taro that it may grow,”</span> after which
          he plants the branch in the ground at the end of the field.<a id=
          "noteref_649" name="noteref_649" href="#note_649"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">649</span></span></a> Among
          the Indians of Brazil at the mouth of the Amazon, when a man wishes
          to increase the size of his generative organ, he strikes it with
          the fruit of a white aquatic plant called an <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">aninga</span></span>, which grows luxuriantly
          on the banks of the river. The fruit, which is inedible, resembles
          a banana, and is clearly chosen for this purpose on account of its
          shape. The ceremony should be performed three days before or after
          the new moon.<a id="noteref_650" name="noteref_650" href=
          "#note_650"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">650</span></span></a> In
          the county of Bekes, in Hungary, barren women are fertilized by
          being struck with a stick which has first been used to separate
          pairing dogs.<a id="noteref_651" name="noteref_651" href=
          "#note_651"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">651</span></span></a> Here
          a fertilizing virtue <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg
          265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          is clearly supposed to be inherent in the stick and to be conveyed
          by contact to the women. The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that
          the plant <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Dracaena
          terminalis</span></span> has a strong soul, because when it is
          lopped, it soon grows up again. Hence when a man is ill, his
          friends will sometimes beat him on the crown of the head with
          <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dracaena</span></span> leaves in order to
          strengthen his weak soul with the strong soul of the plant.<a id=
          "noteref_652" name="noteref_652" href="#note_652"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">652</span></span></a> At
          Mowat in British New Guinea small boys are beaten lightly with
          sticks during December <span class="tei tei-q">“to make them grow
          strong and hardy.”</span><a id="noteref_653" name="noteref_653"
          href="#note_653"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">653</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom in Morocco of beating
              people with the skins of sacrificed sheep or goats.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Arabs
          of Morocco the Great Feast, which is the annual sacrificial
          festival of Mohammedan peoples, is the occasion when men go about
          beating people with the kindly intention of healing or preventing
          sickness and benefiting the sufferers generally. In some tribes the
          operator is muffled in the bloody skins of sacrificed sheep, and he
          strikes everybody within reach of him with a flap of the skin or a
          foot of the sheep which dangles loose from his arm; sick people
          present themselves to him in order to receive the health-giving
          blows, and mothers bring their little children to him for the same
          purpose. Anybody whom he hits on the head will be free from
          headache. Nor does he confine his attention to people; he goes
          about striking the tents also, in order that they too may receive
          their share of the blessed influence (<span lang="ar" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ar"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>) that radiates like
          sunshine from a bloody sheepskin. From the costume which he wears
          the masker is known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lion with
          Sheepskins”</span>; and he himself participates in the blessings
          which he diffuses so liberally around him. Hence in at least one
          tribe he is generally a person who suffers from some illness,
          because he expects to be healed by the magic virtue or holiness of
          the bloody skins.<a id="noteref_654" name="noteref_654" href=
          "#note_654"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">654</span></span></a>
          Similarly, as we shall see presently, in ancient Mexico the men who
          masqueraded in the skins of the human victims were commonly persons
          who suffered <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg
          266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          from skin disease, because they thought that the bleeding skin of a
          man who had been killed in the character of a god must surely
          possess a sovereign virtue for the healing of disease.<a id=
          "noteref_655" name="noteref_655" href="#note_655"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">655</span></span></a> In
          Morocco the skin-clad mummer sometimes operates with sticks instead
          of a flap of the skin, and sometimes the skins in which he is
          muffled are those of goats instead of sheep, but in all cases the
          effect, or at least the intention, is probably the same.<a id=
          "noteref_656" name="noteref_656" href="#note_656"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">656</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">European custom of beating cattle
              with branches to make them healthy or drive away the witches
              from them. The rowan-tree as a protection against
              witchcraft.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of
          Eastern and Central Europe a similar custom is very commonly
          observed in spring. On the first of March the Albanians strike men
          and beast with cornel branches, believing that this is very good
          for their health.<a id="noteref_657" name="noteref_657" href=
          "#note_657"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">657</span></span></a> In
          March the Greek peasants of Cos switch their cattle, saying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“It is March, and up with your
          tail!”</span> They think that the ceremony benefits the animals,
          and brings good luck. It is never observed at any other time of the
          year.<a id="noteref_658" name="noteref_658" href=
          "#note_658"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">658</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Mecklenburg it is customary to beat the cattle before
          sunrise on the morning of Good Friday with rods of buckthorn, which
          are afterwards concealed in some secret place where neither sun nor
          moon can shine on them. The belief is that though the blows light
          upon the animals, the pain of them is felt by the witches who are
          riding the beasts.<a id="noteref_659" name="noteref_659" href=
          "#note_659"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">659</span></span></a> In
          the neighbourhood of Iserlohn, in Westphalia, the herdsman rises at
          peep of dawn on May morning, climbs a hill, and cuts down the young
          rowan-tree which is the first to catch the beams of the rising sun.
          With this he returns to the farm-yard. The heifer which the farmer
          desires to <span class="tei tei-q">“quicken”</span> is then led to
          the dunghill, and the herdsman strikes it over the hind-quarters,
          the haunches, and the udders with a branch of the rowan-tree,
          saying,</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quick, quick,
                quick!</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Bring milk into the dugs.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                The sap is in the birches.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                The heifer receives a name.</span></span>
              </div>
            </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg
            267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

            <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
            "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quick, quick,
                quick!</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Bring milk into the dugs.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                The sap comes in the beeches,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                The leaf comes on the oak.</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
            "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Quick, quick,
                quick!</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Bring milk into the dugs.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                In the name of the sainted Greta,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gold-flower shall be thy
                name,</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">and so on.<a id=
          "noteref_660" name="noteref_660" href="#note_660"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">660</span></span></a> The
          intention of the ceremony appears to be to make sure that the
          heifer shall in due time yield a plentiful supply of milk; and this
          is perhaps supposed to be brought about by driving away the
          witches, who are particularly apt, as we have seen,<a id=
          "noteref_661" name="noteref_661" href="#note_661"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">661</span></span></a> to
          rob the cows of their milk on the morning of May Day. Certainly in
          the north-east of Scotland pieces of rowan-tree and woodbine used
          to be placed over the doors of the byres on May Day to keep the
          witches from the cows; sometimes a single rod of rowan, covered
          with notches, was found to answer the purpose. An even more
          effectual guard against witchcraft was to tie a small cross of
          rowan-wood by a scarlet thread to each beast's tail; hence people
          said,</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rawn-tree in
                red-threed</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pits the witches t'
                their speed.</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_662" name=
                "noteref_662" href="#note_662"><span class="tei tei-noteref"
                style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">662</span></span></a>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Germany also
          the rowan-tree is a protection against witchcraft;<a id=
          "noteref_663" name="noteref_663" href="#note_663"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">663</span></span></a> and
          Norwegian sailors and fishermen carry a piece of it in their boats
          for good luck.<a id="noteref_664" name="noteref_664" href=
          "#note_664"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">664</span></span></a> Thus
          the benefit to young cows of beating them with rowan appears to be
          not so much the positive one of pouring milk into their udders, as
          merely the negative one of averting evil influence; and the same
          may perhaps be said of most of the beatings with which we are here
          concerned.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg
          268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">European custom of beating people
              with branches at Easter to do them good:</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Easter Smacks.</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On Good Friday
          and the two previous days people in Croatia and Slavonia take rods
          with them to church, and when the service is over they beat each
          other <span class="tei tei-q">“fresh and healthy.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_665" name="noteref_665" href="#note_665"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">665</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Russia people returning from the church on Palm
          Sunday beat the children and servants who have stayed at home with
          palm branches, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Sickness into the
          forest, health into the bones.”</span><a id="noteref_666" name=
          "noteref_666" href="#note_666"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">666</span></span></a> A
          similar custom is widely known under the name of <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Schmeckostern</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Easter Smacks”</span> in some parts of Germany and
          Austria. The regions in which the practice prevails are for the
          most part districts in which the people either are or once were
          predominantly of Slavonic blood, such as East and West Prussia,
          Voigtland, Silesia, Bohemia, and Moravia. While the German
          population call the custom <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Schmeckostern</span></span>, the Slavonic
          inhabitants give it, according to their particular language or
          dialect, a variety of names which signify to beat or scourge. It is
          usually observed on Easter Monday, less frequently on Easter
          Saturday or Easter Sunday. Troops of boys or lads go from house to
          house on the morning of Easter Monday beating every girl or woman
          whom they meet; they even make their way into the bedrooms, and if
          they find any girls or women still abed, they compel them with
          blows to get up. Even grown-up men indulge themselves in the
          pastime of going to the houses of friends and relations to inflict
          the <span class="tei tei-q">“Easter Smacks.”</span> In some places,
          for example in the Leobschütz district of Silesia, the boys and men
          further claim and exercise the right of drenching all the girls and
          women with water on Easter Monday; and for this purpose they
          generally go about armed with squirts, which are not always charged
          with eau de Cologne. Next day, Easter Tuesday, the women have the
          right to retaliate on the men; however, they do not as a rule go
          about the streets but confine their operations to their own houses,
          beating and chasing from their beds any lads or men they can find
          lying in them. Children are less discriminating in their
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Easter Smacks,”</span> which they bestow
          impartially on parents and relations, friends and strangers,
          without observing the subtle distinction of sex. In many places it
          is only <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg
          269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the women who are privileged to receive the smacks. The instrument
          with which the beating is administered is in some districts, such
          as Lithuania, Samland, and Neumark, a twig or branch of birch on
          which the fresh green leaves have just sprouted. If the birch-trees
          have not budded in time, it is customary to keep the rods in pickle
          for days or even weeks, nursing them tenderly in warm water; and if
          that measure also fails, they are heated in the stove-pipe. But
          more commonly the instrument of torture is a branch of willow with
          catkins on it, which has also been nursed in warm water or the
          chimney so as to be ripe for execution on Easter Monday. A number
          of these birch or willow twigs are usually tied together into a
          switch, and ornamented with motley ribbons and pieces of silk
          paper, so that they present the appearance of a nosegay; indeed, in
          northern Bohemia spring flowers form part of the decoration. In
          some places, particularly in Silesia and Moravia, pieces of
          licorice root are substituted for willow twigs; or again in the
          vine-growing districts of Bohemia vine-branches are used for the
          same purpose. Sometimes a scourge made of leather straps of various
          colours takes the place of a green bough. The blows are commonly
          inflicted on the hands and feet; and in some places, particularly
          in Bohemia, the victims are expected to reward their tormentors
          with a present of red Easter eggs; nay sometimes a woman is bound
          to give an egg for every blow she receives. In the afternoon the
          lads carry their eggs to high ground and let them roll down the
          slope; he whose egg reaches the bottom first, wins all the rest.
          The beating is supposed to bring good luck to the beaten, or to
          warrant them against flies and vermin during the summer, or to save
          them from pains in their back throughout the whole year. At
          Gilgenburg in Masuren the rods or bundles of twigs are afterwards
          laid by and used to drive the cattle out to pasture for the first
          time after their winter confinement.<a id="noteref_667" name=
          "noteref_667" href="#note_667"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">667</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">European custom of beating people
              with branches in the Christmas holidays (Holy Innocents' Day,
              etc.) to do them good.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of
          Germany and Austria a custom like that of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Easter Smacks”</span> is observed at the Christmas
          holidays, especially on Holy Innocents' Day, the twenty-eighth of
          December. Young men and women beat each other mutually, but on
          different days, with branches of fresh green, whether birch,
          willow, or fir. Thus, for example, among the Germans of western
          Bohemia it is customary on St. Barbara's Day (the fourth of
          December) to cut twigs or branches of birch and to steep them in
          water in order that they may put out leaves or buds. They are
          afterwards used by each sex to beat the other on subsequent days of
          the Christmas holidays. In some villages branches of willow or
          cherry-trees or rosemary are employed for the same purpose. With
          these green boughs, sometimes tied in bundles with red or green
          ribbons, the young men go about beating the young women on the
          morning of St. Stephen's Day (the twenty-sixth of December) and
          also on Holy Innocents' Day (the twenty-eighth of December). The
          beating is inflicted on the hands, feet, and face; and in
          Neugramatin it is said that she who is not thus beaten with fresh
          green will not herself be fresh and green. As the blows descend,
          the young men recite verses importing that the beating is
          administered as a compliment and in order to benefit the health of
          the victim. For the service <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> which they thus render the damsels they are
          rewarded by them with cakes, brandy, or money. Early in the morning
          of New Year's Day the lasses pay off the lads in the same
          kind.<a id="noteref_668" name="noteref_668" href=
          "#note_668"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">668</span></span></a> A
          similar custom is also observed in central and south-west Germany,
          especially in Voigtland. Thus in Voigtland and the whole of the
          Saxon Erz-gebirge the lads beat the lasses and women on the second
          day of the Christmas holidays with something green, such as
          rosemary or juniper; and if possible the beating is inflicted on
          the women as they lie in bed. As they beat them, the lads say</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fresh and green! Pretty
                and fine!</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gingerbread and
                brandy-wine!</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last words
          refer to the present of gingerbread and brandy which the lads
          expect to receive from the lasses for the trouble of thrashing
          them. Next day the lasses and women retaliate on the lads and
          men.<a id="noteref_669" name="noteref_669" href=
          "#note_669"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">669</span></span></a> In
          Thüringen on Holy Innocents' Day (the twenty-eighth of December)
          children armed with rods and green boughs go about the streets
          beating passers-by and demanding a present in return; they even
          make their way into the houses and beat the maid-servants. In
          Orlagau the custom is called <span class="tei tei-q">“whipping with
          fresh green.”</span> On the second day of the Christmas holidays
          the girls go to their parents, godparents, relations, and friends,
          and beat them with fresh green branches of fir; next day the boys
          and lads do the same. The words spoken while the beating is being
          administered are <span class="tei tei-q">“Good morning! fresh
          green! Long life! You must give us a bright thaler,”</span> and so
          on.<a id="noteref_670" name="noteref_670" href=
          "#note_670"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">670</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The intention of beating people
              with fresh green leaves is to renew their life and
              vigour.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these
          European customs the intention of beating persons, especially of
          the other sex, with fresh green leaves appears unquestionably to be
          the beneficent one of renewing <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> their life and vigour, whether the purpose is
          supposed to be accomplished directly and positively by imparting
          the vital energy of the fresh green to the persons, or negatively
          and indirectly by dispelling any injurious influences, such as the
          machinations of witches and demons, by which the persons may be
          supposed to be beset. The application of the blows by the one sex
          to the other, especially by young men to young women, suggests that
          the beating is or was originally intended above all to stimulate
          the reproductive powers of the men or women who received it; and
          the pains taken to ensure that the branches with which the strokes
          are given should have budded or blossomed out just before their
          services are wanted speak strongly in favour of the view that in
          these customs we have a deliberate attempt to transfuse a store of
          vital energy from the vegetable to the animal world.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Hence the custom of beating the
              human victims at the Thargelia with fig-branches and squills
              was probably a charm to increase their reproductive
              energies.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These analogies,
          accordingly, support the interpretation which, following my
          predecessors W. Mannhardt and Mr. W. R. Paton, I have given of the
          beating inflicted on the human victims at the Greek harvest
          festival of the Thargelia. That beating, being administered to the
          generative organs of the victims by fresh green plants and
          branches, is most naturally explained as a charm to increase the
          reproductive energies of the men or women either by communicating
          to them the fruitfulness of the plants and branches, or by ridding
          them of maleficent influences; and this interpretation is confirmed
          by the observation that the two victims represented the two sexes,
          one of them standing for the men in general and the other for the
          women. The season of the year when the ceremony was performed,
          namely the time of the corn harvest, tallies well with the theory
          that the rite had an agricultural significance. Further, that it
          was above all intended to fertilize the fig-trees is strongly
          suggested by the strings of black and white figs which were hung
          round the necks of the victims, as well as by the blows which were
          given their genital organs with the branches of a wild fig-tree;
          since this procedure closely resembles the procedure which ancient
          and modern husbandmen in Greek lands have regularly resorted to for
          the purpose of actually fertilizing their fig-trees. When we
          remember what an important part the artificial fertilization of the
          date palm-tree appears <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg
          273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          to have played of old not only in the husbandry but in the religion
          of Mesopotamia,<a id="noteref_671" name="noteref_671" href=
          "#note_671"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">671</span></span></a> there
          seems no reason to doubt that the artificial fertilization of the
          fig-tree may in like manner have vindicated for itself a place in
          the solemn ritual of Greek religion.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Hence the human victims at the
              Thargelia may have primarily represented spirits of
              vegetation.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If these
          considerations are just, we must apparently conclude that while the
          human victims at the Thargelia certainly appear in later classical
          times to have figured chiefly as public scapegoats, who carried
          away with them the sins, misfortunes, and sorrows of the whole
          people, at an earlier time they may have been looked on as
          embodiments of vegetation, perhaps of the corn but particularly of
          the fig-trees; and that the beating which they received and the
          death which they died were intended primarily to brace and refresh
          the powers of vegetation then beginning to droop and languish under
          the torrid heat of the Greek summer.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Parallel between the human
              sacrifices at the Thargelia and the bloody ritual of the
              Arician Grove.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The view here
          taken of the Greek scapegoat, if it is correct, obviates an
          objection which might otherwise be brought against the main
          argument of this book. To the theory that the priest of Aricia was
          slain as a representative of the spirit of the grove,<a id=
          "noteref_672" name="noteref_672" href="#note_672"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">672</span></span></a> it
          might have been objected that such a custom has no analogy in
          classical antiquity. But reasons have now been given for believing
          that the human being periodically and occasionally slain by the
          Asiatic Greeks was regularly treated as an embodiment of a divinity
          of vegetation. Probably the persons whom the Athenians kept to be
          sacrificed were similarly treated as divine. That they were social
          outcasts did not matter. On the primitive view a man is not chosen
          to be the mouth-piece or embodiment of a god on account of his high
          moral qualities or social rank. The divine afflatus descends
          equally on the good and the bad, the lofty and the lowly. If then
          the civilized Greeks <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg
          274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          of Asia and Athens habitually sacrificed men whom they regarded as
          incarnate gods, there can be no inherent improbability in the
          supposition that at the dawn of history a similar custom was
          observed by the semi-barbarous Latins in the Arician Grove.</p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name=
      "Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VII. Killing the God in
        Mexico.</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The custom of sacrificing human
            representatives of the gods among the Aztecs of Mexico.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By no people does
        the custom of sacrificing the human representative of a god appear to
        have been observed so commonly and with so much solemnity as by the
        Aztecs of ancient Mexico. With the ritual of these remarkable
        sacrifices we are well acquainted, for it has been fully described by
        the Spaniards who conquered Mexico in the sixteenth century, and
        whose curiosity was naturally excited by the discovery in this
        distant region of a barbarous and cruel religion which presented many
        curious points of analogy to the doctrine and ritual of their own
        church. <span class="tei tei-q">“They took a captive,”</span> says
        the Jesuit Acosta, <span class="tei tei-q">“such as they thought
        good; and afore they did sacrifice him unto their idols, they gave
        him the name of the idol, to whom he should be sacrificed, and
        apparelled him with the same ornaments like their idol, saying, that
        he did represent the same idol. And during the time that this
        representation lasted, which was for a year in some feasts, in others
        six months, and in others less, they reverenced and worshipped him in
        the same manner as the proper idol; and in the meantime he did eat,
        drink, and was merry. When he went through the streets, the people
        came forth to worship him, and every one brought him an alms, with
        children and sick folks, that he might cure them, and bless them,
        suffering him to do all things at his pleasure, only he was
        accompanied with ten or twelve men lest he should fly. And he (to the
        end he might be reverenced as he passed) sometimes sounded upon a
        small flute, that the people might prepare to worship him. The feast
        being come, and he grown fat, they killed <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> him, opened him, and ate him, making a solemn
        sacrifice of him.”</span><a id="noteref_673" name="noteref_673" href=
        "#note_673"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">673</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a man in the character
            of the great god Tezcatlipoca at the festival of Toxcatl in the
            fifth Aztec month.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This general
        description of the custom may now be illustrated by particular
        examples. Thus at the festival called Toxcatl, the greatest festival
        of the Mexican year, a young man was annually sacrificed in the
        character of Tezcatlipoca, <span class="tei tei-q">“the god of
        gods,”</span> after having been maintained and worshipped as that
        great deity in person for a whole year. According to the old
        Franciscan monk Sahagun, our best authority on the Aztec religion,
        the sacrifice of the human god fell at Easter or a few days later, so
        that, if he is right, it would correspond in date as well as in
        character to the Christian festival of the death and resurrection of
        the Redeemer.<a id="noteref_674" name="noteref_674" href=
        "#note_674"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">674</span></span></a> More
        exactly he tells us that the sacrifice took place on the first day of
        the fifth Aztec month, which according to him began on the
        twenty-third or twenty-seventh day of April.<a id="noteref_675" name=
        "noteref_675" href="#note_675"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">675</span></span></a>
        However, according to other Spanish authorities of the sixteenth
        century the festival lasted from the ninth to the nineteenth day of
        May, and the sacrifice of the human victim in the character of the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277"
        id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> god was performed on the last
        of these days.<a id="noteref_676" name="noteref_676" href=
        "#note_676"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">676</span></span></a> An
        eminent modern authority, Professor E. Seler, is of opinion that the
        festival originally celebrated the beginning of the year, and that it
        fell on the day when the sun on his passage northward to the tropic
        of Cancer stood in the zenith over the city of Mexico, which in the
        early part of the sixteenth century would be the ninth or tenth day
        of May (old style) or the nineteenth or twentieth day of May (new
        style).<a id="noteref_677" name="noteref_677" href=
        "#note_677"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">677</span></span></a>
        Whatever the exact date of the celebration may have been, we are told
        that the <span class="tei tei-q">“feast was not made to any other
        end, but to demand rain, in the same manner that we solemnize the
        Rogations; and this feast was always in May, which is the time that
        they have most need of rain in those countries.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_678" name="noteref_678" href="#note_678"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">678</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The training and equipment of the
            human god. The manner of the sacrifice.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this festival
        the great god died in the person of one human representative and came
        to life again in the person of another, who was destined to enjoy the
        fatal honour of divinity for a year and to perish, like all his
        predecessors, at the end of it. The young man singled out for this
        high dignity was carefully chosen from among the captives on the
        ground of his personal beauty. He had to be of unblemished body, slim
        as a reed and straight as a pillar, neither too tall nor too short.
        If through high living he grew too fat, he was obliged to reduce
        himself by drinking salt water. And in order that he might behave in
        his lofty station with becoming grace and dignity he was carefully
        trained to comport himself like a gentleman of the first quality, to
        speak correctly and elegantly, to play the flute, to smoke
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278"
        id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cigars and to snuff at flowers
        with a dandified air. He was honourably lodged in the temple where
        the nobles waited on him and paid him homage, bringing him meat and
        serving like a prince. The king himself saw to it that he was
        apparelled in gorgeous attire, <span class="tei tei-q">“for already
        he esteemed him as a god.”</span> Eagle down was gummed to his head
        and white cock's feathers were stuck in his hair, which drooped to
        his girdle. A wreath of flowers like roasted maize crowned his brows,
        and a garland of the same flowers passed over his shoulders and under
        his arm-pits. Golden ornaments hung from his nose, golden armlets
        adorned his arms, golden bells jingled on his legs at every step he
        took; earrings of turquoise dangled from his ears, bracelets of
        turquoise bedecked his wrists; necklaces of shells encircled his neck
        and depended on his breast; he wore a mantle of network, and round
        his middle a rich waist-cloth. When this bejewelled exquisite lounged
        through the streets playing on his flute, puffing at a cigar, and
        smelling at a nosegay, the people whom he met threw themselves on the
        earth before him and prayed to him with sighs and tears, taking up
        the dust in their hands and putting it in their mouths in token of
        the deepest humiliation and subjection. Women came forth with
        children in their arms and presented them to him, saluting him as a
        god. For <span class="tei tei-q">“he passed for our Lord God; the
        people acknowledged him as the Lord.”</span> All who thus worshipped
        him on his passage he saluted gravely and courteously. Lest he should
        flee, he was everywhere attended by a guard of eight pages in the
        royal livery, four of them with shaven crowns like the palace-slaves,
        and four of them with the flowing locks of warriors; and if he
        contrived to escape, the captain of the guard had to take his place
        as the representative of the god and to die in his stead. Twenty days
        before he was to die, his costume was changed, and four damsels,
        delicately nurtured and bearing the names of four goddesses—the
        Goddess of Flowers, the Goddess of the Young Maize, the Goddess
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Our Mother among the Water,”</span> and the
        Goddess of Salt—were given him to be his brides, and with them he
        consorted. During the last five days divine honours were showered on
        the destined victim. The king <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> remained in his palace while the whole court
        went after the human god. Solemn banquets and dances followed each
        other in regular succession and at appointed places. On the last day
        the young man, attended by his wives and pages, embarked in a canoe
        covered with a royal canopy and was ferried across the lake to a spot
        where a little hill rose from the edge of the water. It was called
        the Mountain of Parting, because here his wives bade him a last
        farewell. Then, accompanied only by his pages, he repaired to a small
        and lonely temple by the wayside. Like the Mexican temples in
        general, it was built in the form of a pyramid; and as the young man
        ascended the stairs he broke at every step one of the flutes on which
        he had played in the days of his glory. On reaching the summit he was
        seized and held down by the priests on his back upon a block of
        stone, while one of them cut open his breast, thrust his hand into
        the wound, and wrenching out his heart held it up in sacrifice to the
        sun. The body of the dead god was not, like the bodies of common
        victims, sent rolling down the steps of the temple, but was carried
        down to the foot, where the head was cut off and spitted on a pike.
        Such was the regular end of the man who personated the greatest god
        of the Mexican pantheon.<a id="noteref_679" name="noteref_679" href=
        "#note_679"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">679</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a man in the character
            of the great Mexican god Vitzilopochtli (Huitzilopochtli) in the
            month of May.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But he was not the
        only man who played the part of a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> god and was sacrificed as such in the month of
        May. The great god Vitzilopochtli or Huitzilopochtli was also
        worshipped at the same season. An image of him was made out of dough
        in human shape, arrayed in all the ornaments of the deity, and set up
        in his temple. But the god had also his living representative in the
        person of a young man, who, like the human representative of
        Tezcatlipoca, personated the divinity for a whole year and was
        sacrificed at the end. In the month of May it was the duty of the
        divine man, destined so soon to die, to lead the dances which formed
        a conspicuous feature of the festivities. Courtiers and warriors, old
        and young, danced in winding figures, holding each other by the hand;
        and with them danced young women, who had taken a vow to dance with
        roasted maize. On their heads these damsels wore crowns of roasted
        maize; festoons of maize hung from their shoulders and crossed on
        their breasts; their faces were painted, and their arms and legs were
        covered with red feathers. Dancing in this attire the damsels were
        said to hold the god Vitzilopochtli in their arms; but they conducted
        themselves with the utmost gravity and decorum. If any man so far
        forgot himself as to toy with one of the maidens, the elder warriors
        dealt with him promptly and severely, reproaching him for the
        sacrilege of which he had been guilty. Sahagun compares these May
        dances to the dances of peasant men and women in old Castile, and the
        crowns of maize worn by the girls he compares to the garlands of
        flowers worn by rustic Castilian maidens in the month of May. So they
        danced till nightfall. Next morning they danced again, and in the
        course of the day the man who represented the god Vitzilopochtli was
        put to death. He had the privilege of choosing the hour when he was
        to die. When the fatal moment drew near, they clothed him in a
        curious dress of paper painted all over with black circles; on his
        head they clapped a paper mitre decked with eagle feathers and
        nodding plumes, among which was fastened a blood-stained obsidian
        knife. Thus attired, with golden bells jingling at his ankles, he led
        the dance at all the balls of the festival, and thus attired he went
        to his death. The priests seized him, stretched him out, gripped him
        tight, cut out his heart, and held it up to the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sun. His head was severed from the trunk
        and spiked beside the head of the other human god, who had been
        sacrificed not long before.<a id="noteref_680" name="noteref_680"
        href="#note_680"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">680</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a man in the character
            of the great Mexican god Quetzalcoatl in the month of
            February.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Cholula, a
        wealthy trading city of Mexico, the merchants worshipped a god named
        Quetzalcoatl. His image, set upon a richly decorated altar or
        pedestal in a spacious temple, had the body of a man but the head of
        a bird, with a red beak surmounted by a crest, the face dyed yellow,
        with a black band running from the eyes to below the beak, and the
        tongue lolling out. On its head was a paper mitre painted black,
        white, and red; on its neck a large golden jewel in the shape of
        butterfly wings; about its body a feather mantle, black, red, and
        white; golden socks and golden sandals encased its legs and feet. In
        the right hand the image wielded a wooden instrument like a sickle,
        and in the left a buckler covered with the black and white plumage of
        sea-birds.<a id="noteref_681" name="noteref_681" href=
        "#note_681"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">681</span></span></a> The
        festival of this god was celebrated on the third day of February.
        Forty days before the festival <span class="tei tei-q">“the merchants
        bought a slave well proportioned, without any fault or blemish,
        either of sickness or of hurt, whom they did attire with the
        ornaments of the idol, that he might represent it forty days. Before
        his clothing they did cleanse him, washing him twice in a lake, which
        they called the lake of the gods; and being purified, they attired
        him like the idol. During these forty days, he was much respected for
        his sake whom he represented. By <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> night they did imprison him (as hath been said)
        lest he should fly, and in the morning they took him out of prison,
        setting him upon an eminent place, where they served him, giving him
        exquisite meats to eat. After he had eaten, they put a chain of
        flowers about his neck, and many nosegays in his hands. He had a
        well-appointed guard, with much people to accompany him. When he went
        through the city, he went dancing and singing through all the
        streets, that he might be known for the resemblance of their god, and
        when he began to sing, the women and little children came forth of
        their houses to salute him, and to offer unto him as to their god.
        Two old men of the ancients of the temple came unto him nine days
        before the feast, and humbling themselves before him, they said with
        a low and submissive voice, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Sir, you must
        understand that nine days hence the exercise of dancing and singing
        doth end, and thou must then die’</span>; and then he must answer,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘In a good hour.’</span> They call this
        ceremony <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Neyòlo Maxilt Ileztli</span></span>, which is to
        say, the advertisement; and when they did thus advertise him, they
        took very careful heed whether he were sad, or if he danced as
        joyfully as he was accustomed, the which if he did not as cheerfully
        as they desired, they made a foolish superstition in this manner.
        They presently took the sacrifizing razors, the which they washed and
        cleansed from the blood of men which remained of the former
        sacrifices. Of this washing they made a drink mingled with another
        liquor made of cacao, giving it him to drink; they said that this
        would make him forget what had been said unto him, and would make him
        in a manner insensible, returning to his former dancing and mirth.
        They said, moreover, that he would offer himself cheerfully to death,
        being enchanted with this drink. The cause why they sought to take
        from him this heaviness, was, for that they held it for an ill
        augury, and a fore-telling of some great harm. The day of the feast
        being come, after they had done him much honour, sung, and given him
        incense, the sacrificers took him about midnight and did sacrifice
        him, as hath been said, offering his heart unto the Moon, the which
        they did afterwards cast against the idol, letting the body fall to
        the bottom of the stairs of the temple, where such as had offered him
        took him <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg
        283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> up,
        which were the merchants, whose feast it was. Then having carried him
        into the chiefest man's house amongst them, the body was drest with
        diverse sauces, to celebrate (at the break of day) the banquet and
        dinner of the feast, having first bid the idol good morrow, with a
        small dance, which they made whilst the day did break, and that they
        prepared the sacrifice. Then did all the merchants assemble at this
        banquet, especially those which made it a trafick to buy and sell
        slaves, who were bound every year to offer one, for the resemblance
        of their god. This idol was one of the most honoured in all the land;
        and therefore the temple where he was, was of great
        authority.”</span><a id="noteref_682" name="noteref_682" href=
        "#note_682"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">682</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a woman in the
            character of the Mexican Goddess of Salt in the month of
            June.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The honour of
        living for a short time in the character of a god and dying a violent
        death in the same capacity was not restricted to men in Mexico; women
        were allowed, or rather compelled, to enjoy the glory and to share
        the doom as representatives of goddesses. Thus in the seventh month
        of their year, which corresponded roughly to June, the Aztecs
        celebrated a festival in honour of Huixtocihuatl, the Goddess of
        Salt. She was said to be a sister of the Rain Gods, but having
        quarrelled with them she was banished and driven to take up her abode
        in the salt water. Being of an ingenious turn of mind, she invented
        the process of extracting salt by means of pans; hence she was
        worshipped by all salt-makers as their patron goddess. Her garments
        were yellow; on her head she wore a mitre surmounted by bunches of
        waving green plumes, which shone with greenish iridescent hues in the
        sun. Her robe and petticoats were embroidered with patterns
        simulating the waves of the sea. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Golden ear-rings in the form of flowers dangled
        at her ears; golden bells jingled at her ankles. In one hand she
        carried a round shield painted with the leaves of a certain plant and
        adorned with drooping fringes of parrots' feathers; in the other hand
        she carried a stout baton ending in a knob and bedecked with paper,
        artificial flowers, and feathers. For ten days before her festival a
        woman personated the goddess and wore her gorgeous costume. It was
        her duty during these days to lead the dances which at this season
        were danced by the women and girls of the salt-makers. They danced,
        young, old, and children, in a ring, all holding a cord, their heads
        crowned with garlands of a fragrant flower (<span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Artemisia laciniata</span></span>) and singing
        airs in a shrill soprano. In the middle of the ring danced the woman
        who represented the goddess, with her golden bells jingling at every
        step, brandishing her shield, and marking the time of the dance and
        song with her baton. On the last day, the eve of the festival, she
        had to dance all night without resting till break of day, when she
        was to die. Old women supported her in the weary task, and they all
        danced together, arm in arm. With her, too, danced the slaves who
        were to die with her in the morning. When the hour was come, they led
        her, still personating the goddess, up the steps of the temple of
        Tlaloc, followed by the doomed captives. Arrived at the summit of the
        pyramid, the butchery began with the captives, while the woman stood
        looking on. Her turn being come, they threw her on her back on the
        block, and while five men held her down and two others compressed her
        throat with a billet of wood or the sword of a sword-fish to prevent
        her from screaming, the priest cut open her breast with his knife,
        and thrusting his hand into the wound tore out her heart and flung it
        into a bowl. When all was over, the salt-makers who had witnessed the
        sacrifice went home to drink and make merry.<a id="noteref_683" name=
        "noteref_683" href="#note_683"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">683</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a woman in the
            character of the Mexican Goddess of the Young Maize about
            Mid-summer.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, in the
        eighth month of the Mexican year, which answered to the latter end of
        June and the early part of July, the Aztecs sacrificed a woman who
        personated Xilonen, the goddess of the young maize-cobs (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">xilotl</span></span>). The festival at which the
        sacrifice took place was held on the tenth day of the month about the
        time when the maize is nearly ripe, and when fibres shooting forth
        from the green ear shew that the grain is fully formed. For eight
        days before the festival men and women, clad in rich garments and
        decked with jewels, danced and sang together in the courts of the
        temples, which were brilliantly illuminated for the purpose. Rows of
        tall braziers sent up a flickering blaze, and torchbearers held aloft
        huge torches of pinewood. Some of the dancers themselves carried
        heavy torches, which flared and spluttered as they danced. The dances
        began at sundown and lasted till about nine o'clock. None but tried
        and distinguished warriors might take part in them. The women wore
        their long hair hanging loose on their back and shoulders, in order
        that the tassels of the maize might likewise grow long and loose, for
        the more tassels the more grain in the ear. Men and women danced
        holding each other by the hand or with their arms round each other's
        waists, marking time exactly with their feet to the music of the
        drums and moving out and in among the flaming braziers and torches.
        The dances were strictly decorous. If any man was detected making
        love to one of the women dancers, he was publicly disgraced, severely
        punished, and never allowed to dance and sing in public again. On the
        eve of the festival the woman who was to die in the character of the
        Goddess of the Young Maize was arrayed in the rich robes and splendid
        jewels of the divinity whom she personated. The upper part of her
        face was painted red and the lower part yellow, probably to
        assimilate her to the ruddy and orange hues of the ripe maize. Her
        legs and arms were covered with red feathers. She wore a paper crown
        decked with a bunch of feathers; necklaces of gems and gold encircled
        her neck; her garments were embroidered with quaint figures; her
        shoes were striped with red. In her left hand she held a round
        shield, in her right a crimson baton. Thus arrayed, she was led by
        other women to offer incense in four different places. All
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286"
        id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the rest of the night she and
        they danced and sang in front of the temple of the goddess Xilonen,
        whose living image she was supposed to be. In the morning the nobles
        danced a solemn dance by themselves, leaning, or making believe to
        lean, on stalks of maize. The women, pranked with garlands and
        festoons of yellow flowers, danced also by themselves along with the
        victim. Among the priests the one who was to act as executioner wore
        a fine bunch of feathers on his back. Another shook a rattle before
        the doomed woman as she mounted up the steps of the temple of
        Cinteotl, the Goddess of the Maize. On reaching the summit she was
        seized by a priest, who threw her on his back, while the sacrificer
        severed her head from her body, tore out her heart, and threw it in a
        saucer. When this sacrifice had been performed in honour of Xilonen,
        the Goddess of the Young Maize, the people were free to eat the green
        ears of maize and the bread that was baked of it. No one would have
        dared to eat of these things before the sacrifice.<a id="noteref_684"
        name="noteref_684" href="#note_684"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">684</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a woman in the
            character of the Mexican goddess</span> <span class=
            "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">Our Mother</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">on
            Christmas Day.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, in the
        seventeenth month of the Mexican year,<a id="noteref_685" name=
        "noteref_685" href="#note_685"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">685</span></span></a> which
        corresponded to the latter part of December and the early part of
        January, the Aztecs sacrificed a woman, who personated the goddess
        Ilamatecutli or Tonan, which means <span class="tei tei-q">“Our
        Mother.”</span> Her festival fell on Christmas Day, the twenty-fifth
        of December. The image of the goddess wore a two-faced mask with
        large mouths and protruding eyes. The woman who represented her was
        dressed in white robes and shod with white sandals. Over her white
        mantle she wore a leathern jerkin, the lower edge of which was cut
        into a fringe of straps, and to the end of each strap was fastened a
        small shell. As she walked, the shells clashed together and made a
        noise which was heard afar off. The upper half of her face was
        painted yellow and the lower half black; and she wore a wig. In her
        hand she carried a round whitewashed shield decorated in the middle
        with a circle of eagle feathers, while white heron plumes, ending in
        eagle feathers, drooped from it. Thus arrayed and personating the
        goddess, the woman danced alone to music played by old men, and as
        she danced she sighed and wept at the thought of the death that was
        so near. At noon or a little later the dance ceased; and when the sun
        was declining in the west, they led her up the long ascent to the
        summit of Huitzilopochtli's temple. Behind her marched the priests
        clad in the trappings of all the gods, with masks on their faces. One
        of them wore the costume and the mask of the goddess Ilamatecutli,
        whom the victim also represented. On reaching the lofty platform
        which crowned the pyramidal temple, they slew her in the usual
        fashion, wrenched out her heart, and cut off her head. The dripping
        head was given <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg
        288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
        the priest who wore the costume and mask of the goddess and waving it
        up and down he danced round the platform, followed by all the other
        priests in the attire and masks of the gods. When the dance had
        lasted a certain time, the leader gave the signal, and they all
        trooped down the long flight of stairs to disrobe themselves and
        deposit the masks and costumes in the chapels where they were usually
        kept. Next day the people indulged in a certain pastime. Men and boys
        furnished themselves with little bags or nets stuffed with paper,
        flowers of galingale, or green leaves of maize, which they tied to
        strings, and used them as instruments to strike any girl or woman
        they might meet in the streets. Sometimes three or four urchins would
        gather round one girl, beating her till she cried; but some shrewd
        wenches went about that day armed with sticks, with which they
        retaliated smartly on their assailants. It was a penal offence to put
        stones or anything else that could hurt in the bags.<a id=
        "noteref_686" name="noteref_686" href="#note_686"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">686</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacrifice of a woman in the
            character of the Mexican goddess the Mother of the Gods at the
            end of August or beginning of September.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the preceding
        custom, what are we to make of the sacrifice of a woman, who
        personated the goddess, by a man who also wore the costume and mask
        of the goddess, and who immediately after the sacrifice danced with
        the bleeding head of the victim? Perhaps the intention of the strange
        rite was to represent the resurrection of the slain goddess in the
        person of the priest who wore her costume and mask and dangled the
        severed head of her slaughtered representative. If that was so, it
        would explain another and still ghastlier rite, in which the Mexicans
        seem to have set forth the doctrine of the divine resurrection. This
        was to skin the slain woman who had personated the goddess and then
        to clothe in the bloody skin a man, who pranced about in it, as if he
        were the dead woman or rather goddess come to life again. Thus in the
        eleventh Mexican month, which corresponded to the latter part of
        August and the early part of September, they celebrated a festival in
        honour of a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg
        289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        goddess called the Mother of the Gods (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Teteo
        innan</span></span>) or Our Ancestress (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Toci</span></span>), or the Heart of the Earth,
        and they sacrificed a woman clad in the costume and ornaments of the
        goddess. She was a slave bought for the purpose by the guilds of
        physicians, surgeons, blood-letters, midwives and fortune-tellers,
        who particularly worshipped this deity. When the poor wretch came
        forth decked in all the trappings of the goddess, the people, we are
        told, looked on her as equivalent to the Mother of the Gods herself
        and paid her as much honour and reverence as if she had indeed been
        that great divinity. For eight days they danced silently in four
        rows, if dance it could be called in which the dancers scarcely
        stirred their legs and bodies, but contented themselves with moving
        their hands, in which they held branches of blossoms, up and down in
        time to the tuck of drum. These dances began in the afternoon and
        lasted till the sun went down. No one might speak during their
        performance; only some lively youths mimicked by a booming murmur of
        the lips the rub-a-dub of the drums. When the dances were over, the
        medical women, young and old, divided themselves into two parties and
        engaged in a sham fight before the woman who acted the part of the
        Mother of the Gods. This they did to divert her and keep her from
        being sad and shedding tears; for if she wept, they deemed it an omen
        that many men would die in battle and many women in childbed. The
        fight between the women consisted in throwing balls of moss, leaves,
        or flowers at each other; and she who personated the goddess led one
        of the parties to the attack. These mock battles lasted four
        days.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The farewell to the market. The skin
            of the sacrificed woman flayed and worn by a man who personated
            the goddess.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After that they
        led the woman who was to die to the market-place, that she might bid
        it farewell; and by way of doing so she scattered the flour of maize
        wherever she went. The priests then attended her to a building near
        the temple in which she was to be sacrificed. The knowledge of her
        doom was kept from her as far as possible. The medical women and the
        midwives comforted her, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Be not cast
        down, sweetheart; this night thou shalt sleep with the king;
        therefore rejoice.”</span> Then they put on her the ornaments of the
        goddess, and at midnight led her to the temple where she was to die.
        On the passage not a word was <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> spoken, not a cough was heard; crowds were
        gathered to see her pass, but all kept a profound silence. Arrived at
        the summit of the temple she was hoisted on to the back of one
        priest, while another adroitly cut off her head. The body, still
        warm, was skinned, and a tall robust young man clothed himself in the
        bleeding skin and so became in turn a living image of the goddess.
        One of the woman's thighs was flayed separately, and the skin carried
        to another temple, where a young man put it over his face as a mask
        and so personated the maize-goddess Cinteotl, daughter of the Mother
        of the Gods. Meantime the other, clad in the rest of the woman's
        skin, hurried down the steps of the temple. The nobles and warriors
        fled before him, carrying blood-stained besoms of couchgrass, but
        turned to look back at him from time to time and smote upon their
        shields as if to bid him come on. He followed hard after them and all
        who saw that flight and pursuit quaked with fear. On arriving at the
        foot of the temple of Huitzilopochtli, the man who wore the skin of
        the dead woman and personated the Mother of the Gods, lifted up his
        arms and stood like a cross before the image of the god; this action
        he repeated four times. Then he joined the man who personated the
        maize-goddess Cinteotl, and together they went slowly to the temple
        of the Mother of the Gods, where the woman had been sacrificed. All
        this time it was night. Next morning at break of day the man who
        personated the Mother of the Gods took up his post on the highest
        point of the temple; there they decked him in all the gorgeous
        trappings of the goddess and set a splendid crown on his head. Then
        the captives were set in a row before him, and arrayed in all his
        finery he slaughtered four of them with his own hand: the rest he
        left to be butchered by the priests. A variety of ceremonies and
        dances followed. Amongst others, the blood of the human victims was
        collected in a bowl and set before the man who personated the Mother
        of the Gods. He dipped his finger into the blood and then sucked his
        bloody finger; and when he had sucked it he bowed his head and
        uttered a dolorous groan, whereat the Indians believed the earth
        itself shook and trembled, as did all who heard it. Finally the skin
        of the slain woman and the skin of her thigh were <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> carried away and deposited separately at
        two towers, one of which stood on the border of the enemy's
        country.<a id="noteref_687" name="noteref_687" href=
        "#note_687"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">687</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Young girl chosen to personate the
            Mexican Goddess of the Maize, Chicomecohuatl.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This remarkable
        festival in honour of the Mother of the Gods is said to have been
        immediately preceded by a similar festival in honour of the Maize
        Goddess Chicomecohuatl.<a id="noteref_688" name="noteref_688" href=
        "#note_688"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">688</span></span></a> The
        image of this goddess was of wood and represented her as a girl of
        about twelve years of age wearing feminine ornaments painted in gay
        colours. On her head was a pasteboard mitre; her long hair fell on
        her shoulders; in her ears she had golden earrings; round her neck
        she wore a necklace of golden maize-cobs strung on a blue ribbon, and
        in her hands she held the likeness of maize-cobs made of feathers and
        garnished with gold. Her festival, which was observed throughout the
        whole country with great devotion on the fifteenth day of September,
        was preceded by a strict fast of seven days, during which old and
        young, sick and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg
        292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        whole, ate nothing but broken victuals and dry bread and drank
        nothing but water, and did penance by drawing blood from their ears.
        The blood so drawn was kept in vessels, which were not scoured, so
        that a dry crust formed over it. On the day before the fast began the
        people ate and drank to their heart's content, and they sanctified a
        woman to represent Atlatatonan, the Goddess of Lepers, dressing her
        up in an appropriate costume. When the fast was over, the high priest
        of the temple of Tlaloc sacrificed the woman in the usual way by
        tearing out her heart and holding it up as an offering to the sun.
        Her body, with all the robes and ornaments she had worn, was cast
        into a well or vault in the temple, and along with the corpse were
        thrown in all the plates and dishes out of which the people had
        eaten, and all the mats on which they had sat or slept during the
        fast, as if, says the historian, they had been infected with the
        plague of leprosy. After that the people were free to eat bread,
        salt, and tomatoes; and immediately after the sacrifice of the woman
        who personated the Goddess of Leprosy they sanctified a young slave
        girl of twelve or thirteen years, the prettiest they could find, to
        represent the Maize Goddess Chicomecohuatl. They invested her with
        the ornaments of the goddess, putting the mitre on her head and the
        maize-cobs round her neck and in her hands, and fastening a green
        feather upright on the crown of her head to imitate an ear of maize.
        This they did, we are told, in order to signify that the maize was
        almost ripe at the time of the festival, but because it was still
        tender they chose a girl of tender years to play the part of the
        Maize Goddess. The whole long day they led the poor child in all her
        finery, with the green plume nodding on her head, from house to house
        dancing merrily to cheer people after the dulness and privations of
        the fast.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Adoration of the girl who personated
            the Goddess of the Maize.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the evening all
        the people assembled at the temple, the courts of which they lit up
        by a multitude of lanterns and candles. There they passed the night
        without sleeping, and at midnight, while the trumpets, flutes, and
        horns discoursed solemn music, a portable framework or palanquin was
        brought forth, bedecked with festoons of maize-cobs and peppers and
        filled with seeds of all sorts. This the bearers <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> set down at the door of the chamber in
        which the wooden image of the goddess stood. Now the chamber was
        adorned and wreathed, both outside and inside, with wreaths of
        maize-cobs, peppers, pumpkins, roses, and seeds of every kind, a
        wonder to behold; the whole floor was covered deep with these verdant
        offerings of the pious. When the music ceased, a solemn procession
        came forth of priests and dignitaries, with flaring lights and
        smoking censers, leading in their midst the girl who played the part
        of the goddess. Then they made her mount the framework, where she
        stood upright on the maize and peppers and pumpkins with which it was
        strewed, her hands resting on two bannisters to keep her from
        falling. Then the priests swung the smoking censers round her; the
        music struck up again, and while it played, a great dignitary of the
        temple suddenly stepped up to her with a razor in his hand and
        adroitly shore off the green feather she wore on her head, together
        with the hair in which it was fastened, snipping the lock off by the
        root. The feather and the hair he then presented to the wooden image
        of the goddess with great solemnity and elaborate ceremonies, weeping
        and giving her thanks for the fruits of the earth and the abundant
        crops which she had bestowed on the people that year; and as he wept
        and prayed, all the people, standing in the courts of the temple,
        wept and prayed with him. When that ceremony was over, the girl
        descended from the framework and was escorted to the place where she
        was to spend the rest of the night. But all the people kept watch in
        the courts of the temple by the light of torches till break of
        day.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The girl who personated the Goddess
            of the Maize carried in procession and worshipped with offerings
            of human blood. The human representative of the Maize Goddess put
            to death on a heap of corn and her skin flayed and worn by a
            priest.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The morning being
        come, and the courts of the temple being still crowded by the
        multitude, who would have deemed it sacrilege to quit the precincts,
        the priests again brought forth the damsel attired in the costume of
        the goddess, with the mitre on her head and the cobs of maize about
        her neck. Again she mounted the portable framework or palanquin and
        stood on it, supporting herself by her hands on the bannisters. Then
        the elders of the temple lifted it on their shoulders, and while some
        swung burning censers and others played on instruments or sang, they
        carried it in procession through the great courtyard to the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294"
        id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hall of the god
        Huitzilopochtli and then back to the chamber, where stood the wooden
        image of the Maize Goddess, whom the girl personated. There they
        caused the damsel to descend from the palanquin and to stand on the
        heaps of corn and vegetables that had been spread in profusion on the
        floor of the sacred chamber. While she stood there all the elders and
        nobles came in a line, one behind the other, carrying the saucers of
        dry and clotted blood which they had drawn from their ears by way of
        penance during the seven days' fast. One by one they squatted on
        their haunches before her, which was the equivalent of falling on
        their knees with us, and scraping the crust of blood from the saucer
        cast it down before her as an offering in return for the benefits
        which she, as the embodiment of the Maize Goddess, had conferred upon
        them. When the men had thus humbly offered their blood to the human
        representative of the goddess, the women, forming a long line, did so
        likewise, each of them dropping on her hams before the girl and
        scraping her blood from the saucer. The ceremony lasted a long time,
        for great and small, young and old, all without exception had to pass
        before the incarnate deity and make their offering. When it was over,
        the people returned home with glad hearts to feast on flesh and
        viands of every sort as merrily, we are told, as good Christians at
        Easter partake of meat and other carnal mercies after the long
        abstinence of Lent. And when they had eaten and drunk their fill and
        rested after the night watch, they returned quite refreshed to the
        temple to see the end of the festival. And the end of the festival
        was this. The multitude being assembled, the priests solemnly
        incensed the girl who personated the goddess; then they threw her on
        her back on the heap of corn and seeds, cut off her head, caught the
        gushing blood in a tub, and sprinkled the blood on the wooden image
        of the goddess, the walls of the chamber, and the offerings of corn,
        peppers, pumpkins, seeds, and vegetables which cumbered the floor.
        After that they flayed the headless trunk, and one of the priests
        made shift to squeeze himself into the bloody skin. Having done so
        they clad him in all the robes which the girl had worn; they put the
        mitre on his head, the necklace of golden maize-cobs about his neck,
        the maize-cobs <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg
        295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        feathers and gold in his hands; and thus arrayed they led him forth
        in public, all of them dancing to the tuck of drum, while he acted as
        fugleman, skipping and posturing at the head of the procession as
        briskly as he could be expected to do, incommoded as he was by the
        tight and clammy skin of the girl and by her clothes, which must have
        been much too small for a grown man.<a id="noteref_689" name=
        "noteref_689" href="#note_689"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">689</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Identification of the human victim
            with the Goddess of Maize whom she personated.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the foregoing
        custom the identification of the young girl with the Maize Goddess
        appears to be complete. The golden maize cobs which she wore round
        her neck, the artificial maize cobs which she carried in her hands,
        the green feather which was stuck in her hair in imitation (we are
        told) of a green ear of maize, all set her forth as a personification
        of the corn-spirit; and we are expressly informed that she was
        specially chosen as a young girl to represent the young maize, which
        at the time of the festival had not yet fully ripened. Further, her
        identification with the corn and the corn-goddess was clearly
        announced by making her stand on the heaps of maize and there receive
        the homage and blood-offerings of the whole people, who thereby
        returned her thanks for the benefits which in her character of a
        divinity she was supposed to have conferred upon them. Once more, the
        practice of beheading her on a heap of corn and seeds and sprinkling
        her blood, not only on the image of the Maize Goddess, but on the
        piles of maize, peppers, pumpkins, seeds, and vegetables, can
        seemingly have had no other object but to quicken and strengthen the
        crops of corn <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg
        296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and
        the fruits of the earth in general by infusing into their
        representatives the blood of the Corn Goddess herself. The analogy of
        this Mexican sacrifice, the meaning of which appears to be
        indisputable, may be allowed to strengthen the interpretation which I
        have given of other human sacrifices offered for the crops.<a id=
        "noteref_690" name="noteref_690" href="#note_690"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">690</span></span></a> If the
        Mexican girl, whose blood was sprinkled on the maize, indeed
        personated the Maize Goddess, it becomes more than ever probable that
        the girl whose blood the Pawnees similarly sprinkled on the seed corn
        personated in like manner the female Spirit of the Corn; and so with
        the other human beings whom other races have slaughtered for the sake
        of promoting the growth of the crops.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The resurrection of the Maize
            Goddess set forth by the wearing of the skin of her human
            representative.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lastly, the
        concluding act of the sacred drama, in which the body of the dead
        Maize Goddess was flayed and her skin worn, together with all her
        sacred insignia, by a man who danced before the people in this grim
        attire, seems to be best explained on the hypothesis that it was
        intended to ensure that the divine death should be immediately
        followed by the divine resurrection. If that was so, we may infer
        with some degree of probability that the practice of killing a human
        representative of a deity has commonly, perhaps always, been regarded
        merely as a means of perpetuating the divine energies in the fulness
        of youthful vigour, untainted by the weakness and frailty of age,
        from which they must have suffered if the deity had been allowed to
        die a natural death.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Xipe, the Flayed God, and the
            Mexican festival of the Flaying of Men.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This
        interpretation of the Mexican custom of flaying human beings and
        permitting or requiring other persons to parade publicly in the skins
        of the victims may perhaps be confirmed by a consideration of the
        festival at which this strange rite was observed on the largest
        scale, and which accordingly went by the name of the Festival of the
        Flaying of Men (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Tlacaxipeualiztli</span></span>). It was
        celebrated in the second month of the Aztec year, which corresponded
        to the last days of February and the early part of March. The exact
        day of the festival was the twentieth of March, according to one
        pious chronicler, who notes with unction that the bloody rite fell
        only one day later than the feast which <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Holy Church solemnizes in honour of the
        glorious St. Joseph. The god whom the Aztecs worshipped in this
        strange fashion was named Xipe, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Flayed
        One,”</span> or Totec, <span class="tei tei-q">“Our Lord.”</span> On
        this occasion he also bore the solemn name of Youallauan,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“He who drinks in the Night.”</span> His
        image was of stone and represented him in human form with his mouth
        open as if in the act of speaking; his body was painted yellow on the
        one side and drab on the other; he wore the skin of a flayed man over
        his own, with the hands of the victim dangling at his wrists. On his
        head he had a hood of various colours, and about his loins a green
        petticoat reaching to his knees with a fringe of small shells. In his
        two hands he grasped a rattle like the head of a poppy with the seeds
        in it; while on his left arm he supported a yellow shield with a red
        rim. At his festival the Mexicans killed all the prisoners they had
        taken in war, men, women, and children. The number of the victims was
        very great. A Spanish historian of the sixteenth century estimated
        that in Mexico more people used to be sacrificed on the altar than
        died a natural death. All who were sacrificed to Xipe, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Flayed God,”</span> were themselves flayed, and men
        who had made a special vow to the god put on the skins of the human
        victims and went about the city in that guise for twenty days, being
        everywhere welcomed and revered as living images of the deity. Forty
        days before the festival, according to the historian Duran, they
        chose a man to personate the god, clothed him in all the insignia of
        the divinity, and led him about in public, doing him as much
        reverence all these days as if he had really been what he pretended
        to be. Moreover, every parish of the capital did the same; each of
        them had its own temple and appointed its own human representative of
        the deity, who received the homage and worship of the parishioners
        for the forty days.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The human shambles. The holy beggars
            clad in the skins of the flayed human victims.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the day of the
        festival these mortal gods and all the other prisoners, with the
        exception of a few who were reserved for a different death, were
        killed in the usual way. The scene of the slaughter was the platform
        on the summit of the god Huitzilopochtli's temple. Some of the poor
        wretches fainted when they came to the foot of the steps <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and had to be dragged up the long
        staircase by the hair of their heads. Arrived at the summit they were
        slaughtered one by one on the sacrificial stone by the high priest,
        who cut open their breasts, tore out their hearts, and held them up
        to the sun, in order to feed the great luminary with these bleeding
        relics. Then the bodies were sent rolling down the staircase,
        clattering and turning over and over like gourds as they bumped from
        step to step till they reached the bottom. There they were received
        by other priests, or rather human butchers, who with a dexterity
        acquired by practice slit the back of each body from the nape of the
        neck to the heels and peeled off the whole skin in a single piece as
        neatly as if it had been a sheepskin. The skinless body was then
        fetched away by its owner, that is, by the man who had captured the
        prisoner in war. He took it home with him, carved it, sent one of the
        thighs to the king, and other joints to friends, or invited them to
        come and feast on the carcase in his house. The skins of the human
        victims were also a perquisite of their captors, and were lent or
        hired out by them to men who had made a vow of going about clad in
        the hides for twenty days. Such men clothed in the reeking skins of
        the butchered prisoners were called Xixipeme or Tototectin after the
        god Xipe or Totec, whose living image they were esteemed and whose
        costume they wore. Among the devotees who bound themselves to this
        pious exercise were persons who suffered from loathsome skin
        diseases, such as smallpox, abscesses, and the itch; and among them
        there was a fair sprinkling of debauchees, who had drunk themselves
        nearly blind and hoped to recover the use of their precious eyes by
        parading for a month in this curious mantle. Thus arrayed, they went
        from house to house throughout the city, entering everywhere and
        asking alms for the love of God. On entering a house each of these
        reverend palmers was made to sit on a heap of leaves; festoons of
        maize and wreaths of flowers were placed round his body; and he was
        given wine to drink and cakes to eat. And when a mother saw one of
        these filthy but sanctified ruffians passing along the street, she
        would run to him with her infant and put it in his arms that he might
        bless it, which he did with unction, receiving an alms from the happy
        mother in return. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg
        299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The
        earnings of these begging-friars on their rounds were sometimes
        considerable, for the rich people rewarded them handsomely. Whatever
        they were, the collectors paid them in to the owners of the skins,
        who thus made a profit by hiring out these valuable articles of
        property. Every night the wearers of the skins deposited them in the
        temple and fetched them again next morning when they set out on their
        rounds. At the end of the twenty days the skins were dry, hard,
        shrivelled and shrunken, and they smelt so villainously that people
        held their noses when they met the holy beggars arrayed in their
        fetid mantles. The time being come to rid themselves of these
        encumbrances, the devotees walked in solemn procession, wearing the
        rotten skins and stinking like dead dogs, to the temple called
        Yopico, where they stripped themselves of the hides and plunged them
        into a tub or vat, after which they washed and scrubbed themselves
        thoroughly, while their friends smacked their bare bodies loudly with
        wet hands in order to squeeze out the human grease with which they
        were saturated. Finally, the skins were solemnly buried, as holy
        relics, in a vault of the temple. The burial service was accompanied
        by chanting and attended by the whole people; and when it was over,
        one of the high dignitaries preached a sermon to the assembled
        congregation, in which he dwelt with pathetic eloquence on the
        meanness and misery of human existence and exhorted his hearers to
        lead a sober and quiet life, to cultivate the virtues of reverence,
        modesty, humility and obedience, to be kind and charitable to the
        poor and to strangers; he warned them against the sins of robbery,
        fornication, adultery, and covetousness; and kindling with the glow
        of his oratory, he passionately admonished, entreated, and implored
        all who heard him to choose the good and shun the evil, drawing a
        dreadful picture of the ills that would overtake the wicked here and
        hereafter, while he painted in alluring colours the bliss in store
        for the righteous and the rewards they might expect to receive at the
        hands of the deity in the life to come.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Various Mexican gods personated by
            the men clad in the skins of the human victims.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While most of the
        men who masqueraded in the skins of the human victims appear to have
        personated the Flayed God Xipe, whose name they bore in the form
        Xixipeme, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg
        300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        others assumed the ornaments and bore the names of other Mexican
        deities, such as Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl; the ceremony of
        investing them with the skins and the insignia of divinity was called
        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">netcotoquiliztli</span></span>, which means
        <span class="tei tei-q">“to think themselves gods.”</span> Amongst
        the gods thus personated was Totec. His human representative wore,
        over the skin of the flayed man, all the splendid trappings of the
        deity. On his head was placed a curious crown decorated with rich
        feathers. A golden crescent dangled from his nose, golden earrings
        from his ears, and a necklace of hammered gold encircled his neck.
        His feet were shod in red shoes decorated with quail's feathers; his
        loins were begirt with a petticoat of gorgeous plumage; and on his
        back three small paper flags fluttered and rustled in the wind. In
        his left hand he carried a golden shield and in his right a rattle,
        which he shook and rattled as he walked with a majestic dancing step.
        Seats were always prepared for this human god; and when he sat down,
        they offered him a paste made of uncooked maize-flour. Also they
        presented to him little bunches of cobs of maize chosen from the
        seed-corn; and he received as offerings the first fruits and the
        first flowers of the season.<a id="noteref_691" name="noteref_691"
        href="#note_691"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">691</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Men roasted alive as images of the
            Fire-god.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the eighteenth
        and last month of their year, which fell in January, the Mexicans
        held a festival in honour of the god of fire. Every fourth year the
        festival was celebrated on a grand scale by the sacrifice of a great
        many men and women, husbands and wives, who were dressed in the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301"
        id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> trappings of the fire-god and
        regarded as his living images. Bound hand and foot, they were thrown
        alive into a great furnace, and after roasting in it for a little
        were raked out of the fire before they were dead in order to allow
        the priest to cut the hearts out of their scorched, blistered, and
        still writhing bodies in the usual way.<a id="noteref_692" name=
        "noteref_692" href="#note_692"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">692</span></span></a> The
        intention of the sacrifice probably was to maintain the Fire-god in
        full vigour, lest he should grow decrepit or even die of old age, and
        mankind should thus be deprived of his valuable services. This
        important object was attained by feeding the fire with live men and
        women, who thus as it were poured a fresh stock of vital energy into
        the veins of the Fire-god and perhaps of his wife also. But they had
        to be raked out of the flames before they were dead; for clearly it
        would never do to let them die in the fire, else the Fire-god whom
        they personated would die also. For the same reason their hearts had
        to be torn from their bodies while they were still palpitating; what
        use could the Fire-god make of human hearts that were burnt to
        cinders?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Women flayed in honour of the
            Fire-god and their skins worn by men who personated gods.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the
        ordinary mode of sacrificing the human representatives of the
        Fire-god every fourth year. But in Quauhtitlan, a city distant four
        leagues from the city of Mexico, the custom was different. On the eve
        of the festival two women were beheaded on the altar of the temple
        and afterwards flayed, faces and all, and their thigh bones
        extracted. Next morning two men of high rank clothed themselves in
        the skins, including the skins of the women's faces, which they put
        over their own; and thus arrayed and carrying in their hands the
        thigh bones of the victims they came down the steps of the temple
        roaring like wild beasts. A vast crowd of people had assembled to
        witness the spectacle, and when they saw the two men coming
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302"
        id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> down the steps in the dripping
        skins, brandishing the bones, and bellowing like beasts, they were
        filled with fear and said, <span class="tei tei-q">“There come our
        gods!”</span> Arrived at the foot of the staircase these human gods
        engaged in a dance, which they kept up for the rest of the day, never
        divesting themselves of the bloody skins till the festival was
        over.<a id="noteref_693" name="noteref_693" href=
        "#note_693"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">693</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The personation of a god by a man
            wearing the skin of a human victim is probably intended to
            represent and ensure the resurrection of the deity. The idea of
            resurrection from the dead is suggested by the observation of
            snakes and other creatures that cast their skins.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The theory that
        the custom of wearing the skin of a flayed man or woman and
        personating a god in that costume is intended to represent the
        resurrection of the deity derives some support from the class of
        persons who made a vow to masquerade in the skins. They were, as we
        have seen, especially men who suffered from diseases of the skin and
        the eyes: they hoped, we are told, by wearing the skins to be cured
        of their ailments, and the old Spanish monk who records the belief
        adds dryly that some were cured and some were not.<a id="noteref_694"
        name="noteref_694" href="#note_694"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">694</span></span></a> We may
        conjecture that by donning the skins of men who had acted the part of
        gods they expected to slough off their own diseased old skins and to
        acquire new and healthy skins, like those of the deities. This notion
        may have been suggested to them by the observation of certain
        animals, such as serpents and lizards, which seem to renew their
        youth by casting their skins and appear refreshed and renovated in
        new integuments. That many savages have noticed such transformations
        in the animal world is proved by the tales which some of them tell to
        account for the origin of death among mankind. For example, the
        Arawaks of British Guiana say that man was created by a good being
        whom they call Kururumany. Once on a time this kindly creator came to
        earth to see how his creature man was getting on. But men were so
        ungrateful that they tried to kill their Maker. Hence he took from
        them the gift of immortality and bestowed it upon animals that change
        their skins, such as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg
        303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        snakes, lizards, and beetles.<a id="noteref_695" name="noteref_695"
        href="#note_695"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">695</span></span></a> Again,
        the Tamanachiers, an Indian tribe of the Orinoco, tell how the
        creator kindly intended to make men immortal by telling them that
        they should change their skins. He meant to say that by so doing they
        should renew their youth like serpents and beetles. But the glad
        tidings were received with such incredulity by an old woman that the
        creator in a huff changed his tune and said very curtly, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Ye shall die.”</span><a id="noteref_696" name=
        "noteref_696" href="#note_696"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">696</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Savage notion that men would have
            been immortal, if only they could have cast their skins like
            serpents and crabs.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Annam they say
        that Ngoc hoang sent a messenger from heaven to inform men that when
        they reached old age they should change their skins and live for
        ever, but that when serpents grew old, they must die. Unfortunately
        for the human race the message was perverted in the transmission, so
        that men do not change their skins and are therefore mortal, whereas
        serpents do cast their old skins and accordingly live for ever.<a id=
        "noteref_697" name="noteref_697" href="#note_697"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">697</span></span></a>
        According to the natives of Nias the personage who was charged by the
        creator with the duty of putting the last touches to man broke his
        fast on bananas instead of on river-crabs, as he should have done;
        for had he only eaten river-crabs, men would have changed their skins
        like crabs, and like crabs would have never died. But the serpents,
        wiser in their generation than men, ate the crabs, and that is why
        they too are immortal.<a id="noteref_698" name="noteref_698" href=
        "#note_698"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">698</span></span></a> Stories
        of the same sort are current among the Melanesians. Thus the natives
        of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain account for the origin of
        death by a tale very like that told in Annam. The Good Spirit, they
        say, loved men and wished to make them immortal, but he hated
        serpents and wished to kill them. So he despatched his brother to
        mankind with this cheering message: <span class="tei tei-q">“Go to
        men and take them the secret of immortality. Tell them to cast their
        skin every year. So will they be protected from death, for their life
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304"
        id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> will be constantly renewed.
        But tell the serpents that they must henceforth die.”</span> Through
        the carelessness or treachery of the messenger this message was
        reversed; so that now, as we all know, men die and serpents live for
        ever by annually casting their skins.<a id="noteref_699" name=
        "noteref_699" href="#note_699"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">699</span></span></a> Again,
        if we can trust the traditions of the Banks' Islanders and New
        Hebrideans, there was a time when men did really cast their skins and
        renew their youth. The melancholy change to mortality was brought
        about by an old woman, who most unfortunately resumed her old
        cast-off skin to please an infant, which squalled at seeing her in
        her new integument.<a id="noteref_700" name="noteref_700" href=
        "#note_700"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">700</span></span></a> The
        Gallas of East Africa say that God sent a certain bird (<span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">holawaka</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the sheep of God”</span>) to tell men that they would
        not die, but that when they grew old they would slough their skins
        and so renew their youth. But the bird foolishly or maliciously
        delivered the message to serpents instead of to men, and that is why
        ever since men have been mortal and serpents immortal. For that evil
        deed God punished the bird with a painful malady from which it
        suffers to this day, and it sits on the tops of trees and moans and
        wails perpetually.<a id="noteref_701" name="noteref_701" href=
        "#note_701"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">701</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Hence the Mexicans apparently
            thought that they could renew their own skins by putting on those
            of other people.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it appears
        that some peoples have not only observed the curious transformations
        which certain animals undergo, but have imagined that by means of
        such transformations the animals periodically renew their youth and
        live for ever. From such observations and fancies it is an easy step
        to the conclusion that man might similarly take a fresh lease of life
        and renew the lease indefinitely, if only he could contrive like the
        animals to get a new skin. This desirable object the Mexicans
        apparently sought to accomplish by <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> flaying men and wearing their bleeding skins
        like garments thrown over their own. By so doing persons who suffered
        from cutaneous diseases hoped to acquire a new and healthy skin; and
        by so doing the priests attempted not merely to revive the gods whom
        they had just slain in the persons of their human representatives,
        but also to restore to their wasting and decaying frames all the
        vigour and energy of youth.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">General conclusion: the custom of
            putting human beings to death in the character of gods has
            prevailed in many parts of the world.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rites
        described in the preceding pages suffice to prove that human
        sacrifices of the sort I suppose to have prevailed at Aricia<a id=
        "noteref_702" name="noteref_702" href="#note_702"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">702</span></span></a> were,
        as a matter of fact, systematically offered on a large scale by a
        people whose level of culture was probably not inferior, if indeed it
        was not distinctly superior, to that occupied by the Italian races at
        the early period to which the origin of the Arician priesthood must
        be referred. The positive and indubitable evidence of the prevalence
        of such sacrifices in one part of the world may reasonably be allowed
        to strengthen the probability of their prevalence in places for which
        the evidence is less full and trustworthy. Taken all together, the
        facts which we have passed in review seem to shew that the custom of
        killing men whom their worshippers regard as divine has prevailed in
        many parts of the world. But to clinch the argument, it is clearly
        desirable to prove that the custom of putting to death a human
        representative of a god was known and practised in ancient Italy
        elsewhere than in the Arician Grove. This proof I now propose to
        adduce.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name=
      "Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VIII. The Saturnalia and
        Kindred Festivals.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Roman
          Saturnalia.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Annual periods of license. The
              Roman Saturnalia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In an earlier
          part of this book we saw that many peoples have been used to
          observe an annual period of license, when the customary restraints
          of law and morality are thrown aside, when the whole population
          give themselves up to extravagant mirth and jollity, and when the
          darker passions find a vent which would never be allowed them in
          the more staid and sober course of ordinary life. Such outbursts of
          the pent-up forces of human nature, too often degenerating into
          wild orgies of lust and crime, occur most commonly at the end of
          the year, and are frequently associated, as I have had occasion to
          point out, with one or other of the agricultural seasons,
          especially with the time of sowing or of harvest. Now, of all these
          periods of license the one which is best known and which in modern
          languages has given its name to the rest, is the Saturnalia. This
          famous festival fell in December, the last month of the Roman year,
          and was popularly supposed to commemorate the merry reign of
          Saturn, the god of sowing and of husbandry, who lived on earth long
          ago as a righteous and beneficent king of Italy, drew the rude and
          scattered dwellers on the mountains together, taught them to till
          the ground, gave them laws, and ruled in peace. His reign was the
          fabled Golden Age: the earth brought forth abundantly: no sound of
          war or discord troubled the happy world: no baleful love of lucre
          worked like poison in the blood of the industrious and contented
          peasantry. Slavery and private property were alike unknown: all men
          had all things in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg
          307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          common. At last the good god, the kindly king, vanished suddenly;
          but his memory was cherished to distant ages, shrines were reared
          in his honour, and many hills and high places in Italy bore his
          name.<a id="noteref_703" name="noteref_703" href=
          "#note_703"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">703</span></span></a> Yet
          the bright tradition of his reign was crossed by a dark shadow: his
          altars are said to have been stained with the blood of human
          victims, for whom a more merciful age afterwards substituted
          effigies.<a id="noteref_704" name="noteref_704" href=
          "#note_704"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">704</span></span></a> Of
          this gloomy side of the god's religion there is little or no trace
          in the descriptions which ancient writers have left us of the
          Saturnalia. Feasting and revelry and all the mad pursuit of
          pleasure are the features that seem to have especially marked this
          carnival of antiquity, as it went on for seven days in the streets
          and public squares and houses of ancient Rome from the seventeenth
          to the twenty-third of December.<a id="noteref_705" name=
          "noteref_705" href="#note_705"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">705</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The license granted to slaves at
              the Saturnalia. The mock King of the Saturnalia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But no feature
          of the festival is more remarkable, nothing in it seems to have
          struck the ancients themselves more than the license granted to
          slaves at this time. The distinction between the free and the
          servile classes was temporarily abolished. The slave might rail at
          his master, intoxicate himself like his betters, sit down at table
          with them, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg
          308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          and not even a word of reproof would be administered to him for
          conduct which at any other season might have been punished with
          stripes, imprisonment, or death.<a id="noteref_706" name=
          "noteref_706" href="#note_706"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">706</span></span></a> Nay,
          more, masters actually changed places with their slaves and waited
          on them at table; and not till the serf had done eating and
          drinking was the board cleared and dinner set for his master.<a id=
          "noteref_707" name="noteref_707" href="#note_707"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">707</span></span></a> So
          far was this inversion of ranks carried, that each household became
          for a time a mimic republic in which the high offices of state were
          discharged by the slaves, who gave their orders and laid down the
          law as if they were indeed invested with all the dignity of the
          consulship, the praetorship, and the bench.<a id="noteref_708"
          name="noteref_708" href="#note_708"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">708</span></span></a> Like
          the pale reflection of power thus accorded to bondsmen at the
          Saturnalia was the mock kingship for which freemen cast lots at the
          same season. The person on whom the lot fell enjoyed the title of
          king, and issued commands of a playful and ludicrous nature to his
          temporary subjects. One of them he might order to mix the wine,
          another to drink, another to sing, another to dance, another to
          speak in his own dispraise, another to carry a flute-girl on his
          back round the house.<a id="noteref_709" name="noteref_709" href=
          "#note_709"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">709</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Personation of Saturn at the
              Saturnalia by a soldier who afterwards suffered death. The
              sarcophagus of St. Dasius, the martyr on whom the lot fell to
              play the part of Saturn.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, when we
          remember that the liberty allowed to slaves at this festive season
          was supposed to be an imitation of the state of society in Saturn's
          time, and that in general the Saturnalia passed for nothing more or
          less than a temporary revival or restoration of the reign of that
          merry monarch, we are tempted to surmise that the mock king who
          presided over the revels may have originally represented Saturn
          himself. The conjecture is strongly confirmed, if not established,
          by a very curious and interesting account of the way in which the
          Saturnalia was celebrated by the Roman soldiers stationed on the
          Danube in the reign of Maximian and Diocletian. The account is
          preserved in a narrative of the martyrdom of St. Dasius, which was
          unearthed from a Greek manuscript in the Paris library, and
          published by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg
          309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Professor Franz Cumont of Ghent. Two briefer descriptions of the
          event and of the custom are contained in manuscripts at Milan and
          Berlin; one of them had already seen the light in an obscure volume
          printed at Urbino in 1727, but its importance for the history of
          the Roman religion, both ancient and modern, appears to have been
          overlooked until Professor Cumont drew the attention of scholars to
          all three narratives by publishing them together some years
          ago.<a id="noteref_710" name="noteref_710" href=
          "#note_710"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">710</span></span></a>
          According to these narratives, which have all the appearance of
          being authentic, and of which the longest is probably based on
          official documents, the Roman soldiers at Durostorum in Lower
          Moesia celebrated the Saturnalia year by year in the following
          manner. Thirty days before the festival they chose by lot from
          amongst themselves a young and handsome man, who was then clothed
          in royal attire to resemble Saturn. Thus arrayed and attended by a
          multitude of soldiers he went about in public with full license to
          indulge his passions and to taste of every pleasure, however base
          and shameful. But if his reign was merry, it was short and ended
          tragically; for when the thirty days were up and the festival of
          Saturn had come, he cut his own throat on the altar of the god whom
          he personated.<a id="noteref_711" name="noteref_711" href=
          "#note_711"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">711</span></span></a> In
          the year 303 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> the lot fell upon the
          Christian soldier Dasius, but he refused to play the part of the
          heathen god and soil his last days by debauchery. The threats and
          arguments of his commanding officer Bassus failed to shake his
          constancy, and accordingly he was beheaded, as the Christian
          martyrologist records with minute accuracy, at Durostorum by the
          soldier John on Friday the twentieth day of November, being the
          twenty-fourth day of the moon, at the fourth hour.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since this
          narrative was published by Professor Cumont, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> its historical character, which had
          been doubted or denied, has received strong confirmation from an
          interesting discovery. In the crypt of the cathedral which crowns
          the promontory of Ancona there is preserved, among other remarkable
          antiquities, a white marble sarcophagus bearing a Greek
          inscription, in characters of the age of Justinian, to the
          following effect: <span class="tei tei-q">“Here lies the holy
          martyr Dasius, brought from Durostorum.”</span> The sarcophagus was
          transferred to the crypt of the cathedral in 1848 from the church
          of San Pellegrino, under the high altar of which, as we learn from
          a Latin inscription let into the masonry, the martyr's bones still
          repose with those of two other saints. How long the sarcophagus was
          deposited in the church of San Pellegrino, we do not know; but it
          is recorded to have been there in the year 1650. We may suppose
          that the saint's relics were transferred for safety to Ancona at
          some time in the troubled centuries which followed his martyrdom,
          when Moesia was occupied and ravaged by successive hordes of
          barbarian invaders.<a id="noteref_712" name="noteref_712" href=
          "#note_712"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">712</span></span></a> At
          all events it appears certain from the independent and mutually
          confirmatory evidence of the martyrology and the monuments that
          Dasius was no mythical saint, but a real man, who suffered death
          for his faith at Durostorum in one of the early centuries of the
          Christian era. Finding the narrative of the nameless martyrologist
          thus established as to the principal fact recorded, namely, the
          martyrdom of St. Dasius, we may reasonably accept his testimony as
          to the manner and cause of the martyrdom, all the more because his
          narrative is precise, circumstantial, and entirely free from the
          miraculous element. Accordingly I conclude that the account which
          he gives of the celebration of the Saturnalia among the Roman
          soldiers is trustworthy.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The mock King of the Saturnalia
              may have been the degenerate successor of a series of temporary
              kings who personated Saturn at the Saturnalia and were put to
              death in the character of the god.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This account
          sets in a new and lurid light the office of <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the King of the Saturnalia, the ancient
          Lord of Misrule, who presided over the winter revels at Rome in the
          time of Horace and of Tacitus. It seems to prove that his business
          had not always been that of a mere harlequin or merry-andrew whose
          only care was that the revelry should run high and the fun grow
          fast and furious, while the fire blazed and crackled on the hearth,
          while the streets swarmed with festive crowds, and through the
          clear frosty air, far away to the north, Soracte shewed his coronal
          of snow. When we compare this comic monarch of the gay, the
          civilized metropolis with his grim counterpart of the rude camp on
          the Danube, and when we remember the long array of similar figures,
          ludicrous yet tragic, who in other ages and in other lands, wearing
          mock crowns and wrapped in sceptred palls, have played their little
          pranks for a few brief hours or days, then passed before their time
          to a violent death, we can hardly doubt that in the King of the
          Saturnalia at Rome, as he is depicted by classical writers, we see
          only a feeble emasculated copy of that original, whose strong
          features have been fortunately preserved for us by the obscure
          author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Martyrdom of St. Dasius</span></span>. In
          other words, the martyrologist's account of the Saturnalia agrees
          so closely with the accounts of similar rites elsewhere, which
          could not possibly have been known to him, that the substantial
          accuracy of his description may be regarded as established; and
          further, since the custom of putting a mock king to death as a
          representative of a god cannot have grown out of a practice of
          appointing him to preside over a holiday revel, whereas the reverse
          may very well have happened, we are justified in assuming that in
          an earlier and more barbarous age it was the universal practice in
          ancient Italy, wherever the worship of Saturn prevailed, to choose
          a man who played the part and enjoyed all the traditionary
          privileges of Saturn for a season, and then died, whether by his
          own or another's hand, whether by the knife or the fire or on the
          gallows-tree, in the character of the good god who gave his life
          for the world. In Rome itself and other great towns the growth of
          civilization had probably mitigated this cruel custom long before
          the Augustan age, and transformed it into the innocent shape it
          wears in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg
          312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the writings of the few classical writers who bestow a passing
          notice on the holiday King of the Saturnalia. But in remoter
          districts the older and sterner practice may long have survived;
          and even if after the unification of Italy the barbarous usage was
          suppressed by the Roman government, the memory of it would be
          handed down by the peasants and would tend from time to time, as
          still happens with the lowest forms of superstition among
          ourselves, to lead to a recrudescence of the practice, especially
          among the rude soldiery on the outskirts of the empire over whom
          the once iron hand of Rome was beginning to relax its grasp.<a id=
          "noteref_713" name="noteref_713" href="#note_713"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">713</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The modern Carnival perhaps the
              equivalent of the ancient Saturnalia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The resemblance
          between the Saturnalia of ancient and the Carnival of modern Italy
          has often been remarked; but in the light of all the facts that
          have come before us, we may well ask whether the resemblance does
          not amount to identity. We have seen that in Italy, Spain, and
          France, that is, in the countries where the influence of Rome has
          been deepest and most lasting, a conspicuous feature of the
          Carnival is a burlesque figure personifying the festive season,
          which after a short career of glory and dissipation is publicly
          shot, burnt, or otherwise destroyed, to the feigned grief or
          genuine delight of the populace.<a id="noteref_714" name=
          "noteref_714" href="#note_714"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">714</span></span></a> If
          the view here suggested of the Carnival is correct, this grotesque
          personage is no other than a direct successor of the old King of
          the Saturnalia, the master of the revels, the real man who
          personated Saturn and, when the revels were over, suffered a real
          death in his assumed character. The King of the Bean on Twelfth
          Night and the mediaeval Bishop of Fools, Abbot of Unreason, or Lord
          of Misrule are figures of the same sort and may perhaps have had a
          similar origin. We will consider them in the following section.</p>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name=
        "Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> <a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The King of the Bean and the
          Festival of Fools.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The King of the Bean on Twelfth
              Night. Crosses made by the King of the Bean to protect the
              house against demons and witchcraft.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of
          electing by lot a King and often also a Queen of the Bean on
          Twelfth Night (Epiphany, the sixth of January) or on the eve of
          that festival used to prevail in France, Belgium, Germany, and
          England, and it is still kept up in some parts of France. It may be
          traced back to the first half of the sixteenth century at least,
          and no doubt dates from a very much more remote antiquity. At the
          French court the Kings themselves did not disdain to countenance
          the mock royalty, and Louis XIV. even supported with courtly grace
          the shadowy dignity in his own person. Every family as a rule
          elected its own King. On the eve of the festival a great cake was
          baked with a bean in it; the cake was divided in portions, one for
          each member of the family, together with one for God, one for the
          Virgin, and sometimes one also for the poor. The person who
          obtained the portion containing the bean was proclaimed King of the
          Bean. Where a Queen of the Bean was elected as well as a King, a
          second bean was sometimes baked in the cake for the Queen. Thus at
          Blankenheim, near Neuerburg, in the Eifel, a black and a white bean
          were baked in the cake; he who drew the piece with the black bean
          was King, and she who drew the white bean was Queen. In
          Franche-Comté, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, they
          used to put as many white haricot beans in a hat as there were
          persons present, and two coloured beans were added; the beans were
          drawn at haphazard from the hat by a child, and they who got the
          coloured beans were King and Queen. In England and perhaps
          elsewhere the practice was to put a bean in the cake for the King
          and a pea for the Queen. But in some places only the King was
          elected by lot, and after his election he chose his Queen for
          himself. Sometimes a coin was substituted for the bean in the cake;
          but though this usage was followed in southern Germany as early as
          the first half of the sixteenth century, it is probably an
          innovation on the older custom of employing a bean as the lot. In
          France the distribution of the pieces of the cake among
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name=
          "Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the persons present
          was made in accordance with the directions of a child, the youngest
          boy present, who was placed under or on the table and addressed by
          the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“Phoebe”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tébé”</span>; he answered in Latin <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Domine</span></span>.”</span>
          The master of the house, holding a piece of the cake in his hand,
          asked the child to whom he should give it, and the child named any
          person he pleased. Sometimes the first slice of cake was regularly
          assigned to <span class="tei tei-q">“the good God”</span> and set
          aside for the poor. In the name <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Phoebe”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tébé,”</span> by which the child was addressed,
          learned antiquaries have detected a reference to the oracle of
          Apollo; but more probably the name is a simple corruption of the
          Latin or French word for bean (Latin <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">faba</span></span>, French <span lang="fr"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">fève</span></span>). Immediately on his
          election the King of the Bean was enthroned, saluted by all, and
          thrice lifted up, while he made crosses with chalk on the beams and
          rafters of the ceiling. Great virtue was attributed to these white
          crosses. They were supposed to protect the house for the whole year
          against</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style=
              "text-align: left; margin-left: 25.20em">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">all injuryes and
                harmes</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Of cursed devils,
                sprites, and bugges, of conjurings and
                charmes.</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then feasting
          and revelry began and were kept up merrily without respect of
          persons. Every time the King or Queen drank, the whole company was
          expected to cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“The King drinks!”</span>
          or <span class="tei tei-q">“The Queen drinks!”</span> Any person
          who failed to join in the cry was punished by having his face
          blackened with soot or a burned cork or smeared with the lees of
          wine. In some parts of the Ardennes the custom was to fasten great
          horns of paper in the hair of the delinquent and to put a huge pair
          of spectacles on his nose; and he had to wear these badges of
          infamy till the end of the festival.<a id="noteref_715" name=
          "noteref_715" href="#note_715"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">715</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name=
          "Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The custom of
          electing a King and Queen of the Bean on Twelfth Day is still kept
          up all over the north of France. A miniature porcelain figure of a
          child is sometimes substituted for the bean in the cake. If the
          lot, whether bean or doll, falls to a boy he becomes King and
          chooses his Queen; if it falls to a girl she becomes Queen and
          chooses her King.<a id="noteref_716" name="noteref_716" href=
          "#note_716"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">716</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Serious significance of the King
              of the Bean and Twelfth Night. Divination on Twelfth
              Night.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far, apart
          from the crosses chalked up to ban hobgoblins, witches, and bugs,
          the King and Queen of the Bean might seem to be merely playful
          personages appointed at a season of festivity to lead the revels.
          However, a more serious significance was sometimes attached to the
          office and to the ceremonies of Twelfth Day in general. Thus in
          Lorraine the height of the hemp crop in the coming year was
          prognosticated from the height of the King and Queen; if the King
          was the taller of the two, it was supposed that the male hemp would
          be higher than the female, but that the contrary would happen if
          the Queen were taller than the King.<a id="noteref_717" name=
          "noteref_717" href="#note_717"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">717</span></span></a>
          Again, in the Vosges Mountains, on the borders of Franche-Comté, it
          is customary on Twelfth Day for people to dance on the roofs in
          order to make the hemp grow tall.<a id="noteref_718" name=
          "noteref_718" href="#note_718"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">718</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name=
          "Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Further, in many
          places the beans used in the cake were carried to the church to be
          blessed by the clergy, and people drew omens from the cake as to
          the good or ill that would befall them throughout the year.
          Moreover, certain forms of divination were resorted to on Twelfth
          Night for the purpose of ascertaining in which month of the year
          wheat would be dearest.<a id="noteref_719" name="noteref_719" href=
          "#note_719"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">719</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Bonfires on the Eve of Twelfth
              Night. Fire applied to the fruit-trees on the Eve of Twelfth
              Night in Normandy and the Ardennes.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In
          Franche-Comté, particularly in the Montagne du Doubs, it is still
          the custom on the Eve of Twelfth Night (the fifth of January) to
          light bonfires, which appear to have, in the popular mind, some
          reference to the crops. The whole population takes part in the
          festivity. In the afternoon the young folk draw a cart about the
          street collecting fuel. Some people contribute faggots, others
          bundles of straw or of dry hemp stalks. Towards evening the whole
          of the fuel thus collected is piled up a little way from the houses
          and set on fire. While it blazes, the people dance round it,
          crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Good year, come back! Bread and
          wine, come back!”</span> In the district of Pontarlier the young
          folk carry lighted torches about the fields, shaking sparks over
          the sowed lands and shouting, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang=
          "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Couaille, couaille,
          blanconnie!</span></span>”</span>—words of which the meaning has
          been forgotten.<a id="noteref_720" name="noteref_720" href=
          "#note_720"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">720</span></span></a> A
          similar custom is commonly observed on the same day (the Eve of
          Twelfth Night, the fifth of January) in the Bocage of Normandy,
          except that it is the fruit-trees rather than the sowed fields to
          which the fire is applied. When the evening shadows have fallen on
          the landscape, the darkness begins to be illuminated here and there
          by twinkling points of fire, which multiply as the night grows
          late, till they appear as numerous on earth as the stars in the
          sky. About every village, in the fields and orchards, on the crests
          of the hills, wandering lights may be discerned, vanishing and
          suddenly reappearing, gathering together and <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> then dispersing, pursuing each other
          capriciously, and tracing broken lines, sparkling arabesques of
          fire in the gloom of night The peasants are observing the ceremony
          of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Moles and Field-mice”</span>
          (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Taupes et Mulots</span></span>); and that
          evening there is not a hamlet, not a farm, hardly a solitary
          cottage that does not contribute its flame to the general
          illumination, till the whole horizon seems in a blaze, and houses,
          woods, and hills stand out in dark relief against the glow of the
          sky. The villages vie with each other in the number and brilliancy
          of the fires they can exhibit on this occasion. Woods and hedges
          are scoured to provide the materials for the blaze. Torches of
          straw wound about poles are provided in abundance; and armed with
          them men and women, lads and lasses, boys and girls, pour forth
          from the houses at nightfall into the fields and orchards. There
          they run about among the trees, waving the lighted torches under
          the branches and striking the trunks with them so that the sparks
          fly out in showers. And as they do so they sing or scream at the
          top of their voices certain traditional curses against the animals
          and insects that injure the fruit-trees. They bid the moles and
          field-mice to depart from their orchards, threatening to break
          their bones and burn their beards if they tarry. The more they do
          this, the larger, they believe, will be the crop of fruit in the
          following autumn. When everybody has rushed about his own orchard,
          meadow or pasture in this fashion, they all assemble on a height or
          crest of a hill, where they picnic, each bringing his share of
          provisions, cider, or brandy to the feast. There, too, they kindle
          a huge bonfire, and dance round it, capering and brandishing their
          torches in wild enthusiasm.<a id="noteref_721" name="noteref_721"
          href="#note_721"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">721</span></span></a>
          Customs of the same sort used to be observed on the same day (the
          Eve of Epiphany, the fifth of January) in the Ardennes. People ran
          about with burning torches, commanding the moles and field-mice to
          go forth. Then they threw the torches on the ground, and believed
          that by this proceeding they purified the earth and made it
          fruitful.<a id="noteref_722" name="noteref_722" href=
          "#note_722"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">722</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Fires kindled on Twelfth Night or
              the Eve of Twelfth Night in England for the sake of the
              crops.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This ceremony
          appears to be intended to ensure a good crop of fruit by burning
          out the animals and insects that harm the fruit-trees. In some
          parts of England it used to be customary to light fires at the same
          season for the purpose, apparently, of procuring a plentiful crop
          of wheat in the ensuing autumn. Thus, <span class="tei tei-q">“in
          the parish of Pauntley, a village on the borders of the county of
          Gloucester, next Worcestershire, and in the neighbourhood, a custom
          prevails, which is intended to prevent the smut in wheat. On the
          Eve of Twelfth-day, all the servants of every farmer assemble
          together in one of the fields that has been sown with wheat. At the
          end of twelve lands, they make twelve fires in a row with straw,
          around one of which, much larger than the rest, they drink a
          cheerful glass of cider to their master's health, and success to
          the future harvest; then, returning home, they feast on cakes
          soaked in cider, which they claim as a reward for their past
          labours in sowing the grain.”</span><a id="noteref_723" name=
          "noteref_723" href="#note_723"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">723</span></span></a>
          Similarly in Herefordshire, <span class="tei tei-q">“on the Eve of
          Twelfth Day, at the approach of evening, the farmers, their
          friends, servants, etc., all assemble, and, near six o'clock, all
          walk together to a field where wheat is growing. The highest part
          of the ground is always chosen, where twelve small fires, and one
          large one are lighted up. The attendants, headed by the master of
          the family, pledge the company in old cyder, which circulates
          freely on these occasions. A circle is formed round the large fire,
          when a general shout and hallooing takes place, which you hear
          answered from all the villages and fields near; as I have myself
          counted fifty or sixty fires burning at the same time, which are
          generally placed on some eminence. This being finished, the company
          all return to the house, where the good housewife and her maids are
          preparing a good supper, which on this occasion is very plentiful.
          A large cake is always provided, with a hole in the middle. After
          supper, the company all attend the bailiff (or head of the oxen) to
          the wain-house, where the following particulars are observed. The
          master, at the head of his friends, fills the cup (generally of
          strong ale), and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg
          319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          stands opposite the first or finest of the oxen (twenty-four of
          which I have often seen tied up in their stalls together); he then
          pledges him in a curious toast; the company then follow his example
          with all the other oxen, addressing each by their name. This being
          over, the large cake is produced, and is, with much ceremony, put
          on the horn of the first ox, through the hole in the cake; he is
          then tickled to make him toss his head: if he throws the cake
          behind, it is the mistress's perquisite; if before (in what is
          termed the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">boosy</span></span>), the bailiff claims this
          prize. This ended, the company all return to the house, the doors
          of which are in the meantime locked, and not opened till some
          joyous songs are sung. On entering, a scene of mirth and jollity
          commences, and reigns thro' the house till a late, or rather an
          early, hour, the next morning.”</span><a id="noteref_724" name=
          "noteref_724" href="#note_724"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">724</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">One of the fires on Twelfth Day
              said to be intended</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">to burn
              the old witch.</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span> <span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Parallel custom observed in Macedonia on the
              Eve of Twelfth Night.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom was
          known as Wassailing and it was believed to have a beneficial effect
          on the crops.<a id="noteref_725" name="noteref_725" href=
          "#note_725"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">725</span></span></a>
          According to one Herefordshire informant, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“on Twelfth Day they make twelve fires of straw and one
          large one to burn the old witch; they sing, drink, and dance round
          it; without this festival they think they should have no
          crop.”</span><a id="noteref_726" name="noteref_726" href=
          "#note_726"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">726</span></span></a> This
          explanation of the large fire on Twelfth Day is remarkable and may
          supply the key to the whole custom of kindling fires on the fields
          or in the orchards on that day. We have seen that witches and
          fiends of various sorts are believed to be let loose during the
          Twelve Days and that in some places they are formally driven away
          on Twelfth Night.<a id="noteref_727" name="noteref_727" href=
          "#note_727"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">727</span></span></a> It
          may well be that the fires lighted on that day were everywhere
          primarily intended to burn the witches and other maleficent beings
          swarming invisible in the mischief-laden air, and that the benefit
          supposed to be conferred by the fires on the crops was not so much
          the positive one of quickening the growth of vegetation by genial
          warmth as the negative one of destroying the baleful influences
          which would otherwise <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg
          320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          blast the fruits of the earth and of the trees. This interpretation
          of the English and French custom of lighting fires in fields and
          orchards on Twelfth Night is confirmed by a parallel custom
          observed by Macedonian peasants for the express purpose of burning
          up certain malicious fiends, who are believed to be abroad at this
          season. These noxious beings are known as <span lang="el" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Karkantzari</span></span> or <span lang="el"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Skatsantzari</span></span>. They are thought
          to be living people, whether men or women, who during the Twelve
          Days are transformed into horrible monsters, with long nails, red
          faces, bloodshot eyes, snottering noses, and slobbering mouths. In
          this hideous guise they roam about by night haunting houses and
          making the peasant's life well-nigh unbearable; they knock at the
          doors and should they be refused admittance they will scramble down
          the chimney and pinch, worry, and defile the sleepers in their
          beds. The only way to escape from these tormenters is to seize and
          bind them fast with a straw rope. If you have no such rope or your
          heart fails you, there is nothing for it but to shut yourself up in
          the house before dark, fasten the door tight, block up the chimney,
          and wait for daylight; for it is only at night that the monsters
          are on the prowl, during the day they resume their ordinary human
          shape. However, in some places strenuous efforts are made during
          the Twelve Days to destroy these hateful nocturnal goblins by fire.
          For example, on Christmas Eve some people burn the <span lang="el"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Karkantzari</span></span> by lighting faggots
          of holm-oak and throwing them out into the streets at early dawn.
          In other places, notably at Melenik, they scald the fiends to death
          on New Year's Eve by means of pancakes frizzling and hissing in a
          pan. While the goodwife is baking the cakes, the goodman disguises
          himself as one of the fiends in a fur coat turned inside out, and
          in his assumed character dances and sings outside the door, while
          he invites his wife to join him in the dance. In other districts
          people collect faggots during the whole of the Twelve Days and lay
          them up on the hearth. Then on the Eve of Twelfth Night they set
          fire to the pile in order that the goblins, who are supposed to be
          lurking under the ashes, may utterly perish.<a id="noteref_728"
          name="noteref_728" href="#note_728"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">728</span></span></a> Thus
          the view that the large fire in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> Herefordshire on Twelfth Night is intended
          <span class="tei tei-q">“to burn the old witch”</span> is far more
          probable than the opinion that it represents the Virgin Mary, and
          that the other twelve fires stand for the twelve apostles.<a id=
          "noteref_729" name="noteref_729" href="#note_729"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">729</span></span></a> This
          latter interpretation is in all probability nothing more than a
          Christian gloss put upon an old heathen custom of which the meaning
          was forgotten.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Other accounts of the fires on
              Twelfth Night in England and Ireland.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The
          Gloucestershire custom was described by the English traveller
          Thomas Pennant in the latter part of the eighteenth century. He
          says: <span class="tei tei-q">“A custom savouring of the Scotch
          Bel-tien prevales in Gloucestershire, particularly about Newent and
          the neighbouring parishes, on the twelfth day, or on the Epiphany,
          in the evening. All the servants of every particular farmer
          assemble together in one of the fields that has been sown with
          wheat; on the border of which, in the most conspicuous or most
          elevated place, they make twelve fires of straw, in a row; around
          one of which, made larger than the rest, they drink a cheerful
          glass of cyder to their master's health, success to the future
          harvest, and then returning home, they feast on cakes made of
          carraways, etc., soaked in cyder, which they claim as a reward for
          their past labours in sowing the grain.”</span><a id="noteref_730"
          name="noteref_730" href="#note_730"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">730</span></span></a> In
          Shropshire also it used to be customary to kindle festal fires on
          the tops of hills and other high places on Twelfth Night.<a id=
          "noteref_731" name="noteref_731" href="#note_731"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">731</span></span></a>
          Again, in Ireland <span class="tei tei-q">“on Twelfth-Eve in
          Christmas, they use to set up as high as they can a sieve of oats,
          and in it a dozen of candles set round, and in the centre one
          larger, all lighted. This in memory of our Saviour and his
          Apostles, lights of the world.”</span><a id="noteref_732" name=
          "noteref_732" href="#note_732"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">732</span></span></a> Down
          to the present time, apparently, in the county of Roscommon,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Twelfth Night, which is Old Christmas Day,
          is a greater day than Christmas Day itself. Thirteen rushlights are
          made in remembrance of the numbers at the Last Supper, and each is
          named after some member <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg
          322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          of the family. If there are not enough in the household other
          relations' names are added. The candles are stuck in a cake of
          cow-dung and lighted, and as each burns out, so will be the length
          of each person's life. Rushlights are only used for this
          occasion.”</span><a id="noteref_733" name="noteref_733" href=
          "#note_733"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">733</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Belief of the Germanic peoples
              that the weather for the twelve months of the year is
              determined by the weather of the Twelve Days.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these English
          and Irish customs observed on Twelfth Night the twelve fires or
          candles probably refer either to the twelve days from Christmas to
          Epiphany or to the twelve months of the year. In favour of this
          view it may be said that according to a popular opinion, which has
          been reported in England<a id="noteref_734" name="noteref_734"
          href="#note_734"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">734</span></span></a> and
          is widely diffused in Germany and the German provinces of Austria,
          the weather of the twelve days in question determines the weather
          of the twelve following months, so that from the weather on each of
          these days it is possible to predict the weather of the
          corresponding month in the ensuing year.<a id="noteref_735" name=
          "noteref_735" href="#note_735"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">735</span></span></a> Hence
          in Swabia the days are called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Twelve
          Lot Days”</span>; and many people seek to pry into the future with
          scientific precision by means of twelve circles, each subdivided
          into four quadrants, which they chalk up over the parlour door or
          inscribe on paper. Each circle represents a month, and each
          quadrant represents a quarter <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> of a month; and according as the sky is
          overcast or clear during each quarter of a day from Christmas to
          Epiphany, you shade the corresponding quadrant of a circle or leave
          it a blank. By this contrivance, as simple as it is ingenious, you
          may forecast the weather for the whole year with more or less of
          accuracy.<a id="noteref_736" name="noteref_736" href=
          "#note_736"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">736</span></span></a> At
          Hosskirch in Swabia they say that you can predict the weather for
          the twelve months from the weather of the twelve hours of Twelfth
          Day alone.<a id="noteref_737" name="noteref_737" href=
          "#note_737"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">737</span></span></a> A
          somewhat different system of meteorology is adopted in various
          parts of Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. On Christmas, New
          Year's Day, or another of the twelve days you take an onion, slice
          it in two, peel off twelve coats, and sprinkle a pinch of salt in
          each of them. The twelve coats of the onion stand for the twelve
          months of the year, and from the amount of moisture which has
          gathered in each of them next morning you may foretell the amount
          of rain that will fall in the corresponding month.<a id=
          "noteref_738" name="noteref_738" href="#note_738"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">738</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Belief of the Celtic peoples that
              the weather for the twelve months of the year is determined by
              the weather of the Twelve Days.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the belief
          that the weather of the twelve months can be predicted from the
          weather of the twelve days is not confined to the Germanic peoples.
          It occurs also in France and among the Celts of Brittany and
          Scotland. Thus in the Bocage of Normandy <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the village old wives have a very simple means of
          divining the general temperature of the coming season. According to
          them, the twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany, including
          Epiphany, represent the twelve months of the year. So the thing to
          do is to mark the temperature of each of these days, for the
          temperature of the corresponding month will be relatively the same.
          Some people say that this experience is rarely at fault, and more
          trust is put in it than in the predictions of the <span lang="fr"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Double-Liégois</span></span>.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_739" name="noteref_739" href="#note_739"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">739</span></span></a> In
          Cornouaille, Brittany, it is popularly believed that the weather of
          the last six days of December and the first six of January
          prognosticates the weather of the twelve <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> months; but in other parts of Brittany it is
          the first twelve days of January that are supposed to be ominous of
          the weather for the year. These days are called <span lang="fr"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">gour-deziou</span></span>, which is commonly
          interpreted <span class="tei tei-q">“male days,”</span> but is said
          to mean properly <span class="tei tei-q">“additional or
          supplementary days.”</span><a id="noteref_740" name="noteref_740"
          href="#note_740"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">740</span></span></a>
          Again, in the Highlands of Scotland the twelve days of Christmas
          (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Da latha dheug na Nollaig</span></span>)
          <span class="tei tei-q">“were the twelve days commencing from the
          Nativity or Big <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Nollaig</span></span>, and
          were deemed to represent, in respect of weather, the twelve months
          of the year. Some say the days should be calculated from New Year's
          Day.”</span><a id="noteref_741" name="noteref_741" href=
          "#note_741"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">741</span></span></a>
          Others again reckon the Twelve Days from the thirty-first of
          December. Thus Pennant tells us that <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          Highlanders form a sort of almanack or presage of the weather of
          the ensuing year in the following manner: they make observation on
          twelve days, beginning at the last of December, and hold as an
          infallible rule, that whatsoever weather happens on each of those
          days, the same will prove to agree in the correspondent months.
          Thus, January is to answer to the weather of December 31st;
          February to that of January 1st; and so with the rest. Old people
          still pay great attention to this augury.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_742" name="noteref_742" href="#note_742"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">742</span></span></a> It is
          interesting to observe that in the Celtic regions of Scotland and
          France popular opinion hesitates as to the exact date of the twelve
          days, some people dating them from Christmas, others from the New
          Year, and others again from the thirty-first of December. This
          hesitation has an important bearing on the question of the origin
          of the twelve days' period, as I shall point out immediately.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Twelve Nights among the
              ancient Aryans of India.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in the
          popular mind the twelve days from Christmas to Epiphany are
          conceived as a miniature of the whole year, the character of each
          particular day answering to the character of a particular month.
          The conception appears to be very ancient, for it meets us again
          among the Aryans of the Vedic age in India. They, too, appear to
          have invested <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg
          325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          twelve days in midwinter with a sacred character as a time when the
          three Ribhus or genii of the seasons rested from their labours in
          the home of the sun-god; and these twelve rest-days they called
          <span class="tei tei-q">“an image or copy of the
          year.”</span><a id="noteref_743" name="noteref_743" href=
          "#note_743"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">743</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Twelve Nights are probably an
              ancient intercalary period introduced to equate twelve lunar
              months to the solar year.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This curious
          coincidence, if such it is, between the winter festivals of the
          ancient Aryans of India and their modern kinsfolk in Europe seems
          to be best explained on the theory that the twelve days in question
          derive their sanctity from the position which they occupied in the
          calendar of the primitive Aryans. The coincidence of the name for
          month with the name for moon in the various Aryan languages<a id=
          "noteref_744" name="noteref_744" href="#note_744"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">744</span></span></a>
          points to the conclusion that the year of our remote ancestors was
          primarily based on observation of the moon rather than of the sun;
          but as a year of twelve lunar months or three hundred and
          fifty-four days (reckoning the months at twenty-nine and thirty
          days alternately) falls short of the solar year of three hundred
          and sixty-five and a quarter days by roundly twelve days, the
          discrepancy could not fail to attract the attention of an
          intelligent people, such as the primitive Aryans must be supposed
          to have been, who had made some progress in the arts of life; and
          the most obvious way of removing the discrepancy and equating the
          lunar with the solar year is to add twelve days at the end of each
          period of twelve lunar months so as to bring the total days of the
          year up to three hundred and sixty-six. The equation is not indeed
          perfectly exact, but it may well have been sufficiently so for the
          rudimentary science of the primitive Aryans.<a id="noteref_745"
          name="noteref_745" href="#note_745"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">745</span></span></a> As
          many <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name=
          "Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> savage races in
          modern times have observed the discrepancy between solar and lunar
          time and have essayed to correct it by observations of the sun or
          the constellations, especially the Pleiades,<a id="noteref_746"
          name="noteref_746" href="#note_746"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">746</span></span></a> there
          seems no reason to doubt that the ancestors of the Indo-European
          peoples in prehistoric times were able to make similar
          observations, and that they were not, as has been suggested,
          reduced to the necessity of borrowing the knowledge of such simple
          and obvious facts from the star-gazers of ancient Babylonia.
          Learned men who make little use of their eyes except to read books
          are too apt to underrate the observational powers of the savage,
          who lives under totally different conditions from us, spending most
          of his time in the open air and depending for his very existence on
          the accuracy with which he notes the varied and changing aspects of
          nature.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The superstitions attaching to the
              Twelve Nights are not of Christian origin.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been
          proposed to explain the manifold superstitions which cluster round
          the Twelve Days, or rather the Twelve Nights, as they are more
          popularly called,<a id="noteref_747" name="noteref_747" href=
          "#note_747"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">747</span></span></a> by
          reference to the place which they occupy in the Christian calendar,
          beginning as they do immediately after Christmas and ending with
          Epiphany.<a id="noteref_748" name="noteref_748" href=
          "#note_748"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">748</span></span></a> But,
          in the first place, it is difficult to see why the interval between
          these two particular festivals should have attracted to itself a
          greater mass of superstitious belief and custom than the interval
          between any other two Christian <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> festivals in the calendar; if it really did
          so, the ground of its special attraction is still to seek, and on
          this essential point the advocates of the Christian origin of the
          Twelve Nights throw no light. In the second place, the
          superstitious beliefs and customs themselves appear to have no
          relation to Christianity but to be purely pagan in character.
          Lastly, a fatal objection to the theory in question is that the
          place of the Twelve Days in the calendar is not uniformly fixed to
          the interval between Christmas and Epiphany; it varies considerably
          in popular opinion in different places, but it is significant that
          the variations never exceed certain comparatively narrow limits.
          The twelve-days' festival, so to speak, oscillates to and fro about
          a fixed point, which is either the end of the year or the winter
          solstice. Thus in Silesia the Twelve Days are usually reckoned to
          fall before Christmas instead of after it; though in the Polish
          districts and the mountainous region of the country the ordinary
          German opinion prevails that the days immediately follow
          Christmas.<a id="noteref_749" name="noteref_749" href=
          "#note_749"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">749</span></span></a> In
          some parts of Bavaria the Twelve Days are counted from St. Thomas's
          Day (the twenty-first of December) to New Year's Day; while in
          parts of Mecklenburg they begin with New Year's Day and so coincide
          with the first twelve days of January,<a id="noteref_750" name=
          "noteref_750" href="#note_750"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">750</span></span></a> and
          this last mode of reckoning finds favour, as we saw, with some
          Celts of Brittany and Scotland.<a id="noteref_751" name=
          "noteref_751" href="#note_751"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">751</span></span></a> These
          variations in the dating of the Twelve Days seem irreconcilable
          with the theory that they derive their superstitious character
          purely from the accident that they fall between Christmas and
          Epiphany; accordingly we may safely dismiss the theory of their
          Christian origin and recognize, with many good authorities,<a id=
          "noteref_752" name="noteref_752" href="#note_752"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">752</span></span></a> in
          the Twelve Days the relics of a purely pagan festival, which was
          probably <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg
          328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          celebrated long before the foundation of Christianity. In truth the
          hypothesis of the Christian derivation of the Twelve Days in all
          probability exactly inverts the historical order of the facts. On
          the whole the evidence goes to shew that the great Christian
          festivals were arbitrarily timed by the church so as to coincide
          with previously existing pagan festivals for the sake of weaning
          the heathen from their old faith and bringing them over to the new
          religion. To make the transition as easy as possible the
          ecclesiastical authorities, in abolishing the ancient rites,
          appointed ceremonies of somewhat similar character on the same
          days, or nearly so, thus filling up the spiritual void by a new
          creation which the worshipper might accept as an adequate
          substitute for what he had lost. Christmas and Easter, the two
          pivots on which the Christian calendar revolves, appear both to
          have been instituted with this intention: the one superseded a
          midwinter festival of the birth of the sun-god, the other
          superseded a vernal festival of the death and resurrection of the
          vegetation-god.<a id="noteref_753" name="noteref_753" href=
          "#note_753"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">753</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">An intercalary period a natural
              subject of superstition to primitive peoples.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the twelve
          days from Christmas to Epiphany were indeed an ancient intercalary
          period inserted for the purpose of equating the lunar to the solar
          year, we can better understand the curious superstitions that have
          clustered round them and the quaint customs that have been annually
          observed during their continuance. To the primitive mind it might
          well seem that an intercalary period stands outside of the regular
          order of things, forming part neither of the lunar nor of the solar
          system; it is an excrescence, inevitable but unaccountable, which
          breaks the smooth surface of ordinary existence, an eddy which
          interrupts the even flow of months and years. Hence it may be
          inferred that the ordinary rules of conduct do not apply to such
          extraordinary periods, and that accordingly men may do in them what
          they would never dream of doing at other times. Thus intercalary
          days tend to degenerate into seasons of unbridled license; they
          form an interregnum during which the customary restraints of law
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name=
          "Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and morality are
          suspended and the ordinary rulers abdicate their authority in
          favour of a temporary regent, a sort of puppet king, who bears a
          more or less indefinite, capricious, and precarious sway over a
          community given up for a time to riot, turbulence, and disorder. If
          that is so—though it must be confessed that the view here suggested
          is to a great extent conjectural—we may perhaps detect the last
          surviving representatives of such puppet kings in the King of the
          Bean and other grotesque figures of the same sort who used to
          parade with the mimic pomp of sovereignty on one or other of the
          twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany. For the King of the
          Bean was by no means the only such ruler of the festive season, nor
          was Twelfth Night the only day on which he and his colleagues
          played their pranks. We will conclude this part of our subject with
          a brief notice of some of these mummers.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Three Kings of Twelfth
              Night.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first
          place it deserves to be noticed that in many parts of the
          continent, such as France, Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Austria,
          Twelfth Day is regularly associated with three mythical kings named
          Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar, and derives its popular
          appellation from them, being known in Germany and Austria as the
          Day of the Three Kings (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dreikönigstag</span></span>) and in France as
          the Festival of the Kings (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Fête des
          Rois</span></span>). Further, it has been customary in many places
          to represent the three kings by mummers, who go about arrayed in
          royal costume from door to door, singing songs and collecting
          contributions from the households which they visit.<a id=
          "noteref_754" name="noteref_754" href="#note_754"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">754</span></span></a> The
          custom may very well be older than Christianity, though it has
          received a Christian colouring; for the mythical kings are commonly
          identified with the wise men of the East, who are said to have been
          attracted <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg
          330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          to the infant Christ at Bethlehem by the sight of his star in the
          sky.<a id="noteref_755" name="noteref_755" href=
          "#note_755"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">755</span></span></a> Yet
          there is no Biblical authority for regarding these wise men as
          kings or for fixing their number at three. In Franche-Comté the old
          custom is still observed, or at all events it was so down to recent
          years. The Three Kings are personated by three boys dressed in long
          white shirts with coloured sashes round their waists; on their
          heads they wear pointed mitres of pasteboard decorated with a gilt
          star and floating ribbons. Each carries a long wand topped by a
          star, which he keeps constantly turning. The one who personates
          Melchior has his face blackened with soot, because Melchior is
          supposed to have been a negro king. When they enter a house, they
          sing a song, setting forth that they are three kings who have come
          from three different countries, led by a star, to adore the infant
          Jesus at Bethlehem. After the song the negro king solicits
          contributions by shaking his money-box or holding out a basket, in
          which the inmates of the house deposit eggs, nuts, apples and so
          forth. By way of thanks for this liberality the three kings chant a
          stave in which they call down the blessing of God on the
          household.<a id="noteref_756" name="noteref_756" href=
          "#note_756"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">756</span></span></a> The
          custom is similar in the Vosges Mountains, where the Three Kings
          are held in great veneration and invoked by hedge doctors to effect
          various cures. For example, if a man drops to the ground with the
          falling sickness, you need only whisper in his right ear,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gaspard fert myrrham, thus Melchior, Balthasar
          aurum</span></span>,”</span> and he will get up at once. But to
          make the cure complete you must knock three nails into the earth on
          the precise spot where he fell; each nail must be exactly of the
          length of the patient's little finger, and as you knock it in you
          must take care to utter the sufferer's name.<a id="noteref_757"
          name="noteref_757" href="#note_757"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">757</span></span></a> In
          many Czech villages of Bohemia the children who play the part of
          the Three Kings assimilate themselves to the wise men of the East
          in the gospel by carrying gilt paper, incense, and myrrh with them
          on their rounds, which they distribute as gifts in the houses they
          visit, receiving in return money or presents in kind. Moreover they
          fumigate <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg
          331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          and sprinkle the houses and describe crosses and letters on the
          doors. Amongst the Germans of West Bohemia it is the schoolmaster
          who, accompanied by some boys, goes the round of the village on
          Twelfth Day. He chalks up the letters C. M. B. (the initials of
          Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar), together with three crosses, on
          every door, and fumigates the house with a burning censer in order
          to guard it from evil influences and infectious diseases.<a id=
          "noteref_758" name="noteref_758" href="#note_758"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">758</span></span></a> Some
          people used to wear as an amulet a picture representing the
          adoration of the Three Kings with a Latin inscription to the
          following effect: <span class="tei tei-q">“Holy three kings,
          Caspar, Melchior, Balthasar, pray for us, now and in the hour of
          our death.”</span> The picture was thought to protect the wearer
          not only from epilepsy, headache, and fever, but also from the
          perils of the roads, from the bite of mad dogs, from sudden death,
          from sorcery and witchcraft.<a id="noteref_759" name="noteref_759"
          href="#note_759"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">759</span></span></a>
          Whatever its origin, the festival of the Three Kings goes back to
          the middle ages, for it is known to have been celebrated with great
          pomp at Milan in 1336. On that occasion the Three Kings appeared
          wearing crowns, riding richly caparisoned horses, and surrounded by
          pages, bodyguards, and a great retinue of followers. Before them
          was carried a golden star, and they offered gifts of gold,
          frankincense, and myrrh to the infant Christ cradled in a manger
          beside the high altar of the church of St. Eustorgius.<a id=
          "noteref_760" name="noteref_760" href="#note_760"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">760</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Lord of Misrule in England.
              Reign of the Lord of Misrule during the Twelve Days. Lord of
              Misrule in the Temple.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In our own
          country a popular figure during the Christmas holidays used to be
          the Lord of Misrule, or, as he was called in Scotland, the Abbot of
          Unreason, who led the revels at that merry season in the halls of
          colleges, the Inns of Court, the palace of the king, and the
          mansions of nobles.<a id="noteref_761" name="noteref_761" href=
          "#note_761"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">761</span></span></a>
          Writing at the end of the sixteenth century, the antiquary John
          Stow tells us that, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the feast of
          Christmas, there was in the King's house, wheresoever he was
          lodged, a Lord of Misrule, or Master of Merry Disports; and the
          like had ye in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg
          332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he
          spiritual or temporal. Amongst the which the Mayor of London, and
          either of the Sheriffs, had their several Lords of Misrule, ever
          contending, without quarrel or offence, who should make the rarest
          pastimes to delight the beholders. These Lords beginning their rule
          on Alhollon eve, continued the same til the morrow after the Feast
          of the Purification, commonly called Candlemas day. In all which
          space there were fine and subtle disguisings, masks and mummeries,
          with playing at cards for counters, nails, and points, in every
          house, more for pastime than for gain.”</span><a id="noteref_762"
          name="noteref_762" href="#note_762"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">762</span></span></a>
          Again, in the seventeenth century the ardent royalist Sir Thomas
          Urquhart wrote that <span class="tei tei-q">“they may be likewise
          said to use their king ... as about Christmas we do the King of
          Misrule; whom we invest with that title to no other end, but to
          countenance the Bacchanalian riots and preposterous disorders of
          the family, where he is installed.”</span><a id="noteref_763" name=
          "noteref_763" href="#note_763"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">763</span></span></a> From
          the former passage it appears that the Lords of Misrule often or
          even generally reigned for more than three months in winter, namely
          from Allhallow Even (the thirty-first of October, the Eve of All
          Saints' Day) till Candlemas (the second of February). Sometimes,
          however, their reign seems to have been restricted to the Twelve
          Nights. Thus we are told that George Ferrers of Lincoln's Inn was
          Lord of Misrule for twelve days one year when King Edward VI. kept
          his Christmas with open house at Greenwich.<a id="noteref_764"
          name="noteref_764" href="#note_764"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">764</span></span></a> At
          Trinity College, Cambridge, a Master of Arts used to be appointed
          to this honourable office, which he held for the twelve days from
          Christmas to Twelfth Day, and he resumed office on Candlemas Day.
          His duty was to regulate the games and diversions of the students,
          particularly the plays which were acted in the college hall.
          Similar masters of the revels were commonly instituted in the
          colleges at Oxford; for example, at Merton College the fellows
          annually elected about St. Edmund's Day, in November a Lord of
          Misrule or, as he was called in the registers, a King of the Bean
          (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rex Fabarum</span></span>), <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who held office till Candlemas and
          sometimes assumed a number of ridiculous titles. In the Inner
          Temple a Lord of Misrule used to be appointed on St. Stephen's Day
          (the twenty-sixth of December); surrounded by his courtiers, who
          were dubbed by various derogatory or ribald names, he presided at
          the dancing, feasting, and minstrelsy in the hall. Of the mock
          monarch who in the Christmas holidays of 1635 held office in the
          Middle Temple the jurisdiction, privileges, and parade have been
          minutely described. He was attended by his lord keeper, lord
          treasurer, with eight white staves, a band of gentleman pensioners
          with poleaxes, and two chaplains. He dined under a canopy of state
          both in the hall and in his own chambers. He received many
          petitions, which he passed on in regal style to his Master of
          Requests; and he attended service in the Temple church, where his
          chaplains preached before him and did him reverence. His expenses,
          defrayed from his own purse, amounted to no less than two thousand
          pounds.<a id="noteref_765" name="noteref_765" href=
          "#note_765"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">765</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“I remember to have heard a Bencher of the
          Temple tell a story of a tradition in their house, where they had
          formerly a custom of choosing kings for such a season, and allowing
          him his expences at the charge of the society: One of our kings,
          said my friend, carried his royal inclination a little too far, and
          there was a committee ordered to look into the management of his
          treasury. Among other things it appeared, that his Majesty walking
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">incog.</span></span> in the cloister, had
          overheard a poor man say to another, Such a small sum would make me
          the happiest man in the world. The king out of his royal compassion
          privately inquired into his character, and finding him a proper
          object of charity, sent him the money. When the committee read the
          report, the house passed his accounts with a plaudite without
          further examination, upon the recital of this article in them,
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘For making a man happy,
          £10:0:0.’</span>?”</span><a id="noteref_766" name="noteref_766"
          href="#note_766"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">766</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Lord of Misrule at the English
              Court.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the English
          court the annual Lord of Misrule is not to be confounded with the
          Master of the Revels, who was a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> permanent official and probably despised the
          temporary Lord as an upstart rival and intruder. Certainly there
          seems to have been at times bad blood between them. Some
          correspondence which passed between the two merry monarchs in the
          reign of Edward VI. has been preserved, and from it we learn that
          on one occasion the Lord of Misrule had much difficulty in
          extracting from the Master of the Revels the fool's coat,
          hobby-horses, and other trumpery paraphernalia which he required
          for the proper support of his dignity. Indeed the costumes
          furnished by his rival were so shabby that his lordship returned
          them with a note, in which he informed the Master of the Revels
          that the gentlemen of rank and position who were to wear these
          liveries stood too much on their dignity to be seen prancing about
          the streets of London rigged out in such old slops. The Lords of
          Council had actually to interpose in the petty squabble between the
          two potentates.<a id="noteref_767" name="noteref_767" href=
          "#note_767"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">767</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Festival of Fools in
              France.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In France the
          counterparts of these English Lords of Misrule masqueraded in
          clerical attire as mock Bishops, Archbishops, Popes, or Abbots. The
          festival at which they disported themselves was known as the
          Festival of Fools (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Fête des
          Fous</span></span>), which fell in different places at different
          dates, sometimes on Christmas Day, sometimes on St. Stephen's Day
          (the twenty-sixth of December), sometimes on New Year's Day, and
          sometimes on Twelfth Day. According to one account <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“on the first day, which was the festival of Christmas,
          the lower orders of clergy and monks cried in unison <span lang=
          "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Noël</span></span> (Christmas) and gave
          themselves up to jollity. On the morrow, St. Stephen's Day, the
          deacons held a council to elect a Pope or Patriarch of Fools, a
          Bishop or Archbishop of Innocents, an Abbot of Ninnies; next day,
          the festival of St. John, the subdeacons began the dance in his
          honour; afterwards, on the fourth day, the festival of the Holy
          Innocents, the choristers and minor clergy claimed the Pope or
          Bishop or Abbot elect, who made his triumphal entry into the church
          on Circumcision Day (the first of January) and sat enthroned
          pontifically till the evening of Epiphany. It was then the joyous
          reign of this Pope or this Bishop or this Abbot of Folly which
          constituted the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg
          335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Festival of Fools and dominated its whimsical phases, the grotesque
          and sometimes impious masquerades, the merry and often disgusting
          scenes, the furious orgies, the dances, the games, the profane
          songs, the impudent parodies of the catholic liturgy.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_768" name="noteref_768" href="#note_768"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">768</span></span></a> At
          these parodies of the most solemn rites of the church the priests,
          wearing grotesque masks and sometimes dressed as women, danced in
          the choir and sang obscene chants: laymen disguised as monks and
          nuns mingled with the clergy: the altar was transformed into a
          tavern, where the deacons and subdeacons ate sausages and
          black-puddings or played at dice and cards under the nose of the
          celebrant; and the censers smoked with bits of old shoes instead of
          incense, filling the church with a foul stench. After playing these
          pranks and running, leaping, and cutting capers through the whole
          church, they rode about the town in mean carts, exchanging
          scurrilities with the crowds of laughing and jeering
          spectators.<a id="noteref_769" name="noteref_769" href=
          "#note_769"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">769</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Buffooneries in the churches at
              the Festival of Fools.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the
          buffooneries of the Festival of Fools one of the most remarkable
          was the introduction of an ass into the church, where various
          pranks were played with the animal. At Autun the ass was led with
          great ceremony to the church under a cloth of gold, the corners of
          which were held by four canons; and on entering the sacred edifice
          the animal was wrapt in a rich cope, while a parody of the mass was
          performed. A regular Latin liturgy in glorification of the ass was
          chanted on these occasions, and the celebrant priest imitated the
          braying of an ass. At Beauvais the ceremony <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was performed every year on the
          fourteenth of January. A young girl with a child in her arms rode
          on the back of the ass in imitation of the Flight into Egypt.
          Escorted by the clergy and the people she was led in triumph from
          the cathedral to the parish church of St. Stephen. There she and
          her ass were introduced into the chancel and stationed on the left
          side of the altar; and a long mass was performed which consisted of
          scraps borrowed indiscriminately from the services of many church
          festivals throughout the year. In the intervals the singers
          quenched their thirst: the congregation imitated their example; and
          the ass was fed and watered. The services over, the animal was
          brought from the chancel into the nave, where the whole
          congregation, clergy and laity mixed up together, danced round the
          animal and brayed like asses. Finally, after vespers and compline,
          the merry procession, led by the precentor and preceded by a huge
          lantern, defiled through the streets to wind up the day with
          indecent farces in a great theatre erected opposite the
          church.<a id="noteref_770" name="noteref_770" href=
          "#note_770"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">770</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Festival of the Innocents and the
              Boy Bishop in France.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A pale
          reflection or diminutive copy of the Festival of Fools was the
          Festival of the Innocents, which was celebrated on Childermas or
          Holy Innocents' Day, the twenty-eighth of December. The custom was
          widely observed both in France and England. In France on Childermas
          or the eve of the festival the choristers assembled in the church
          and chose one of their number to be a Boy Bishop, who officiated in
          that character with mock solemnity. Such burlesques of
          ecclesiastical ritual appear to have been common on that day in
          monasteries and convents, where the offices performed by the clergy
          and laity were inverted for the occasion. At the Franciscan
          monastery of Antibes, for example, the lay <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> brothers, who usually worked in the kitchen
          and the garden, took the place of the priests on Childermas and
          celebrated mass in church, clad in tattered sacerdotal vestments
          turned inside out, holding the books upside down, wearing
          spectacles made of orange peel, mumbling an unintelligible jargon,
          and uttering frightful cries. These buffooneries were kept up
          certainly as late as the eighteenth century,<a id="noteref_771"
          name="noteref_771" href="#note_771"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">771</span></span></a> and
          probably later. In the great convent of the Congrégation de Notre
          Dame at Paris down to the latter part of the nineteenth century the
          nuns and their girl pupils regularly exchanged parts on Holy
          Innocents' Day. The pupils pretended to be nuns and a select few of
          them were attired as such, while the nuns made believe to be
          pupils, without however changing their dress.<a id="noteref_772"
          name="noteref_772" href="#note_772"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">772</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Boy Bishop in England.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In England the
          Boy Bishop was widely popular during the later Middle Ages and only
          succumbed to the austerity of the Reformation. He is known, for
          example, to have officiated in St. Paul's, London, in the
          cathedrals of Salisbury, Exeter, Hereford, Gloucester, Lichfield,
          Norwich, Lincoln, and York, in great collegiate churches such as
          Beverley minster, St. Peter's, Canterbury, and Ottery St. Mary's,
          in college chapels such as Magdalen and All Souls' at Oxford, in
          the private chapels of the king, and in many parish churches
          throughout the country. The election was usually made on St.
          Nicholas's Day (the sixth of December), but the office and
          authority lasted till Holy Innocents' Day (the twenty-eighth of
          December). Both days were appropriate, for St. Nicholas was the
          patron saint of school children, and Holy Innocents' Day
          commemorates the slaughter of the young children by Herod. In
          cathedrals the Bishop was chosen from among the choir boys. After
          his election he was completely apparelled in the episcopal
          vestments, with a mitre and crosier, bore the title and displayed
          the state of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg
          338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a
          Bishop, and exacted ceremonial obedience from his fellows, who were
          dressed like priests. They took possession of the church and, with
          the exception of mass, performed all the ceremonies and offices.
          The Boy Bishop preached from the pulpit. At Salisbury the
          ceremonies at which he presided are elaborately regulated by the
          statutes of Roger de Mortival, enacted in 1319; and two of the
          great service-books of the Sarum use, the Breviary and the
          Processional, furnish full details of the ministrations of the Boy
          Bishop and his fellows. He is even said to have enjoyed the right
          of disposing of such prebends as happened to fall vacant during the
          days of his episcopacy. But the pranks of the mock bishop were not
          confined to the church. Arrayed in full canonicals he was led about
          with songs and dances from house to house, blessing the grinning
          people and collecting money in return for his benedictions. At York
          in the year 1396 the Boy Bishop is known to have gone on his rounds
          to places so far distant as Bridlington, Leeds, Beverley, Fountains
          Abbey, and Allerton; and the profits which he made were
          considerable. William of Wykeham ordained in 1400 that a Boy Bishop
          should be chosen at Winchester College and another at New College,
          Oxford, and that he should recite the office at the Feast of the
          Innocents. His example was followed some forty years afterwards in
          the statutes of the royal foundations of Eton College and of King's
          College, Cambridge. From being elected on St. Nicholas's Day the
          Boy Bishop was sometimes called a Nicholas Bishop (<span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Episcopus Nicholatensis</span></span>).<a id=
          "noteref_773" name="noteref_773" href="#note_773"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">773</span></span></a> In
          Spanish cathedrals, also, it appears to have been customary on St.
          Nicholas's Day to elect a chorister to the office of Bishop. He
          exercised a certain jurisdiction till Holy Innocents' Day, and his
          prebendaries took secular offices, acting in the capacity of
          alguazils, catchpoles, dog-whippers, and sweepers.<a id=
          "noteref_774" name="noteref_774" href="#note_774"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">774</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The customs and superstitions
              associated with the Twelve Days or Nights are probably relics
              of an old heathen festival of intercalation at
              midwinter.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole it
          seems difficult to suppose that the a curious superstitions and
          quaint ceremonies, the outbursts <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> of profanity and the inversions of ranks,
          which characterize the popular celebration of the twelve days from
          Christmas to Epiphany, have any connexion with the episodes of
          Christian history believed to be commemorated by these two
          festivals. More probably they are relics of an old heathen festival
          celebrated during the twelve intercalary days which our forefathers
          annually inserted in their calendar at midwinter in order to
          equalize the short lunar year of twelve months with the longer
          solar year of three hundred and sixty-five or sixty-six days. We
          need not assume that the license and buffooneries of the festive
          season were borrowed from the Roman Saturnalia; both celebrations
          may well have been parallel and independent deductions from a like
          primitive philosophy of nature. There is not indeed, so far as I am
          aware, any direct evidence that the Saturnalia at Rome was an
          intercalary festival; but the license which characterized it, and
          the temporary reign of a mock king, who personated Saturn, suggest
          that it may have been so. If we were better acquainted with the
          intercalary periods of peoples at a comparatively low level of
          culture, we might find that they are commonly marked by similar
          outbreaks of lawlessness and similar reigns of more or less nominal
          and farcical rulers. But unfortunately we know too little about the
          observance of such periods among primitive peoples to be warranted
          in making any positive affirmation on the subject.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Superstitions associated with
              intercalary periods among the Aztecs of Mexico and the Mayas of
              Yucatan.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, there
          are grounds for thinking that intercalary periods have commonly
          been esteemed unlucky. The Aztecs certainly regarded as very
          unlucky the five supplementary days which they added at the end of
          every year in order to make up a total of three hundred and
          sixty-five days.<a id="noteref_775" name="noteref_775" href=
          "#note_775"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">775</span></span></a> These
          five supplementary days, corresponding to the last four of January
          and the first of February, were called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">nemontemi</span></span>, which means
          <span class="tei tei-q">“vacant,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“superfluous,”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“useless.”</span> Being dedicated to no god, they were
          deemed inauspicious, equally unfit for the services of religion and
          the transaction of civil business. During their continuance no
          sacrifices were offered by the priests and no worshippers
          frequented the temples. No cases were tried in the courts of
          justice. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg
          340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          houses were not swept. People abstained from all actions of
          importance and confined themselves to performing such as could not
          be avoided, or spent the time in paying visits to each other. In
          particular they were careful during these fatal days not to fall
          asleep in the daytime, not to quarrel, and not to stumble; because
          they thought that if they did such things at that time they would
          continue to do so for ever. Persons born on any of these days were
          deemed unfortunate, destined to fail in their undertakings and to
          live in wretchedness and poverty all their time on earth.<a id=
          "noteref_776" name="noteref_776" href="#note_776"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">776</span></span></a> The
          Mayas of Yucatan employed a calendar like that of the Aztecs, and
          they too looked upon the five supplementary days at the end of the
          year as unlucky and of evil omen; hence they gave no names to these
          days, and while they lasted the people stayed for the most part at
          home; they neither washed themselves, nor combed their hair, nor
          loused each other; and they did no servile or fatiguing work lest
          some evil should befall them.<a id="noteref_777" name="noteref_777"
          href="#note_777"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">777</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The five supplementary days of the
              year in ancient Egypt.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ancient
          Egyptians like the Aztecs considered a year to consist of three
          hundred and sixty ordinary days divided into months and eked out
          with five supplementary days so as to bring the total number of
          days in the year up to three hundred and sixty-five; but whereas
          the Aztecs divided the three hundred and sixty ordinary days into
          eighteen arbitrary divisions or months of twenty days each, the
          Egyptians, keeping much closer to the natural periods marked by the
          phases of the moon, divided these days into twelve months of thirty
          days each.<a id="noteref_778" name="noteref_778" href=
          "#note_778"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">778</span></span></a> This
          mode of regulating the calendar appears to be exceedingly ancient
          in Egypt and may even date from the prehistoric period; for the
          five days over and above the year (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">haru duaït hiru
          ronpit</span></span>) are expressly mentioned in the texts of the
          pyramids.<a id="noteref_779" name="noteref_779" href=
          "#note_779"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">779</span></span></a> The
          myth told to explain their <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> origin was as follows. Once on a time the
          earth-god Keb lay secretly with the sky-goddess Nut, and the
          sun-god Ra in his anger cursed the goddess, saying that she should
          give birth to her offspring neither in any month nor in any year.
          He thought, no doubt, by this imprecation to prevent her from
          bringing forth the fruit of her womb. But he was outwitted by the
          wily Thoth, who engaged the goddess of the moon in a game of
          draughts and having won the game took as a forfeit from her the
          seventieth part of every day in the year, and out of the fractions
          thus abstracted he made up five new days, which he added to the old
          year of three hundred and sixty days. As these days formed no part
          either of a month or of a year, the goddess Nut might be delivered
          in them without rendering the sun-god's curse void and of no
          effect. Accordingly she bore Osiris on the first of the days, Horus
          on the second, Set or Typhon on the third, Isis on the fourth, and
          Nephthys on the fifth. Of these five supplementary or intercalary
          days the third, as the birthday of the evil deity Set or Typhon,
          was deemed unlucky, and the Egyptian kings neither transacted
          business on it nor attended to their persons till nightfall.<a id=
          "noteref_780" name="noteref_780" href="#note_780"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">780</span></span></a> Thus
          it appears that the ancient Egyptians regarded the five
          supplementary or intercalary days as belonging neither to a month
          nor to a year, but as standing outside of both and forming an
          extraordinary period quite apart and distinct from the ordinary
          course of time. It is probable, though we cannot prove it, that in
          all countries intercalary days or months have been so considered
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name=
          "Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by the primitive
          astronomers who first observed the discrepancy between solar and
          lunar time and attempted to reconcile it by the expedient of
          intercalation.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Early attempts of the Aryan
              peoples to correct the lunar year by intercalating a month at
              intervals of several years instead of intercalating twelve days
              in every year.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus we infer
          with some probability that the sacred Twelve Days or Nights at
          midwinter derive their peculiar character in popular custom and
          superstition from the circumstance that they were originally an
          intercalary period inserted annually at the end of a lunar year of
          three hundred and fifty-four days for the purpose of equating it to
          a solar year reckoned at three hundred and sixty-six days. However,
          there are grounds for thinking that at a very early time the Aryan
          peoples sought to correct their lunar year, not by inserting twelve
          supplementary days every year, but by allowing the annual
          deficiency to accumulate for several years and then supplying it by
          a whole intercalary month. In India the Aryans of the Vedic age
          appear to have adopted a year of three hundred and sixty days,
          divided into twelve months of thirty days each, and to have
          remedied the annual deficiency of five days by intercalating a
          whole month of thirty days every fifth year, thus regulating their
          calendar according to a five years' cycle.<a id="noteref_781" name=
          "noteref_781" href="#note_781"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">781</span></span></a> The
          Celts of Gaul, as we learn from the Coligny calendar, also adopted
          a five years' cycle, but they managed it differently. They retained
          the old lunar year of three hundred and fifty-four days divided
          into twelve months, six of thirty days and six of twenty-nine days;
          but instead of intercalating twelve days every year to restore the
          balance between lunar and solar time they intercalated a month of
          thirty days every two and a half years, so that in each cycle of
          five years the total number of intercalary days was sixty, which
          was equivalent to intercalating twelve days annually. Thus the
          result at the end of each cycle of five years was precisely the
          same as it would have been if they had followed the old system of
          annual intercalation.<a id="noteref_782" name="noteref_782" href=
          "#note_782"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">782</span></span></a> Why
          they abandoned the simple and obvious <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> expedient of annually intercalating twelve
          days, and adopted instead the more recondite system of
          intercalating a month of thirty days every two and a half years, is
          not plain. It may be that religious or political motives unknown to
          us concurred with practical considerations to recommend the change.
          One result of the reform would be the abolition of the temporary
          king who, if I am right, used to bear a somewhat tumultuary sway
          over the community during the saturnalia of the Twelve Days.
          Perhaps the annually recurring disorders which attended that period
          of license were not the least urgent of the reasons which moved the
          rulers to strike the twelve intercalary days out of the year and to
          replace them by an intercalary month at longer intervals.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Equivalence of the new intercalary
              month to the old intercalary Twelve Days multiplied by two and
              a half. The intercalary month may have been a period of
              license, during which the reins of government were held by a
              temporary king.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However that may
          be, the equivalence of the new intercalary month to the old
          intercalary Twelve Days multiplied by two and a half is strongly
          suggested by a remarkable feature of the Coligny calendar; for in
          it the thirty days of the intercalary month, which bore the name of
          Ciallos, are named after the ordinary twelve months of the year.
          Thus the first day of the intercalary month is called Samon, which
          is the name of the first month of the year; the second day of the
          month is called Dumannos, which is the name of the second month of
          the year; the third day of the month is called Rivros, which is the
          name of the third month of the year; the fourth day of the month is
          called Anacan, which is the name of the fourth month of the year;
          and so on with <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg
          344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          all the rest, so that the thirty days of the intercalary month bear
          the names of the twelve months of the year repeated two and a half
          times.<a id="noteref_783" name="noteref_783" href=
          "#note_783"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">783</span></span></a> This
          seems to shew that, just as our modern peasants regard the Twelve
          Days as representing each a month of the year in their
          chronological order, so the old Celts of Gaul who drew up the
          Coligny calendar regarded the thirty days of the intercalary month
          as representing the thirty ordinary months which were to follow it
          till the next intercalation took place. And we may conjecture that
          just as our modern peasants still draw omens from the Twelve Days
          for the twelve succeeding months, so the old Celts drew omens from
          the thirty days of the intercalary month for the thirty months of
          the two and a half succeeding years. Indeed we may suppose that the
          reformers of the calendar transferred, or attempted to transfer, to
          the new intercalary month the whole of the quaint customs and
          superstitions which from time immemorial had clustered round the
          twelve intercalary days of the old year. Thus, like the old Twelve
          Days of midwinter, the thirty days of the new intercalary month may
          have formed an interregnum or break in the ordinary course of
          government, a tumultuary period of general license, during which
          the ordinary rules of law and morality were suspended and the
          direction of affairs committed to a temporary and more or less
          farcical ruler or King of the Bean, who may possibly have had to
          pay with his life for his brief reign of thirty days. The floating
          traditions of such merry monarchs and of the careless
          happy-go-lucky life under them may have crystallized in after ages
          into the legend of Saturn and the Golden Age. If that was so—and I
          put forward the hypothesis for no more than a web of conjectures
          woven from the gossamer threads of popular superstition—we can
          understand why the Twelve Days, intercalated every year in the old
          calendar, should have survived to the present day in the memory of
          the people, whereas the thirty days, intercalated every two and a
          half years in the new calendar, have long been forgotten. It is the
          simplest ideas that live longest in the simple minds <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the peasantry; and since the
          intercalation of twelve days in every year to allow the lagging
          moon to keep pace with the longer stride of the sun is certainly an
          easier and more obvious expedient than to wait for two and a half
          years till he has outrun her by thirty days, we need not wonder
          that this ancient mode of harmonizing lunar and solar time should
          have lingered in the recollection and in the usages of the people
          ages after the more roundabout method, which reflective minds had
          devised for accomplishing the same end, had faded alike from the
          memory of the peasant and the page of the historian.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> <a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Saturnalia and
          Lent.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The modern Carnival is perhaps the
              equivalent of the ancient Saturnalia.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the Carnival
          is always held on the last three days before the beginning of Lent,
          its date shifts somewhat from year to year, but it invariably falls
          either in February or March. Hence it does not coincide with the
          date of the Saturnalia, which within historical times seems to have
          been always celebrated in December even in the old days, before
          Caesar's reform of the calendar, when the Roman year ended with
          February instead of December.<a id="noteref_784" name="noteref_784"
          href="#note_784"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">784</span></span></a> Yet
          if the Saturnalia, like many other seasons of license, was
          originally celebrated as a sort of public purification at the end
          of the old year or the beginning of the new one, it may at a still
          more remote period, when the Roman year began with March, have been
          regularly held either in February or March and therefore at
          approximately the same date as the modern Carnival. So strong and
          persistent are the conservative instincts of the peasantry in
          respect to old custom, that it would be no matter for surprise if,
          in rural districts of Italy, the ancient festival continued to be
          celebrated at the ancient time long <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> after the official celebration of the
          Saturnalia in the towns had been shifted from February to December.
          Latin Christianity, which struck at the root of official or civic
          paganism, has always been tolerant of its rustic cousins, the
          popular festivals and ceremonies which, unaffected by political and
          religious revolutions, by the passing of empires and of gods, have
          been carried on by the people with but little change from time
          immemorial, and represent in fact the original stock from which the
          state religions of classical antiquity were comparatively late
          offshoots. Thus it may very well have come about that while the new
          faith stamped out the Saturnalia in the towns, it suffered the
          original festival, disguised by a difference of date, to linger
          unmolested in the country; and so the old feast of Saturn, under
          the modern name of the Carnival, has reconquered the cities, and
          goes on merrily under the eye and with the sanction of the Catholic
          Church.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Saturnalia may have originally
              fallen at the end of February, which would be an appropriate
              time for a festival of sowing.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The opinion that
          the Saturnalia originally fell in February or the beginning of
          March receives some support from the circumstance that the festival
          of the Matronalia, at which mistresses feasted their slaves just as
          masters did theirs at the Saturnalia, always continued to be held
          on the first of March, even when the Roman year began with
          January.<a id="noteref_785" name="noteref_785" href=
          "#note_785"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">785</span></span></a> It is
          further not a little recommended by the consideration that this
          date would be eminently appropriate for the festival of Saturn, the
          old Italian god of sowing and planting. It has always been a puzzle
          to explain why such a festival should have been held at midwinter;
          but on the present hypothesis the mystery vanishes. With the
          Italian farmer February and March were the great season of the
          spring sowing and planting;<a id="noteref_786" name="noteref_786"
          href="#note_786"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">786</span></span></a>
          nothing could be more natural than that the husbandman should
          inaugurate the season with the worship of the deity to whom he
          ascribed the function of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg
          347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          quickening the seed. It is no small confirmation of this theory
          that the last day of the Carnival, namely Shrove Tuesday, is still,
          or was down to recent times, the customary season in Central Europe
          for promoting the growth of the crops by means of leaps and
          dances.<a id="noteref_787" name="noteref_787" href=
          "#note_787"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">787</span></span></a> The
          custom fits in very well with the view which derives the Carnival
          from an old festival of sowing such as the Saturnalia probably was
          in its origin. Further, the orgiastic character of the festival is
          readily explained by the help of facts which met us in a former
          part of our investigation. We have seen that between the sower and
          the seed there is commonly supposed to exist a sympathetic
          connexion of such a nature that his conduct directly affects and
          can promote or retard the growth of the crops.<a id="noteref_788"
          name="noteref_788" href="#note_788"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">788</span></span></a> What
          wonder then if the simple husbandman imagined that by cramming his
          belly, by swilling and guzzling just before he proceeded to sow his
          fields, he thereby imparted additional vigour to the seed?<a id=
          "noteref_789" name="noteref_789" href="#note_789"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">789</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Lenten fast in spring may be
              an old heathen period of abstinence intended to promote the
              growth of the seed. Autumnal rites of mourning and fasting for
              the sake of the seed.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while his
          crude philosophy may thus have painted gluttony and intoxication in
          the agreeable colours of duties which he owed to himself, to his
          family, and to the commonwealth, it is possible that the zest with
          which he acquitted himself of his obligations may have been whetted
          by a less comfortable reflection. In modern times the indulgence of
          the Carnival is immediately followed by the abstinence of Lent; and
          if the Carnival is the direct descendant of the Saturnalia, may not
          Lent in like manner be merely the continuation, under a thin
          disguise, of a period of temperance which was annually observed,
          from superstitious motives, by Italian farmers long before the
          Christian era? Direct evidence of this, so far as I am aware, is
          not forthcoming; but we have seen that a practice of abstinence
          from fleshly lusts has been observed by various peoples as a
          sympathetic charm to foster the growth of the seed;<a id=
          "noteref_790" name="noteref_790" href="#note_790"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">790</span></span></a> and
          such an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg
          348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          observance would be an appropriate sequel to the Saturnalia, if
          that festival was indeed, as I conjecture it to have been,
          originally held in spring as a religious or magical preparation for
          sowing and planting. When we consider how widely diffused is the
          belief in the sympathetic influence which human conduct, and
          especially the intercourse of the sexes, exerts on the fruits of
          the earth, we may be allowed to conjecture that the Lenten fast,
          with the rule of continence which is recommended, if not strictly
          enjoined, by the Catholic and Coptic churches during that
          season,<a id="noteref_791" name="noteref_791" href=
          "#note_791"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">791</span></span></a> was
          in its origin intended, not so much to commemorate the sufferings
          of a dying god, as to foster the growth of the seed, which in the
          bleak days of early spring the husbandman commits with anxious care
          and misgiving to the bosom of the naked earth. Ecclesiastical
          historians have been puzzled to say why after much hesitation and
          great diversity of usage in different places the Christian church
          finally adopted forty days as the proper period for the mournful
          celebration of Lent.<a id="noteref_792" name="noteref_792" href=
          "#note_792"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">792</span></span></a>
          Perhaps in coming to this decision the authorities were guided, as
          so often, by a regard for an existing pagan celebration of similar
          character and duration which they hoped by a change of name to
          convert into a Christian solemnity. Such a heathen Lent they may
          have found to hand in the rites of Persephone, the Greek goddess of
          the corn, whose image, carved out of a tree, was annually brought
          into the cities and mourned for forty nights, after which it was
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name=
          "Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> burned.<a id=
          "noteref_793" name="noteref_793" href="#note_793"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">793</span></span></a> The
          time of year when these lamentations took place is not mentioned by
          the old Christian writer who records them; but they would fall most
          appropriately at the season when the seed was sown or, in mythical
          language, when the corn-goddess was buried, which in ancient Italy,
          as we saw, was done above all in the months of February and March.
          We know that at the time of the autumnal sowing Greek women held a
          sad and serious festival because the Corn-goddess Persephone or the
          Maiden, as they called her, then went down into the earth with the
          sown grain, and Demeter fondly mourned her daughter's absence;
          hence in sympathy with the sorrowful mother the women likewise
          mourned and observed a solemn fast and abstained from the marriage
          bed.<a id="noteref_794" name="noteref_794" href=
          "#note_794"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">794</span></span></a> It is
          reasonable, therefore, to suppose that they practised similar rules
          of mourning and abstinence for a like reason at the time of the
          spring sowing, and that the ancient ritual survives in the modern
          Lent, which preserves the memory of the <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mater Dolorosa</span></span>, though it has
          substituted a dead Son for a dead Daughter.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Buddhist Lent.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Be that as it
          may, it is worthy of note that in Burma a similar fast, which
          English writers call the Buddhist Lent, is observed for three
          months every year while the ploughing and sowing of the fields go
          forward; and the custom is believed to be far older than Buddhism,
          which has merely given it a superficial tinge like the veneer of
          Christianity which, if I am right, has overlaid an old heathen
          observance in Lent. This Burmese Lent, we are told, covers the
          rainy season from the full moon of July to the full moon of
          October. <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the time to plough, this
          is the time to sow; on the villagers' exertions in these months
          depends all their maintenance for the rest of the year. Every man,
          every woman, every child, has hard work of some kind or another.
          And so, what with <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg
          350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the difficulties of travelling, what with the work there is to do,
          and what with the custom of Lent, every one stays at home. It is
          the time for prayer, for fasting, for improving the soul. Many men
          during these months will live even as the monks live, will eat but
          before midday, will abstain from tobacco. There are no plays during
          Lent, and there are no marriages. It is the time for preparing the
          land for the crop; it is the time for preparing the soul for
          eternity. The congregations on the Sundays will be far greater at
          this time than at any other; there will be more thought of the
          serious things of life.”</span><a id="noteref_795" name=
          "noteref_795" href="#note_795"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">795</span></span></a></p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a> <a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. Saturnalia in Ancient
          Greece.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Inversion of social ranks at
              ancient Greek festivals held in Crete, Troezen, and
              Thessaly.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Beyond the
          limits of Italy festivals of the same general character as the
          Saturnalia appear to have been held over a considerable area of the
          ancient world. A characteristic feature of the Saturnalia, as we
          saw, was an inversion of social ranks, masters changing places with
          their slaves and waiting upon them, while slaves were indulged with
          a semblance not merely of freedom but even of power and office. In
          various parts of Greece the same hollow show of granting liberty to
          slaves was made at certain festivals. Thus at a Cretan festival of
          Hermes the servants feasted and their masters waited upon them. In
          the month of Geraestius the Troezenians observed a certain
          solemnity lasting many days, on one of which the slaves played at
          dice with the citizens and were treated to a banquet by their
          lords. The Thessalians held a great festival called Peloria, which
          Baton of Sinope identified with the Saturnalia, and of which the
          antiquity is vouched for by a tradition that it originated with the
          Pelasgians. At this festival sacrifices were offered to Pelorian
          Zeus, tables splendidly adorned were set out, all strangers were
          invited to the feast, all prisoners released, and the slaves sat
          down to the banquet, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg
          351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          enjoyed full freedom of speech, and were served by their
          masters.<a id="noteref_796" name="noteref_796" href=
          "#note_796"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">796</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Greek festival of the Cronia
              compared to the Roman Saturnalia. The Olympian Cronia held at
              the spring equinox.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Greek
          festival which appears to have corresponded most closely to the
          Italian Saturnalia was the Cronia or festival of Cronus, a god
          whose barbarous myth and cruel ritual clearly belong to a very
          early stratum of Greek religion, and who was by the unanimous voice
          of antiquity identified with Saturn. We are told that his festival
          was celebrated in most parts of Greece, but especially at Athens,
          where the old god and his wife Rhea had a shrine near the stately,
          but far more modern, temple of Olympian Zeus. A joyous feast, at
          which masters and slaves sat down together, formed a leading
          feature of the solemnity. At Athens the festival fell in the height
          of summer, on the twelfth day of the month Hecatombaeon, formerly
          called the month of Cronus, which answered nearly to July; and
          tradition ran that Cecrops, the first king of Attica, had founded
          an altar in honour of Cronus and Rhea, and had ordained that master
          and man should share a common meal when the harvest was got
          in.<a id="noteref_797" name="noteref_797" href=
          "#note_797"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">797</span></span></a> Yet
          there are indications that at Athens the Cronia may once have been
          a spring festival. For a cake with twelve knobs, which perhaps
          referred to the twelve months of the year, was offered to Cronus by
          the Athenians on the fifteenth day of the month Elaphebolion, which
          corresponded roughly to March,<a id="noteref_798" name=
          "noteref_798" href="#note_798"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">798</span></span></a> and
          there are traces of a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg
          352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          license accorded to slaves at the Dionysiac festival of the opening
          of the wine-jars, which fell on the eleventh day of the preceding
          month Anthesterion.<a id="noteref_799" name="noteref_799" href=
          "#note_799"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">799</span></span></a> At
          Olympia the festival of Cronus undoubtedly occurred in spring; for
          here a low but steep hill, now covered with a tangled growth of
          dark holly-oaks and firs, was sacred to him, and on its top certain
          magistrates, who bore the title of kings, offered sacrifice to the
          old god at the vernal equinox in the Elean month Elaphius.<a id=
          "noteref_800" name="noteref_800" href="#note_800"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">800</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The magistrates called Kings who
              celebrated the Cronia at Olympia may have personated King
              Cronus himself. Perhaps the man who annually personated King
              Cronus was put to death. A man annually sacrificed to Cronus at
              the Cronia in Rhodes.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this last
          ceremony, which probably went on year by year long before the
          upstart Zeus had a temple built for himself at the foot of the
          hill, there are two points of special interest, first the date of
          the ceremony, and second the title of the celebrants. First, as to
          the date, the spring equinox, or the twenty-first of March, must
          have fallen so near the fifteenth day of the Athenian month
          Elaphebolion, that we may fairly ask whether the Athenian custom of
          offering a cake to Cronus on that day may not also have been an
          equinoctial ceremony. In the second place, the title of kings borne
          by the magistrates who sacrificed to Cronus renders it probable
          that, like magistrates with similar high-sounding titles elsewhere
          in republican Greece, they were the lineal descendants of sacred
          kings whom the superstition of their subjects invested with the
          attributes of divinity.<a id="noteref_801" name="noteref_801" href=
          "#note_801"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">801</span></span></a> If
          that was so, it would be natural enough that one of these
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name=
          "Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> nominal kings should
          pose as the god Cronus in person. For, like his Italian counterpart
          Saturn, the Greek Cronus was believed to have been a king who
          reigned in heaven or on earth during the blissful Golden Age, when
          men passed their days like gods without toil or sorrow, when life
          was a long round of festivity, and death came like sleep, sudden
          but gentle, announced by none of his sad forerunners, the ailments
          and infirmities of age.<a id="noteref_802" name="noteref_802" href=
          "#note_802"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">802</span></span></a> Thus
          the analogy of the Olympian Cronia, probably one of the oldest of
          Greek festivals, to the Italian Saturnalia would be very close if
          originally, as I conjecture, the Saturnalia fell in spring and
          Saturn was personated at it, as we have good reason to believe, by
          a man dressed as a king. May we go a step further and suppose that,
          just as the man who acted King Saturn at the Saturnalia was
          formerly slain in that character, so one of the kings who
          celebrated the Cronia at Olympia not only played the part of
          Cronus, but was sacrificed, as god and victim in one, on the top of
          the hill? Cronus certainly bore a sinister reputation in antiquity.
          He passed for an unnatural parent who had devoured his own
          offspring, and he was regularly identified by the Greeks with the
          cruel Semitic Baals who delighted in the sacrifice of human
          victims, especially of children.<a id="noteref_803" name=
          "noteref_803" href="#note_803"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">803</span></span></a> A
          legend which savours strongly of infant sacrifice is reported of a
          shrine that stood at the very foot of the god's own hill at
          Olympia;<a id="noteref_804" name="noteref_804" href=
          "#note_804"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">804</span></span></a> and a
          quite unambiguous story was told of the sacrifice of a babe to
          Lycaean Zeus on Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia, where the worship of Zeus
          was probably nothing but a continuation, under a new name, of the
          old worship of Cronus, and where human victims appear to have been
          regularly offered down to the Christian era.<a id="noteref_805"
          name="noteref_805" href="#note_805"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">805</span></span></a> The
          Rhodians annually sacrificed a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> man to Cronus in the month Metageitnion; at a
          later time they kept a condemned criminal in prison till the
          festival of the Cronia was come, then led him forth outside the
          gates, made him drunk with wine, and cut his throat.<a id=
          "noteref_806" name="noteref_806" href="#note_806"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">806</span></span></a> With
          the parallel of the Saturnalia before our eyes, we may surmise that
          the victim who thus ended his life in a state of intoxication at
          the Cronia perhaps personated King Cronus himself, the god who
          reigned in the happy days of old when men had nothing to do but to
          eat and drink and make merry. At least the Rhodian custom lends
          some countenance to the conjecture that formerly a human victim may
          have figured at the sacrifice which the so-called kings offered to
          Cronus on his hill at Olympia. In this connexion it is to be
          remembered that we have already found well-attested examples of a
          custom of sacrificing the scions of royal houses in ancient
          Greece.<a id="noteref_807" name="noteref_807" href=
          "#note_807"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">807</span></span></a> If
          the god to whom, or perhaps rather in whose character, the princes
          were sacrificed, was Cronus, it would be natural that the Greeks of
          a later age should identify him with Baal or Moloch, to whom in
          like manner Semitic kings offered up their children. The Laphystian
          Zeus of Thessaly and Boeotia, whom tradition associated with these
          human sacrifices, was probably, like the Lycaean Zeus of Arcadia,
          nothing but the aboriginal deity, commonly known as Cronus, whose
          gloomy rites the Greek invaders suffered the priests of the
          vanquished race to continue after the ancient manner, while they
          quieted their scruples of conscience or satisfied their pride as
          conquerors by investing the bloodthirsty old savage with the name,
          if not with the character, of their own milder deity, the humane
          and gracious Zeus.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a> <a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. Saturnalia in Western
          Asia.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Babylonian festival of the
              Sacaea.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we pass
          from Europe to western Asia, from ancient Greece to ancient Babylon
          and the regions where Babylonian influence penetrated, we are still
          met with festivals which bear the closest resemblance to the oldest
          form of the Italian Saturnalia. The reader may remember the
          festival of the Sacaea, on which I had occasion to touch in
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name=
          "Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an earlier part of
          this work.<a id="noteref_808" name="noteref_808" href=
          "#note_808"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">808</span></span></a> It
          was held at Babylon during five days of the month Lous, beginning
          with the sixteenth day of the month. During its continuance, just
          as at the Saturnalia, masters and servants changed places, the
          servants issuing orders and the masters obeying them; and in each
          house one of the servants, dressed as a king and bearing the title
          of Zoganes, bore rule over the household. Further, just as at the
          Saturnalia in its original form a man was dressed as King Saturn in
          royal robes, allowed to indulge his passions and caprices to the
          full, and then put to death, so at the Sacaea a condemned prisoner,
          who probably also bore for the time being the title of Zoganes, was
          arrayed in the king's attire and suffered to play the despot, to
          use the king's concubines, and to give himself up to feasting and
          debauchery without restraint, only however in the end to be stript
          of his borrowed finery, scourged, and hanged or crucified.<a id=
          "noteref_809" name="noteref_809" href="#note_809"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">809</span></span></a> From
          Strabo we learn that this Asiatic counterpart of the Saturnalia was
          celebrated in Asia Minor wherever the worship of the Persian
          goddess Anaitis had established itself. He describes it as a
          Bacchic orgy, at which the revellers were disguised as Scythians,
          and men and women drank and dallied together by day and
          night.<a id="noteref_810" name="noteref_810" href=
          "#note_810"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">810</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Sacaea by some identified with
              Zakmuk or Zagmuk, the Babylonian festival of the New Year,
              which was held about the spring equinox in March. Annual
              renewal of the king of Babylon's power at the Zakmuk
              festival.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the worship
          of Anaitis, though of Persian origin, appears to have been deeply
          leavened with coarse elements which it derived from the religion of
          Babylon,<a id="noteref_811" name="noteref_811" href=
          "#note_811"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">811</span></span></a> we
          may perhaps regard Mesopotamia as the original home from which the
          Sacaean festival spread westward into other parts of Asia Minor.
          Now the Sacaean festival, described by the Babylonian priest
          Berosus in the first book of his history of Babylon, has been
          plausibly identified<a id="noteref_812" name="noteref_812" href=
          "#note_812"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">812</span></span></a> with
          the great <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg
          356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Babylonian festival of the New year called Zakmuk, Zagmuk, Zakmuku,
          or Zagmuku, which has become known to us in recent times through
          inscriptions. The Babylonian year began with the spring month of
          Nisan, which seems to have covered the second half of March and the
          first half of April. Thus the New Year festival, which occupied at
          least the first eleven days of Nisan, probably included the spring
          equinox. It was held in honour of Marduk or Merodach, the chief god
          of Babylon, whose great temple of Esagila in the city formed the
          religious centre of the solemnity. For here, in a splendid chamber
          of the vast edifice, all the gods were believed to assemble at this
          season under the presidency of Marduk for the purpose of
          determining the fates for the new year, especially the fate of the
          king's life. On this occasion the king of Babylon was bound
          annually to renew his regal power by grasping the hands of the
          image of Marduk in his temple, as if to signify that he received
          the kingdom directly from the deity and was unable without the
          divine assistance and authority to retain it for more than a year.
          Unless he thus formally reinstated himself on the throne once a
          year, the king ceased to reign legitimately. When Babylonia was
          conquered by Assyria, the Assyrian monarchs themselves used to come
          to Babylon and perform the ceremony of grasping the god's hands in
          order to establish by this solemn act their title to the kingdom
          which they had won for themselves by the sword; until they had done
          so, they were not recognized as kings by their Babylonian subjects.
          Some of them indeed found the ceremony either so burdensome or so
          humiliating to their pride as conquerors, that rather than perform
          it they renounced the title of king of Babylon altogether and
          contented themselves with the more modest title of regent. Another
          notable feature of the Babylonian festival of the New Year appears
          to have been a ceremonial marriage of the god Marduk; for in a hymn
          relating to the solemnity it is said of the deity that <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“he hastened to his bridal.”</span> The festival was of
          hoar antiquity, for it was known to Gudea, an old king of Southern
          Babylonia who flourished between two and three thousand years
          before the beginning of our era, and it is mentioned in an early
          account of the Great Flood. At <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> a much later period it is repeatedly referred
          to by King Nebuchadnezzar and his successors. Nebuchadnezzar
          records how he built of bricks and bitumen a chapel or altar,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“a thing of joy and rejoicing,”</span> for
          the great festival of Marduk, the lord of the gods; and we read of
          the rich and abundant offerings which were made by the high priest
          at this time.<a id="noteref_813" name="noteref_813" href=
          "#note_813"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">813</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Reasons for identifying the Sacaea
              with Zakmuk.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unfortunately
          the notices of this Babylonian festival of the New Year which have
          come down to us deal chiefly with its mythical aspect and throw
          little light on the mode of its celebration. Hence its identity
          with the Sacaea must remain for the present a more or less probable
          hypothesis. In favour of the hypothesis may be alleged in the first
          place the resemblance of the names Sacaea and Zoganes to Zakmuk or
          Zagmuku, if that was the real pronunciation of the name,<a id=
          "noteref_814" name="noteref_814" href="#note_814"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">814</span></span></a> and
          in the second place the very significant statement that the fate of
          the king's life was supposed to be determined by the gods, under
          the presidency of Marduk, at the Zakmuk or New Year's
          festival.<a id="noteref_815" name="noteref_815" href=
          "#note_815"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">815</span></span></a> When
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name=
          "Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we remember that the
          central feature of the Sacaea appears to have been the saving of
          the king's life for another year by the vicarious sacrifice of a
          criminal on the cross or the gallows, we can understand that the
          season was a critical one for the king, and that it may well have
          been regarded as determining his fate for the ensuing twelve
          months. The annual ceremony of renewing the king's power by contact
          with the god's image, which formed a leading feature of the Zakmuk
          festival, would be very appropriately performed immediately after
          the execution or sacrifice of the temporary king who died in the
          room of the real monarch.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">A difficulty in identifying the
              Sacaea with Zakmuk is that the two festivals seem to have been
              celebrated at different times of the year, Zakmuk falling in
              March and the Sacaea in July. Suggested ways of meeting the
              difficulty.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A difficulty,
          however, in the way of identifying the Sacaea with the Zakmuk
          arises from the statement of Berosus that the Sacaea fell on the
          sixteenth day of Lous, which was the tenth month of the
          Syro-Macedonian calendar and appears to have nearly coincided with
          July. Thus if the Sacaea occurred in July and the Zakmuk in March,
          the theory of their identity could not be maintained. But the
          dating of the months of the Syro-Macedonian calendar is a matter of
          some uncertainty; the month of Lous in particular appears to have
          fallen at different times of the year in different places,<a id=
          "noteref_816" name="noteref_816" href="#note_816"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">816</span></span></a> and
          until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when Lous fell
          at Babylon in the time of Berosus, it would be premature to allow
          much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of the two
          festivals. At all events, whether the festivals were the same or
          different, we are confronted with difficulties which in the present
          state of our knowledge may be pronounced insoluble. If the
          festivals were the same, we cannot explain their apparent
          difference of date: if they were different, we cannot explain their
          apparent similarity of character. In what follows I <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> shall, with some eminent Oriental
          scholars,<a id="noteref_817" name="noteref_817" href=
          "#note_817"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">817</span></span></a>
          provisionally assume the identity of Zakmuk and Sacaea, but I would
          ask the reader to bear clearly in mind that the hypothesis leaves
          the apparent discrepancy of their dates unexplained. Towards a
          solution of the problem I can only suggest conjecturally either
          that the date of the festival had been for some reason shifted in
          the time of Berosus, or that two different festivals of the same
          type may have been held at different seasons of the year, one in
          spring and one in summer, perhaps by two distinct but kindred
          tribes, who retained their separate religious rites after they had
          coalesced in the Babylonian empire. Both conjectures might be
          supported by analogies. On the one hand, for example, in the Jewish
          calendar New Year's Day was shifted under Babylonian influence from
          autumn to spring,<a id="noteref_818" name="noteref_818" href=
          "#note_818"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">818</span></span></a> and
          in a later part of this work we shall see that the Chinese festival
          of new fire, at first celebrated in spring, was afterwards shifted
          to the summer solstice, only however to be brought back at a later
          time to its original date. On the other hand, the popular festivals
          of our European peasantry afford many examples of rites which
          appear to be similar in character, though they fall at different
          times of the year; such, for instance, are the ceremonies concerned
          with vegetation on May Day, Whitsuntide, and Midsummer Day,<a id=
          "noteref_819" name="noteref_819" href="#note_819"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">819</span></span></a> and
          the fire festivals which are distributed at still wider intervals
          throughout the months.<a id="noteref_820" name="noteref_820" href=
          "#note_820"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">820</span></span></a>
          Similarly in ancient Italy the agricultural festival of the
          Ambarvalia was celebrated by Italian farmers at different dates in
          different places.<a id="noteref_821" name="noteref_821" href=
          "#note_821"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">821</span></span></a> These
          cases may warn us against the danger of hastily inferring an
          essential difference between Zakmuk and Sacaea on the ground of a
          real or apparent difference in their dates.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">An argument for identifying Sacaea
              and Zakmuk is the apparent connexion of both with the Jewish
              festival of Purim.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A fresh and
          powerful argument in favour of the identity <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the two festivals is furnished by
          the connexion which has been traced between both of them and the
          Jewish feast of Purim.<a id="noteref_822" name="noteref_822" href=
          "#note_822"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">822</span></span></a> There
          are good grounds for believing that Purim was unknown to the Jews
          until after the exile, and that they learned to observe it during
          their captivity in the East. The festival is first mentioned in the
          book of Esther, which by the majority of critics is assigned to the
          fourth or third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>,<a id="noteref_823"
          name="noteref_823" href="#note_823"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">823</span></span></a> and
          which certainly cannot be older than the Persian period, since the
          scene of the narrative is laid in Susa at the court of a Persian
          king Ahasuerus, whose name appears to be the Hebrew equivalent of
          Xerxes. The next reference to Purim occurs in the second book of
          Maccabees, a work written probably about the beginning of our
          era.<a id="noteref_824" name="noteref_824" href=
          "#note_824"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">824</span></span></a> Thus
          from the absence of all notice of Purim in the older books of the
          Bible, we may fairly conclude that the festival was instituted or
          imported at a comparatively late date among the Jews. The same
          conclusion is supported by the book of Esther itself, which was
          manifestly written to explain the origin of the feast and to
          suggest motives for its observance. For, according to the author of
          the book, the festival was established to commemorate the
          deliverance of the Jews from a great danger which threatened them
          in Persia under the reign of King Xerxes. Thus the opinion of
          modern scholars that the feast of Purim, as celebrated by the Jews,
          was of late date and oriental origin, is borne out by the tradition
          of the Jews themselves. An examination of that tradition and the
          mode of celebrating the feast renders <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> it probable that Purim is nothing but a more
          or less disguised form of the Babylonian festival of the Sacaea or
          Zakmuk.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Jewish festival of Purim seems
              to be derived from the Babylonian festival of Zakmuk.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first
          place, the feast of Purim was and is held on the fourteenth and
          fifteenth days of Adar, the last month of the Jewish year, which
          corresponds roughly to March.<a id="noteref_825" name="noteref_825"
          href="#note_825"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">825</span></span></a> Thus
          the date agrees nearly, though not exactly, with the date of the
          Babylonian Zakmuk, which fell a fortnight later in the early days
          of the following month Nisan. A trace of the original celebration
          of Purim in Nisan may perhaps be found in the statement that
          <span class="tei tei-q">“they cast Pur, that is, the lot, before
          Haman”</span> in Nisan, the first month of the year.<a id=
          "noteref_826" name="noteref_826" href="#note_826"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">826</span></span></a> It
          has been suggested with some plausibility that the Jews may have
          shifted the date of Purim in order that the new and foreign
          festival might not clash with their own old festival of the
          Passover, which began on the fourteenth day of Nisan. Another
          circumstance which speaks at once for the alien origin of Purim and
          for its identity with Zakmuk is its name. The author of the book of
          Esther derives the name Purim from <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pur</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“a
          lot,”</span><a id="noteref_827" name="noteref_827" href=
          "#note_827"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">827</span></span></a> but
          no such word with this signification exists in Hebrew, and hence we
          are driven to look for the meaning and etymology of Purim in some
          other language. A specious theory is that the name was derived from
          an Assyrian word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">puvru</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“an assembly,”</span> and referred primarily to the
          great assembly of the gods which, as we have seen, formed a chief
          feature of the festival of Zakmuk, and was held annually in the
          temple of Marduk at Babylon for the purpose of determining the
          fates or lots of the new year;<a id="noteref_828" name=
          "noteref_828" href="#note_828"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">828</span></span></a> the
          august assembly appears to have been occasionally, if not
          regularly, designated by the very name <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">puvru</span></span>.<a id="noteref_829" name=
          "noteref_829" href="#note_829"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">829</span></span></a> On
          this hypothesis the traditional Jewish explanation of the name
          Purim preserved a genuine <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg
          362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          kernel of historical truth, or at least of mythical fancy, under
          the husk of a verbal error; for the name, if this derivation of it
          is correct, really signified, not <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          lots,”</span> but the assembly for drawing or otherwise determining
          the lots. Another explanation which has been offered is
          <span class="tei tei-q">“that <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pur</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">bur</span></span> seems to be an old Assyrian
          word for <span class="tei tei-q">‘stone,’</span> and that therefore
          it is possible that the word was also used to signify <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘lot,’</span> like the Hebrew ???? <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘lot,’</span> which originally, no doubt, meant
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘little stone.’</span>?”</span><a id=
          "noteref_830" name="noteref_830" href="#note_830"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">830</span></span></a>
          Either of these explanations of the name Purim, by tracing it back
          to the New Year assembly of the gods at Babylon for settling the
          lots, furnishes an adequate explanation of the traditional
          association of Purim with the casting of lots—an association all
          the more remarkable and all the more likely to be ancient because
          there is nothing to justify it either in the Hebrew language or in
          the Jewish mode of celebrating the festival. When to this we add
          the joyous, nay, extravagant festivity which has always been
          characteristic of Purim, and is entirely in keeping with a New Year
          celebration, we may perhaps be thought to have made out a fairly
          probable case for holding that the Jewish feast is derived from the
          Babylonian New Year festival of Zakmuk. Whether the Jews borrowed
          the feast directly from the Babylonians or indirectly through the
          Persian conquerors of Babylon is a question which deserves to be
          considered; but the Persian colouring of the book of Esther speaks
          strongly for the view that Purim came to Israel by way of Persia,
          or at all events from Babylon under Persian rule, and this view is
          confirmed by other evidence, to which I shall have to ask the
          reader's attention a little later on.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Connexion of Purim with the
              Sacaea. The joyous nature of Purim.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the links
          which bind Purim to Zakmuk are reasonably strong, the chain of
          evidence which connects the Jewish festival with the Sacaea is much
          stronger. Nor is this surprising when we remember that, while the
          popular mode of celebrating Zakmuk is unknown, we possess important
          and trustworthy details as to the manner of holding the
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name=
          "Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Sacaea. We have seen
          that the Sacaea was a wild Bacchanalian revel at which men and
          women disguised themselves and drank and played together in a
          fashion that was more gay than modest. Now this is, or used to be,
          precisely the nature of Purim. The two days of the festival,
          according to the author of the book of Esther, were to be kept for
          ever as <span class="tei tei-q">“days of feasting and gladness, and
          of sending portions one to another, and gifts to the
          poor.”</span><a id="noteref_831" name="noteref_831" href=
          "#note_831"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">831</span></span></a> And
          this joyous character the festival seems always to have retained.
          The author of a tract in the Talmud lays it down as a rule that at
          the feast of Purim every Jew is bound to drink until he cannot
          distinguish between the words <span class="tei tei-q">“Cursed be
          Haman”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed be
          Mordecai”</span>; and he tells how on one occasion a certain Rabba
          drank so deep at Purim that he murdered a rabbi without knowing
          what he was about. Indeed Purim has been described as the Jewish
          Bacchanalia, and we are told that at this season everything is
          lawful which can contribute to the mirth and gaiety of the
          festival.<a id="noteref_832" name="noteref_832" href=
          "#note_832"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">832</span></span></a>
          Writers of the seventeenth century assert that during the two days,
          and especially on the evening of the second day, the Jews did
          nothing but feast and drink to repletion, play, dance, sing, and
          make merry; in particular they disguised themselves, men and women
          exchanging clothes, and thus attired ran about like mad, in open
          defiance of the Mosaic law, which expressly forbids men to dress as
          women and women as men.<a id="noteref_833" name="noteref_833" href=
          "#note_833"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">833</span></span></a> Among
          the Jews of Frankfort, who inhabited the squalid but quaint and
          picturesque old street known as the Judengasse, which many of us
          still remember, the revelry at Purim ran as high as ever in the
          eighteenth century. The gluttony and intoxication began punctually
          at three o'clock in the afternoon of the first day and went on
          until the whole community seemed to have taken leave of their
          senses. They ate and drank, they frolicked and cut capers, they
          reeled and staggered <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg
          364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          about, they shrieked, yelled, stamped, clattered, and broke each
          other's heads with wooden hammers till the blood flowed. On the
          evening of the first day the women were allowed, as a special
          favour, to open their latticed window and look into the men's
          synagogue, because the great deliverance of the Jews from their
          enemies in the time of King Ahasuerus was said to have been
          effected by a woman. A feature of the festival which should not be
          overlooked was the acting of the story of Esther as a comedy, in
          which Esther, Ahasuerus, Haman, Mordecai, and others played their
          parts after a fashion that sometimes degenerated from farce into
          ribaldry.<a id="noteref_834" name="noteref_834" href=
          "#note_834"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">834</span></span></a> Thus
          on the whole we may take it that Purim has always been a
          Saturnalia, and therefore corresponds in character to the Sacaea as
          that festival has been described for us by Strabo.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The origin of Purim according to
              the book of Esther. The rival pairs Mordecai and Esther on the
              one side, Haman and Vashti on the other.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But further,
          when we examine the narrative which professes to account for the
          institution of Purim, we discover in it not only the strongest
          traces of Babylonian origin, but also certain singular analogies to
          those very features of the Sacaean festival with which we are here
          more immediately concerned. The book of Esther turns upon the
          fortunes of two men, the vizier Haman and the despised Jew
          Mordecai, at the court of a Persian king. Mordecai, we are told,
          had given mortal offence to the vizier, who accordingly prepares a
          tall gallows on which he hopes to see his enemy hanged, while he
          himself expects to receive the highest mark of the king's favour by
          being allowed to wear the royal crown and the royal robes, and thus
          attired to parade the streets mounted on the king's own horse and
          attended by one of the noblest princes, who should proclaim to the
          multitude his temporary exaltation and glory. But the artful
          intrigues of the wicked vizier miscarried and resulted in precisely
          the opposite of what he had hoped and expected; for the royal
          honours which he had looked for fell to his rival Mordecai, and he
          himself was hanged on the gallows which he had made ready for his
          foe. In this story we seem to detect a reminiscence, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more or less confused, of the Zoganes
          of the Sacaea, in other words, of the custom of investing a private
          man with the insignia of royalty for a few days and then putting
          him to death on the gallows or the cross. It is true that in the
          narrative the part of the Zoganes is divided between two actors,
          one of whom hopes to play the king but is hanged instead, while the
          other acts the royal part and escapes the gallows to which he was
          destined by his enemy. But this bisection, so to say, of the
          Zoganes may have been deliberately invented by the Jewish author of
          the book of Esther for the sake of setting the origin of Purim,
          which it was his purpose to explain, in a light that should reflect
          glory on his own nation. Or, perhaps more probably, it points back
          to a custom of appointing two mock kings at the Sacaea, one of whom
          was put to death at the end of the festival, while the other was
          allowed to go free, at least for a time. We shall be the more
          inclined to adopt the latter hypothesis when we observe that
          corresponding to the two rival aspirants to the temporary kingship
          there appear in the Jewish narrative two rival queens, Vashti and
          Esther, one of whom succeeds to the high estate from which the
          other has fallen. Further, it is to be noted that Mordecai, the
          successful candidate for the mock kingship, and Esther, the
          successful candidate for the queenship, are linked together by
          close ties both of interest and blood, the two being said to be
          cousins. This suggests that in the original story or the original
          custom there may have figured two pairs of kings and queens, of
          whom one pair is represented in the Jewish narrative by Mordecai
          and Esther and the other by Haman and Vashti.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Analysis of the names Mordecai and
              Esther, Haman and Vashti. Jensen's theory that Haman and Vashti
              were Elamite deities in opposition to the Babylonian deities
              Mordecai (Marduk) and Esther (Ishtar).</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some
          confirmation of this view is furnished by the names of two at least
          out of the four personages. It seems to be now generally recognized
          by Biblical scholars that the name Mordecai, which has no meaning
          in Hebrew, is nothing but a slightly altered form of Marduk or
          Merodach, the name of the chief god of Babylon, whose great
          festival was the Zakmuk; and further, it is generally admitted that
          Esther in like manner is equivalent to Ishtar, the great Babylonian
          goddess whom the Greeks called Astarte, and who is more familiar to
          English readers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg
          366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          as Ashtaroth. The derivation of the names of Haman and Vashti is
          less certain, but some high authorities are disposed to accept the
          view of Jensen that Haman is identical with Humman or Homman, the
          national god of the Elamites, and that Vashti is in like manner an
          Elamite goddess whose name Jensen read as Mashti in inscriptions.
          Now, when we consider that the Elamites were from time immemorial
          the hereditary foes of the Babylonians and had their capital at
          Susa, the very place in which the scene of the book of Esther is
          laid, we can hardly deny the plausibility of the theory that Haman
          and Vashti on the one side and Mordecai and Esther on the other
          represent the antagonism between the gods of Elam and the gods of
          Babylon, and the final victory of the Babylonian deities in the
          very capital of their rivals.<a id="noteref_835" name="noteref_835"
          href="#note_835"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">835</span></span></a>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“It is therefore possible,”</span> says
          Professor Nöldeke, <span class="tei tei-q">“that we here have to do
          with a feast whereby the Babylonians commemorated a victory gained
          by their gods over the gods of their neighbours the Elamites,
          against whom they had so often waged war. The Jewish feast of Purim
          is an annual merrymaking of a wholly secular kind, and it is known
          that there were similar feasts among the Babylonians. That the Jews
          in Babylonia should have adopted a festival of this sort cannot be
          deemed improbable, since in modern Germany, to cite an analogous
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name=
          "Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> case, many Jews
          celebrate Christmas after the manner of their Christian
          fellow-countrymen, in so far at least as it is a secular
          institution. It is true that hitherto no Babylonian feast
          coinciding, like Purim, with the full moon of the twelfth month has
          been discovered; but our knowledge of the Babylonian feasts is
          derived from documents of an earlier period. Possibly the calendar
          may have undergone some change by the time when the Jewish feast of
          Purim was established. Or it may be that the Jews intentionally
          shifted the date of the festival which they borrowed from the
          heathen.”</span><a id="noteref_836" name="noteref_836" href=
          "#note_836"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">836</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">But the proposed etymology of
              Vashti is untenable.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, the
          theory of an opposition between the gods of Babylon and the gods of
          Elam at the festival appears to break down at a crucial point; for
          the latest and most accurate reading of the Elamite inscriptions
          proves, I am informed, that the name of the goddess which Jensen
          read as Mashti, and which on that assumption he legitimately
          compared to the Hebrew Vashti,<a id="noteref_837" name=
          "noteref_837" href="#note_837"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">837</span></span></a> must
          really be read as Parti, between which and Vashti there is no
          connexion. Accordingly, in a discussion of the origin of Purim it
          is safer at present to lay no weight on the supposed religious
          antagonism between the deities of Babylon and Elam.<a id=
          "noteref_838" name="noteref_838" href="#note_838"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">838</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The mock king of the Sacaea seems
              to have personated a god. The view of Movers.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we are right
          in tracing the origin of Purim to the Babylonian Sacaea and in
          finding the counterpart of the Zoganes in Haman and Mordecai, it
          would appear that the Zoganes during his five days of office
          personated not merely a king but a god, whether that god was the
          Babylonian Marduk or some other deity not yet identified. The union
          of the divine and royal characters in a single person is so common
          that we need not be surprised at meeting with it in ancient
          Babylon. And the view that the mock king of the Sacaea died as a
          god on the cross or the gallows is no novelty. The acute and
          learned Movers long ago observed that <span class="tei tei-q">“we
          should be overlooking the religious significance of oriental
          festivals and the connexion of the Sacaea with the worship of
          Anaitis, if we were to treat as a mere jest the custom of
          disguising a slave as a king. We may take it for certain that with
          the royal dignity the king of the Sacaea assumed also the character
          of an oriental ruler as representative of the divinity, and that
          when he took his pleasure among the women of the king's harem, he
          played the part of Sandan or Sardanapalus himself. For according to
          ancient oriental ideas the use of the king's concubines constituted
          a claim to the throne, and we know from Dio that the five-days'
          king received full power over the harem. Perhaps he began his reign
          by publicly cohabiting with the king's concubines, just as Absalom
          went in to his father's concubines in a tent spread on the roof of
          the palace before all Israel, for the purpose of thereby making
          known and strengthening his claim to the throne.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_839" name="noteref_839" href="#note_839"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">839</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The mock king of the Sacaea may
              have mated with a woman who played the part of a goddess,
              whether Anaitis, Astarte, or Semiramis. Identity of the
              mythical Semiramis with Astarte. The lovers of Semiramis and
              Ishtar (Astarte).</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever may be
          thought of this latter conjecture, there <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> can be no doubt that Movers is right in
          laying great stress both on the permission given to the mock king
          to invade the real king's harem, and on the intimate connexion of
          the Sacaea with the worship of Anaitis. That connexion is vouched
          for by Strabo, and when we consider that in Strabo's time the cult
          of the old Persian goddess Anaitis was thoroughly saturated with
          Babylonian elements and had practically merged in the sensual
          worship of the Babylonian Ishtar or Astarte,<a id="noteref_840"
          name="noteref_840" href="#note_840"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">840</span></span></a> we
          shall incline to view with favour Movers's further conjecture, that
          a female slave may have been appointed to play the divine queen to
          the part of the divine king supported by the Zoganes, and that
          reminiscences of such a queen have survived in the myth or legend
          of Semiramis. According to tradition, Semiramis was a fair
          courtesan beloved by the king of Assyria, who took her to wife. She
          won the king's heart so far that she persuaded him to yield up to
          her the kingdom for five days, and having assumed the sceptre and
          the royal robes she made a great banquet on the first day, but on
          the second day she shut up her husband in prison or put him to
          death and thenceforward reigned alone.<a id="noteref_841" name=
          "noteref_841" href="#note_841"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">841</span></span></a> Taken
          with Strabo's evidence as to the association of the Sacaea with the
          worship of Anaitis, this tradition seems clearly to point to a
          custom of giving the Zoganes, during his five days' reign, a queen
          who represented the goddess Anaitis or Semiramis or Astarte, in
          short the great Asiatic goddess of love and fertility, by whatever
          name she was called. For that in Eastern legend Semiramis was a
          real queen of Assyria, who had absorbed many of the attributes of
          the goddess Astarte, appears to be established by the researches of
          modern scholars; in particular it has been shewn by Robertson Smith
          that the worship of Anaitis is not only <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> modelled on Astarte worship in general, but
          corresponds to that particular type of it which was specially
          associated with the name of Semiramis.<a id="noteref_842" name=
          "noteref_842" href="#note_842"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">842</span></span></a> The
          identity of Anaitis and the mythical Semiramis is clearly proved by
          the circumstance that the great sanctuary of Anaitis at Zela in
          Pontus was actually built upon a mound of Semiramis;<a id=
          "noteref_843" name="noteref_843" href="#note_843"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">843</span></span></a>
          probably the old worship of the Semitic goddess always continued
          there even after her Semitic name of Semiramis or Astarte had been
          exchanged for the Persian name of Anaitis, perhaps in obedience to
          a decree of the Persian king Artaxerxes II., who first spread the
          worship of Anaitis in the west of Asia.<a id="noteref_844" name=
          "noteref_844" href="#note_844"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">844</span></span></a> It is
          highly significant, not only that the Sacaean festival was annually
          held at this ancient seat of the worship of Semiramis or Astarte;
          but further, that the whole city of Zela was formerly inhabited by
          sacred slaves and harlots, ruled over by a supreme pontiff, who
          administered it as a sanctuary rather than as a city.<a id=
          "noteref_845" name="noteref_845" href="#note_845"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">845</span></span></a>
          Formerly, we may suppose, this priestly king himself died a violent
          death at the Sacaea <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg
          371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          in the character of the divine lover of Semiramis, while the part
          of the goddess was played by one of the sacred prostitutes. The
          probability of this is greatly strengthened by the existence of the
          so-called mound of Semiramis under the sanctuary. For the mounds of
          Semiramis, which were pointed out all over Western Asia,<a id=
          "noteref_846" name="noteref_846" href="#note_846"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">846</span></span></a> were
          said to have been the graves of her lovers whom she buried
          alive.<a id="noteref_847" name="noteref_847" href=
          "#note_847"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">847</span></span></a> The
          tradition ran that the great and lustful queen Semiramis, fearing
          to contract a lawful marriage lest her husband should deprive her
          of power, admitted to her bed the handsomest of her soldiers, only,
          however, to destroy them all afterwards.<a id="noteref_848" name=
          "noteref_848" href="#note_848"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">848</span></span></a> Now
          this tradition is one of the surest indications of the identity of
          the mythical Semiramis with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar or
          Astarte. For the famous Babylonian epic which recounts the deeds of
          the hero Gilgamesh tells how, when he clothed himself in royal
          robes and put his crown on his head, the goddess Ishtar was smitten
          with love of him and wooed him to be her mate. But Gilgamesh
          rejected her insidious advances, for he knew the sad fate that had
          overtaken all her lovers, and he reproached the cruel goddess,
          saying:—</p>

          <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
          "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Tammuz, the lover of thy
                youth,</span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou causest to weep every year.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                The bright-coloured</span></span> <span style=
                "font-size: 90%">allallu</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"
                style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">bird thou didst
                love</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst crush him and break his pinions.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">In the woods he stands
                and laments,</span> <span class="tei tei-q" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">‘</span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">O my
                pinions!</span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">’</span></span></span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst love the lion of perfect strength,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Seven and seven times thou didst dig pit-falls for
                him.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst love the horse that joyed in the
                fray,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                With whip and spur and lash thou didst urge him
                on.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst force him on for seven double hours,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst force him on when wearied and
                thirsty;</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                His mother the goddess Silili thou madest weep.</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Thou didst also love a shepherd of the flock,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                Who continually poured out for thee the
                libation,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                And daily slaughtered kids for thee;</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                But thou didst smite him, and didst change him into a
                wolf,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
                "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">
                So that his own sheep-boys hunted him,</span></span>
              </div>

              <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
                <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class=
                "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
                "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">And his own hounds tore
                him to pieces.</span></span><span style=
                "font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
              </div>
            </div>
          </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name=
          "Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The sacred harlots of
              Ishtar.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hero also
          tells the miserable end of a gardener in the service of the
          goddess's father. The hapless swain had once been honoured with the
          love of the goddess, but when she tired of him she changed him into
          a cripple so that he could not rise from his bed. Therefore
          Gilgamesh fears to share the fate of all her former lovers and
          spurns her proffered favours.<a id="noteref_849" name="noteref_849"
          href="#note_849"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">849</span></span></a> But
          it is not merely that the myth of Ishtar thus tallies with the
          legend of Semiramis; the worship of the goddess was marked by a
          profligacy which has found its echo in the loose character ascribed
          by tradition to the queen. Inscriptions, which confirm and
          supplement the evidence of Herodotus, inform us that Ishtar was
          served by harlots of three different classes all dedicated to her
          worship. Indeed, there is reason to think that these women
          personated the goddess herself, since one of the names given to
          them is applied also to her.<a id="noteref_850" name="noteref_850"
          href="#note_850"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">850</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The myth of Ishtar (Astarte) and
              her lovers acted at the Sacaea in Zela.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus we can
          hardly doubt that the mythical Semiramis is substantially a form of
          Ishtar or Astarte, the great Semitic goddess of love and fertility;
          and if this is so, we may assume with at least a fair degree of
          probability that the high pontiff of Zela or his deputy, who played
          the king of the Sacaea at the sanctuary of Semiramis, perished as
          one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name=
          "Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the unhappy
          lovers of the goddess, perhaps as Tammuz, whom she caused
          <span class="tei tei-q">“to weep every year.”</span> When he had
          run his brief meteoric career of pleasure and glory, his bones
          would be laid in the great mound which covered the mouldering
          remains of many mortal gods, his predecessors, whom the goddess had
          honoured with her fatal love.<a id="noteref_851" name="noteref_851"
          href="#note_851"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">851</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Such sacred dramas are magical
              rites intended to influence the course of nature.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here then at the
          great sanctuary of the goddess in Zela it appears that her myth was
          regularly translated into action; the story of her love and the
          death of her divine lover was performed year by year as a sort of
          mystery-play by men and women who lived for a season and sometimes
          died in the character of the visionary beings whom they personated.
          The intention of these sacred dramas, we may be sure, was
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name=
          "Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> neither to amuse nor
          to instruct an idle audience, and as little were they designed to
          gratify the actors, to whose baser passions they gave the reins for
          a time. They were solemn rites which mimicked the doings of divine
          beings, because man fancied that by such mimicry he was able to
          arrogate to himself the divine functions and to exercise them for
          the good of his fellows. The operations of nature, to his thinking,
          were carried on by mythical personages very like himself; and if he
          could only assimilate himself to them completely he would be able
          to wield all their powers. This is probably the original motive of
          most religious dramas or mysteries among rude peoples. The dramas
          are played, the mysteries are performed, not to teach the
          spectators the doctrines of their creed, still less to entertain
          them, but for the purpose of bringing about those natural effects
          which they represent in mythical disguise; in a word, they are
          magical ceremonies and their mode of operation is mimicry or
          sympathy. We shall probably not err in assuming that many myths,
          which we now know only as myths, had once their counterpart in
          magic; in other words, that they used to be acted as a means of
          producing in fact the events which they describe in figurative
          language. Ceremonies often die out while myths survive, and thus we
          are left to infer the dead ceremony from the living myth. If myths
          are, in a sense, the reflections or shadows of men cast upon the
          clouds, we may say that these reflections continue to be visible in
          the sky and to inform us of the doings of the men who cast them,
          long after the men themselves are not only beyond our range of
          vision but sunk beneath the horizon.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Magical intention of sacred dramas
              and masked dances among savages.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principle of
          mimicry is implanted so deep in human nature and has exerted so
          far-reaching an influence on the development of religion as well as
          of the arts that it may be well, even at the cost of a short
          digression, to illustrate by example some of the modes in which
          primitive man has attempted to apply it to the satisfaction of his
          wants by means of religious or magical dramas. For it seems
          probable that the masked dances and ceremonies, which have played a
          great part in the social life of savages in many quarters of the
          world, were primarily designed to subserve practical purposes
          rather than simply to stir the emotions of the <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> spectators and to while away the
          languor and tedium of idle hours. The actors sought to draw down
          blessings on the community by mimicking certain powerful superhuman
          beings and in their assumed character working those beneficent
          miracles which in the capacity of mere men they would have
          confessed themselves powerless to effect. In fact the aim of these
          elementary dramas, which contain in germ the tragedy and comedy of
          civilized nations, was the acquisition of superhuman power for the
          public good. That this is the real intention of at least many of
          these dramatic performances will appear from the following
          accounts, which for the sake of accuracy I will quote for the most
          part in the words of the original observers.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Masked dances among the Indians of
              North-West America.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A conspicuous
          feature in the social life of the Indian tribes of North-Western
          America are the elaborate masked dances or pantomimes in which the
          actors personate spirits or legendary animals. Most of them appear
          designed to bring before the eyes of the people the guardian
          spirits of the clans. <span class="tei tei-q">“Owing to the fact
          that these spirits are hereditary, their gifts are always contained
          in the legend detailing their acquisition by the ancestor of a
          clan. The principal gifts in these tales are the magic harpoon
          which insures success in sea-otter hunting; the death bringer
          which, when pointed against enemies, kills them; the water of life
          which resuscitates the dead; the burning fire which, when pointed
          against an object, burns it; and a dance, a song, and cries which
          are peculiar to the spirit. The gift of this dance means that the
          protégé of the spirit is to perform the same dances which have been
          shown to him. In these dances he personates the spirit. He wears
          his mask and his ornaments. Thus the dance must be considered a
          dramatic performance of the myth relating to the acquisition of the
          spirit, and shows to the people that the performer by his visit to
          the spirit has obtained his powers and desires. When nowadays a
          spirit appears to a young Indian, he gives him the same dance, and
          the youth also returns from the initiation filled with the powers
          and desires of the spirit. He authenticates his initiation by his
          dance in the same way as his mythical ancestor did. The obtaining
          of the magical gifts from these spirits is <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">lokoala</span></span>, while the person who
          has obtained them becomes <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">naualaku</span></span>,
          supernatural, which is also the quality of the spirit himself. The
          ornaments of all these spirits are described as made of cedar bark,
          which is dyed red in the juice of alder bark. They appear to their
          devotees only in winter, and therefore the dances are also
          performed only in winter.”</span><a id="noteref_852" name=
          "noteref_852" href="#note_852"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">852</span></span></a> In
          some of the dances the performers imitate animals, and the
          explanation which the Indians give of these dances is that
          <span class="tei tei-q">“the ceremonial was instituted at the time
          when men had still the form of animals; before the transformer had
          put everything into its present shape. The present ceremonial is a
          repetition of the ceremonial performed by the man animals or, as we
          may say, a dramatization of the myth. Therefore the people who do
          not represent spirits, represent these animals.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_853" name="noteref_853" href="#note_853"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">853</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">These masked dances represent
              mythical incidents and are supposed to have been revealed to
              the Indians by their guardian spirits.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another observer
          of these Indians writes on the same subject as follows:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">dukwally</span></span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">lokoala</span></span>) and other <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tamanawas</span></span><a id="noteref_854"
          name="noteref_854" href="#note_854"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">854</span></span></a>
          performances are exhibitions intended to represent incidents
          connected with their mythological legends. There are a great
          variety, and they seem to take the place, in a measure, of
          theatrical performances or games during the season of the religious
          festivals. There are no persons especially set apart as priests for
          the performance of these ceremonies, although some, who seem more
          expert than others, are usually hired to give life to the scenes,
          but these performers are quite as often found among the slaves or
          common people as among the chiefs, and excepting during the
          continuance of the festivities are not looked on as of any
          particular importance. On inquiring the origin of these ceremonies,
          I was informed that they did not originate with the Indians, but
          were revelations of the guardian spirits, who made known what they
          wished to be performed. An Indian, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> for instance, who has been consulting with
          his guardian spirit, which is done by going through the washing and
          fasting process before described, will imagine or think he is
          called upon to represent the owl. He arranges in his mind the style
          of dress, the number of performers, the songs and dances or other
          movements, and, having the plan perfected, announces at a
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tamanawas</span></span> meeting that he has
          had a revelation which he will impart to a select few. These are
          then taught and drilled in strict secrecy, and when they have
          perfected themselves, will suddenly make their appearance and
          perform before the astonished tribe. Another Indian gets up the
          representation of the whale, others do the same of birds, and in
          fact of everything that they can think of. If any performance is a
          success, it is repeated, and gradually comes to be looked upon as
          one of the regular order in the ceremonies; if it does not satisfy
          the audience, it is laid aside. Thus they have performances that
          have been handed down from remote ages, while others are of a more
          recent date.”</span><a id="noteref_855" name="noteref_855" href=
          "#note_855"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">855</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Gods or spirits personated by the
              actors in the masked dances.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another writer,
          who travelled among the Indians of North-Western America, has
          expressed himself on this subject as follows: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The task of representing the gods is undertaken in
          every tribe by some intelligent and, according to their own
          account, inspired men; they form the Secret Societies, in order
          that their secret arts and doctrines, their mummeries and
          masquerades may not be revealed to the uninitiated and to the
          public. The intention of these exhibitions is to confirm the faith
          of the young people and the women in the ancient traditions as to
          the intercourse of the gods with men and as to their own intimate
          relations to the gods. In order to convince possible doubters, the
          members of the Secret Societies have had recourse to all kinds of
          mysterious means, which to a civilized man must appear the height
          of savagery; for example, they mutilate their bodies, rend corpses
          in pieces and devour them, tear pieces out of the bodies of living
          men, and so on. Further, the almost morbid vanity of the
          North-Western Indians and their desire to win fame, respect, and
          distinction may have served <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> as a motive for joining the Secret Societies;
          since every member of them enjoys great respect.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“There were and still are hundreds of masks in use,
          every one of which represents a spirit who occurs in their legends.
          In the exhibitions they appear singly or in groups, according as
          the legend to be represented requires, and the masked men are then
          looked upon by the astonished crowd, not only as actors
          representing the gods, but as the very gods themselves who have
          come down from heaven to earth. Hence every such representative
          must do exactly what legend says the spirit did. If the
          representative wears no mask, as often happens with the
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hametzes</span></span> (the Cannibals or
          Biters) or the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Pakwalla</span></span> (Medicine-men), then
          the spirit whom he represents has passed into his body, and
          accordingly the man possessed by the spirit is not responsible for
          what he does amiss in this condition. As the use of masks throws a
          sort of mysterious glamour over the performance and at the same
          time allows the actor to remain unknown, the peculiarly sacred
          festivals are much oftener celebrated with masks than without them.
          In every Secret Society there are definite rules as to how often
          and how long a mask may be used. Amongst the Kwakiutl the masks may
          not, under the heaviest penalties, be disposed of for four winters,
          the season when such festivals are usually celebrated. After that
          time they may be destroyed or hidden in the forest, that no
          uninitiated person may find them, or they may be finally sold. The
          masks are made only in secret, generally in the deep solitude of
          the woods, in order that no uninitiated person may detect the maker
          at work....</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The dances accompanied by
              songs.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The dance is accompanied by a song which celebrates in
          boastful words the power of the gods and the mighty deeds
          represented in the performance. At the main part of the performance
          all present join in the song, for it is generally known to
          everybody and is repeated in recitative again and again. It seems
          that new songs and new performances are constantly springing up in
          one or other of the villages through the agency of some intelligent
          young man, hitherto without a song of his own, who treats in a
          poetical fashion some legend which has been handed down orally from
          their forefathers. For every man who takes part in the performances
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name=
          "Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and festivals must
          make his <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">début</span></span> with a song composed by
          himself. In this way new songs and dances are constantly
          originating, the material for them being, of course, always taken
          from the tribal deities of the particular singer and
          poet.”</span><a id="noteref_856" name="noteref_856" href=
          "#note_856"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">856</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Spirits personated by masked
              performers among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar
          masquerades are in vogue among the neighbours of these Indians, the
          Esquimaux of Bering Strait, and from the following account it will
          appear that the performances are based on similar ideas and
          beliefs. <span class="tei tei-q">“Shamans make masks representing
          grotesque faces of supernatural beings which they claim to have
          seen. These may be <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yu-a</span></span>, which are the spirits of
          the elements, of places, and of inanimate things in general; the
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tunghät</span></span>, or wandering genii, or
          the shades of people and animals. The first-named are seen in
          lonely places, on the plains and mountains or at sea, and more
          rarely about the villages, by the clairvoyant vision of the
          shamans. They are usually invisible to common eyes, but sometimes
          render themselves visible to the people for various
          purposes.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Many of them, especially among the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tunghät</span></span>, are of evil character,
          bringing sickness and misfortune upon people from mere wantonness
          or for some fancied injury. The Eskimo believe that everything,
          animate or inanimate, is possessed of a shade, having semihuman
          form and features, enjoying more or less freedom of motion; the
          shamans give form to their ideas of them in masks, as well as of
          others which they claim inhabit the moon and the sky-land. In their
          daily life, if the people witness some strange occurrence, are
          curiously affected, or have a remarkable adventure, during which
          they seem to be influenced or aided in a supernatural manner, the
          shamans interpret the meaning and describe the appearance of the
          being that exerted its power.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The animal masks worn by the
              actors.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Curious mythological beasts are also said to inhabit
          both land and sea, but to become visible only on special occasions.
          These ideas furnish material upon which their fancy works,
          conjuring up strange forms that are usually modifications of known
          creatures. It is also believed that <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> in early days all animate beings had a dual
          existence, becoming at will either like man or the animal forms
          they now wear. In those early days there were but few people; if an
          animal wished to assume its human form, the forearm, wing, or other
          limb was raised and pushed up the muzzle or beak as if it were a
          mask, and the creature became manlike in form and features. This
          idea is still held, and it is believed that many animals now
          possess this power. The manlike form thus appearing is called the
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">inua</span></span>, and is supposed to
          represent the thinking part of the creature, and at death becomes
          its shade. Shamans are believed to have the power of seeing through
          the animal mask to the manlike features behind. The ideas held on
          this subject are well illustrated in the Raven legends, where the
          changes are made repeatedly from one form to another.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Identification of the masked actor
              with the mythical being whom he represents.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Masks may also represent totemic animals, and the
          wearers during the festivals are believed actually to become the
          creature represented or at least to be endowed with its spiritual
          essence. Some of the masks of the lower Yukon and the adjacent
          territory to the Kuskokwim are made with double faces. This is done
          by having the muzzle of the animal fitted over and concealing the
          face of the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">inua</span></span> below, the outer mask being
          held in place by pegs so arranged that it can be removed quickly at
          a certain time in the ceremony, thus symbolizing the
          transformation. Another style of mask from the lower Kuskokwim has
          the under face concealed by a small hinged door on each side, which
          opens out at the proper time in a ceremony, indicating the
          metamorphosis. When the mask represents a totemic animal, the
          wearer needs no double face, since he represents in person the
          shade of the totemic animal.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“When worn in any ceremonial, either as a totem mask or
          as representing the shade, <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">yu-a</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tunghâk</span></span>, the wearer is believed
          to become mysteriously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of
          the being which his mask represents, just as the namesakes are
          entered into and possessed by the shades at certain parts of the
          Festival to the Dead....</span><a id="noteref_857" name=
          "noteref_857" href="#note_857"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">857</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Mask festivals are usually held as a species of
          thanksgiving to the shades and powers of earth, air, and water for
          giving the hunter success. The <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">inuas</span></span> or shades of the powers
          and creatures of the earth are represented that they may be
          propitiated, thus insuring further success.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_858" name="noteref_858" href="#note_858"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">858</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dramatic ceremonies of the Cora
              Indians of Mexico in which the actors personate gods. Masked
              dances of the Brazilian Indians to ensure fertility and
              abundance.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The religious
          ritual of the Cora Indians of Mexico comprises elaborate dramatic
          ceremonies or dances, in which the actors or dancers identify
          themselves with the gods, such as the god of the Morning Star, the
          goddess of the Moon, and the divinities of the Rain. These dances
          form the principal part of the Cora festivals and are accompanied
          by liturgical songs, the words of which the Indians believe to have
          been revealed to their forefathers by the gods and to exercise a
          direct magical influence upon the deities themselves and through
          them upon nature.<a id="noteref_859" name="noteref_859" href=
          "#note_859"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">859</span></span></a> The
          Kobeua and Kaua Indians of North-Western Brazil perform masked
          dances at their festivals in honour of the dead. The maskers
          imitate the actions and the habits of birds, beasts, and insects.
          For example, there is a large azure-blue butterfly which delights
          the eye with the splendour of its colour, like a fallen fragment of
          the sky; and in the butterfly dance two men represent the play of
          these brilliant insects in the sunshine, fluttering on the wing and
          settling on sandbanks and rocks. Again, the sloth is acted by a
          masker who holds on to a cross-beam of the house by means of a
          hooked stick, in imitation of the sluggish creature which will hang
          by its claws from the bough of a tree for hours together without
          stirring. Again, the darting of swallows, as they flit to and fro
          across a river, is mimicked by masked men dancing side by side: the
          swarming of sandflies in the air is acted by a swarm of maskers;
          and so with the movements of the black vulture, the owl, the
          jaguar, the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">aracu</span></span> fish, the house-spider,
          and the dung-beetle. Yet these representations are not simple
          dramas designed to amuse and divert the mourners in their hour of
          sorrow; the Indian attributes to them a much deeper <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> significance, for under the outer husk
          of beasts and birds and insects he believes that there lurk foul
          fiends and powerful spirits. <span class="tei tei-q">“All these
          mimicries are based on an idea of magical efficiency. They are
          intended to bring blessing and fertility to the village and its
          inhabitants, to the plantations, and to the whole of surrounding
          nature, thereby compensating, as it were, for the loss of the dead
          man in whose honour the festival is held. By copying as faithfully
          as possible the movements and actions of the being whom he
          personates, the actor identifies himself with him. The mysterious
          force which resides in the mask passes into the dancer, turns the
          man himself into a mighty demon, and endows him with the power of
          banning demons or earning their favour. Especially is it the
          intention by means of mimicry to obtain for man control over the
          demons of growth and the spirits of game and fish.”</span> When the
          festival is over, the masks are burned, and the demons, which are
          thought to have animated them, take flight to their own place, it
          may be to the other world or to a mountain top, or to the side of a
          thundering cascade.<a id="noteref_860" name="noteref_860" href=
          "#note_860"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">860</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Masked dances of the Monumbo in
              German New Guinea. Masked dances of the Kayans of
              Borneo.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Monumbo of
          German New Guinea perform masked dances in which the dancers
          personate supernatural beings or animals, such as kangaroos, dogs,
          and cassowaries. They consecrate the masks by fumigating them with
          the smoke of a certain creeper, and believe that by doing so they
          put life into them. Accordingly they afterwards treat the masks
          with respect, talk to them as if they were alive, and refuse to
          part with them to Europeans. Certain of the masks they even regard
          as guardian spirits and appeal to them for fine weather, help in
          the chase or in war, and so forth. Every clan owns some masks and
          the head man of the clan makes all the arrangements for a
          masquerade. The dances are accompanied by songs of which the words
          are unintelligible even to the natives themselves.<a id=
          "noteref_861" name="noteref_861" href="#note_861"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">861</span></span></a>
          Again, the Kayans of Central Borneo perform masked dances for the
          purpose of ensuring abundant crops of rice. The actors personate
          demons, wearing grotesque masks on their faces, their bodies
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name=
          "Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> swathed in cumbrous
          masses of green leaves. <span class="tei tei-q">“In accordance with
          their belief that the spirits are more powerful than men, the
          Kayans assume that when they imitate the form of spirits and play
          their part, they acquire superhuman power. Hence just as their
          spirits can fetch back the souls of men, so they imagine that they
          can lure to themselves the souls of the rice.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_862" name="noteref_862" href="#note_862"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">862</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Dramatic performances of the Sea
              Dyaks of Borneo, in which the actor personates a god.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the Sea
          Dyaks of Borneo have taken a human head, they hold a Head-feast
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gawè Pala</span></span>) in honour of the
          war-god or bird-chief Singalang Burong, who lives far away above
          the sky. At this festival a long liturgy called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mengap</span></span> is chanted, the god is
          invoked, and is believed to be present in the person of an actor,
          who poses as the deity and blesses the people in his name.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“But the invocation is not made by the
          human performer in the manner of a prayer direct to this great
          being; it takes the form of a story, setting forth how the mythical
          hero Kling or Klieng made a head-feast and fetched Singalang Burong
          to it. This Kling, about whom there are many fables, is a spirit,
          and is supposed to live somewhere or other not far from mankind,
          and to be able to confer benefits upon them. The Dyak performer or
          performers then, as they walk up and down the long verandah of the
          house singing the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mengap</span></span>, in reality describe
          Kling's <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gawè Pala</span></span> [head-feast], and how
          Singalang Burong was invited and came. In thought the Dyaks
          identify themselves with Kling, and the resultant signification is
          that the recitation of this story is an invocation to Singalang
          Burong, who is supposed to come not to Kling's house only, but to
          the actual Dyak house where the feast is celebrated; and he is
          received by a particular ceremony, and is offered food or
          sacrifice.”</span> At the close of the ceremony <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the performer goes along the house, beginning with the
          head man, touches each person in it, and pronounces an invocation
          upon him. In this he is supposed to personate Singalang Burong and
          his sons-in-law, who are believed to be the real actors. Singalang
          Burong himself <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">nenjangs</span></span> the headmen, and his
          sons-in-law, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg
          384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          the birds, bless the rest. The touch of the human performer, and
          the accompanying invocation are thought to effect a communication
          between these bird-spirits from the skies and each individual
          being. The great bird-chief and his dependants come from above to
          give men their charms and their blessings. Upon the men the
          performer invokes physical strength and bravery in war; and upon
          the women luck with paddy, cleverness in Dyak feminine
          accomplishments, and beauty in form and complexion.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_863" name="noteref_863" href="#note_863"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">863</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Religious or magical origin of the
              drama.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the
          dramatic performances of these primitive peoples are in fact
          religious or oftener perhaps magical ceremonies, and the songs or
          recitations which accompany them are spells or incantations, though
          the real character of both is apt to be overlooked by civilized
          man, accustomed as he is to see in the drama nothing more than an
          agreeable pastime or at best a vehicle of moral instruction. Yet if
          we could trace the drama of the civilized nations back to its
          origin, we might find that it had its roots in magical or religious
          ideas like those which still mould and direct the masked dances of
          many savages. Certainly the Athenians in the heyday of their
          brilliant civilization retained a lively sense of the religious
          import of dramatic performances; for they associated them directly
          with the worship of Dionysus and allowed them to be enacted only
          during the festivals of the god.<a id="noteref_864" name=
          "noteref_864" href="#note_864"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">864</span></span></a> In
          India, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg
          385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          also, the drama appears to have been developed out of religious
          dances or pantomimes, in which the actors recited the deeds and
          played the parts of national gods and heroes.<a id="noteref_865"
          name="noteref_865" href="#note_865"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">865</span></span></a> Hence
          it is at least a legitimate hypothesis that the criminal, who
          masqueraded as a king and perished in that character at the
          Bacchanalian festival of the Sacaea, was only one of a company of
          actors, who figured on that occasion in a sacred drama of which the
          substance has been preserved to us in the book of Esther.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The representation of mythical
              beings by living men and women may furnish a common ground
              where two rival schools of mythology can meet and be
              reconciled.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When once we
          perceive that the gods and goddesses, the heroes and heroines of
          mythology have been represented officially, so to say, by a long
          succession of living men and women who bore the names and were
          supposed to exercise the functions of these fabulous creatures, we
          have attained a point of vantage from which it seems possible to
          propose terms of peace between two rival schools of mythologists
          who have been waging fierce war on each other for ages. On the one
          hand it has been argued that mythical beings are nothing but
          personifications of natural objects and natural processes; on the
          other hand, it has been maintained that they are nothing but
          notable men and women who in their lifetime, for one reason or
          another, made a great impression on their fellows, but whose doings
          have been distorted and exaggerated by a false and credulous
          tradition. These two views, it is now easy to see, are not so
          mutually exclusive as their supporters have imagined. The
          personages about whom all the marvels of mythology have been told
          may have been real human beings, as the Euhemerists allege; and yet
          they may have been at the same time personifications of natural
          objects or processes, as the adversaries of Euhemerism assert. The
          doctrine of incarnation supplies the missing link that was needed
          to unite the two seemingly inconsistent theories. If the powers of
          nature or a certain department of nature be conceived as
          personified in a deity, and that deity can become incarnate in a
          man or woman, it is obvious that the incarnate deity is at the same
          time a real human being and a personification of nature. To take
          the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name=
          "Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> instance with which
          we are here concerned, Semiramis may have been the great Semitic
          goddess of love, Ishtar or Astarte, and yet she may be supposed to
          have been incarnate in a woman or even in a series of real women,
          whether queens or harlots, whose memory survives in ancient
          history. Saturn, again, may have been the god of sowing and
          planting, and yet may have been represented on earth by a
          succession or dynasty of sacred kings, whose gay but short lives
          may have contributed to build up the legend of the Golden Age. The
          longer the series of such human divinities, the greater, obviously,
          the chance of their myth or legend surviving; and when moreover a
          deity of a uniform type was represented, whether under the same
          name or not, over a great extent of country by many local dynasties
          of divine men or women, it is clear that the stories about him
          would tend still further to persist and be stereotyped.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The legend of Semiramis and her
              lovers a duplicate of the myth of Aphrodite and Adonis, of
              Cybele and Attis, of Isis and Osiris.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The conclusions
          which we have reached in regard to the legend of Semiramis and her
          lovers probably holds good of all the similar tales that were
          current in antiquity throughout the East; in particular, it may be
          assumed to apply to the myths of Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, of
          Cybele and Attis in Phrygia, and of Isis and Osiris in Egypt. If we
          could trace these stories back to their origin, we might find that
          in every case a human couple acted year by year the parts of the
          loving goddess and the dying god. We know that down to Roman times
          Attis was personated by priests who bore his name;<a id=
          "noteref_866" name="noteref_866" href="#note_866"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">866</span></span></a> and
          if within the period of which we have knowledge the dead Attis and
          the dead Adonis were represented only by effigies, we may surmise
          that it had not always been so, and that in both cases the dead god
          was once represented by a dead man. Further, the license accorded
          to the man who played the dying god at the Sacaea speaks strongly
          in favour of the hypothesis that before the incarnate deity was put
          to a public death he was in all cases allowed, or rather required,
          to enjoy the embraces of a woman who played the goddess of love.
          The reason for such an enforced union of the human god and goddess
          is not hard to divine. If primitive man believes that the growth of
          the crops can be stimulated by the intercourse of <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> common men and women,<a id=
          "noteref_867" name="noteref_867" href="#note_867"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">867</span></span></a> what
          showers of blessings will he not anticipate from the commerce of a
          pair whom his fancy invests with all the dignity and powers of
          deities of fertility?</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Sardanapalus and Ashurbanapal. The
              legendary death of Sardanapalus in the fire.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the theory
          of Movers, that at the Sacaea the Zoganes represented a god and
          paired with a woman who personated a goddess, turns out to rest on
          deeper and wider foundations than that able scholar was aware of.
          He thought that the divine couple who figured by deputy at the
          ceremony were Semiramis and Sandan or Sardanapalus. It now appears
          that he was substantially right as to the goddess; but we have
          still to enquire into the god. There seems to be no doubt that the
          name Sardanapalus is only the Greek way of representing
          Ashurbanapal, the name of the greatest and nearly the last king of
          Assyria. But the records of the real monarch which have come to
          light within recent years give little support to the fables that
          attached to his name in classical tradition. For they prove that,
          far from being the effeminate weakling he seemed to the Greeks of a
          later age, he was a warlike and enlightened monarch, who carried
          the arms of Assyria to distant lands and fostered at home the
          growth of science and letters.<a id="noteref_868" name=
          "noteref_868" href="#note_868"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">868</span></span></a>
          Still, though the historical reality of King Ashurbanapal is as
          well attested as that of Alexander or Charlemagne, it would be no
          wonder if myths gathered, like clouds, round the great figure that
          loomed large in the stormy sunset of Assyrian glory. Now the two
          features that stand out most prominently in the legends of
          Sardanapalus are his extravagant debauchery and his violent death
          in the flames of a great pyre, on which he burned himself and his
          concubines to save them from falling into the hands of his
          victorious enemies. It is said that the womanish king, with painted
          face and arrayed in female attire, passed his days in the seclusion
          of the harem, spinning purple wool among his concubines and
          wallowing in sensual delights; and that in the epitaph <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which he caused to be carved on his
          tomb he recorded that all the days of his life he ate and drank and
          toyed, remembering that life is short and full of trouble, that
          fortune is uncertain, and that others would soon enjoy the good
          things which he must leave behind.<a id="noteref_869" name=
          "noteref_869" href="#note_869"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">869</span></span></a> These
          traits bear little resemblance to the portrait of Ashurbanapal
          either in life or in death; for after a brilliant career of
          conquest the Assyrian king died in old age, at the height of human
          ambition, with peace at home and triumph abroad, the admiration of
          his subjects and the terror of his foes. But if the traditional
          characteristics of Sardanapalus harmonize but ill with what we know
          of the real monarch of that name, they fit well enough with all
          that we know or can conjecture of the mock kings who led a short
          life and a merry during the revelry of the Sacaea, the Asiatic
          equivalent of the Saturnalia. We can hardly doubt that for the most
          part such men, with death staring them in the face at the end of a
          few days, sought to drown care and deaden fear by plunging madly
          into all the fleeting joys that still offered themselves under the
          sun. When their brief pleasures and sharp sufferings were over, and
          their bones or ashes mingled with the dust, what more natural that
          on their tomb—those mounds in which the people saw, not untruly,
          the graves of the lovers of Semiramis—there should be carved some
          such lines as those which tradition placed in the mouth of the
          great Assyrian king, to remind the heedless passer-by of the
          shortness and vanity of life?</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The burning of Sandan, a mythical
              god or hero of Western Asia. K. O. Müller's description of the
              burning of Sandan.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we turn to
          Sandan, the other legendary or mythical being whom Movers thought
          that the Zoganes may have personated, we find the arguments in
          support of his theory still stronger. The city of Tarsus in Cilicia
          is said to have been founded by a certain Sandan whom the Greeks
          identified with Hercules; and at the festival of this god or hero
          an effigy of him was burned on a great pyre.<a id="noteref_870"
          name="noteref_870" href="#note_870"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">870</span></span></a> This
          Sandan is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg
          389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          doubtless the same with the Sandes whom Agathias calls the old
          Persian Hercules. Professing to give a list of the gods whom the
          Persians worshipped before the days of Zoroaster, the Byzantine
          historian mentions Bel, Sandes, and Anaitis, whom he identifies
          with Zeus, Hercules, and Aphrodite respectively.<a id="noteref_871"
          name="noteref_871" href="#note_871"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">871</span></span></a> As we
          know that Bel was a Babylonian, not a Persian deity, and that in
          later times Anaitis was practically equivalent to the Babylonian
          Ishtar or Astarte, a strong presumption is raised that Sandes also
          was a Babylonian or at all events Semitic deity, and that in
          speaking of him as Persian the historian confused the ancient
          Persians with the Babylonians and perhaps other stocks of Western
          Asia. The presumption is strengthened when we find that in Lydia
          the surname of Sandon, doubtless equivalent to Sandan, is said to
          have been borne by Hercules because he wore a woman's garment
          called a <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "el"><span style="font-style: italic">sandyx</span></span>, fine
          and diaphanous as gossamer, at the bidding of Queen Omphale, whom
          the hero served for three years in the guise of a female slave,
          clad in purple, humbly carding wool and submitting to be slapped by
          the saucy queen with her golden slipper.<a id="noteref_872" name=
          "noteref_872" href="#note_872"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">872</span></span></a> The
          familiar legend that Hercules burned himself alive on a great pyre
          completes the parallel between the effeminate Hercules Sandon of
          Lydia and the Assyrian Sardanapalus. So exact a parallel must
          surely rest on a common base of custom as well as of myth. That
          base, according to the conjecture of the admirable scholar K. O.
          Müller, may have been a custom of dressing up an effigy of an
          effeminate Asiatic deity in the semblance of a reveller, and then
          publicly burning it on a pyre. Such a custom appears to have
          prevailed not only at Tarsus in Cilicia, but also in Lydia; for a
          coin of the Lydian Philadelphia, a city which lay not far from the
          old royal capital Sardes, exhibits a device like that on coins of
          Tarsus, consisting of a figure stretched on a pyre. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“We may suppose,”</span> says Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“that in the old Assyrian mythology a certain being
          called Sandan, or perhaps <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg
          390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Sardan, figured beside Baal and Mylitta or Astarte. The character
          of this mythical personage is one which often meets us in oriental
          religion—the extreme of voluptuousness and sensuality combined with
          miraculous force and heroic strength. We may imagine that at the
          great festivals of Nineveh this Sandan or Sardan was exhibited as a
          buxom figure with womanish features, the pale face painted with
          white lead, the eyebrows and eyelashes blackened with kohl, his
          person loaded with golden chains, rings, and earrings, arrayed in a
          bright red transparent garment, grasping a goblet in one hand and
          perhaps, as a symbol of strength, a double axe in the other, while
          he sat cross-legged and surrounded by women on a splendidly adorned
          couch under a purple canopy, altogether not unlike the figure of
          Adonis at the court festivals of Alexandria. Then the people of
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘mad Nineveh,’</span> as the poet
          Phocylides called it, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the well-favoured
          harlot,’</span> as the prophet Nahum has it, would rejoice and make
          merry with this their darling hero. Afterwards there may have been
          another show, when this gorgeous Sandan or Sardan was to be seen on
          a huge pyre of precious wood, draped in gold-embroidered tapestry
          and laden with incense and spices of every sort, which being set on
          fire, to the howling of a countless multitude and the deafening din
          of shrill music, sent up a monstrous pillar of fire whirling
          towards heaven and flooded half Nineveh with smoke and
          smell.”</span><a id="noteref_873" name="noteref_873" href=
          "#note_873"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">873</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Death in the fire of men who
              personate gods or heroes.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The
          distinguished scholar whom I have just quoted does not fail to
          recognize the part which imagination plays in the picture he has
          set before us; but he reminds us very properly that in historical
          enquiries imagination must always supply the cement that binds
          together the broken fragments of tradition. One thing, he thinks,
          emerges clearly from the present investigation: the worship and
          legend of an effeminate hero like Sandan appear to have spread, by
          means of an early diffusion of the Semitic stock, first to the
          neighbourhood of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg
          391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Tarsus in Cilicia and afterwards to Sardes in Lydia. In favour of
          the former prevalence of the rite in Lydia it may be added that the
          oldest dynasty of Lydian kings traced their descent, not only from
          the mythical Assyrian hero Ninus, but also from the Greek hero
          Hercules,<a id="noteref_874" name="noteref_874" href=
          "#note_874"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">874</span></span></a> whose
          legendary death in the fire finds at least a curious echo in the
          story that Croesus, the last king of Lydia, was laid by his Persian
          conqueror Cyrus on a great pyre of wood, and was only saved at the
          last moment from being consumed in the flames.<a id="noteref_875"
          name="noteref_875" href="#note_875"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">875</span></span></a> May
          not this story embody a reminiscence of the manner in which the
          ancient kings of Lydia, as living embodiments of their god,
          formerly met their end? It was thus, as we have seen, that the old
          Prussian rulers used to burn themselves alive in front of the
          sacred oak;<a id="noteref_876" name="noteref_876" href=
          "#note_876"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">876</span></span></a> and
          by an odd coincidence, if it is nothing more, the Greek Hercules
          directed that the pyre on which he was to be consumed should be
          made of the wood of the oak and the wild olive.<a id="noteref_877"
          name="noteref_877" href="#note_877"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">877</span></span></a> Some
          grounds have also been shewn for thinking that in certain South
          African tribes the chiefs may formerly have been burnt alive as a
          religious or magical ceremony.<a id="noteref_878" name=
          "noteref_878" href="#note_878"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">878</span></span></a> All
          these facts and indications tend to support the view of Movers that
          at the Sacaea also the man who played the god for five days was
          originally burnt at the end of them.<a id="noteref_879" name=
          "noteref_879" href="#note_879"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">879</span></span></a> Death
          by hanging or crucifixion may have been a later mitigation of his
          sufferings, though it is quite possible that <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> both forms of execution or rather of
          sacrifice may have been combined by hanging or crucifying the
          victim first and burning him afterwards,<a id="noteref_880" name=
          "noteref_880" href="#note_880"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">880</span></span></a> much
          as our forefathers used to disembowel traitors after suspending
          them for a few minutes on a gibbet. At Tarsus apparently the custom
          was still further softened by burning an effigy instead of a man;
          but on this point the evidence is not explicit. It is worth
          observing that as late as Lucian's time the principal festival of
          the year at Hierapolis—the great seat of the worship of
          Astarte—fell at the beginning of spring and took its name of the
          Pyre or the Torch from the tall masts which were burnt in the court
          of the temple with sheep, goats, and other animals hanging from
          them.<a id="noteref_881" name="noteref_881" href=
          "#note_881"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">881</span></span></a> Here
          the season, the fire, and the gallows-tree all fit our hypothesis;
          only the man-god is wanting.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Traces of human sacrifice in the
              Jewish festival of Purim; effigies of Haman burnt.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the Jewish
          festival of Purim was, as I have attempted to shew, directly
          descended either from the Sacaea or from some other Semitic
          festival, of which the central feature was the sacrifice of a man
          in the character of a god, we should expect to find traces of human
          sacrifice lingering about it in one or other of those mitigated
          forms to which I have just referred. This expectation is fully
          borne out by the facts. For from an early time it has been
          customary with the Jews at the feast of Purim to burn or otherwise
          destroy effigies of Haman. The practice was well known under the
          Roman empire, for in the year 408 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> the emperors Honorius
          and Theodosius issued a decree commanding the governors of the
          provinces to take care that the Jews should not burn effigies of
          Haman on a cross at one of their festivals.<a id="noteref_882"
          name="noteref_882" href="#note_882"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">882</span></span></a> We
          learn from the decree that the custom gave great offence to the
          Christians, who regarded it as a blasphemous parody of the central
          mystery of their own religion, little suspecting that it was
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name=
          "Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> nothing but a
          continuation, in a milder form, of a rite that had probably been
          celebrated in the East long ages before the birth of Christ.
          Apparently the custom long survived the publication of the edict,
          for in a form of abjuration which the Greek church imposed on
          Jewish converts and which seems to date from the tenth century, the
          renegade is made to speak as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“I
          curse also those who celebrate the festival of the so-called
          Mordecai on the first Sabbath (Saturday) of the Christian fast, and
          who nail Haman forsooth to the tree, attaching to it the symbol of
          the cross and burning him along with it, while they heap all sorts
          of imprecations and curses on the Christians.”</span><a id=
          "noteref_883" name="noteref_883" href="#note_883"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">883</span></span></a> A
          Jewish account of the custom as it was observed in Babylonia and
          Persia in the tenth century of our era runs as follows:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“It is customary in Babylonia and Elam for
          boys to make an effigy resembling Haman; this they suspend on their
          roofs, four or five days before Purim. On Purim day they erect a
          bonfire, and cast the effigy into its midst, while the boys stand
          round about it jesting and singing. And they have a ring suspended
          in the midst of the fire, which (ring) they hold and wave from one
          side of the fire to the other.”</span><a id="noteref_884" name=
          "noteref_884" href="#note_884"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">884</span></span></a>
          Again, the Arab historian Albîrûnî, who wrote in the year 1000
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, informs us that at
          Purim the Jews of his time rejoiced greatly over the death of
          Haman, and that they made figures which they beat and burned,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“imitating the burning of Haman.”</span>
          Hence one name for the festival was Hâmân-Sûr.<a id="noteref_885"
          name="noteref_885" href="#note_885"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">885</span></span></a>
          Another Arabic writer, Makrîzî, who died in 1442 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> says that at the feast of Purim, which
          fell on the fifteenth day of the month Adar, some of the Jews used
          to make effigies of Haman which they first played with and then
          threw into the fire.<a id="noteref_886" name="noteref_886" href=
          "#note_886"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">886</span></span></a>
          During the Middle Ages the Italian Jews celebrated Purim in a
          lively fashion which has been compared by their own historians to
          that of the Carnival. The children used to range themselves in rows
          opposite each other and pelt one another with nuts, while grown-up
          people rode on horseback through the streets with pine branches in
          their hands or blew trumpets and made merry round a puppet
          representing Haman, which was set on a platform or scaffold and
          then solemnly burnt on a pyre.<a id="noteref_887" name=
          "noteref_887" href="#note_887"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">887</span></span></a> In
          the eighteenth century the Jews of Frankfort used at Purim to make
          pyramids of thin wax candles, which they set on fire; also they
          fashioned images of Haman and his wife out of candles and burned
          them on the reading-desk in the synagogue.<a id="noteref_888" name=
          "noteref_888" href="#note_888"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">888</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Accusations of ritual murder
              brought against the Jews. The accusations probably
              false.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, when we
          consider the close correspondence in character as well as in date
          between the Jewish Purim and the Christian Carnival, and remember
          further that the effigy of Carnival, which is now destroyed at this
          merry season, had probably its prototype in a living man who was
          put to a violent death in the character of Saturn at the
          Saturnalia, analogy of itself would suggest that in former times
          the Jews, like the Babylonians, from whom they appear to have
          derived their Purim, may at one time have burned, hanged, or
          crucified a real man in the character of Haman. There are some
          positive grounds for thinking that this was so. The early church
          historian Socrates informs us that at Inmestar, a town in Syria,
          the Jews were wont to observe certain sports among themselves, in
          the course of which they played many foolish pranks. In the year
          416 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, being heated with
          wine, they carried these sports further than usual and began
          deriding Christians and even Christ <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> himself, and to give the more zest to their
          mockery they seized a Christian child, bound him to a cross, and
          hung him up. At first they only laughed and jeered at him, but
          soon, their passions getting the better of them, they ill-treated
          the child so that he died under their hands. The thing got noised
          abroad, and resulted in a serious brawl between the Jews and their
          Christian neighbours. The authorities then stepped in, and the Jews
          had to pay dear for the crime they had perpetrated in sport.<a id=
          "noteref_889" name="noteref_889" href="#note_889"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">889</span></span></a> The
          Christian historian does not mention, and perhaps did not know, the
          name of the drunken and jovial festival which ended so tragically;
          but we can hardly doubt that it was Purim, and that the boy who
          died on the cross represented Haman.<a id="noteref_890" name=
          "noteref_890" href="#note_890"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">890</span></span></a> In
          mediæval and modern times many accusations of ritual murders, as
          they are called, have been brought against the Jews, and the
          arguments for and against the charge have been discussed on both
          sides with a heat which, however natural, has tended rather to
          inflame the passions of the disputants than to elicit the
          truth.<a id="noteref_891" name="noteref_891" href=
          "#note_891"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">891</span></span></a> Into
          this troubled arena I prefer not to enter; I will only observe
          that, so far as I have looked into the alleged cases, and these are
          reported in sufficient detail, the majority of the victims are said
          to have been children and to have met their fate in spring, often
          in the week before Easter. This last circumstance points, if there
          is any truth in the accusations, to a connexion of the human
          sacrifice with the Passover, which falls in this week, rather than
          with Purim, which falls a month earlier. Indeed it has often been
          made a part of the accusation that the blood of the youthful
          victims was intended to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg
          396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          be used at the Passover. If all the charges of ritual murder which
          have been brought against the Jews in modern times are not, as
          seems most probable, mere idle calumnies, the baneful fruit of
          bigotry, ignorance, and malice, the extraordinary tenacity of life
          exhibited by the lowest forms of superstition in the minds of
          ignorant people, whether they are Jews or Gentiles, would suffice
          to account for an occasional recrudescence of primitive barbarity
          among the most degraded part of the Jewish community. To make the
          Jews as a nation responsible for outrages which, if they occur at
          all, are doubtless quite as repugnant to them as they are to every
          humane mind, would be a monstrous injustice; it would be as fair to
          charge Christians in general with complicity in the incalculably
          greater number of massacres and atrocities of every kind that have
          been perpetrated by Christians in the name of Christianity, not
          merely on Jews and heathen, but on men and women and children who
          professed—and died for—the same faith as their torturers and
          murderers. If deeds of the sort alleged have been really done by
          Jews—a question on which I must decline to pronounce an
          opinion—they would interest the student of custom as isolated
          instances of reversion to an old and barbarous ritual which once
          flourished commonly enough among the ancestors both of Jews and
          Gentiles, but on which, as on a noxious monster, an enlightened
          humanity has long set its heel. Such customs die hard; it is not
          the fault of society as a whole if sometimes the reptile has
          strength enough left to lift its venomous head and sting.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Mitigation of human sacrifice by
              the substitution of a criminal for the victim.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But between the
          stage when human sacrifice goes on unabashed in the light of common
          day, and the stage when it has been driven out of sight into dark
          holes and corners, there intervenes a period during which the
          custom is slowly dwindling away under the growing light of
          knowledge and philanthropy. In this middle period many subterfuges
          are resorted to for the sake of preserving the old ritual in a form
          which will not offend the new morality. A common and successful
          device is to consummate the sacrifice on the person of a
          malefactor, whose death at the altar or elsewhere is little likely
          to excite pity or indignation, since it partakes of the character
          of a punishment, and people recognize <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> that if the miscreant had not been dealt with
          by the priest, it would have been needful in the public interest to
          hand him over to the executioner. We have seen that in the Rhodian
          sacrifices to Cronus a condemned criminal was after a time
          substituted for an innocent victim;<a id="noteref_892" name=
          "noteref_892" href="#note_892"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">892</span></span></a> and
          there can be little doubt that at Babylon the criminals, who
          perished in the character of gods at the Sacaea, enjoyed an honour
          which, at an earlier period, had been reserved for more respectable
          persons. It seems therefore by no means impossible that the Jews,
          in borrowing the Sacaea from Babylon under the new name of Purim,
          should have borrowed along with it the custom of putting to death a
          malefactor who, after masquerading as Mordecai in a crown and royal
          robe, was hanged or crucified in the character of Haman. There are
          some grounds for thinking that this or something of this sort was
          done; but a consideration of them had better be deferred till we
          have cleared up some points which still remain obscure in Purim,
          and in the account which the Jews give of its origin.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">fast of Esther</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">before Purim. Jensen's theory that the</span>
              <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">fast of
              Esther</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">was originally a mourning for the annual death
              of a deity like Tammuz.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first
          place, then, it deserves to be remarked that the joyous festival of
          Purim on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month Adar is
          invariably preceded by a fast, known as the fast of Esther, on the
          thirteenth; indeed, some Jews fast for several days before
          Purim.<a id="noteref_893" name="noteref_893" href=
          "#note_893"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">893</span></span></a> In
          the book of Esther the fast is traditionally explained as a
          commemoration of the mourning and lamentation excited among the
          Jews by the decree of King Ahasuerus that they should all be
          massacred on the thirteenth day of the month Adar; for <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“in every province, whithersoever the king's
          commandment and his decree came, there was great mourning among the
          Jews, and fasting, and weeping, and wailing; and many lay in
          sackcloth and ashes.”</span> And Esther, before she went into the
          presence of the king to plead for the lives of her people,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“bade them return answer unto Mordecai, Go,
          gather together all the Jews that are present in Shushan, and fast
          ye for me, and neither eat nor drink three days, night or day: I
          also and my maidens will fast in like manner.”</span> Hence fasting
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name=
          "Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and lamentation were
          ordained as the proper preparation for the happy feast of Purim
          which commemorated the great deliverance of the Jews from the
          destruction that had threatened them on the thirteenth day of
          Adar.<a id="noteref_894" name="noteref_894" href=
          "#note_894"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">894</span></span></a> Now
          we have seen that, in the opinion of some eminent modern scholars,
          the basis of the book of Esther is not history but a Babylonian
          myth, which celebrated the triumphs and sufferings of deities
          rather than of men. On this hypothesis, how is the fast that
          precedes Purim to be explained? The best solution appears to be
          that of Jensen, that the fasting and mourning were originally for
          the supposed annual death of a Semitic god or hero of the type of
          Tammuz or Adonis, whose resurrection on the following day
          occasioned that outburst of joy and gladness which is
          characteristic of Purim. The particular god or hero, whose death
          and resurrection thus touched with sorrow and filled with joy the
          hearts of his worshippers, may have been, according to Jensen,
          either the great hero Gilgamesh, or his comrade and friend
          Eabani.<a id="noteref_895" name="noteref_895" href=
          "#note_895"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">895</span></span></a> The
          doughty deeds and adventures of this mighty pair are the theme of
          the longest Babylonian poem that has been as yet discovered. It is
          recorded on twelve tablets, and this circumstance has suggested to
          some scholars the view that the story may be a solar myth,
          descriptive of the sun's annual course through the twelve months or
          the twelve signs of the zodiac. However that may be, the scene of
          the poem is laid chiefly at the very ancient Babylonian city of
          Erech, the chief seat of the worship of the goddess Ishtar or
          Astarte, who plays an important part in the story. For the goddess
          is said to have been smitten with the charms of Gilgamesh, and to
          have made love to him; but he spurned her proffered favours, and
          thereafter fell into a sore sickness, probably through the wrath of
          the offended goddess. His comrade Eabani also <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> roused the fury of Ishtar, and was
          wounded to death. For twelve days he lingered on a bed of pain,
          and, when he died, his friend Gilgamesh mourned and lamented for
          him, and rested not until he had prevailed on the god of the dead
          to suffer the spirit of Eabani to return to the upper world. The
          resurrection of Eabani, recorded on the twelfth tablet, forms the
          conclusion of the long poem.<a id="noteref_896" name="noteref_896"
          href="#note_896"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">896</span></span></a>
          Jensen's theory is that the death and resurrection of a mythical
          being, who combined in himself the features of a solar god and an
          ancient king of Erech, were celebrated at the Babylonian Zakmuk or
          festival of the New Year, and that the transference of the drama
          from Erech, its original seat, to Babylon led naturally to the
          substitution of Marduk, the great god of Babylon, for Gilgamesh or
          Eabani in the part of the hero. Although Jensen apparently does not
          identify the Zakmuk with the Sacaea, a little consideration will
          shew how well his general theory of Zakmuk fits in with those
          features of the Sacaean festival which have emerged in the course
          of our enquiry. At the Sacaean festival, if I am right, a man, who
          personated a god or hero of the type of Tammuz or Adonis, enjoyed
          the favours of a woman, probably a sacred harlot, who represented
          the great Semitic goddess Ishtar or Astarte; and after he had thus
          done his part towards securing, by means of sympathetic magic, the
          revival of plant life in spring, he was put to death. We may
          suppose that the death of this divine man was mourned over by his
          worshippers, and especially by women, in much the same fashion as
          the women of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg
          400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          Jerusalem wept for Tammuz at the gate of the temple,<a id=
          "noteref_897" name="noteref_897" href="#note_897"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">897</span></span></a> and
          as Syrian damsels mourned the dead Adonis, while the river ran red
          with his blood. Such rites appear, in fact, to have been common all
          over Western Asia; the particular name of the dying god varied in
          different places, but in substance the ritual was the same.
          Fundamentally, the custom was a religious or rather magical
          ceremony intended to ensure the revival and reproduction of life in
          spring.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The resurrection of the dead god
              perhaps represented by a living man who afterwards died in
              earnest in the character of the god. This would explain the
              apparent duplication of the principal characters in the book of
              Esther: Haman and Vashti would represent the gods dying, while
              Mordecai and Esther would represent the gods rising from the
              dead.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, if this
          interpretation of the Sacaea is correct, it is obvious that one
          important feature of the ceremony is wanting in the brief notices
          of the festival that have come down to us. The death of the man-god
          at the festival is recorded, but nothing is said of his
          resurrection. Yet if he really personated a being of the Adonis or
          Attis type, we may feel pretty sure that his dramatic death was
          followed at a shorter or longer interval by his dramatic revival,
          just as at the festivals of Attis and Adonis the resurrection of
          the dead god quickly succeeded to his mimic death.<a id=
          "noteref_898" name="noteref_898" href="#note_898"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">898</span></span></a> Here,
          however, a difficulty presents itself. At the Sacaea the man-god
          died a real, not a mere mimic death; and in ordinary life the
          resurrection even of a man-god is at least not an everyday
          occurrence. What was to be done? The man, or rather the god, was
          undoubtedly dead. How was he to come to life again? Obviously the
          best, if not the only way, was to set another and living man to
          support the character of the reviving god, and we may conjecture
          that this was done. We may suppose that the insignia of royalty
          which had adorned the dead man were transferred to his successor,
          who, arrayed in them, would be presented to his rejoicing
          worshippers as their god come to life again; and by his side would
          probably be displayed a woman in the character of his divine
          consort, the goddess Ishtar or Astarte. In favour of this
          hypothesis it may be observed that it at once furnishes a clear and
          intelligible explanation of a remarkable feature in the book of
          Esther which has not yet, so far as I am aware, been adequately
          elucidated; I mean that apparent duplication of the principal
          characters to which I have already directed the reader's attention.
          If I am right, Haman represents <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> the temporary king or mortal god who was put
          to death at the Sacaea; and his rival Mordecai represents the other
          temporary king who, on the death of his predecessor, was invested
          with his royal insignia, and exhibited to the people as the god
          come to life again. Similarly Vashti, the deposed queen in the
          narrative, corresponds to the woman who played the part of queen
          and goddess to the first mock king, the Haman; and her successful
          rival, Esther or Ishtar, answers to the woman who figured as the
          divine consort of the second mock king, the Mordecai or Marduk. A
          trace of the sexual license accorded to the mock king of the
          festival seems to be preserved in the statement that King Ahasuerus
          found Haman fallen on the bed with Esther and asked, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Will he even force the queen before me in the
          house?”</span><a id="noteref_899" name="noteref_899" href=
          "#note_899"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">899</span></span></a> We
          have seen that the mock king of the Sacaea did actually possess the
          right of using the real king's concubines, and there is much to be
          said for the view of Movers that he began his short reign by
          exercising the right in public.<a id="noteref_900" name=
          "noteref_900" href="#note_900"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">900</span></span></a> In
          the parallel ritual of Adonis the marriage of the goddess with her
          ill-fated lover was publicly celebrated the day before his mimic
          death.<a id="noteref_901" name="noteref_901" href=
          "#note_901"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">901</span></span></a> A
          clear reminiscence of the time when the relation between Esther and
          Mordecai was conceived as much more intimate than mere cousinship
          appears to be preserved in some of the Jewish plays acted at Purim,
          in which Mordecai appears as the lover of Esther; and this
          significant indication is confirmed by the teaching of the rabbis
          that King Ahasuerus never really knew Esther, but that a phantom in
          her likeness lay with him while the real Esther sat on the lap of
          Mordecai.<a id="noteref_902" name="noteref_902" href=
          "#note_902"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">902</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The Persian setting of the book of
              Esther. The Persian ceremony of the</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Ride of the Beardless One</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in
              spring.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Persian
          setting, in which the Hebrew author of the book of Esther has
          framed his highly-coloured picture, naturally suggests that the
          Jews derived their feast of Purim not directly from the old
          Babylonians, but from their Persian conquerors. Even if this could
          be demonstrated, it would in no way invalidate the theory that
          Purim originated <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg
          402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          in the Babylonian festival of the Sacaea, since we know that the
          Sacaea was celebrated by the Persians.<a id="noteref_903" name=
          "noteref_903" href="#note_903"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">903</span></span></a> Hence
          it becomes worth while to enquire whether in the Persian religion
          we can detect any traces of a festival akin to the Sacaea or Purim.
          Here Lagarde has shewn the way by directing attention to the old
          Persian ceremony known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ride of the
          Beardless One.”</span><a id="noteref_904" name="noteref_904" href=
          "#note_904"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">904</span></span></a> This
          was a rite performed both in Persia and Babylonia at the beginning
          of spring, on the first day of the first month, which in the most
          ancient Persian calendar corresponded to March, so that the date of
          the ceremony agrees with that of the Babylonian New Year festival
          of Zakmuk. A beardless and, if possible, one-eyed buffoon was set
          naked on an ass, a horse, or a mule, and conducted in a sort of
          mock triumph through the streets of the city. In one hand he held a
          crow and in the other a fan, with which he fanned himself,
          complaining of the heat, while the people pelted him with ice and
          snow and drenched him with cold water. He was supposed to drive
          away the cold, and to aid him perhaps in discharging this useful
          function he was fed with hot food, and hot stuffs were smeared on
          his body. Riding on his ass and attended by all the king's
          household, if the city happened to be the capital, or, if it was
          not, by all the retainers of the governor, who were also mounted,
          he paraded the streets and extorted contributions. He stopped at
          the doors of the rich, and if they did not give him what he asked
          for, he befouled their garments with mud or a mixture of red ochre
          and water, which he carried in an earthenware pot. If a shopkeeper
          hesitated a moment to respond to his demands, the importunate
          beggar had the right to confiscate all the goods in the shop; so
          the tradesmen who saw him bearing down on them, not unnaturally
          hastened to anticipate his wants by contributing of their substance
          before he could board them. Everything that he <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thus collected from break of day to the
          time of morning prayers belonged to the king or governor of the
          city; but everything that he laid hands on between the first and
          the second hour of prayer he kept for himself. After the second
          prayers he disappeared, and if the people caught him later in the
          day they were free to beat him to their heart's content.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“In like manner,”</span> proceeds one of
          the native writers who has described the custom, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“people at the present time appoint a New Year Lord and
          make merry. And this they do because the season, which is the
          beginning of Azur or March, coincides with the sun's entry into
          Aries, for on that day they disport themselves and rejoice because
          the winter is over.”</span><a id="noteref_905" name="noteref_905"
          href="#note_905"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">905</span></span></a></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Beardless One</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span> <span style=
              "font-size: 80%">in the Persian ceremony is apparently the
              degenerate successor of a temporary king.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now in this
          harlequin, who rode through the streets attended by all the king's
          men, and levying contributions which went either to the royal
          treasury or to the pocket of the collector, we recognize the
          familiar features of the mock or temporary king, who is invested
          for a short time with the pomp and privileges of royalty for
          reasons which have been already explained.<a id="noteref_906" name=
          "noteref_906" href="#note_906"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">906</span></span></a> The
          abrupt disappearance of the Persian clown at a certain hour of the
          day, coupled with the leave given to the populace to thrash him if
          they found him afterwards, points plainly enough to the harder fate
          that probably awaited him in former days, when he paid with his
          life for his brief tenure of a kingly crown. The resemblance
          between his burlesque progress and that of Mordecai through the
          streets of Susa is obvious; though the Jewish author of Esther has
          depicted in brighter colours the pomp of his hero <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“in royal apparel of blue and white, and with a great
          crown of gold, and with a robe of fine linen and purple,”</span>
          riding the king's own charger, and led through the city by one of
          the king's most noble princes.<a id="noteref_907" name=
          "noteref_907" href="#note_907"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">907</span></span></a> The
          difference between the two scenes is probably not to be explained
          simply by the desire of the Jewish writer to shed a halo of glory
          round the personage whom he regarded as the deliverer of his
          people. So long as the temporary <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> king was a real substitute for the reigning
          monarch, and had to die sooner or later in his stead, it was
          natural that he should be treated with a greater show of deference,
          and should simulate his royal brother more closely than a clown who
          had nothing worse than a beating to fear when he laid down his
          office. In short, after the serious meaning of the custom had been
          forgotten, and the substitute was allowed to escape with his life,
          the high tragedy of the ancient ceremony would rapidly degenerate
          into farce.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class=
              "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">Ride of the Beardless One</span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style=
              "font-size: 80%">seems to be a magical ceremony for the
              expulsion of winter.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while the
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ride of the Beardless One”</span> is, from
          one point of view, a degenerate copy of the original, regarded from
          another point of view, it preserves some features which are almost
          certainly primitive, though they do not appear in the kindred
          Babylonian and Jewish festivals. The Persian custom bears the stamp
          of a popular festivity rather than of a state ceremonial, and
          everywhere it seems as if popular festivals, when left to propagate
          themselves freely among the folk, reveal their old meaning and
          intention more transparently than when they have been adopted into
          the official religion and enshrined in a ritual. The simple
          thoughts of our simple forefathers are better understood by their
          unlettered descendants than by the majority of educated people;
          their rude rites are more faithfully preserved and more truly
          interpreted by a rude peasantry than by the priest, who wraps up
          their nakedness in the gorgeous pall of religious pomp, or by the
          philosopher, who dissolves their crudities into the thin air of
          allegory. In the present instance the purpose of the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ride of the Beardless One”</span> at the beginning of
          spring is sufficiently obvious; it was meant to hasten the
          departure of winter and the approach of summer. We are expressly
          told that the clown who went about fanning himself and complaining
          of the heat, while the populace snowballed him, was supposed to
          dispel the cold; and even without any such assurance we should be
          justified in inferring as much from his behaviour. On the
          principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, which is little more
          than an elaborate system of make-believe, you can make the weather
          warm by pretending that it is so; or if you cannot, you may be sure
          that there is some person wiser than yourself who can. Such a
          wizard, in the estimation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page405">[pg
          405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          of the Persians, was the beardless one-eyed man who went through
          the performance I have described; and no doubt his physical defects
          were believed to contribute in some occult manner to the success of
          the rite. The ceremony was thus, as Lagarde acutely perceived, the
          oriental equivalent of those popular European customs which
          celebrate the advent of spring by representing in a dramatic form
          the expulsion or defeat of winter by the victorious summer.<a id=
          "noteref_908" name="noteref_908" href="#note_908"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">908</span></span></a> But
          whereas in Europe the two rival seasons are often, if not
          regularly, personated by two actors or two effigies, in Persia a
          single actor sufficed. Whether he definitely represented winter or
          summer is not quite clear; but his pretence of suffering from heat
          and his final disappearance suggest that, if he personified either
          of the seasons, it was the departing winter rather than the coming
          summer.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The opposition of Haman and Vashti
              to Mordecai and Esther seems to be a contrast between the
              annual death of nature in winter and its revival in
              spring.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is any
          truth in the connexion thus traced between Purim and the
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ride of the Beardless One,”</span> we are
          now in a position finally to unmask the leading personages in the
          book of Esther. I have attempted to shew that Haman and Vashti are
          little more than doubles of Mordecai and Esther, who in turn
          conceal under a thin disguise the features of Marduk and Ishtar,
          the great god and goddess of Babylon. But why, the reader may ask,
          should the divine pair be thus duplicated and the two pairs set in
          opposition to each other? The answer is suggested by the popular
          European celebrations of spring to which I have just adverted. If
          my interpretation of these customs is right, the contrast between
          the summer and winter, or between the life and death, which figure
          in effigy or in the persons of living representatives at the spring
          ceremonies of our peasantry, is fundamentally a contrast between
          the dying or dead vegetation of the old and the sprouting
          vegetation of the new year—a contrast which would lose nothing of
          its point when, as in ancient Rome and Babylon and Persia, the
          beginning of spring was also the beginning of the new year. In
          these and in all the ceremonies we have been examining the
          antagonism is not between powers of a different order, but between
          the same power viewed in different aspects as old and young; it is,
          in short, nothing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg
          406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          but the eternal and pathetic contrast between youth and age. And as
          the power or spirit of vegetation is represented in religious
          ritual and popular custom by a human pair, whether they be called
          Ishtar and Tammuz, or Venus and Adonis, or the Queen and King of
          May, so we may expect to find the old decrepit spirit of the past
          year personated by one pair, and the fresh young spirit of the new
          year by another. This, if my hypothesis is right, is the ultimate
          explanation of the struggle between Haman and Vashti on the one
          side, and their doubles Mordecai and Esther on the other. In the
          last analysis both pairs stood for the powers that make for the
          fertility of plants and perhaps also of animals;<a id="noteref_909"
          name="noteref_909" href="#note_909"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">909</span></span></a> but
          the one pair embodied the failing energies of the past, and the
          other the vigorous and growing energies of the coming year.<a id=
          "noteref_910" name="noteref_910" href="#note_910"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">910</span></span></a> Both
          powers, on my hypothesis, were personified not merely in myth, but
          in custom; for year by year a human couple undertook to quicken the
          life of nature by a union in which, as in a microcosm, the loves of
          tree and plant, of herb and flower, of bird and beast were supposed
          in some mystic fashion to be summed up.<a id="noteref_911" name=
          "noteref_911" href="#note_911"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">911</span></span></a>
          Originally, we may conjecture, such couples exercised their
          functions for a whole year, on the conclusion of which the male
          partner—the divine king—was put to death; but in historical times
          it seems that, as a rule, the human god—the Saturn, Zoganes,
          Tammuz, or whatever he was called—enjoyed his divine privileges,
          and discharged <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg
          407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          his divine duties only for a short part of the year. This
          curtailment of his reign on earth was probably introduced at the
          time when the old hereditary divinities or deified kings contrived
          to shift the most painful part of their duties to a substitute,
          whether that substitute was a son or a slave or a malefactor.
          Having to die as a king, it was necessary that the substitute
          should also live as a king for a season; but the real monarch would
          naturally restrict within the narrowest limits both of time and of
          power a reign which, so long as it lasted, necessarily encroached
          upon and indeed superseded his own.<a id="noteref_912" name=
          "noteref_912" href="#note_912"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">912</span></span></a> What
          became of the divine king's female partner, the human goddess who
          shared his bed and transmitted his beneficent energies to the rest
          of nature, we cannot say. So far as I am aware, there is little or
          no evidence that she like him suffered death when her primary
          function was discharged.<a id="noteref_913" name="noteref_913"
          href="#note_913"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">913</span></span></a> The
          nature of maternity suggests an obvious reason for sparing her a
          little longer, till that mysterious law, which links together
          woman's life with the changing aspects of the nightly sky, had been
          fulfilled by the birth of an infant god, who should in his turn,
          reared perhaps by her tender care, grow up to live and die for the
          world.</p>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-div" style=
        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
          <a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a> <a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a>

          <h2 class="tei tei-head" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em">
          <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. Conclusion.</span></h2>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">Wide prevalence of festivals like
              the Saturnalia in antiquity. Such festivals seem to have been
              held by agricultural communities for the good of the crops, and
              at them the king or his substitute appears to have personated
              the god of fertility, and to have been put to death in that
              character in order to ensure that the god should rise from the
              dead with renewed youth and vigour.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may now sum
          up the general results of the enquiry which we have pursued in the
          present chapter. We have found evidence that festivals of the type
          of the Saturnalia, characterized by an inversion of social ranks
          and the sacrifice of a man in the character of a god, were at one
          time held all over the ancient world from Italy to Babylon. Such
          festivals seem to date from an early age in the history of
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name=
          "Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> agriculture, when
          people lived in small communities, each presided over by a sacred
          or divine king, whose primary duty was to secure the orderly
          succession of the seasons, the fertility of the earth, and the
          fecundity both of cattle and of women. Associated with him was his
          wife or other female consort, with whom he performed some of the
          necessary ceremonies, and who therefore shared his divine
          character. Originally his term of office appears to have been
          limited to a year, on the conclusion of which he was put to death;
          but in time he contrived by force or craft to extend his reign and
          sometimes to procure a substitute, who after a short and more or
          less nominal tenure of the crown was slain in his stead. At first
          the substitute for the divine father was probably the divine son,
          but afterwards this rule was no longer insisted on, and still later
          the growth of a humane feeling demanded that the victim should
          always be a condemned criminal. In this advanced stage of
          degeneration it is no wonder if the light of divinity suffered
          eclipse, and many should fail to detect the god in the malefactor.
          Yet the downward career of fallen deity does not stop here; even a
          criminal comes to be thought too good to personate a god on the
          gallows or in the fire; and then there is nothing left but to make
          up a more or less grotesque effigy, and so to hang, burn, or
          otherwise destroy the god in the person of this sorry
          representative. By this time the original meaning of the ceremony
          may be so completely forgotten that the puppet is supposed to
          represent some historical personage, who earned the hatred and
          contempt of his fellows in his life, and whose memory has ever
          since been held up to eternal execration by the annual destruction
          of his effigy. The figures of Haman, of the Carnival, and of Winter
          or Death which are or used to be annually destroyed in spring by
          Jews, Catholics, and the peasants of Central Europe respectively,
          appear to be all lineal descendants of those human incarnations of
          the powers of nature whose life and death were deemed essential to
          the welfare of mankind. But of the three the only one which has
          preserved a clear trace of its original meaning is the effigy of
          Winter or Death. In the others the ancient significance of the
          custom as a magical ceremony designed to direct the course of
          nature has been <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page409">[pg
          409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
          almost wholly obscured by a thick aftergrowth of legend and myth.
          The cause of this distinction is that, whereas the practice of
          destroying an effigy of Winter or Death has been handed down from
          time immemorial through generations of simple peasants, the
          festivals of Purim and the Carnival, as well as their Babylonian
          and Italian prototypes, the Sacaea and the Saturnalia, were for
          centuries domesticated in cities, where they were necessarily
          exposed to those thousand transforming and disintegrating currents
          of speculation and enquiry, of priestcraft and policy, which roll
          their turbid waters through the busy haunts of men, but leave
          undefiled the limpid springs of mythic fancy in the country.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The festivals point to a
              remarkable homogeneity of civilization over a great part of the
              Old World in antiquity.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is any
          truth in the analysis of the Saturnalia and kindred festivals which
          I have now brought to a close, it seems to point to a remarkable
          homogeneity of civilization throughout Southern Europe and Western
          Asia in prehistoric times. How far such homogeneity of civilization
          may be taken as evidence of homogeneity of race is a question for
          the ethnologist; it does not concern us here. But without
          discussing it, I may remind the reader that in the far east of Asia
          we have met with temporary kings whose magical functions and
          intimate relation to agriculture stand out in the clearest
          light;<a id="noteref_914" name="noteref_914" href=
          "#note_914"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">914</span></span></a> while
          India furnishes examples of kings who have regularly been obliged
          to sacrifice themselves at the end of a term of years.<a id=
          "noteref_915" name="noteref_915" href="#note_915"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">915</span></span></a> All
          these things appear to hang together; all of them may, perhaps, be
          regarded as the shattered remnants of a uniform zone of religion
          and society which at a remote era belted the Old World from the
          Mediterranean to the Pacific. Whether that was so or not, I may at
          least claim to have made it probable that if the King of the Wood
          at Aricia lived and died as an incarnation of a sylvan deity, the
          functions he thus discharged were by no means singular, and that
          for the nearest parallel to them we need not go beyond the bounds
          of Italy, where the divine king Saturn—the god of the sown and
          sprouting seed—was annually slain in the person of a human
          representative at his ancient festival of the Saturnalia.</p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

          <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
            <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
              <span style="font-size: 80%">The periodical sacrifice of
              deified men for the sake of maintaining the course of nature
              perhaps helps to explain traditions which represent the world
              or parts of it as created out of the bodies of gods. The
              Brahmanical theory of the perpetual renewal of the creation in
              the daily sacrifice.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is possible
          that such sacrifices of deified men, performed for the salvation of
          the world, may have helped to <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page410">[pg 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> beget the notion that the universe or some
          part of it was originally created out of the bodies of gods offered
          up in sacrifice. Certainly it is curious that notions of this sort
          meet us precisely in parts of the world where such sacrifices
          appear to have been regularly accomplished. Thus in ancient Mexico,
          where the sacrifice of human beings in the character of gods formed
          a conspicuous feature of the national religion, it is said that in
          the beginning, when as yet the light of day was not, the gods
          created the sun to illumine the earth by voluntarily burning
          themselves in the fire, leaping one after the other into the flames
          of a great furnace.<a id="noteref_916" name="noteref_916" href=
          "#note_916"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">916</span></span></a>
          Again, in the Babylonian Genesis the great god Bel created the
          world by cleaving the female monster Tiamat in twain and using the
          severed halves of her body to form the heaven and the earth.
          Afterwards, perceiving that the earth was waste and void, he
          obligingly ordered one of the gods to cut off his, the Creator's,
          head, and with the flowing blood mixed with clay he kneaded a paste
          out of which he moulded men and animals.<a id="noteref_917" name=
          "noteref_917" href="#note_917"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">917</span></span></a>
          Similarly in a hymn of the Rig Veda we read how the gods created
          the world out of the dismembered body of the great primordial giant
          Purushu. The sky was made out of his head, the earth out of his
          feet, the sun out of his eye, and the moon out of his mind; animals
          and men were also engendered from his dripping fat or his limbs,
          and the great gods Indra and Agni sprang from his mouth.<a id=
          "noteref_918" name="noteref_918" href="#note_918"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">918</span></span></a> The
          crude, nay savage, account of creation thus set forth by the poet
          was retained by the Brahman <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
          "page411">[pg 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a> doctors of a later age and refined by them
          into a subtle theory of sacrifice in general. According to them the
          world was not only created in the beginning by the sacrifice of the
          creator Prajapati, the Lord of Creatures; to this day it is renewed
          and preserved solely by a repetition of that mystic sacrifice in
          the daily sacrificial ritual celebrated by the Brahmans. Every day
          the body of the Creator and Saviour is broken anew, and every day
          it is pieced together for the restoration and conservation of a
          universe which otherwise must dissolve and be shattered into
          fragments. Thus is the world continually created afresh by the
          self-sacrifice of the deity; and, wonderful to relate, the priest
          who offers the sacrifice identifies himself with the Creator, and
          so by the very act of sacrificing renews the universe and keeps up
          uninterrupted the revolution of time and matter. All things depend
          on his beneficent, nay divine activity, from the heaven above to
          the earth beneath, from the greatest god to the meanest worm, from
          the sun and moon to the humblest blade of grass and the minutest
          particle of dust. Happily this grandiose theory of sacrifice as a
          process essential to the salvation of the world does not oblige the
          priest to imitate his glorious prototype by dismembering his own
          body and shedding his blood on the altar; on the contrary a
          comfortable corollary deduced from it holds out to him the pleasing
          prospect of living for the unspeakable benefit of society to a good
          old age, indeed of stretching out the brief span of human existence
          to a full hundred years.<a id="noteref_919" name="noteref_919"
          href="#note_919"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">919</span></span></a> Well
          is it, not only for the priest but for mankind, when with the slow
          progress of civilization and humanity the hard facts of a cruel
          ritual have thus been softened and diluted into the nebulous
          abstractions of a mystical theology.</p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name=
      "Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a> <a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Note. The Crucifixion Of
        Christ.</span><a id="noteref_920" name="noteref_920" href=
        "#note_920"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
        "text-align: left"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">920</span></span></a></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The mockery of Christ compared to
            the mockery of the King of the Saturnalia.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An eminent scholar
        has recently pointed out the remarkable resemblance between the
        treatment of Christ by the Roman soldiers at Jerusalem and the
        treatment of the mock king of the Saturnalia by the Roman soldiers at
        Durostorum; and he would explain the similarity by supposing that the
        soldiers ridiculed the claims of Christ to a divine kingdom by
        arraying him in the familiar garb of old King Saturn, whose quaint
        person figured so prominently at the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> winter revels.<a id="noteref_921" name=
        "noteref_921" href="#note_921"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">921</span></span></a> Even if
        the theory should prove to be right, we can hardly suppose that
        Christ played the part of the regular Saturn of the year, since at
        the beginning of our era the Saturnalia fell at midwinter, whereas
        Christ was crucified at the Passover in spring. There is, indeed, as
        I have pointed out, some reason to think that when the Roman year
        began in March the Saturnalia was held in spring, and that in remote
        districts the festival always continued to be celebrated at the
        ancient date. If the Roman garrison of Jerusalem conformed to the old
        fashion in this respect, it seems not quite impossible that their
        celebration of the Saturnalia may have coincided with the Passover;
        and that thus Christ, as a condemned criminal, may have been given up
        to them to make sport with as the Saturn of the year. But on the
        other hand it is rather unlikely that the officers, as
        representatives of the State, would have allowed their men to hold
        the festival at any but the official date; even in the distant town
        of Durostorum we saw that the Roman soldiers celebrated the
        Saturnalia in December. Thus if the legionaries at Jerusalem really
        intended to mock Christ by treating him like the burlesque king of
        the Saturnalia, they probably did so only by way of a jest which was
        in more senses than one unseasonable.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The mockery of Christ compared to
            the mockery of the King of the Sacaea.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But closely as the
        passion of Christ resembles the treatment of the mock king of the
        Saturnalia, it resembles still more closely the treatment of the mock
        king of the Sacaea.<a id="noteref_922" name="noteref_922" href=
        "#note_922"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">922</span></span></a> The
        description of the mockery by St. Matthew is the fullest. It runs
        thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Then released he Barabbas unto them:
        and when he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be crucified.
        Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the common hall,
        and gathered unto him the whole band of soldiers. And they stripped
        him, and put on him a scarlet robe. And when they had platted a crown
        of thorns, they put it upon his head, and a reed in his right hand:
        and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail,
        King of the Jews! And they spit upon him, and took the reed, and
        smote him on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg
        414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        head. And after that they had mocked him, they took the robe off from
        him, and put his own raiment on him, and led him away to crucify
        him.”</span><a id="noteref_923" name="noteref_923" href=
        "#note_923"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">923</span></span></a> Compare
        with this the treatment of the mock king of the Sacaea, as it is
        described by Dio Chrysostom: <span class="tei tei-q">“They take one
        of the prisoners condemned to death and seat him upon the king's
        throne, and give him the king's raiment, and let him lord it and
        drink and run riot and use the king's concubines during these days,
        and no man prevents him from doing just what he likes. But afterwards
        they strip and scourge and crucify him.”</span><a id="noteref_924"
        name="noteref_924" href="#note_924"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">924</span></span></a> Now it
        is quite possible that this remarkable resemblance is after all a
        mere coincidence, and that Christ was executed in the ordinary way as
        a common malefactor; but on the other hand there are so many
        scattered hints and indications of something unusual, so many broken
        lines seemingly converging towards the cross on Calvary, that it is
        worth while to follow them up and see where they lead us. In
        attempting to draw these fragmentary data together, to bridge the
        chasms, and to restore the shattered whole, we must beware of
        mistaking hypothesis for the facts which it only professes to cement;
        yet even if our hypothesis should be thought to bear a somewhat undue
        proportion to the facts, the excess may perhaps be overlooked in
        consideration of the obscurity and the importance of the enquiry.</p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">At Purim the Jews may have annually
            put to death a man in the character of Haman, and Christ may have
            perished in that character. But the Passover, at which Christ was
            crucified, fell a month after Purim. Perhaps the annual Haman,
            like the annual Saturn, was allowed a month's license before
            being put to death.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen
        reason to think that the Jewish festival of Purim is a continuation,
        under a changed name, of the Babylonian Sacaea, and that in
        celebrating it by the destruction of an effigy of Haman the modern
        Jews have kept up a reminiscence of the ancient custom of crucifying
        or hanging a man in the character of a god at the festival. Is it not
        possible that at an earlier time they may, like the Babylonians
        themselves, have regularly compelled a condemned criminal to play the
        tragic part, and that Christ thus perished in the character of Haman?
        The resemblance between the hanged Haman and the crucified Christ
        struck the early Christians themselves; and whenever the Jews
        destroyed an effigy of Haman they were accused by their Christian
        neighbours of deriding the most sacred mystery of the new
        faith.<a id="noteref_925" name="noteref_925" href=
        "#note_925"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">925</span></span></a> It is
        probable that on this painful subject the Christians were too
        sensitive; remembering the manner of their Founder's death it was
        natural that they should wince at any pointed allusion to a cross, a
        gallows, or a public execution, even when the shaft was not aimed at
        them. An objection to supposing that Christ died as the Haman of the
        year is that according to the Gospel narrative the crucifixion
        occurred at the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg
        415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Passover, on the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, whereas the feast
        of Purim, at which the hanging of Haman would naturally take place,
        fell exactly a month earlier, namely, on the fourteenth day of the
        month Adar. I have no wish to blink or extenuate the serious nature
        of the difficulty arising from this discrepancy of dates, but I would
        suggest some considerations which may make us hesitate to decide that
        the discrepancy is fatal. In the first place, it is possible, though
        perhaps not probable, that Christian tradition shifted the date of
        the crucifixion by a month in order to make the great sacrifice of
        the Lamb of God coincide with that annual sacrifice of the Passover
        lamb which in the belief of pious hearts had so long foreshadowed it
        and was thenceforth to cease.<a id="noteref_926" name="noteref_926"
        href="#note_926"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">926</span></span></a>
        Instances of gentle pressure brought to bear, for purposes of
        edification, on stubborn facts are perhaps not wholly unknown in the
        annals of religion. But the express testimony of history is never to
        be lightly set aside; and in the investigation of its problems a
        solution which assumes the veracity and accuracy of the historian is,
        on an even balance of probabilities, always to be preferred to one
        which impugns them both. Now in the present case we have seen reason
        to think that the Babylonian New Year festival, of which Purim was a
        continuation, did fall in Nisan at or near the time of the Passover,
        and that when the Jews borrowed the festival they altered the date
        from Nisan to Adar in order to prevent the new feast from clashing
        with the old Passover. A reminiscence of the original date of Purim
        perhaps survives, as I have already pointed out, in the statement in
        the book of Esther that Haman caused <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">pur</span></span> or lots to be cast before him
        from the month of Nisan onward.<a id="noteref_927" name="noteref_927"
        href="#note_927"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">927</span></span></a> It thus
        seems not impossible that occasionally, for some special reason, the
        Jews should have celebrated the feast of Purim, or at least the death
        of Haman, at or about the time of the Passover. But there is another
        possibility which, remote and fanciful as it may appear, deserves at
        least to be mentioned. The mock king of the Saturnalia, whose
        resemblance to the dying Christ was first pointed out by Mr.
        Wendland, was allowed a period of license of thirty days before he
        was put to death. If we could suppose that in like manner the Jews
        spared the human representative of Haman for one month from
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416"
        id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Purim, the date of his
        execution would fall exactly on the Passover. Which, if any, of these
        conjectural solutions of the difficulty is the true one, I will not
        undertake to say. I am fully conscious of the doubt and uncertainty
        that hang round the whole subject; and if in this and what follows I
        throw out some hints and suggestions, it is more in the hope of
        stimulating and directing further enquiry than with any expectation
        of reaching definite conclusions.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The part taken by the soldiers in
            the mockery of Christ.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be objected
        that the mockery of Christ was done, not by the Jews, but by the
        Roman soldiers, who knew and cared nothing about Haman; how then can
        we suppose that the purple or scarlet robe, the sceptre of reed, and
        the crown of thorns, which the soldiers thrust upon Christ, were the
        regular insignia of the Haman of the year? To this we may reply, in
        the first place, that even if the legions stationed in Syria were not
        recruited in the country, they may have contracted some of the native
        superstitions and have fallen in with the local customs. This is not
        an idle conjecture. We know that the third legion during its stay in
        Syria learned the Syrian custom of saluting the rising sun, and that
        this formal salute, performed by the whole regiment as one man at a
        critical moment of the great battle of Bedriacum, actually helped to
        turn the scale when the fortune of empire hung trembling in the
        balance.<a id="noteref_928" name="noteref_928" href=
        "#note_928"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">928</span></span></a> But it
        is not necessary to suppose that the garrison of Jerusalem really
        shared the beliefs and prejudices of the mob whom they overawed;
        soldiers everywhere are ready to go with a crowd bent on sport,
        without asking any curious questions as to the history or quality of
        the entertainment, and we should probably do the humanity of Roman
        soldiers too much honour if we imagined that they would be deterred
        by any qualm of conscience from joining in the pastime, which is
        still so popular, of baiting a Jew to death. But in the second place
        it should be observed that, according to one of the Evangelists, it
        was not the soldiers of Pilate who mocked Jesus, but the soldiers of
        Herod,<a id="noteref_929" name="noteref_929" href=
        "#note_929"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">929</span></span></a> and we
        may fairly assume that Herod's guards were Jews.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The theory that Christ died, not as
            a malefactor, but in the character of Haman helps to explain both
            Pilate's reluctance to put him to death, and it also explains the
            remarkable superscription on the cross.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hypothesis
        that the crucifixion with all its cruel mockery was not a punishment
        specially devised for Christ, but was merely the fate that annually
        befell the malefactor who played Haman, appears to go some way
        towards relieving the Gospel narrative of certain difficulties which
        otherwise beset it. If, as we read in the Gospels, Pilate was really
        anxious to save the innocent man whose fine bearing seems to have
        struck him, what was to hinder him from doing so? He had the power of
        life and death; why should he not have exercised it on the side of
        mercy, if his own judgment inclined that way? His reluctant
        acquiescence in the importunate demand of the rabble becomes easier
        to understand <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg
        417]</span><a name="Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> if
        we assume that custom obliged him annually at this season to give up
        to them a prisoner on whom they might play their cruel pranks. On
        this assumption Pilate had no power to prevent the sacrifice; the
        most he could do was to choose the victim.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, consider
        the remarkable statement of the Evangelists that Pilate set up over
        the cross a superscription stating that the man who hung on it was
        king of the Jews.<a id="noteref_930" name="noteref_930" href=
        "#note_930"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">930</span></span></a> Is it
        likely that in the reign of Tiberius a Roman governor, with the fear
        of the jealous and suspicious old emperor before his eyes, would have
        ventured, even in mockery, to blazon forth a seditious claim of this
        sort unless it were the regular formula employed on such occasions,
        recognized by custom, and therefore not liable to be misconstrued
        into treason by the malignity of informers and the fears of a
        tyrant?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the tragedy
        of the ill-fated aspirant after royal honours was annually enacted at
        Jerusalem by a prisoner who perished on the cross, it becomes
        probable that the part of his successful rival was also played by
        another actor who paraded in the same kingly trappings but did not
        share the same fate. If Jesus was the Haman of the year, where was
        the Mordecai? Perhaps we may find him in Barabbas.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The part of Mordecai in the annual
            drama in which Christ died as Haman may have been played by
            Barabbas. The mock King Carabas in Egypt.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are told by the
        Evangelists that at the feast which witnessed the crucifixion of
        Christ it was the custom for the Roman governor to release one
        prisoner, whomsoever the people desired, and that Pilate, convinced
        of the innocence of Jesus, attempted to persuade the multitude to
        choose him as the man who should go free. But, hounded on by the
        priests and elders who had marked out Jesus for destruction, the
        rabble would not hear of this, and clamoured for the blood of Jesus,
        while they demanded the release of a certain miscreant, by name
        Barabbas, who lay in gaol for murder and sedition. Accordingly Pilate
        had to give way: Christ was crucified and Barabbas set at
        liberty.<a id="noteref_931" name="noteref_931" href=
        "#note_931"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">931</span></span></a> Now
        what, we may ask, was the reason for setting free a prisoner at this
        festival? In the absence of positive information, we may conjecture
        that the gaol-bird whose cage was thrown open at this time had to
        purchase his freedom by performing some service from which decent
        people would shrink. Such a service may very well have been that of
        going about the streets, rigged out in tawdry splendour with a tinsel
        crown on his head and a sham sceptre in his hand, preceded and
        followed by all the tag-rag and bobtail of the town hooting, jeering,
        and breaking coarse jests at his expense, while some pretended to
        salaam his mock majesty, and others belaboured the donkey on which he
        rode. It was in this fashion, probably, that in Persia the beardless
        and one-eyed man made his undignified progress through the town, to
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418"
        id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the delight of ragamuffins and
        the terror of shopkeepers, whose goods he unceremoniously confiscated
        if they did not hasten to lay their peace-offerings at his feet. So,
        perhaps, the ruffian Barabbas, when his irons were knocked off and
        the prison door had grated on its hinges to let him forth, tasted the
        first sweets of liberty in this public manner, even if he was not
        suffered, like his one-eyed brother, to make raids with impunity on
        the stalls of the merchants and the tables of the money-changers. A
        curious confirmation of this conjecture is supplied by a passage in
        the writings of Philo the Jew, who lived at Alexandria in the time of
        Christ. He tells us that when Agrippa, the grandson of Herod, had
        received the crown of Judaea from Caligula at Rome, the new king
        passed through Alexandria on his way to his own country. The
        disorderly populace of that great city, animated by a hearty dislike
        of his nation, seized the opportunity of venting their spite by
        publicly defaming and ridiculing the Jewish monarch. Among other
        things they laid hold of a certain harmless lunatic named Carabas,
        who used to roam the streets stark naked, the butt and laughing-stock
        of urchins and idlers. This poor wretch they set up in a public
        place, clapped a paper crown on his head, thrust a broken reed into
        his hand by way of a sceptre, and having huddled a mat instead of a
        royal robe about his naked body, and surrounded him with a guard of
        bludgeon-men, they did obeisance to him as to a king and made a show
        of taking his opinion on questions of law and policy. To point the
        jest unmistakably at the Syrian king Agrippa, the bystanders raised
        cries of <span class="tei tei-q">“Marin! Marin!”</span> which they
        understood to be the Syrian word for <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“lord.”</span><a id="noteref_932" name="noteref_932"
        href="#note_932"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">932</span></span></a> This
        mockery of the Jewish king closely resembles the mockery of Christ;
        and the joke, such as it was, would receive a keener edge if we could
        suppose that the riff-raff of Alexandria were familiar with the
        Jewish practice of setting up a sham king on certain occasions, and
        that they meant by implication to ridicule the real King Agrippa by
        comparing him to his holiday counterfeit. May we go a step further
        and conjecture that one at least of the titles of the mock king of
        the Jews was regularly Barabbas? The poor imbecile who masqueraded in
        a paper crown at Alexandria was probably a Jew, otherwise the jest
        would have lost much of its point; and his name, according to the
        Greek manuscripts of Philo, was Carabas. But Carabas is meaningless
        in Hebrew, whereas Barabbas is a regularly formed Hebrew word
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419"
        id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> meaning <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Son of the Father.”</span> The palaeographic difference
        between the two forms is slight, and perhaps we shall hardly be
        deemed very rash if we conjecture that in the passage in question
        Philo himself wrote Barabbas, which a Greek copyist, ignorant of
        Hebrew, afterwards corrupted into Carabas. If this were granted, we
        should still have to assume that both Philo and the authors of the
        Gospels fell into the mistake of treating as the name of an
        individual what in fact was a title of office.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Hypothesis that every spring at
            Purim or Passover the Jews paraded two prisoners in the
            characters of Haman and Mordecai, of whom one was put to death
            and the other released.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the
        hypothesis which, with great diffidence, I would put forward for
        consideration is this. It was customary, we may suppose, with the
        Jews at Purim, or perhaps occasionally at Passover, to employ two
        prisoners to act the parts respectively of Haman and Mordecai in the
        passion-play which formed a central feature of the festival. Both men
        paraded for a short time in the insignia of royalty, but their fates
        were different; for while at the end of the performance the one who
        played Haman was hanged or crucified, the one who personated Mordecai
        and bore in popular parlance the title of Barabbas was allowed to go
        free. Pilate, perceiving the trumpery nature of the charges brought
        against Jesus, tried to persuade the Jews to let him play the part of
        Barabbas, which would have saved his life; but the merciful attempt
        failed and Jesus perished on the cross in the character of Haman. The
        description of his last triumphal ride into Jerusalem reads almost
        like an echo of that brilliant progress through the streets of Susa
        which Haman aspired to and Mordecai accomplished; and the account of
        the raid which he immediately afterwards made upon the stalls of the
        hucksters and money-changers in the temple, may raise a question
        whether we have not here a trace of those arbitrary rights over
        property which it has been customary on such occasions to accord to
        the temporary king.<a id="noteref_933" name="noteref_933" href=
        "#note_933"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">933</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">Barabbas (</span><span class=
            "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">Son of the Father</span><span style=
            "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">)
            may have been the regular title of the prisoner who was released
            in the character of Mordecai.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If it be asked why
        one of these temporary kings should bear the remarkable title of
        Barabbas or <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of the Father,”</span> I can
        only surmise that the title may perhaps be a relic of the time when
        the real king, the deified man, used to redeem his own life by
        deputing his son to reign for a short time and to die in his stead.
        We have seen that the custom of sacrificing the son for the father
        was common, if not universal, among Semitic peoples; and if we are
        right in our interpretation of the Passover, that festival—the
        traditional date of the crucifixion—was the very season when the
        dreadful sacrifice of the first-born was consummated.<a id=
        "noteref_934" name="noteref_934" href="#note_934"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">934</span></span></a> Hence
        Barabbas or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of the Father”</span>
        would be a natural enough title for the man or child who reigned and
        died as a substitute for his royal sire. Even in later times, when
        the father provided a less <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg
        420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        precious substitute than his own offspring, it would be quite in
        accordance with the formal conservatism of religion that the old
        title should be retained after it had ceased to be appropriate;
        indeed the efficacy of the sacrifice might be thought to require and
        justify the pious fiction that the substitute was the very son of
        that divine father who should have died, but who preferred to live,
        for the good of his people. If in the time of Christ, as I have
        conjectured, the title of Barabbas or Son of the Father was bestowed
        on the Mordecai, the mock king who lived, rather than on the Haman,
        the mock king who died at the festival, this distinction can hardly
        have been original; for at first, we may suppose, the same man served
        in both capacities at different times, as the Mordecai of one year
        and the Haman of the next. The two characters, as I have attempted to
        shew, are probably nothing but two different aspects of the same
        deity considered at one time as dead and at another as risen; hence
        the human being who personated the risen god would in due time, after
        he had enjoyed his divine honours for a season, act the dead god by
        dying in good earnest in his own person; for it would be unreasonable
        to expect of the ordinary man-god that he should play the two parts
        in the reverse order by dying first and coming to life afterwards. In
        both parts the substitute would still be, whether in sober fact or in
        pious fiction, the Barabbas or Son of that divine Father who
        generously gave his own son to die for the world.<a id="noteref_935"
        name="noteref_935" href="#note_935"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">935</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin">
          <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext">
            <span style="font-size: 80%">The theory that Christ was put to
            death, not as a criminal, but as the annual representative of a
            god, whose counterparts were well known all over Western Asia,
            may help to explain his early deification and the rapid spread of
            his worship.</span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To conclude this
        speculation, into which I have perhaps been led by the interest and
        importance of the subject somewhat deeper than the evidence warrants,
        I venture to urge in its favour that it seems to shed fresh light on
        some of the causes which contributed to the remarkably rapid
        diffusion of Christianity in Asia Minor. We know from a famous letter
        of the younger Pliny addressed to the Emperor Trajan in the year 112
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> that by the beginning
        of our era, less than a hundred years after the Founder's death,
        Christianity had made such strides in Bithynia and Pontus that not
        only cities but villages and rural districts were affected by it, and
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page421">[pg 421]</span><a name="Pg421"
        id="Pg421" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that multitudes of both sexes
        and of every age and every rank professed its tenets; indeed things
        had gone so far that the temples were almost deserted, the sacred
        rites of the public religion discontinued, and hardly a purchaser
        could be found for the sacrificial victims.<a id="noteref_936" name=
        "noteref_936" href="#note_936"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">936</span></span></a> It is
        obvious, therefore, that the new faith had elements in it which
        appealed powerfully to the Asiatic mind. What these elements were,
        the present investigation has perhaps to some extent disclosed. We
        have seen that the conception of the dying and risen god was no new
        one in these regions. All over Western Asia from time immemorial the
        mournful death and happy resurrection of a divine being appear to
        have been annually celebrated with alternate rites of bitter
        lamentation and exultant joy; and through the veil which mythic fancy
        has woven round this tragic figure we can still detect the features
        of those great yearly changes in earth and sky which, under all
        distinctions of race and religion, must always touch the natural
        human heart with alternate emotions of gladness and regret, because
        they exhibit on the vastest scale open to our observation the
        mysterious struggle between life and death. But man has not always
        been willing to watch passively this momentous conflict; he has felt
        that he has too great a stake in its issue to stand by with folded
        hands while it is being fought out; he has taken sides against the
        forces of death and decay—has flung into the trembling scale all the
        weight of his puny person, and has exulted in his fancied strength
        when the great balance has slowly inclined towards the side of life,
        little knowing that for all his strenuous efforts he can as little
        stir that balance by a hair's-breadth as can the primrose on a mossy
        bank in spring or the dead leaf blown by the chilly breath of autumn.
        Nowhere do these efforts, vain and pitiful, yet pathetic, appear to
        have been made more persistently and systematically than in
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page422">[pg 422]</span><a name="Pg422"
        id="Pg422" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Western Asia. In name they
        varied from place to place, but in substance they were all alike. A
        man, whom the fond imagination of his worshippers invested with the
        attributes of a god, gave his life for the life of the world; after
        infusing from his own body a fresh current of vital energy into the
        stagnant veins of nature, he was cut off from among the living before
        his failing strength should initiate a universal decay, and his place
        was taken by another who played, like all his predecessors, the
        ever-recurring drama of the divine resurrection and death. Such a
        drama, if our interpretation of it is right, was the original story
        of Esther and Mordecai or, to give them their older names, of Ishtar
        and Marduk. It was played in Babylonia, and from Babylonia the
        returning captives brought it to Judaea, where it was acted, rather
        as an historical than a mythical piece, by players who, having to die
        in grim earnest on a cross or gallows, were naturally drawn rather
        from the gaol than the green-room. A chain of causes which, because
        we cannot follow them, might in the loose language of daily life be
        called an accident, determined that the part of the dying god in this
        annual play should be thrust upon Jesus of Nazareth, whom the enemies
        he had made in high places by his outspoken strictures were resolved
        to put out of the way. They succeeded in ridding themselves of the
        popular and troublesome preacher; but the very step by which they
        fancied they had simultaneously stamped out his revolutionary
        doctrines contributed more than anything else they could have done to
        scatter them broadcast not only over Judaea but over Asia; for it
        impressed upon what had been hitherto mainly an ethical mission the
        character of a divine revelation culminating in the passion and death
        of the incarnate Son of a heavenly Father. In this form the story of
        the life and death of Jesus exerted an influence which it could never
        have had if the great teacher had died, as is commonly supposed, the
        death of a vulgar malefactor. It shed round the cross on Calvary a
        halo of divinity which multitudes saw and worshipped afar off; the
        blow struck on Golgotha set a thousand expectant strings vibrating in
        unison wherever men had heard the old, old story of the dying and
        risen god. Every year, as another spring bloomed and another autumn
        faded across the earth, the field had been ploughed and sown and
        borne fruit of a kind till it received that seed which was destined
        to spring up and overshadow the world. In the great army of martyrs
        who in many ages and in many lands, not in Asia only, have died a
        cruel death in the character of gods, the devout Christian will
        doubtless discern types and forerunners of the coming Saviour—stars
        that heralded in the morning sky the advent of the Sun of
        Righteousness—earthen vessels wherein it pleased the divine wisdom to
        set before hungering souls the bread of heaven. The sceptic, on the
        other hand, with equal confidence, will reduce <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page423">[pg 423]</span><a name="Pg423" id="Pg423"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Jesus of Nazareth to the level of a
        multitude of other victims of a barbarous superstition, and will see
        in him no more than a moral teacher, whom the fortunate accident of
        his execution invested with the crown, not merely of a martyr, but of
        a god. The divergence between these views is wide and deep. Which of
        them is the truer and will in the end prevail? Time will decide the
        question of prevalence, if not of truth. Yet we would fain believe
        that in this and in all things the old maxim will hold
        good—<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Magna est veritas et
        praevalebit.</span></span></p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page425">[pg 425]</span><a name=
      "Pg425" id="Pg425" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a> <a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abbot of Folly in France, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">334</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Unreason in Scotland, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">331</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abdera, human scapegoats at, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abeghian, Manuk, quoted, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">107</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abjuration, form of, imposed on Jewish converts, <a href="#Pg393"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abonsam, an evil spirit on the Gold Coast, <a href="#Pg132"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abrahams, Israel, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">393</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abruzzi, Epiphany in the, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">167</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Absalom, his intercourse with his father's concubines, <a href=
            "#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Absrot, village of Bohemia, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abstinence as a charm to promote the growth of the seed, <a href=
            "#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abyssinian festival of Mascal or the Cross, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Accusations of ritual murders brought against the Jews, <a href=
            "#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Acilisena, in Armenia, the worship of Anaitis at, <a href=
            "#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Acosta, J. de, quoted, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">275</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg277" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Adaklu, Mount, in West Africa, <a href="#Pg135" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Adam and Eve, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Adar, a Jewish month, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">361</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg398"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Adonis" id="Index-Adonis" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Adonis at Alexandria, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">390</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual death and resurrection of, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his marriage with Ishtar (Aphrodite), <a href="#Pg401" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Tammuz" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Tammuz</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Aphrodite, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aegisthus and Agamemnon, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aesculapius at Epidaurus, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">47</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Africa, Northern, cairns in, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">21</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            popular cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg062" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            South, dread of demons in, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">77</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            tribes of, their expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg110" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            West, demons in, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">74</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Agamemnon and Aegisthus, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Agathias on Sandes, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Agni, creation of the great god, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Agnus
            castus</span></span>, used in ceremony of beating, <a href=
            "#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>,
            <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Agricultural year, expulsions of demons timed to coincide with
            seasons of the, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Agrippa, King of Judaea, his mockery at Alexandria, <a href=
            "#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ague, popular cures for, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Suffolk cure for, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ahasuerus, King, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">401</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Hebrew equivalent of Xerxes, <a href="#Pg360" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ait Sadden, the, of Morocco, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">182</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Warain, a Berber tribe, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">178</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aitan, a goddess, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Akamba, the, of British East Africa, riddles among the, <a href=
            "#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Akikuyu of East Africa, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">32</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Alaska, the Esquimaux of, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">124</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Albania, expulsion of Kore on Easter Eve in, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Albanian custom of beating men and beasts in March, <a href=
            "#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Albanians of the Caucasus, their use of human scapegoats,
            <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Albîrûnî, Arab historian, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Alençon, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aleutian Islands, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">16</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Alexandria, Adonis at, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">390</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mockery of King Agrippa at, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">418</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Alexandrian calendar, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">395</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Alfoors of Central Celebes, riddles among the, <a href="#Pg122"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Halmahera, their expulsion of the devil, <a href="#Pg112"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Algeria, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            popular cure in, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            All Souls' College, Oxford, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Allallu</span></span> bird beloved by
            Ishtar, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">371</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Allhallow Even, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Almora, in Kumaon, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Altars, bloodless, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">307</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ambarvalia, the, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Amboyna, belief in spirits in, <a href="#Pg085" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            disease-transference in, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">187</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ameretât, a Persian archangel, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            America, Indian tribes of North-Western, their masked dances,
            <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">375</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Amoor, Gilyaks of the, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Amshaspands, Persian archangels, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Amulets against demons, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">95</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page426">[pg 426]</span><a name=
        "Pg426" id="Pg426" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anacan, a month of the Gallic calendar, <a href="#Pg343" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anadates, at Zela, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">373</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anaitis, a Persian goddess, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg368" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg369"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>,
            <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">402</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg421" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ancestral spirits, propitiation of, <a href="#Pg086" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ancona, sarcophagus of St. Dasius at, <a href="#Pg310" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Andalusia, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anderson, J. D., <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">176</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anderson, Miss, of Barskimming, <a href="#Pg169" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Andree-Eysn, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">245</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Animals, transference of evil to, <a href="#Pg031" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            guardian spirits of, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">98</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            prayed to, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">236</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances taught by, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">237</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            imitated in dances, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href="#Pg382"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Aninga</span></span>, aquatic plant in
            Brazil, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Annam, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demon of cholera sent away on a raft from, <a href="#Pg190"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            explanation of human mortality in, <a href="#Pg303" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anthesteria, Athenian festival of the dead, <a href="#Pg152"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anthesterion, an Athenian month, <a href="#Pg352" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Antibes, Holy Innocents' Day at, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Antinmas, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Antiquity, human scapegoats in classical, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Antoninus, Marcus, plague in his reign, <a href="#Pg064" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ants, jealousy transferred to, <a href="#Pg033" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            stinging people with, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anu, Babylonian god, visit of Ishtar to, <a href="#Pg399" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Apachitas</span></span>, heaps of stones,
            <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Aphrodite" id="Index-Aphrodite" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aphrodite and Adonis, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aphrodite, the Oriental, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Apollo, temple of, at the Lover's Leap, <a href="#Pg254" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Artemis, cake with twelve knobs offered to, <a href=
            "#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            April, Siamese festival of the dead in, <a href="#Pg150" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arab cure for melancholy, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">4</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arabia, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arabs, their custom as to widows, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their custom in regard to murder, <a href="#Pg063" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beat camels to deliver them from jinn, <a href="#Pg260" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Morocco, their custom at the Great Feast, <a href="#Pg265"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aracan, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">12</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg117" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances for the crops in, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">236</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Araucanians, the, of South America, <a href="#Pg012" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arawaks of British Guiana, their explanation of human mortality,
            <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arcadian custom of beating Pan's image, <a href="#Pg256" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arch to shut out plague, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">5</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            creeping through, as a cure, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arches made over paths at expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg113"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arctic regions, ceremonies at the reappearance of the sun in the,
            <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">124</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg125" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ardennes, the King of the Bean in the, <a href="#Pg314" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Eve of Epiphany in the, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">317</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Argentina, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Argus, the murder of, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">24</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aricia, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">305</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the priest of, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">273</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            King of the Wood at, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arician grove, the, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— priesthood, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aries, the constellation, the sun in, <a href="#Pg361" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg403" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Armenia, the worship of Anaitis in, <a href="#Pg369" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Armenians, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg107" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arrows, invisible, of demons, <a href="#Pg101" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg126"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Artaxerxes II., his promotion of the worship of Anaitis, <a href=
            "#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Artemisia
            laciniata</span></span>, garlands of, <a href="#Pg284" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aru Archipelago, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">121</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Arval Brothers, the college of the, at Rome, <a href="#Pg230"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>,
            <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aryan custom of counting by nights instead of days, <a href=
            "#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— languages, names for moon and month in, <a href="#Pg325"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— peoples, their correction of the lunar year, <a href="#Pg342"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aryans of the Vedic age, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">324</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their calendar, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">342</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ascalon, Derceto at, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ascension Day, cures on Eve of, <a href="#Pg054" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of the devil on, <a href="#Pg214" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremony at Rouen on, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">215</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bells rung to make flax grow on, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ash-tree in popular cure, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ashantee, annual period of license in, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ashtaroth, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">366</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ashurbanapal and Sardanapalus, <a href="#Pg387" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Asia, Saturnalia in Western, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">354</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Asia Minor, use of human scapegoats by the Greeks of, <a href=
            "#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Asongtata, an annual ceremony, <a href="#Pg208" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aspen in popular cure, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ass in cure for scorpion's bite, <a href="#Pg049" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            introduced into church at Festival of Fools, <a href="#Pg335"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            triumphal ride of a buffoon on an, <a href="#Pg402" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assam, the Kacharis of, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">93</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Lushais of, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Khasis of, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Nagas of, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Garos of, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">208</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assembly of the gods at the New Year in Babylon, <a href="#Pg356"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assimilation of human victims to trees, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href="#Pg259"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assyria, Ashurbanapal, king of, <a href="#Pg387" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assyrian monarchs, conquerors of Babylonia, <a href="#Pg356"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page427">[pg 427]</span><a name=
        "Pg427" id="Pg427" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assyrians, the ancient, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg102"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Astarte" id="Index-Astarte" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Astarte or Ishtar, a great Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Pg365"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Ishtar" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Ishtar</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Semiramis, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aston, W. G., quoted, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">213</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aswang, an evil spirit, exorcism of, <a href="#Pg260" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Athenians, their use of human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg253" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their mode of reckoning a day, <a href="#Pg326" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their religious dramas, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">384</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Athens, Cronus and the Cronia at, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Atkhans, the, of Aleutian Islands, <a href="#Pg003" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Atlas, Berbers of the Great, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">178</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Atlatatonan, Mexican goddess of lepers, <a href="#Pg292" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg292"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Atonement, the Jewish Day of, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Attis and Cybele, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aubrey, John, on sin-eating, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">43</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aucas, the, of South America, <a href="#Pg012" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Australia, Central, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, demons in, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">74</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of ghosts in, <a href="#Pg123" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Austria, cure of warts in, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Autumn, ceremony of the Esquimaux in late, <a href="#Pg125"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Autun, the Festival of Fools at, <a href="#Pg335" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Avestad in Sweden, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">20</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Axim, on the Gold Coast, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aymara Indians, their remedy for plague, <a href="#Pg193" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Azazel, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aztecs, their custom of sacrificing human representatives of
            gods, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">275</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their five supplementary days, <a href="#Pg339" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Azur, the month of March, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">403</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baal, human sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg354" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Babalawo</span></span>, priest, <a href=
            "#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Babar Archipelago, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">8</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sickness expelled in a boat from the, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baboons sent by evil spirits, <a href="#Pg110" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baby, effigy of, used to fertilize women, <a href="#Pg245" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg249"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Babylon, festival of the Sacaea at, <a href="#Pg354" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Babylonia, belief in demons in ancient, <a href="#Pg102" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            conquered by Assyria, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">356</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the feast of Purim in, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Babylonian calendar, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">398</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bacchanalia, Purim a Jewish, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">363</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Badagas, the, of the Neilgherry Hills, <a href="#Pg036" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Badi, performer at a ceremony, <a href="#Pg197" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baffin Land, the Esquimaux of, <a href="#Pg125" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Baganda" id="Index-Baganda" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baganda, the, of Central Africa, <a href="#Pg004" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg007"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg027" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg032"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human scapegoats among the, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">42</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bahima, the, of the Uganda Protectorate, <a href="#Pg006" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg032"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baiga, aboriginal priest, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bali, belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">86</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            periodical expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg140" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ball, games of, played as a magical ceremony, <a href="#Pg179"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">183</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Balolo</span></span>, a sea-slug, <a href=
            "#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bamboo-rat sacrificed for riddance of evils, <a href="#Pg208"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bananas, mode of fertilizing, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the cause of human mortality, <a href="#Pg303" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bangkok, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">150</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banishment of evil spirits, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">86</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banks' Islands, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banks' Islanders, their story of the origin of death, <a href=
            "#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banmanas of Senegambia, their custom at the death of an infant,
            <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banquets in honour of the spirits of disease, <a href="#Pg119"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bantu tribes, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">77</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Banyoro, the, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">42</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Barabbas and Christ, <a href="#Pg417" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">417</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="ar"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Baraka</span></span>, blessed influence,
            <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Barat, a ceremony performed in Kumaon, <a href="#Pg196" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Barito, river in Borneo, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">87</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baron, S., quoted, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">148</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Barwan, river, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">123</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bassa tribe, of the Cameroons, <a href="#Pg120" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bassus, Roman officer, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">309</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Basutos, the, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">30</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Batchelor, Rev. J., <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Baton of Sinope, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">34</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">87</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their use of human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg213" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Battle, annual, among boys in Tumleo, <a href="#Pg143" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bavaria, mode of reckoning the Twelve Days in, <a href="#Pg327"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Rhenish, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">56</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bavarian cure for fever, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">49</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bawenda, the, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">30</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bean, the King of the, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">313</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Queen of the, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— clan, the, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beans thrown about the house at the expulsion of demons, <a href=
            "#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            thrown about the house at the expulsion of ghosts, <a href=
            "#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Beardless One,
            the Ride of the,”</span> <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">402</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Beating" id="Index-Beating" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beating as a mode of purification, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg256"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg272" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— people as a mode of conveying good qualities, <a href="#Pg262"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            with skins of sacrificial victims, <a href="#Pg265" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            with green boughs, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— persons, animals, or things to deliver them from demons and
            ghosts, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beating the air to drive away demons or <span class="tei tei-pb"
            id="page428">[pg 428]</span><a name="Pg428" id="Pg428" class=
            "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> ghosts, <a href=
            "#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>,
            <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg131"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>,
            <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">234</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beauce and Perche, in France, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg062"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beauvais, the Festival of Fools at, <a href="#Pg335" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bechuana king, cure of, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bedriacum, the battle of, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">416</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Befana at Rome and elsewhere, <a href="#Pg167" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Behar, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">37</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bekes, in Hungary, mode of fertilizing women in, <a href="#Pg264"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bel, a Babylonian deity, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Belethus, J., <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Belgium, the King of the Bean in, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bella Coola Indians of N. W. America, their masked dances,
            <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">376</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bells on animal used as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg037" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            rung to expel demons, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">117</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            rung as a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg158"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>,
            <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used in the expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg196" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg200"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used at the expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg214" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg246"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg251" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worn by dancers, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg250" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            rung to make grass and flax grow, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            golden, worn by human representatives of gods in Mexico, <a href=
            "#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>,
            <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">284</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Benin, time of the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“grand devils”</span> in, <a href="#Pg131"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bergell in the Grisons, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">247</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Berkhampstead, cure for ague in, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Berosus, Babylonian historian, <a href="#Pg355" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg358"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Besisi of the Malay Peninsula, their carnival at rice-harvest,
            <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">226</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bethlehem, the star of, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bevan, Professor A. A., <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">367</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beverley minster, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bhars of India, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bhootan, cairns in, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bhotiyas of Juhar, their use of a scapegoat, <a href="#Pg209"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Biajas of Borneo, their expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg200"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Biggar, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Burning
            out the Old Year”</span> at, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bikol, in Luzon, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bilaspur, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bilda in Algeria, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Birch, sprigs of, a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to beat people with at Easter and Christmas, <a href=
            "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>,
            <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -trees in popular cure for gout, <a href="#Pg056" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bird-chief of the Sea Dyaks, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">383</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Birds as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">35</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bishop, the Boy, on Holy Innocents' Day, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Innocents, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bishop, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bismarck Archipelago, the Melanesians of the, their belief in
            demons, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bithynia and Pontus, rapid spread of Christianity in, <a href=
            "#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Biyars of N. W. India, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">230</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 7
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Black animals as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg193"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— god and white god among the Slavs, <a href="#Pg092" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Black and white in relation to human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg220"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>,
            <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">257</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Mountains in S. France, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">166</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Blankenheim in the Eifel, the King of the Bean at, <a href=
            "#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Blood, fatigue let out with, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">12</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of children used to knead a paste, <a href="#Pg129" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of pigs used in purificatory rites, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            drawn from ears as penance, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bloodless altars, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">307</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Blows to drive away ghosts, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">260</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Boars, evil spirits transferred to, <a href="#Pg031" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Boas, Franz, quoted, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">375</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bocage of Normandy, games of ball in the, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of forecasting the weather in, <a href="#Pg323" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Eve of Twelfth Night in the, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">316</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bock, C., quoted, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bogle, George, envoy to Tibet, <a href="#Pg203" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bohemia, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">269</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Three Kings of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the Germans of Western, their custom at Christmas, <a href=
            "#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Twelfth Day among, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">331</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bohemian cures for fever, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg055"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg059"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            remedy for jaundice, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Böhmerwald Mountains, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">159</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bolang Mongondo in Celebes, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">85</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg121" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bolbe in Macedonia, lake of, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bolivia, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Indians of, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Boloki, the, of the Upper Congo, their fear of demons, <a href=
            "#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Bonfires" id="Index-Bonfires" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bonfires, leaping over, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">156</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">316</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Book of the Dead</span></span>, the
            Egyptian, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">103</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Borneo, the Dyaks of, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">383</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">87</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Kayans of, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">154</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg236" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg382"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sickness expelled in a ship from, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Biajas and Dusuns of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">200</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bourlet, A., quoted, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Boy Bishop on Holy Innocents' Day, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brahmanism, vestiges of, under Mohammedanism, <a href="#Pg090"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brahmans, sacrificial custom of the, <a href="#Pg025" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">42</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg044" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their theory of sacrifice, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">410</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Branches, fatigue transferred to, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sickness transferred to, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brandenburg, Mark of, cure for headache and giddiness in,
            <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">53</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bras Basah, a village on the Perak river, <a href="#Pg199" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page429">[pg 429]</span><a name=
        "Pg429" id="Pg429" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brass instrument sounded to frighten away demons, <a href=
            "#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brazil, Indians of North-Western, <a href="#Pg236" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">264</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their masked dances, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Breadalbane, use of a scapegoat in, <a href="#Pg209" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Brethren of the
            Ploughed Fields,”</span> <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">232</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bride, the last, privilege of, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brittany, custom of sticking pins into a saint's image in,
            <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            riddles in, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">121</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"
            style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            forecasting the weather in, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">323</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brooms used to sweep misfortune out of house, <a href="#Pg005"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Broomsticks, witches ride on, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brown, Dr. George, quoted, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bruguière, Mgr., quoted, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Brunnen, Twelfth Night at, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buchanan, Francis, quoted, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">175</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buckthorn chewed to keep off ghosts, <a href="#Pg153" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as a charm against witchcraft, <a href="#Pg153" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg163" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to beat cattle, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buddha, transmigrations of, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">41</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in relation to spirits, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            offerings to, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">150</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buddhism in Burma, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the pope of, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">223</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buddhist Lent, the, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">349</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— monk, ceremony at the funeral of a, <a href="#Pg175" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— priests expel demons, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buddhists of Ceylon, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">90</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            nominal, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Budge, E. A. Wallis, quoted, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">103</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buffalo calf, sins of dead transferred to a, <a href="#Pg036"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— dance to ensure a supply of buffaloes, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buffaloes as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buffooneries at the Festival of Fools, <a href="#Pg335" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bukaua, the, of German New Guinea, their belief in demons,
            <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">83</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bulgarian cure for fever, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bulgarians, their way of keeping off ghosts, <a href="#Pg153"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bulls as scapegoats in ancient Egypt, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bunyoro, in Central Africa, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">195</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burial of infants, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burkitt, Professor F. C., <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">420</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burlesques of ecclesiastical ritual, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burma, belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">116</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the tug-of-war in, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">175</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burmese Lent, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">349</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Burning the Old
            Year,”</span> <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">230</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 7;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Biggar, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Sandan and Hercules, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">388</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— witches alive, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">319</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on May Day in the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on Walpurgis Night in Bohemia;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">161</a>, in Silesia and Saxony, <a href=
            "#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buru, demons of sickness expelled in a proa from, <a href=
            "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Burying the evil spirit, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">110</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bushes, ailments transferred to, <a href="#Pg054" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg056"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bushmen, the, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">30</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Butterflies, annual expulsion of, <a href="#Pg159" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Butterfly dance, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caffres of South Africa, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg031"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cairns to which every passer-by adds a stone, <a href="#Pg009"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            near shrines of saints, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">21</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            offerings at, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Heaps" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Heaps</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cairo, cure for toothache and headache at, <a href="#Pg063"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cake on Twelfth Night used to determine the King, <a href=
            "#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            put on horn of ox, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">318</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            offered to Cronus, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cakes, special, at New Year, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">149</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            with twelve knobs offered to gods, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Calabar, Old, biennial expulsion of demons at, <a href="#Pg203"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— River, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">28</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Calabria, annual expulsion of witches in, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Calendar of the Mayas of Yucatan, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the primitive Aryans, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">325</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the Celts of Gaul, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Coligny, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Alexandrian, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">395</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Babylonian, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">398</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Calicut, ceremonies at sowing in, <a href="#Pg235" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            California, the Pomos of, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cambodia, annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            palace of the Kings of Cambodia purged of devils, <a href=
            "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cambridge, Lord of Misrule at, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Camel, plague transferred to, <a href="#Pg033" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Camels infested by jinn, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cameroons, the, of West Africa, <a href="#Pg120" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Candlemas, dances at, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Day, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Candles, twelve, on Twelfth Night, <a href="#Pg321" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            burnt at the Feast of Purim, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cannibal banquets, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">279</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg283" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>, <a href="#Pg298"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Canton, the province of, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caprification, the artificial fertilization of fig-trees,
            <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Caprificus</span></span>, the wild fig-tree,
            <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Car Nicobar, annual expulsion of devils in, <a href="#Pg201"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Carabas and Barabbas, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">418</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Carmona in Andalusia, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Carnival, bell-ringing processions at the, <a href="#Pg247"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Senseless Thursday in, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">248</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in relation to the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg312" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg345"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Purim, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Carrying out
            Death,”</span> <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">227</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg230" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg252"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Casablanca in Morocco, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page430">[pg 430]</span><a name=
        "Pg430" id="Pg430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar, the Three Kings of Twelfth Day,
            <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">329</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Castilian peasants, their dances in May, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Casting the skin supposed to be a mode of renewing youth,
            <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cattle exposed to attacks of witches, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beaten to do them good, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">266</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caucasus, the Albanians of the, <a href="#Pg218" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caunians of Asia Minor, their expulsion of foreign gods, <a href=
            "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cecrops, first king of Attica, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cedar-bark ornaments worn in dances, <a href="#Pg376" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Celebes, Bolang Mongondo in, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Minahassa in, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">111</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Central, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">122</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg265" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Celts, their mode of forecasting the weather of the year,
            <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">323</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Gaul, their calendar, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ceram, sicknesses expelled in a ship from, <a href="#Pg185"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ceylon, fear of demons in, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chaeronea, the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“expulsion of hunger”</span> at, <a href=
            "#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chain used to expel demons, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chains clanked as a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            clanked in masquerade, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chaldeans, magic of, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chalking up crosses as a protection against witches, <a href=
            "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chamar caste, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">196</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chamba in India, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chambers, E. K., quoted, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chameleon, ceremony at killing a, <a href="#Pg028" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chariots, epidemics sent away in toy, <a href="#Pg193" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cheremiss of Russia, their expulsion of Satan, <a href="#Pg156"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cherokee Indians, annual expulsion of evils among the, <a href=
            "#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cheshire, cure for thrush in, <a href="#Pg050" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cure for warts in, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chickens as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chicomecohuatl, Mexican goddess of maize, <a href="#Pg286" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg291" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg292"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            girl annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg292"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Childermas (Holy Innocents' Day), <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Children personating spirits, <a href="#Pg139" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            China, the Miotse of, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">4</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">98</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            men possessed by spirits in, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Mossos of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">139</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Shans of Southern, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">141</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg145" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, aboriginal tribes of, their use of a human scapegoat,
            <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">196</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their annual destruction of evils, <a href="#Pg202" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chinese festival of new fire, <a href="#Pg359" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chins of Burma, their way of keeping off cholera, <a href=
            "#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chirouba</span></span>, festival in Manapur,
            <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">40</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chirus of Assam, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chitral, devil-driving in, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">137</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chittagong, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">63</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Hill Tracts, the Chukmas of the, <a href="#Pg174" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Choerilus, historian, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">388</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cholera sent away in animal scapegoats, <a href="#Pg190" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, demon of, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expelled, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sent away on a raft, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, goddess of, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cholula, a city of Mexico, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">281</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chota Nagpur in India, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">19</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of disease in, <a href="#Pg139" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Christ, the crucifixion of, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">412</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Christian festivals, the great, timed by the Church to coincide
            with old pagan festivals, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Christianity, Latin, its tolerance of rustic paganism, <a href=
            "#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Christmas, custom of young men and women beating each other at,
            <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            an old midwinter festival of the sun-god, <a href="#Pg328" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Day, Mexican festival on, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">287</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Old (Twelfth Night), <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Eve, witches active on, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chukmas, the tug-of-war among the, <a href="#Pg174" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Church bells a protection against witchcraft, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Churn-dashers ridden by witches, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chwolsohn, D., on the worship of Haman, <a href="#Pg366" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ciallos, intercalary month of Gallic calendar, <a href="#Pg343"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cilicia, Tarsus in, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">388</a>, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cingalese, the tug-of-war among the, <a href="#Pg181" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            devil-dancers, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cinteotl or Centeotl, Mexican goddess of maize, <a href="#Pg286"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg290" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Circumcision Day, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">334</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clangour of metal used to dispel demons, <a href="#Pg233" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clanking chains as a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clark, J. V. H., <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">209</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clarke, E. D., quoted, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">20</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clashing of metal instruments a protection against witchcraft,
            <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">158</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to dispel demons, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">233</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clavigero, historian of Mexico, <a href="#Pg286" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clippings of nails in popular cures, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Clowns in processions, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">244</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cochinchina, mode of disposing of ghosts in, <a href="#Pg062"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cock, disease transferred to a white, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            white, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cocks as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">191</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Coligny calendar of Gaul, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Columella on caprification, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page431">[pg 431]</span><a name=
        "Pg431" id="Pg431" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Comana, sacred harlots at, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worship of Ma at, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">421</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Comitium, dances of the Salii in the, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Communion by means of stones, <a href="#Pg021" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Concubines of a king taken by his successor, <a href="#Pg368"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Condé in Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Confession of sins, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Conflicts, annual, at the New Year, old intention of, <a href=
            "#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Congrégation de Notre Dame at Paris, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Consumption, cure for, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cook, A. B., <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cook, Captain James, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">80</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cootchie, a demon, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">110</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cora Indians of Mexico, their dance at sowing, <a href="#Pg238"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their dramatic dances, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Coran, the, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Corea, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">27</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            traps for demons in, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            spirit of disease expelled in, <a href="#Pg119" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg147" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the tug-of-war in, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Coreans, their annual ceremonies for the riddance of evils,
            <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">202</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Corn festivals of the Cora Indians, <a href="#Pg381" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -ears, wreath of, as badge of priestly office, <a href=
            "#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -sieve beaten at ceremony, <a href="#Pg145" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cornel-tree in popular remedy, <a href="#Pg055" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cornouaille in Brittany, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">323</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Corpse-praying
            priest,”</span> <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Corpses devoured by members of Secret Societies, <a href="#Pg377"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cos, custom of Greek peasants in, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cosmogonies, primitive, perhaps influenced by human sacrifices,
            <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">409</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cosquin, E., on the book of Esther, <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Coughs transferred to animals, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg052"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Couppé, Mgr., quoted, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crabs change their skin, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crackers ignited to expel demons, <a href="#Pg117" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg146"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Creation of the world, legends of, influenced by human
            sacrifices, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">409</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Creator beheaded, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">410</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sacrifices himself daily to create the world afresh, <a href=
            "#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Creeping through an arch as a cure, <a href="#Pg055" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cretan festival of Hermes, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crimes, sticks or stones piled on the scene of, <a href="#Pg013"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Criminals sacrificed, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">354</a>, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">396</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Croatia, Good Friday custom in, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Croesus on the pyre, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cronia, a Greek festival resembling the Saturnalia, <a href=
            "#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Olympia, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">352</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cronion, a Greek month, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cronus and the Cronia, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and the Golden Age, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">353</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and human sacrifice, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">353</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg397" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cross-roads, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg024"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            offerings at, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">140</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremonies at, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">144</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg196"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            witches at, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crosses painted with tar as charms against ghosts and vampyres,
            <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">153</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            chalked on doors as protection against witchcraft, <a href=
            "#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>,
            <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            white, made by the King of the Bean, <a href="#Pg314" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crow as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Crucifixion of Christ, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">412</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cumont, Franz, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cuzco, its scenery, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">128</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cybele and Attis, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cyrus and Croesus, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dahomey, Porto Novo in, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">205</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dalton, E. T., quoted, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">92</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dance at cairns, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">29</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the buffalo dance to ensure a supply of buffaloes, <a href=
            "#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to cause the grass to grow, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dancers personate spirits, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">375</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dances of the witches, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">162</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the Salii, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">232</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to promote the growth of the crops, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg347" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at sowing, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">234</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            taught by animals, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">237</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            for rain, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">236</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            solemn Mexican, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>,
            <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Castilian peasants in May, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of salt-makers in Mexico, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">284</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to make hemp grow tall, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">315</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as dramatic performances of myths, <a href="#Pg375" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bestowed on men by spirits, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">375</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in imitation of animals, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg381"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dances, masked, to promote fertility, <a href="#Pg236" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of savages, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">374</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to ensure good crops, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dancing to obtain the favour of the gods, <a href="#Pg236" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dandaki, King, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">41</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Dark”</span>
            moon and <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“light”</span> moon, <a href="#Pg140" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg141"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Darwin, Sir Francis, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">153</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dasius, martyrdom of St., <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">308</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dassera festival in Nepaul, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Date palm, artificial fertilization of the, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Davies, T. Witton, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">360</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dead, disembodied souls of the, dreaded, <a href="#Pg077" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worship of the, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ghosts of the, periodically expelled, <a href="#Pg123" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            souls of the, received by their relations once a year, <a href=
            "#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, spirits of the, in the Philippine Islands, <a href="#Pg082"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Timor, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">85</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Death, the funeral of, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">205</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the ceremony of carrying out, <a href="#Pg227" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg230" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg252"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            savage tales of the origin of, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Debang monastery at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">218</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page432">[pg 432]</span><a name=
        "Pg432" id="Pg432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            December, annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg145" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of the heathen of Harran in, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Saturnalia held in, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>, <a href="#Pg345"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Decle, L., <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">11</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            De Goeje, M. J., <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Deified men, sacrifices of, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Delaware Indians, their remedies for sins, <a href="#Pg263"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Demonophobia in India, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">91</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Demon-worship, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">96</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Propitiation" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Propitiation</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Demons" id="Index-Demons" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Demons bunged up, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            omnipresence of, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">72</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            propitiation of, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg100"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            religious purification intended to ward off, <a href="#Pg104"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cause sickness, failure of crops, etc., <a href="#Pg109" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of cholera, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            men disguised as, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg172" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg173"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            decoyed by a pig, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">201</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            conjured into images, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg203"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>,
            <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">205</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            put to flight by clangour of metal, <a href="#Pg233" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            banned by masks, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            exorcised by bells, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg251" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Devil" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Devil</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#Index-Devils"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Devils</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            De Mortival, Roger, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Derceto, the fish goddess of Ascalon, <a href="#Pg370" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            De Ricci, S., <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">343</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Deslawen, village of Bohemia, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Devil" id="Index-Devil" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Devil driven away by paper kites, <a href="#Pg004" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Devil-driving in Chitral, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">137</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Devil's Neck, the, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">30</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Devils" id="Index-Devils" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Devils personated by men, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">235</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Demons"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Demons</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Devonshire, cure for cough in, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dharmi or Dharmesh, the Supreme God of the Oraons, <a href=
            "#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dice used in divination, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">220</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            played at festivals, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dieri tribe of Central Australia, their expulsion of a demon,
            <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">110</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dinkas, their use of cows as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg193" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dio Chrysostom on the Sacaea, <a href="#Pg368" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his account of the treatment of the mock king of the Sacaea,
            <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">414</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dionysiac festival of the opening of the wine jars, <a href=
            "#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dionysus and the drama, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">384</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Disease transferred to other people, <a href="#Pg006" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to tree, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">7</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            caused by ghosts, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">85</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">139</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sent away in little ships, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dittmar, C. von, quoted, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">100</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Divination on Twelfth Night, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">316</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Divine animals as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— men as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">217</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dog, sickness transferred to, <a href="#Pg033" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sacrifice of white, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dog-demon of epilepsy, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">69</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Doreh in Dutch New Guinea, the tug-of-war at, <a href="#Pg178"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Doubs, Montagne de, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">316</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Douglas, Alexander, victim of witchcraft, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Doutté, E., <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">22</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Doves of Astarte, the sacred, <a href="#Pg370" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Dracaena
            terminalis</span></span>, its leaves used to beat the sick,
            <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dramas, sacred, as magical rites, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dravidian tribes of N. India, their cure for epilepsy, <a href=
            "#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dreams, festival of, among the Iroquois, <a href="#Pg127" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Dreikönigstag</span></span>, Twelfth Day,
            <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">329</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Driving out the
            Witches,”</span> <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Drowo</span></span>, gods, <a href="#Pg074"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Drums beaten to expel demons, <a href="#Pg111" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg113"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>,
            <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">126</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg204"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dubrowitschi, a Russian village, <a href="#Pg173" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Duck as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">50</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dudilaa, a spirit who lives in the sun, <a href="#Pg186" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dumannos, a month of the Gallic calendar, <a href="#Pg343" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Duran, Diego, Spanish historian of Mexico, <a href="#Pg295"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg297" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg300"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Durostorum in Moesia, celebration of the Saturnalia at, <a href=
            "#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dussaud, René, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">22</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dusuns of Borneo, their annual expulsion of evils, <a href=
            "#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dyak priestesses, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">5</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transference of evil, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">5</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of neutralizing bad omens, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dyaks, their <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“lying heaps,”</span> <a href="#Pg014" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their Head Feast, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">383</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dying god as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">227</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eabani, Babylonian hero, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">398</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ears, blood drawn from, as penance, <a href="#Pg292" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Earth, the Mistress of the, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">85</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -god, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">28</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Egyptian, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Earthman, the, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            East, the Wise Men of the, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">330</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Indian Islands, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Indies, the tug-of-war in the, <a href="#Pg177" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Easter an old vernal festival of the vegetation-god, <a href=
            "#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— eggs, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Eve in Albania, expulsion of Kore on, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Monday, <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Easter Smacks”</span> on, <a href="#Pg268"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“——
            Smacks”</span> in Germany and Austria, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Sunday, ceremony on the Eve of, <a href="#Pg207" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Tuesday, <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Easter Smacks”</span> on, <a href="#Pg268"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page433">[pg 433]</span><a name=
        "Pg433" id="Pg433" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eastertide, expulsion of evils at, in Calabria, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eck, R. van, quoted, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">86</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Edward VI., his Lord of Misrule, <a href="#Pg332" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg334"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Effigies, disease transferred to, <a href="#Pg007" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demons conjured into, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">204</a>, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">205</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            substituted for human victims, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Effigy of baby used to fertilize women, <a href="#Pg245" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg249"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eggs, red Easter, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Egypt, mode of laying ghosts in, <a href="#Pg063" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            modern, belief in the jinn in, <a href="#Pg104" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Isis and Osiris in, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Egyptians, the ancient, their belief in spirits, <a href="#Pg103"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their use of bulls as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the five supplementary days of their year, <a href="#Pg340"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eifel, the King of the Bean in the, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eight days, feast and license of, before expulsion of demons,
            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ekoi, the, of West Africa, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">28</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elamite deities in opposition to Babylonian deities, <a href=
            "#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            inscriptions, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">367</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elamites, the hereditary foes of the Babylonians, <a href=
            "#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elaphebolion, an Athenian month, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elaphius, an Elean month, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">352</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elder brother, the sin of marrying before an, <a href="#Pg003"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elgon, Mount, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elis, law of, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">352</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ellis, W., quoted, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">80</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Embodied evils, expulsion of, <a href="#Pg170" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Emetics as remedies for sins, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Endle, S., quoted, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            England, cure of warts in, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King of the Bean in, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">313</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Boy Bishop in, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">337</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Enigmas, ceremonial use of, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">121</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Riddles"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Riddles</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Entlebuch in Switzerland, expulsion of Posterli at, <a href=
            "#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Epidaurus, Aesculapius at, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">47</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Epidemics attributed to demons, <a href="#Pg111" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            kept off by means of a plough, <a href="#Pg172" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sent away in toy chariots, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Epilepsy" id="Index-Epilepsy" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Epilepsy, cure for, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">2</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">331</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Highland treatment of, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">68</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Roman cure for, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Hindoo cure for, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">69</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cured by beating, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Falling-Sickness" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Falling Sickness</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Epiphany, annual expulsion of the powers of evil at, <a href=
            "#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King of the Bean on, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">313</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Twelfth-Night" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Twelfth Night</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eponyms, annual, as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Equinox, the vernal, festival of Cronus at, <a href="#Pg352"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Persian marriages at the, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">406</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Equos, a Gallic month, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">343</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Erech, Babylonian city, Ishtar at, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href="#Pg399"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Erz-gebirge, the Saxon, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Esagila, temple at Babylon, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Esquimaux of Labrador, their fear of demons, <a href="#Pg079"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Point Barrow, their expulsion of Luña, <a href="#Pg124" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Baffin Land, their expulsion of Sedna, <a href="#Pg125" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Central, the tug-of-war among the, <a href="#Pg174" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Bering Strait, their masquerades, <a href="#Pg379" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Esther, fast of, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">397</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the story of, acted as a comedy at Purim, <a href="#Pg364" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the book of, its date and purpose, <a href="#Pg360" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            its Persian colouring, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">362</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            duplication of the personages in, <a href="#Pg400" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the personages unmasked, <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">405</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Mordecai equivalent to Ishtar and Marduk, <a href="#Pg405"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the duplicates of Vashti and Haman, <a href="#Pg406" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Vashti, temporary queens, <a href="#Pg401" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Esthonian mode of transferring bad luck to trees, <a href=
            "#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of the devil, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eton College, Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Euhemerism, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">385</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Euripides, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Europe, transference of evil in, <a href="#Pg047" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of demons and witches in, <a href="#Pg155"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of evils in, <a href="#Pg207" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            masquerades in modern, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">251</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            European folk-custom of <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“carrying out Death,”</span> <a href="#Pg227"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eve and Adam, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Evening Star, the goddess of the, <a href="#Pg369" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Evessen, in Brunswick, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Evil, the transference of, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">1</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to other people, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">5</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to sticks and stones, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to animals, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to men, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transference of, in Europe, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">47</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— spirits, banishment of, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">86</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Demons"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Demons</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Evil-Merodach, Babylonian king, <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Evils transferred to trees, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">54</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            nailed into trees, walls, etc., <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            occasional expulsion of, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            periodic expulsion of, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">123</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg198" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of embodied, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of, in a material vehicle, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Expulsion" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Expulsion</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ewe, white-footed, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg192" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ewe-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast, <a href="#Pg074" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Excommunication of human scapegoat, <a href="#Pg254" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Execution by stoning, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Exeter, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Exorcising spirits at sowing the seed, <a href="#Pg235" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page434">[pg 434]</span><a name=
        "Pg434" id="Pg434" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Exorcism of devils in Morocco, <a href="#Pg063" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual, of the evil spirit in Japan, <a href="#Pg143" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Nicobarese ceremony of, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Exorcists, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">2</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg033" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Expiation for sin, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Expulsion" id="Index-Expulsion" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the direct or immediate and the indirect or mediate, <a href=
            "#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>,
            <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">224</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            occasional, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            periodic, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">123</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg198" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of embodied evils, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of evils in a material vehicle, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual, of demons and witches in Europe, <a href="#Pg155" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Trows in Shetland, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">168</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of hunger at Chaeronea, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">252</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of winter, ceremony of the, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">404</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Faditras</span></span> among the Malagasy,
            <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Faiths of the world, the great, their little influence on common
            men, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">89</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Falling-Sickness" id="Index-Falling-Sickness" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Falling sickness, cure for, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Epilepsy" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Epilepsy</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fans, the, of West Africa, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">30</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Fast of
            Esther”</span> before Purim, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">397</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fatigue transferred to stones or sticks, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            let out with blood, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">12</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fawckner, Captain James, quoted, <a href="#Pg131" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fear as a source of religion, <a href="#Pg093" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Feast, the Great, in Morocco, <a href="#Pg180" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg182"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Lanterns in Japan, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">151</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            February and March, the season of the spring sowing in Italy,
            <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ferghana in Turkestan, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ferrers, George, a Lord of Misrule, <a href="#Pg332" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fertility of the ground, magical ceremony to promote the,
            <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fertilization, artificial, of fig-trees, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg272" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the date palm, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fertilizing virtue attributed to certain sticks, <a href="#Pg264"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Festival of
            dreams”</span> among the Iroquois, <a href="#Pg127" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of the Flaying of Men, Mexican, <a href="#Pg296" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Fools in France, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">334</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Germany, Bohemia, and England, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of the Innocents, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">336</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Festivals, the great Christian, timed by the Church to coincide
            with old pagan festivals, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Fête des
            Fous</span></span> in France, <a href="#Pg334" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">des Rois</span></span>, Twelfth Day,
            <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">329</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fever, remedy for, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Roman cure for, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            popular cures for, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg053"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>,
            <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg063"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            driven away by firing guns, etc., <a href="#Pg121" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fielding, H., quoted, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">349</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fiends burnt in fire, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fig, the wild, human scapegoats beaten with branches of, <a href=
            "#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fig-tree, sacred, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -trees artificially fertilized, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg272" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            personated by human victims, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fights, annual, at the New Year, old intention of, <a href=
            "#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Figs, black and white, worn by human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg253"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>,
            <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fiji, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">15</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual ceremony at appearance of sea-slug in, <a href="#Pg141"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fir used to beat people with at Christmas, <a href="#Pg270"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -trees in popular cure, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">56</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fire, Mexican god of, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">300</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">300</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to burn witches, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— new, at New Year, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">209</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Chinese festival of the, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— sacred, of King of Uganda, <a href="#Pg195" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            kindled by friction, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -spirit, annual expulsion of the, <a href="#Pg141" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fires extinguished during ceremony, <a href="#Pg172" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremonial, on Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg316" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to burn fiends, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">320</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Bonfires" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Bonfires</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Five days' duration of mock king's reign, <a href="#Pg407" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— days' reign of mock king at the Sacaea, <a href="#Pg355"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Semiramis, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">369</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flax, giddiness transferred to, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bells rung to make flax grow, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flaying of Men, Mexican festival of the, <a href="#Pg296" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flemish cure for ague, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">56</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flight from the demons of disease, <a href="#Pg122" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flint, holed, a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flood, the great, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flowers, the goddess of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">278</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Flying Spirits, the, at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg197" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Food set out for ghosts, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">154</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fools in processions of maskers, <a href="#Pg243" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, festival of, in France, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">334</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Germany, Bohemia, and England, <a href="#Pg336" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Football, suggested origin of, <a href="#Pg184" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fords, offerings and prayers at, <a href="#Pg027" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Formosa, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Forty days, man treated as a god during, <a href="#Pg281" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            man personating god during, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">297</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— nights of mourning for Persephone, <a href="#Pg348" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Foucart, G., quoted, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fountains Abbey, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fowler, W. Warde, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">67</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fowls as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg052"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            France, cure of warts in, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">59</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page435">[pg
            435]</span><a name="Pg435" id="Pg435" class="tei tei-anchor"
            style="text-align: left"></a> Bean in, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Festival of Fools in, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">334</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Franche-Comté, the King of the Bean in, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bonfires on the Eve of Twelfth Night in, <a href="#Pg316" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Three Kings of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Lent in, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">348</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Frankenwald Mountains, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Frankfort, the feast of Purim at, <a href="#Pg394" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Fratres
            Arvales</span></span>, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">232</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“French and
            English”</span> or the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Tug-of-war”</span> as a religious or magical
            rite, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">174</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            French cure for fever, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fresh and green, beating people, <a href="#Pg270" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Frogs, malady transferred to, <a href="#Pg050" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg053"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fruit-trees, fire applied to, on Eve of Twelfth Night, <a href=
            "#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fruitful tree, use of stick cut from a, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fumigation with juniper and rue as a precaution against witches,
            <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">158</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Funeral, relations whipped at a, <a href="#Pg260" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Death, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">205</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— ceremony in Uganda, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">45</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of a Buddhist monk, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">175</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Furrow drawn round village as protection against epidemic,
            <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gallas, their mode of expelling fever, <a href="#Pg121" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual period of license among the, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their story of the origin of death, <a href="#Pg304" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gallows-hill, witches at, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gambling allowed during three days of the year, <a href="#Pg150"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Games of ball played to produce rain or dry weather, <a href=
            "#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Garcilasso de la Vega, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">130</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Garos of Assam, their annual use of a scapegoat, <a href="#Pg208"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gatto, in Benin, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gaul, the Celts of, their calendar, <a href="#Pg342" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain, <a href="#Pg082" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg303"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ge-lug-pa, a Lamaist sect, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Geraestius, a Greek month, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gerard, E., quoted, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">106</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Germany, cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King of the Bean in, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">313</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ghansyam Deo, a deity of the Gonds, <a href="#Pg217" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ghats, the Eastern, use of scapegoats in the, <a href="#Pg191"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ghosts of suicides feared, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">17</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            impregnation of women by, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">18</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            shut up in wood, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            modes of laying, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            diseases caused by, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">85</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the dead periodically expelled, <a href="#Pg123" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Roman festival of, in May, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            driven off by blows, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Giddiness, cure for, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Gilgamesh" id="Index-Gilgamesh" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gilgamesh, the epic of, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his name formerly read as Izdubar, <a href="#Pg372" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            a Babylonian hero, beloved by the goddess Ishtar, <a href=
            "#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gilgamus, a Babylonian king, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">372</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gilgenburg in Masuren, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gilyaks of the Amoor, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg101"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Glamorganshire, cure for warts in, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Glen Mor, in Islay, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gloucester, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gloucestershire, Eve of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg318" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg321"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Goat's Marsh at Rome, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Goats, evil transferred to, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg032" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gobi, the desert of, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">13</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            God, killing the, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the black and the white, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">92</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dying, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">227</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the killing of the, in Mexico, <a href="#Pg275" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            resurrection of the, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">400</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gods and goddesses represented by living men and women, <a href=
            "#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Mexican, burn themselves to create the sun, <a href="#Pg410"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mother of the, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman annually sacrificed in the character of the Mother of the,
            <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— shut up in wood, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the Maoris, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">81</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the Pelew Islanders, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">81</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            personated by priests, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">287</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            represented in masquerades, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">377</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Goitre, popular cure for, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">54</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gold Coast of West Africa, expulsion of demons on the, <a href=
            "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>,
            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Golden Age, the, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">386</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the reign of Saturn, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">344</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Golden bells worn by human representatives of gods in Mexico,
            <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg284" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gomes, E. H., on the head-feast of the Sea Dyaks, <a href=
            "#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gonds of India, human scapegoats among the, <a href="#Pg217"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gongs beaten to expel demons, <a href="#Pg113" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg117"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Good Friday, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">214</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of witches in Silesia on, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cattle beaten on, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">266</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of beating each other with rods on, <a href="#Pg268"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Goudie, Mr. Gilbert, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">169</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="fr"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gour-deziou</span></span>, <span class=
            "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Supplementary Days,”</span>
            in Brittany, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gout, popular cures for, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">56</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Graetz, H., <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">395</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gran Chaco, Indians of the, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grass to grow, dances to cause the, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bells rung to cause the, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">247</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grasshoppers, sacrifice of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">35</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Grass-ringers,”</span> <a href="#Pg247"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Graubünden (the Grisons), <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Graves, heaps of sticks or stones on, <a href="#Pg015" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page436">[pg 436]</span><a name=
        "Pg436" id="Pg436" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Great Bassam in Guinea, exorcism of evil spirit at, <a href=
            "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Feast, the, in Morocco, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg265"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“——
            Purification,”</span> Japanese ceremony, <a href="#Pg213" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Greece, ancient, custom of stone-throwing in, <a href="#Pg024"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">252</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Saturnalia in, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Greek use of swallows as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of laurel in purification, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Greek women, their mourning for Persephone, <a href="#Pg349"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Greeks, the ancient, their cure for love, <a href="#Pg003" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Asia Minor, their use of human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg255"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Green boughs, custom of beating young people with, at Christmas,
            <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grisons, masquerades in the, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Groot, J. J. M. de, quoted, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">99</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grove, the Arician, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grub in the Grisons, masquerade at, <a href="#Pg239" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grubb, W. Barbrooke, quoted, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">78</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Grünberg in Silesia, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guardian spirits of animals, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">98</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guatemala, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Indians of, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guaycurus, Indian nation, their ceremony at appearance of the
            Pleiades, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gudea, king of Southern Babylonia, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guessing dreams, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guiana, British, the Arawaks of, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, French, the Roocooyen Indians of, <a href="#Pg181" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>, <a href="#Pg263"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their fear of demons, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">78</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guinea, annual expulsion of the devil in, <a href="#Pg131" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, French, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">235</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— negroes, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Guns fired to expel demons, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">116</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg120"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>,
            <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg137"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>,
            <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg203"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>,
            <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">221</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            against witches, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gypsies, annual ceremony performed by the, <a href="#Pg207"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hagen, B., quoted, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">87</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hair of patient inserted in oak, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hak-Ka, the, a native race in the province of Canton, <a href=
            "#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Halberstadt in Thüringen, annual ceremony at, <a href="#Pg214"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hall in the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Halmahera, the Alfoors of, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">112</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremonies at a funeral in, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">260</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Haman, effigies of, burnt at Purim, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Mordecai, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">364</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as temporary kings, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">400</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Vashti the duplicates of Mordecai and Vashti, <a href=
            "#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Haman, a god worshipped by the heathen of Harran, <a href=
            "#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hâmân-Sûr, a name for Purim, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hammedatha, father of Haman, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hammer, sick people struck with a, <a href="#Pg259" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hands of deity, ceremony of grasping the, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Hantoes</span></span>, spirits, <a href=
            "#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hare as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">50</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harlots, sacred, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Comana, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">421</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harpooning a spirit, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">126</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harran, the heathen of, their custom in December, <a href=
            "#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their marriage festival of all the gods, <a href="#Pg273" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worship a god Haman, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">366</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harrison, Miss J. E., <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">153</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harthoorn, S. E., quoted, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">86</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hartland, E. S., <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">22</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg069" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Harvest, annual expulsion of demons at or after, <a href="#Pg137"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg225" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hasselt, J. L. van, quoted, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hastings, Warren, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Haupt, P., <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">406</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hawk, omens from, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">384</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hawthorn a charm against ghosts, <a href="#Pg153" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Headache, cure for, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">2</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg063"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Head-feast of the Sea Dyaks, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">383</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Headman sacred, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Heaps" id="Index-Heaps" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Heaps of stones, sticks, or leaves, to which every passer-by
            adds, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the scene of crimes, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">13</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on graves, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">15</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“lying
            heaps,”</span> <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">14</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hearn, Lafcadio, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hearts of human victims offered to the sun, <a href="#Pg279"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hebrews, their custom as to leprosy, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hebron, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hecatombaeon, an Athenian month, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hecquard, H., <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">120</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Heitsi-eibib, Hottentot god or hero, <a href="#Pg016" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hemp, augury as to the height of the, <a href="#Pg315" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances to make hemp grow tall, <a href="#Pg315" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hercules, cake with twelve knobs offered to, <a href="#Pg351"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            identified with Sandan, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">388</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his death on a pyre, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Omphale, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hereford, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Herefordshire, the sin-eater in, <a href="#Pg043" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Eve of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">318</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hermes, wayside images of, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">24</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Cretan festival of, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Argus, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">24</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Herodotus on the worship of Ishtar (Astarte), <a href="#Pg372"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hide beaten with rods, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">231</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hierapolis, festival of the Pyre at, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Highlands" id="Index-Highlands" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Highlands of Scotland, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">20</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Twelve Days in the, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hildesheim, bell-ringing at, on Ascension Day, <a href="#Pg247"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Himalayan districts of N. W. India, <a href="#Pg029" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page437">[pg 437]</span><a name=
        "Pg437" id="Pg437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hindoo Koosh, expulsion of demons in the, <a href="#Pg225" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— tribes, their annual expulsion of demons after harvest,
            <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">137</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hindoos, transference of evil among the, <a href="#Pg038" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their fear of demons, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">91</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hirt, H., <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">325</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hobby-horse to carry away spirit of smallpox, <a href="#Pg119"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hochofen, village of Bohemia, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hockey played as a ceremony, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">174</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Holed flint a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Holy Innocents' Day, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">336</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young people beat each other on, <a href="#Pg270" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Homoeopathic or imitative magic, <a href="#Pg177" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Homogeneity of civilization in prehistoric times in Southern
            Europe and Western Asia, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Honorius and Theodosius, decree of, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hood Bay in New Guinea, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">84</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Horns blown to expel demons, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg204"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to ban witches, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Penzance on eve of May Day, <a href="#Pg163" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            by maskers, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of straw worn to keep off demons, <a href="#Pg118" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of goat a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Horse sacrificed to Mars, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">230</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beloved by Ishtar, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beloved by Semiramis, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">407</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -shoes a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Horus, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hos of N. E. India, their annual expulsion of demons at harvest,
            <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">136</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Togoland, their annual expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg134"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hosskirch in Swabia, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">323</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hottentots, the, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hoyerswerda in Silesia, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Huddler</span></span> or <span lang="de"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Huttler</span></span> in
            the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Hudel</span></span>-running in the Tyrol,
            <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huichol Indians of Mexico, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg347" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huitzilopochtli, great Mexican god, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg300"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young man sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            temple of, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg297" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            hall of, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">294</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huixtocihuatl, Mexican goddess of Salt, <a href="#Pg283" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg283"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Human god and goddess, their enforced union, <a href="#Pg386"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— representatives of gods sacrificed in Mexico, <a href="#Pg275"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— sacrifice, successive mitigations of, <a href="#Pg396" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— sacrifices, their influence on cosmogonical theories, <a href=
            "#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— scapegoats, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg194" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in classical antiquity, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">252</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            reason for beating the, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">256</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            victims, men clad in the skins of, <a href="#Pg265" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hunger, expulsion of, at Chaeronea, <a href="#Pg252" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hurons, their way of expelling sickness, <a href="#Pg121" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Husbandman, the Roman, his prayers to Mars, <a href="#Pg229"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huss, John, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">336</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Huttler</span></span> or <span lang="de"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Huddler</span></span> in
            the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huzuls, the, of the Carpathians, <a href="#Pg032" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hyginus on the death of Semiramis, <a href="#Pg407" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hysteria cured by beating, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Identification of girl with Maize Goddess, <a href="#Pg295"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Idols, nails knocked into, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">69</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Igbodu, a sacred grove, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">212</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Igliwa, a Berber tribe, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">178</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ilamatecutli, Mexican goddess, <a href="#Pg287" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg287" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ill Luck embodied in an ascetic, <a href="#Pg041" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the casting away of, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Im Thurn, Sir Everard F., quoted, <a href="#Pg078" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Images, demons conjured into, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg172"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>,
            <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Immestar in Syria, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Immortality, how men lost the boon of, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Impregnation of women by ghosts, <a href="#Pg018" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Inanimate objects, transference of evil to, <a href="#Pg001"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Inao</span></span>, sacred whittled sticks,
            <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Inauguration of a king in ancient India, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Incas of Peru, their annual expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg128"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Incense used against witches, <a href="#Pg158" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg159"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            India, fear of demons in, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">89</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            epidemics sent away in toy chariots in, <a href="#Pg193" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Dravidian tribes of Northern, <a href="#Pg259" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            inauguration of a king in ancient, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Twelve Days in ancient, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">324</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            origin of the drama in, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">384</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the Central Provinces of, <a href="#Pg007" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of disease in the, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the North-Western Provinces of, <a href="#Pg061" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the tug-of-war in, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">181</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Indian Archipelago, expulsion of diseases in the, <a href=
            "#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— tribes of N. W. America, their masked dances, <a href="#Pg375"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Indians, mutual scourgings of South American, <a href="#Pg262"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Indo-China, worship of spirits in, <a href="#Pg097" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Indra, creation of the great god, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Infant, children whipt at death of an, <a href="#Pg261" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page438">[pg 438]</span><a name=
        "Pg438" id="Pg438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Infants, burial of, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Infertility, evil spirits of, <a href="#Pg250" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Influenza expelled by scapegoat, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg193"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Initiation by spirits, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">375</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Innocents, Bishop of, in France, <a href="#Pg334" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Festival of the, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">336</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Innocents' Day, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">336</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young people beat each other on, <a href="#Pg270" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Inspired men in China, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Intercalary month, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— period of five days, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— periods, customs and superstitions attaching to, <a href=
            "#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            deemed unlucky, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">339</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Intercalation, rudimentary, to equate lunar and solar years,
            <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">325</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Interregnum on intercalary days, <a href="#Pg328" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Inversion of social ranks at the Saturnalia and kindred
            festivals, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg407" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ireland, Twelfth Night in, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Iroquois, their <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“festival of dreams,”</span> <a href="#Pg127"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their use of scapegoats, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">209</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg233" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Iser Mountains in Silesia, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Iserlohn in Westphalia, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Ishtar" id="Index-Ishtar" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ishtar, a great Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Pg365" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            associated with Sirius, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">359</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Erech, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">398</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            her visit to Anu, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            goddess of fertility in animals, <a href="#Pg406" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Astarte" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Astarte</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Gilgamesh, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">371</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Semiramis, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Tammuz, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a>, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Isis, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Osiris, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Italian cure for fever, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            season of sowing in spring, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Italy, cure of warts in, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Izdubar. <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Gilgamesh"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Gilgamesh</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jackson, Professor Henry, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">35</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacobsen, J. Adrian, on the Secret Societies of N. W. America,
            <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">377</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jalno, temporary ruler at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg218" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg220"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>,
            <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">222</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            James, M. R., <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">395</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">notes</span></span> 2 and 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jamieson, J., on Trows, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">168</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg169" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Japan, cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg071" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg143" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Feast of Lanterns in, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">151</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of evil in, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">212</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jastrow, M., on the epic of Gilgamesh, <a href="#Pg399" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Jataka</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg041"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jaundice, cure for, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Java, belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">86</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Tenggerese of, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jay, blue, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jealousy, cure for, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jensen, P., <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">362</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his theory of Haman and Vashti as Elamite deities, <a href=
            "#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on Anaitis, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the fast of Esther, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">398</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jepur in India, use of scapegoat at, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jerusalem, the weeping for Tammuz at, <a href="#Pg400" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jewish calendar, New Year's Day of the, <a href="#Pg359" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— converts, form of abjuration used by, <a href="#Pg393" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Day of Atonement, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— festival of Purim, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">360</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— use of scapegoats, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jews accused of ritual murders, <a href="#Pg394" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the great deliverance of the, at Purim, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jinn, belief in the, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">104</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            infesting camels, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jochelson, W., quoted, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Johns, Rev. C. H. W., <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">357</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">notes</span></span> 2 and 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joustra, M., quoted, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">88</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Juhar, the Bhotiyas of, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">209</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            July, the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left" xml:lang="la"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nonae Caprotinae</span></span> in, <a href=
            "#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            June, Mexican human sacrifice in, <a href="#Pg283" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jungle Mother, the, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Juniper burned to keep out ghosts, <a href="#Pg154" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to beat people with, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— berries, fumigation with, as a precaution against witches,
            <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">158</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Juno Caprotina, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jupiter, temple of Capitoline, <a href="#Pg066" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kabyle cure for jealousy, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kacharis, the, of Assam, their fear of demons, <a href="#Pg093"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kachins of Burma, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg096" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kai, the, of German New Guinea, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Kalau</span></span>, demons, <a href=
            "#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Kaliths</span></span>, gods of the Pelew
            Islanders, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">81</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kamtchatka, the tug-of-war in, <a href="#Pg178" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kamtchatkans, their fear of demons, <a href="#Pg089" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kanagra in India, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kanhar river, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Karens of Burma, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg096" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Karkantzari</span></span>, fiends or
            monsters in Macedonia, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Karpathos, a Greek island, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kasan Government in Russia, the Wotyaks of the, <a href="#Pg156"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kaua Indians of N. W. Brazil, <a href="#Pg236" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their masked dances, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kaumpuli, god of plague, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">4</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Kausika Sutra</span></span>, Indian book of
            magic, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kayans, the, of Borneo, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their masked dances, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">382</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page439">[pg 439]</span><a name=
        "Pg439" id="Pg439" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Keb, the Egyptian Earth-god, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kei Islands, expulsion of demons in the, <a href="#Pg112" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— river, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">11</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kengtung in Burma, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kennedy, Prof. A. R. S., quoted, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kharwars of N. India, their use of scapegoats, <a href="#Pg192"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Khasis of Assam, their annual expulsion of demon of plague,
            <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Khonds, their annual expulsion of demons at seed-time, <a href=
            "#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>,
            <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">234</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their treatment of human victims, <a href="#Pg259" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Killing the god, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Mexico, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">275</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            King, temporary, in Siam, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">151</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient India, inauguration of a, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            assembly for determining the fate of the, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mock or temporary, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">403</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Queen of May, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of the Bean, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">313</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Merton College, Oxford, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">311</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of the Years at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            King's College, Cambridge, Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kings, the Three, on Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg329" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            magistrates at Olympia called, <a href="#Pg352" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            marry the wives and concubines of their predecessors, <a href=
            "#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kingsley, Mary H., quoted, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">74</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kioga Lake, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kiriwina, in S. E. New Guinea, <a href="#Pg134" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kirkland, Rev. Mr., <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kitching, A. L., quoted, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">246</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kites, artificial, used to drive away the devil, <a href="#Pg004"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            paper, flown as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kleintitschen, P. A., quoted, <a href="#Pg082" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kleptomania, cure for, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">34</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kling or Klieng, a mythical hero of the Dyaks, <a href="#Pg383"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Knives under the threshold, a protection against witches,
            <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Knots tied in branches of trees as remedies, <a href="#Pg056"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Knotted thread in magic, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kobeua Indians of N. W. Brazil, their masked dances, <a href=
            "#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>,
            <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kore, expulsion of, on Easter Eve in Albania, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Korkus, the, of India, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">7</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Korwas of Mirzapur, their use of scapegoats, <a href="#Pg192"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Koryaks, the, of N. E. Asia, their belief in demons, <a href=
            "#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of demons among the, <a href="#Pg126" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kubary, J., quoted, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">81</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kumaon, in N. W. India, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">37</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sliding down a rope in, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kumis, the, of S. E. India, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kurmis of India, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kururumany, the Arawak creator, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kuskokwin River, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">380</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kwakiutl Indians of N. W. America, their masked dances, <a href=
            "#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg378" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Labrador, fear of demons in, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">79</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Labruguière, in S. France, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">166</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lagarde, on the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Ride of the Beardless One,”</span> <a href=
            "#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>,
            <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">405</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lakor, island of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lama of Tibet, the Grand, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">197</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg221"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the Teshu, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lamaist sects, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Lanchang</span></span>, a Malay craft,
            <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">187</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lande-Patry in Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lane, E. W., quoted, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">104</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lanterns, feast of, in Japan, <a href="#Pg151" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Laos, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Laosians of Siam, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg097" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Last day of the year, annual expulsion of demons on the, <a href=
            "#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Latin Christianity, its tolerance of rustic paganism, <a href=
            "#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Laurel in purification, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Laurels, ceremony of renewing the, <a href="#Pg346" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lawes, W. G., quoted, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">84</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lead, melted, in cure, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">4</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leafman, the, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leaping over bonfires, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">156</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leaps to promote the growth of the crops, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, <a href="#Pg238"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leaves, disease transferred to, <a href="#Pg002" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            fatigue transferred to, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to expel demons, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">206</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sickness transferred to, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">259</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used in exorcism, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lehmann-Haupt, C. F., <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">412</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg415" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lehner, Stefan, quoted, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">83</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leith Links, witches burnt on, <a href="#Pg165" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leme, the river, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">182</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lengua Indians, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lent, ceremony at Halberstadt in, <a href="#Pg214" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            perhaps derived from an old pagan period of abstinence observed
            for the growth of the seed, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">347</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">345</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lenten fast, its origin, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">348</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leobschütz district of Silesia, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leprosy, Hebrew custom as to, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mexican goddess of, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lerwick, ceremony of Up-helly-a' at, <a href="#Pg169" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leti, island of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Leucadians, their use of human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg254"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lhasa, ceremony of the Tibetan New Year at, <a href="#Pg197"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Liar's mound,
            the,”</span> in Borneo, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">14</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page440">[pg 440]</span><a name=
        "Pg440" id="Pg440" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            License, month of general, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">148</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            periods of, preceding or following the annual expulsion of
            demons, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">225</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg306" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg328"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg343" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>, <a href="#Pg344"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            granted to slaves at the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg307" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg350" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Licentious rites for the fertilization of the ground, <a href=
            "#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lichfield, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Licorice root used to beat people with at Easter, <a href=
            "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Liebrecht, F., <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">392</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lienz in the Tyrol, masquerade at, <a href="#Pg242" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg245"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lime-tree in popular cure, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">59</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Limewood used at expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg156" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lincoln, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lion beloved by Ishtar, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“—— with the
            Sheepskins,”</span> <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Livuans, the, of New Britain, <a href="#Pg082" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Livy on the annual custom of knocking a nail, <a href="#Pg066"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">345</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lizard or snake in annual ceremony for the riddance of evils,
            <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lizards and serpents supposed to renew their youth by casting
            their skins, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Llama, black, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Loango, practice of knocking nails into idols in, <a href=
            "#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Lokoala</span></span>, initiation by
            spirits, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">376</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lord of the Diamond, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of Misrule, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">251</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in England, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">331</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lorraine, King and Queen of the Bean in, <a href="#Pg315" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Loth, J., <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">325</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lots cast at Purim, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">361</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Louis XIV. as King of the Bean, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lous, a Babylonian month, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Love, cure for, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lover's Leap, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lovers of Semiramis and Ishtar, their sad fate, <a href="#Pg371"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lucian, as to the rites of Hierapolis, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ludlow in Shropshire, the tug-of-war at, <a href="#Pg182" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lugg, river, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Lules" id="Index-Lules" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lules or Tonocotes of the Gran Chaco, their behaviour in an
            epidemic, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">122</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lumholtz, C., quoted, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">347</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lunar year equated to solar year by intercalation, <a href=
            "#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>,
            <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lusatia, the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Witch-burning”</span> in, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lushais of Assam, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg094" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Luzon, exorcism in, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lycaeus, Mount, in Arcadia, human sacrifice on, <a href="#Pg353"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lydia, the burning of kings in, <a href="#Pg391" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lydus, Joannes, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ma, goddess worshipped at Comana, <a href="#Pg421" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            MacCulloch, J. A., <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">326</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Macdonald, Rev. James, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">111</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Macdonell, Lady Agnes, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">164</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Macedonian superstitions as to the Twelve Days, <a href="#Pg320"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Machindranath temple at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg219" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mackenzie, Sheriff David J., <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">169</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Macrobius on institution of the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg345"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Madagascar, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Madis, the, of Central Africa, <a href="#Pg217" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Magdalen College, Oxford, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Magic in ancient India, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">91</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and witchcraft, permanence of the belief in, <a href="#Pg089"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            homoeopathic or imitative, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">177</a>, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, <a href="#Pg257"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Magnesia on the Maeander, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">397</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mahadeva, propitiation of, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maize, the goddess of the Young, <a href="#Pg278" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mexican goddesses of, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">285</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg286" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg290" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg291"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>,
            <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">295</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Majhwars, Dravidian race of Mirzapur, <a href="#Pg036" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg060"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Makrîzî, Arabic writer, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Malabar, use of cows as scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Malagasy, <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">faditras</span></span> among the, <a href=
            "#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Malay Peninsula, the Besisi of the, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Malays, their use of birds as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            stratification of religious beliefs among the, <a href="#Pg090"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mallans of India, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mamurius Veturius in ancient Rome, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg252" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg257"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Man-god in China, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">117</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mandan Indians, their annual expulsion of the devil, <a href=
            "#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Manipur, Rajah of, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">39</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual eponyms in, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">39</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mannhardt, W., on processions of maskers, <a href="#Pg250" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on beating human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mantras, the, of the Malay Peninsula, their fear of demons,
            <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">88</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maori gods, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">81</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maraves, the, of South Africa, <a href="#Pg019" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marcellus of Bordeaux, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            March, annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of witches in, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of evils in, <a href="#Pg199" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremony of Mamurius Veturius in, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg231"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            old Roman year began in, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances of the Salii in, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">232</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bell-ringing procession on the first of, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of beating <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page441">[pg
            441]</span><a name="Pg441" id="Pg441" class="tei tei-anchor"
            style="text-align: left"></a> people and cattle in, <a href=
            "#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            marriage festival of all the gods in, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            festival of the Matronalia in, <a href="#Pg346" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marduk or Merodach, Babylonian god, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as a deliverer from demons, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">103</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his ceremonial marriage at New Year, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the votaries of, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">372</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marjoram a protection against witchcraft, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mar-na, a Philistine deity, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">418</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marriage of the god Marduk, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, mock or real, of human victims, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— festival of all the gods, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">273</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mars a god of vegetation, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Old, at Rome, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Silvanus, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Marsaba</span></span>, a demon, <a href=
            "#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marseilles, human scapegoats at, <a href="#Pg253" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Marsh-marigolds a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Martin, Rev. John, quoted, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">132</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Martyrdom of St. Dasius, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">308</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mascal or Festival of the Cross in Abyssinia, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mashti, supposed name of Elamite goddess, <a href="#Pg366" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mask, two-faced, worn by image of goddess, <a href="#Pg287"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Masks" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Masks</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Masked dances and ceremonies of savages, <a href="#Pg374" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to promote fertility, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">236</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maskers in the Tyrol and Salzburg, <a href="#Pg242" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as bestowers of fertility, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">249</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            supposed to be inspired by the spirits whom they represent,
            <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Masks" id="Index-Masks" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Masks worn at expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg111" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg127"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>,
            <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">213</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            intended to ban demons, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">246</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worn at ceremonies to promote the growth of the crops, <a href=
            "#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>,
            <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">242</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>, <a href="#Pg248"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worn by the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left" xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, <a href="#Pg242"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>,
            <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">247</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worn by priests who personate gods, <a href="#Pg287" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            worn in religious dances and performances, <a href="#Pg375"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg378" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>, <a href="#Pg379"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>,
            <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">382</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            burned at end of masquerade, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">382</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            treated as animate <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Masquerades in modern Europe, intention of certain, <a href=
            "#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Master of the Revels, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">333</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Masuren, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mateer, S., quoted, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Mater
            Dolorosa</span></span>, the ancient and the modern, <a href=
            "#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Material vehicles of immaterial things (fear, misfortune,
            disease, etc.), <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg022" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg023" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Materialization of prayer, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">22</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Matronalia, festival of the, in March, <a href="#Pg346" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Matse negroes of Togoland, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mawu, Supreme Being of Ewe negroes, <a href="#Pg074" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maxwell, W. E., quoted, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">90</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            May, Mexican human sacrifices in, <a href="#Pg276" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg280"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances of Castilian peasants in, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King and Queen of, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Day, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">359</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Eve of, witches abroad on, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in the Tyrol, <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Burning out of the Witches”</span> on,
            <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            witches rob cows of milk on, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— morning, custom of herdsmen on, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mayas of Yucatan, their annual expulsion of the demon, <a href=
            "#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their calendar, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">171</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their five supplementary days, <a href="#Pg340" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mecca, stone-throwing at, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">24</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mecklenburg, custom on Good Friday in, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of reckoning the Twelve Days in, <a href="#Pg327" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Medicine-man, need of, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">76</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Melanesia, belief in demons in, <a href="#Pg082" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Melenik in Macedonia, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Men, evil transferred to, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            possessed by spirits in China, <a href="#Pg117" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            divine, as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">217</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sacrifices of deified, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and women forbidden by Mosaic law to interchange dress,
            <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">363</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Mengap</span></span>, a Dyak liturgy,
            <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">383</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Merodach or Marduk, Babylonian deity, <a href="#Pg356" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Merton College, Oxford, King of the Bean at, <a href="#Pg332"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Metageitnion, a Greek month, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">354</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mexican temples, their form, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">279</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mexico, Indians of, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Cora Indians of, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">381</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Tarahumare Indians of, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">236</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            use of skins of human victims in ancient, <a href="#Pg265" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            killing the god in, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">275</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            story of the creation of the sun in, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Meyer, Eduard, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">349</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Midsummer Day, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Eve, witches active on, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Milan, festival of the Three Kings of Twelfth Day at, <a href=
            "#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Milk, heifers beaten to make them yield, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Milky juice of wild fig-tree in religious rite, <a href="#Pg258"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mimicry the principle of religious or magical dramas, <a href=
            "#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Minahassa in Celebes, expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg111"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Mingoli</span></span>, spirits of the dead,
            <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">77</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Miotse, the, of China, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">4</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mirzapur, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Korwas and Pataris of, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Misfortune swept out of house with brooms, <a href="#Pg005"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page442">[pg 442]</span><a name=
        "Pg442" id="Pg442" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Misrule, the Lord of, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">251</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in England, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">331</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Missiles hurled at dangerous ghosts or spirits, <a href="#Pg017"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mistress of the Earth, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">85</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mitigations of human sacrifice, <a href="#Pg396" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mnevis, sacred Egyptian bull, <a href="#Pg217" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moa, island of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mock king, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">403</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— marriage of human victims, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mockery of Christ, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">412</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Modai</span></span>, invisible spirits,
            <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moesia, Durostorum in Lower, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">309</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mogador, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">63</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mohammed and the devil, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">24</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mohammedan custom of raising cairns, <a href="#Pg021" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— saints, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">22</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Moles and
            Field-mice,”</span> fire ceremony on Eve of Twelfth Night,
            <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">317</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Molina, Spanish historian, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">130</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Molonga, a demon, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mommsen, August, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">153</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mongol transference of evil, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">7</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Monkey sacrificed for riddance of evils, <a href="#Pg208" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Montagne du Doubs, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">316</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Month during which men disguised as devils go about, <a href=
            "#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of general license before expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg148"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            intercalary, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and moon, names for, in Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg325"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Monumbo, the, of German New Guinea, their masked dances, <a href=
            "#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moon, bodily ailments transferred to the, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the waning, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“dark”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q"
            style="text-align: left">“light,”</span> <a href="#Pg140" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg141"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            temple of the, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            hearts of human victims offered to the, <a href="#Pg282" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the goddess of the, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and month, names for, in Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg325"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moors of Morocco, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moravia, precautions against witchcraft in, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">269</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mordecai, his triumphal ride in Susa, <a href="#Pg403" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Esther equivalent to Marduk and Ishtar, <a href="#Pg405"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the duplicates of Haman and Vashti, <a href="#Pg406" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Haman, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">364</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as temporary kings, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">400</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Morning Star, personated by a man, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the god of the, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Morocco, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">31</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            exorcism in, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">63</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the tug-of-war in, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">178</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg182" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of beating people in, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Morris-dancers, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">250</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mortality, savage explanations of human, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mortlock Islanders, their belief in spirits, <a href="#Pg082"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mosaic law forbids interchange of dress between men and women,
            <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">363</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moses, the tomb of, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moslem custom of raising cairns, <a href="#Pg021" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mossos of China, their annual expulsion of demons, <a href=
            "#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mosul, cure for headache at, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mother of the Gods, Mexican goddess, <a href="#Pg289" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman annually sacrificed in the character of the, <a href=
            "#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -kin in royal families, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">368</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moulton, Professor J. H., <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">325</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mounds of Semiramis, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mountain of Parting, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">279</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Movers, F. C., on the Sacaea, <a href="#Pg368" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg387"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>,
            <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mowat in British New Guinea, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mrus, the, of Aracan, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">12</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mule as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">50</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Müller, K. O., on Sandan, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">389</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mundaris, the, of N. E. India, their annual saturnalia at
            harvest, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">137</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Munich, annual expulsion of the devil at, <a href="#Pg214" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Munzerabad in S. India, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Muota Valley in Switzerland, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">166</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Murder, heaps of sticks or stones on scenes of, <a href="#Pg015"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mylitta, Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">372</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg390" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mysore in S. India, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mysteries as magical ceremonies, <a href="#Pg374" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mythical beings represented by men and women, <a href="#Pg385"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Myths in relation to magic, <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">374</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            performed dramatically in dances, <a href="#Pg375" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">375</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nabu, Babylonian god, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">358</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nagas of Assam, the tug-of-war among the, <a href="#Pg177" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nahum, the prophet, on Nineveh, <a href="#Pg390" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nahuntí, an Elamite goddess, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nailing evils into trees, walls, etc., <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nails, clippings of, in popular cures, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            knocked into trees, walls, etc., as remedy, <a href="#Pg059"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            knocked into idols or fetishes, <a href="#Pg069" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            knocked in ground as cure for epilepsy, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nakiza, the river, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nat</span></span> superstition in Burma,
            <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">90</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nats</span></span>, spirits in Burma,
            <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">175</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            propitiation of, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Navona, Piazza, at Rome, ceremony of Befana on the, <a href=
            "#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nebuchadnezzar, his record of the festival of Marduk, <a href=
            "#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Negritos, religion of the, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page443">[pg 443]</span><a name=
        "Pg443" id="Pg443" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Neilgherry Hills, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">37</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nelson, E. W., on the masquerades of the Esquimaux, <a href=
            "#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nemontemi</span></span>, the five
            supplementary days of the Aztec calendar, <a href="#Pg339" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nepaul, Dassera festival in, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nephthys, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nettles, whipping with, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Neugramatin in Bohemia, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Neumann, J. B., quoted, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">87</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            New Britain, the Melanesians of, their belief in demons, <a href=
            "#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of devils in, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Gazelle Peninsula in, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Caledonia, burying the evil spirit in, <a href="#Pg110" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of promoting growth of taros in, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— College, Oxford, Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Guinea, annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg134" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Guinea, British, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">265</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in ghosts in, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">84</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Guinea, Dutch, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">178</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Papuans of, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg083" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Guinea, German, the Yabim of, <a href="#Pg188" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Bukaua of, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg083" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Kai of, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">264</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Monumbo of, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">382</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Hebrideans, their story of the origin of death, <a href=
            "#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— yams, ceremonies before eating the, <a href="#Pg134" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Year, expulsion of evils at the, <a href="#Pg127" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            not reckoned from first month, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sham fight at the, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">184</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremony at the Tibetan, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">197</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            festival among the Iroquois, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">209</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Tibetan, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            festival at Babylon, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">356</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Year's Day in Corea, annual riddance of evil on, <a href=
            "#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Tibet, ceremony on, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">203</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            among the Swahili, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">226</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young women beat young men on, <a href="#Pg271" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the Jewish calendar, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Zealand, human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nganga</span></span>, medicine-man, <a href=
            "#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ngoc hoang, his message to men, <a href="#Pg303" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nias, expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg113" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            explanation of human mortality in, <a href="#Pg303" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nicaragua, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nicholas Bishop, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nicobar Islanders, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg088"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their annual expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg201" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Islands, demon of disease sent away in a boat from the,
            <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">189</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nicobarese ceremony of exorcism, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nights, custom of reckoning by, <a href="#Pg326" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nineveh, tomb of Sardanapalus at, <a href="#Pg388" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the burning of Sandan at, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">390</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ninus, Assyrian hero, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nirriti, goddess of evil, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">25</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nisan, Jewish month, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">361</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">No</span></span>, annual expulsion of demons
            in China, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">145</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Noises made to expel demons, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg147" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nöldeke, Professor Th., on Purim and Esther, <a href="#Pg366"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg368" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on Omanos and Anadates, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Nonae
            Caprotinae</span></span>, Roman celebration of the, <a href=
            "#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Normandy, the Bocage of, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">183</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg316" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>, <a href="#Pg323"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Northamptonshire cure for cough, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nortia, Etruscan goddess, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">67</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Norwegian sailors, their use of rowan, <a href="#Pg267" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Norwich, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            November, annual ceremony in, at catching sea-slug, <a href=
            "#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">204</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nut, the Egyptian sky-goddess, <a href="#Pg341" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nyassa, Lake, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oak and wild olive, pyre of Hercules made of, <a href="#Pg391"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -trees in popular cures, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Obassi Nsi, earth-god, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">28</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            October, annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Roman sacrifice of horse in, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oels, in Silesia, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oesel, Esthonian island, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">14</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Offerings at cairns, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to demons, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="ja"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Oho-harahi</span></span>, a Japanese
            ceremony, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Old Christmas Day (Twelfth Night), <a href="#Pg321" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oldenberg, H., quoted, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">90</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oldenburg, popular cures in, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg052"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53-58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oldfield, H. A., quoted, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Olive, wild, and oak, pyre of Hercules made of, <a href="#Pg391"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -tree in popular remedy, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Olympia, festival of Cronus at, <a href="#Pg352" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Olynthiac, river, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Olynthus, tomb of, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">143</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Omanos at Zela, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">373</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Omens, mode of neutralizing bad, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Omnipresence of demons, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">72</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Omphale and Hercules, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            One-eyed buffoon in New Year ceremony, <a href="#Pg402" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Onions used to foretell weather of the year, <a href="#Pg323"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Onitsha, on the Niger, annual expulsion of evils at, <a href=
            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            use of human scapegoats at, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">210</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page444">[pg 444]</span><a name=
        "Pg444" id="Pg444" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Opening of the Wine-jars, Dionysiac festival of the, <a href=
            "#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oraons, the, of Bengal, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg093"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their use of a human scapegoat, <a href="#Pg196" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Orchards, fire applied to, on Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href=
            "#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>,
            <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">319</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Orestes, purification of, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Origin of death, savage tales of the, <a href="#Pg302" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Orinoco, Indians of the, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Orkney Islands, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">29</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transference of sickness in the, <a href="#Pg049" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Orlagau in Thüringen, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oscans, the enemies of Rome, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">231</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Osiris, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Isis, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ottery St. Mary's, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oude, burial of infants in, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Our Mother
            among the Water,”</span> Mexican goddess, <a href="#Pg278" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Owl represented dramatically as a mystery, <a href="#Pg377"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ox, disease transferred to, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oxen pledged on Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg319" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oxford, Lords of Misrule at, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pairing dogs, stick that has beaten, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Palm Sunday, Russian custom on, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pan's image beaten by the Arcadians, <a href="#Pg256" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pancakes to scald fiends on New Year's Eve, <a href="#Pg320"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pandarus, tattoo marks of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">47</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Papa Westray, one of the Orkney Islands, <a href="#Pg029" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Papuans, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg083" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Parkinson, R., quoted, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Parti, name of an Elamite deity, <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Passover, accusations of murders at, <a href="#Pg395" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the crucifixion of Christ at, <a href="#Pg414" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">414</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Patagonians, their remedy for smallpox, <a href="#Pg122" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pataris of Mirzapur, their use of scapegoats, <a href="#Pg192"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pathian, a beneficent spirit, <a href="#Pg094" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Paton, L. B., <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">360</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Paton, W. R., on human scapegoats in ancient Greece, <a href=
            "#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg259" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on Adam and Eve, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the crucifixion, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">413</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pauntley, parish of, Eve of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg318"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pawnees, their human sacrifice, <a href="#Pg296" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Payne, E. J., <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">286</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Peach-tree in popular remedy, <a href="#Pg054" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Peaiman</span></span>, sorcerer, <a href=
            "#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Peg used to transfer disease to tree, <a href="#Pg007" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pegging ailments into trees, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">58</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pelew Islanders, their gods, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">81</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Peloria, a Thessalian festival resembling the Saturnalia,
            <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pelorian Zeus, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pemali</span></span>, taboo, <a href=
            "#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pembrokeshire, cure for warts in, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Penance by drawing blood from ears, <a href="#Pg292" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pennant, Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Penzance, horn-blowing at, on the Eve of May Day, <a href=
            "#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perak, periodic expulsion of evils in, <a href="#Pg198" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the rajah of, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">198</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perche and Beauce, in France, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg062"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perchta, Frau, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perchta's Day, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span>, maskers in Salzburg
            and the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">242</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Percival, R., quoted, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perham, Rev. J., on the Head-feast of the Sea Dyaks, <a href=
            "#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Periodic expulsion of evils in a material vehicle, <a href=
            "#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Periods of license preceding or following the annual expulsion of
            demons, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">225</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ?e????µa, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">255</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Persephone, mourning for, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">348</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Persia, cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the feast of Purim in, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Persian framework of the book of Esther, <a href="#Pg362" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>, <a href="#Pg401"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— kings married the wives of their predecessors, <a href=
            "#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— marriages at the vernal equinox, <a href="#Pg406" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Persians annually expel demons, <a href="#Pg145" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Sacaea celebrated by the, <a href="#Pg402" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Peru, Indians of, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Incas of, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">128</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Aymara Indians of, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">193</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            autumn festival in, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Peruvian Indians, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Phees</span></span> (<span class=
            "tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">phi</span></span>), evil spirits, <a href=
            "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Philadelphia in Lydia, coin of, <a href="#Pg389" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Philippine Islands, spirits of the dead in the, <a href="#Pg082"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Philippines, the Tagbanuas of the, <a href="#Pg189" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Philo of Alexandria, on the mockery of King Agrippa, <a href=
            "#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Phocylides, the poet, on Nineveh, <a href="#Pg390" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Phrygia, Cybele and Attis in, <a href="#Pg386" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Piazza Navona at Rome, Befana on the, <a href="#Pg166" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pig used to decoy demons, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pig's blood used in purificatory rites, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pilate and Christ, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">416</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Piles of sticks or stones. <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Heaps"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Heaps</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pillar, fever transferred to a, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pine-resin burnt as a protection against witches, <a href=
            "#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pins stuck into saint's image, <a href="#Pg070" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pinzgau district of Salzburg, <a href="#Pg244" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pitch smeared on doors to keep out ghosts, <a href="#Pg153"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pitchforks ridden by witches, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page445">[pg 445]</span><a name=
        "Pg445" id="Pg445" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pithoria, village in India, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pitteri Pennu, the god of increase, <a href="#Pg138" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Plague transferred to plantain-tree, <a href="#Pg004" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            god of, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">4</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to camel, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            preventive of, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demon of, expelled, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sent away in scapegoat, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Plato on parricide, etc., <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on poets, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">35</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on sorcery, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Playfair, Major A., quoted, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pleiades, ceremony at the appearance of the, <a href="#Pg262"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            observed by savages, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">326</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pliny on cure of warts, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on cure for epilepsy, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pliny's letter to Trajan, <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">420</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Plough drawn round village to keep off epidemic, <a href="#Pg172"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Monday, the rites of, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">250</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ploughing, ceremonies at, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">235</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Plutarch on <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the
            expulsion of hunger,”</span> <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">252</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Po Then, a great spirit, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Point Barrow, the Esquimaux of, <a href="#Pg124" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pollution caused by murder, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">25</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Polynesia, demons in, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">80</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pomerania, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pomos of California, their expulsion of devils, <a href="#Pg170"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pongau district of Salzburg, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pontarlier, Eve of Twelfth Day in, <a href="#Pg316" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pontiff of Zela in Pontus, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pontus, rapid spread of Christianity in, <a href="#Pg420" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Porphyry on demons, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">104</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Port Charlotte in Islay, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">62</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Moresby in New Guinea, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">84</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Porto Novo, annual expulsion of demons at, <a href="#Pg205"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Poseidon, cake with twelve knobs offered to, <a href="#Pg351"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Posterli, expulsion of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">214</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Potala Hill at Lhasa, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Poverty, annual expulsion of, <a href="#Pg144" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Powers, Stephen, quoted, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Prajapati, the sacrifice of the creator, <a href="#Pg411" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Prayer, the materialization of, <a href="#Pg022" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at sowing, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Prayers at cairns or heaps of sticks or leaves, <a href="#Pg026"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>,
            <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">29</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Presteign in Radnorshire, the tug-of-war at, <a href="#Pg182"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Priest, the corpse-praying, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Priests personating gods, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">287</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Proa, demons of sickness expelled in a, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            diseases sent away in a, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">199</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Processions for the expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg117" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg233"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            bell-ringing, at the Carnival, <a href="#Pg247" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to drive away demons of infertility, <a href="#Pg245" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of maskers, W. Mannhardt on, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">250</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Procopius, quoted, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Propertius, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Propitiation" id="Index-Propitiation" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Propitiation of ancestral spirits, <a href="#Pg086" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of demons, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">93</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg096" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>, <a href="#Pg100"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Prussia, <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, West, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Prussian rulers, formerly burnt, <a href="#Pg391" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Public expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— scapegoats, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pu?ru</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q"
            style="text-align: left">“assembly,”</span> <a href="#Pg361"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Puithiam</span></span>, sorcerer, <a href=
            "#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Puna Indians, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Punjaub, human scapegoats in the, <a href="#Pg196" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Puppy, blind, as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">50</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Pur</span></span>
            in the sense of <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“lot,”</span> <a href="#Pg361" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Purification by bathing or washing, <a href="#Pg003" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            by means of stone-throwing, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            religious, intended to keep off demons, <a href="#Pg104" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Great, a Japanese ceremony, <a href="#Pg213" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            by beating, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Feast of the, (Candlemas), <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— festival among the Cherokee Indians, <a href="#Pg128" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Purim, the Jewish festival of, <a href="#Pg360" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of burning effigies of Haman at, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            compared to the Carnival, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">394</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            its relation to Persia, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">401</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Purushu, great primordial giant, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pyre, traditionary death of Asiatic kings and heroes on a,
            <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">388</a>, <a href="#Pg389" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            festival of the, at Hierapolis, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pythagoras, his saying as to swallows, <a href="#Pg035" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Quauhtitlan, city in Mexico, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">301</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Queen of the Bean, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Queensland, tribes of Central, their expulsion of a demon,
            <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Quetzalcoatl, a Mexican god, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg300" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            man sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg281" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Quickening”</span> heifers with a branch of
            rowan, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">266</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Quixos, Indians of the, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ra, the Egyptian Sun-god, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Races to ensure good crops, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">249</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Radnorshire, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">182</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rafts, evils expelled in, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">199</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rain, charms to produce, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">175</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg178" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            or drought, games of ball played to produce, <a href="#Pg179"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances to obtain, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">236</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            festival to procure, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">277</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            divinities of the, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— gods of Mexico, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">283</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rainy season, expulsion of demons at the beginning of the,
            <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rajah of Manipur, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">39</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Travancore, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">42</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Tanjore, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ramsay, Sir W. M., <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">421</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ranchi, in Chota Nagpur, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">139</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page446">[pg 446]</span><a name=
        "Pg446" id="Pg446" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rattles to keep out ghosts, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Raven legends among the Esquimaux, <a href="#Pg380" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Red thread in popular cure, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and yellow paint on human to represent colours of maize,
            <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">285</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Reed, W. A., quoted, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Reinach, Salomon, <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">420</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Renan, Ernest, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Renewal, annual, of king's power at Babylon, <a href="#Pg356"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Resurrection, the divine, in Mexican ritual, <a href="#Pg288"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>,
            <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of the dead god, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">400</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Revelry at Purim, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">363</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Revels, Master of the, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">333</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rhea, wife of Cronus, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rhodians, their annual sacrifice of a man to Cronus, <a href=
            "#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg397" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rhys, Sir John, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">343</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            quoted, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ribhus, Vedic genii of the seasons, <a href="#Pg325" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rice-harvest, carnival at the, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Richalm, Abbot, his fear of devils, <a href="#Pg105" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Riddles" id="Index-Riddles" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Riddles asked at certain seasons or on certain occasions,
            <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">120</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"
            style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ride of the
            Beardless One,”</span> a Persian New Year ceremony, <a href=
            "#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ridgeway, W., <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">353</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the origin of Greek tragedy, <a href="#Pg384" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ridley, Rev. W., quoted, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">123</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Riedel, J. G. F., quoted, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">85</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rig Veda, story of creation in the, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ring suspended in Purim bonfire, <a href="#Pg393" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rings, headache transferred to, <a href="#Pg002" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ritual murder, accusations of, brought against the Jews, <a href=
            "#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            River of Good Fortune, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">28</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rivers used to sweep away evils, <a href="#Pg003" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 5;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            offerings and prayers to, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">27</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rivros, a month of the Gallic calendar, <a href="#Pg343" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rockhill, W. W., <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">220</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rogations, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">277</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roman cure for fever, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            for epilepsy, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— festival in honour of ghosts, <a href="#Pg154" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— husbandman, his prayers to Mars, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— seasons of sowing, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">232</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— soldiers, celebration of the Saturnalia by, <a href="#Pg308"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Romans, their mode of reckoning a day, <a href="#Pg326" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rome, the knocking of nails in ancient, <a href="#Pg064" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Piazza Navona at, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">166</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ancient, human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Saturnalia at, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">307</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Romulus, disappearance of, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roocooyen Indians of French Guiana, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their tug-of-war, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">181</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roof, dances on the, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rook, expulsion of devil in island of, <a href="#Pg109" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rope, ceremony of sliding down a, <a href="#Pg196" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ropes used to keep off demons, <a href="#Pg120" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg149"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to exclude ghosts, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">152</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg154" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roscher, W. H., on the Salii, <a href="#Pg231" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roscommon, Twelfth Night in, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rosemary, used to beat people with, <a href="#Pg270" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg271"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rouen, ceremony on Ascension Day at, <a href="#Pg215" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Roumanians of Transylvania, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">16</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">106</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rowan-tree, cattle beaten with branches of, on May Day, <a href=
            "#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used to keep witches from cows, <a href="#Pg267" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rue, fumigation with, as a precaution against witches, <a href=
            "#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rupture, popular cures for, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg060" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Russia, the Wotyaks of, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">155</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Russian custom on Palm Sunday, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— villagers, their precautions against epidemics, <a href=
            "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Rutuburi</span></span>, a dance of the
            Tarahumare Indians, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">237</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sacaea, a Babylonian festival, <a href="#Pg354" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in relation to Purim, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">359</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and Zakmuk, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            celebrated by the Persians, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">402</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sacred dramas, as magical rites, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— harlots, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— slaves, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sacrifice, human, successive mitigations of, <a href="#Pg396"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Brahmanical theory of, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">410</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sacrifices, human, their influence on cosmogonical theories,
            <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">409</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of deified men, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sacrificial victims, beating people with the skins of, <a href=
            "#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sagar in India, use of scapegoat at, <a href="#Pg190" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sahagun, B. de, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg300" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg301" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Saining,”</span> a protection against
            spirits, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">168</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Barbara's Day, custom of putting rods in pickle on, <a href=
            "#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Dasius, martyrdom of, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">308</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Edmund's Day in November, <a href="#Pg332" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Eustorgius, church of, at Milan, <a href="#Pg331" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. George, Eve of, witches active on the, <a href="#Pg158"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. George's Day among the South Slavs, <a href="#Pg054" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Guirec, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Hiztibouzit, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">413</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page447">[pg 447]</span><a name=
        "Pg447" id="Pg447" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. John the Baptist, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. John (the Evangelist), festival of, <a href="#Pg334" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. John's Day in Abyssinia, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. John's wort a protection against witchcraft, <a href="#Pg160"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Joseph, feast of, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">297</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Nicholas Day, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Paul's, London, the Boy Bishop at <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Peter's, Canterbury, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Peter's Day (22nd February), ceremony on, <a href="#Pg159"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Pierre d'Entremont in Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Romain, the shrine of, at Rouen, <a href="#Pg216" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Stephen's Day, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">333</a>, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">334</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of beating young women on, <a href="#Pg270" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Sylvester's Day (New Year's Eve), precautions against witches
            on, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Eve at Trieste, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Tecla, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            St. Thomas's Eve, witches active on, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saints, cairns near shrines of, <a href="#Pg021" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mohammedan, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">22</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Salii, the dancing priests of Mars, <a href="#Pg231" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Salisbury, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg338"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Salt, the goddess of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">283</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -makers worship the goddess of Salt, <a href="#Pg283" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their dance, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">284</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saluting the rising sun, a Syrian custom, <a href="#Pg416" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Salzburg, the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left" xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> in, <a href="#Pg240"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Samon, a month of the Gallic calendar, <a href="#Pg343" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sampson, Agnes, a witch, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">38</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Samsi-Adad, king of Assyria, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Samyas monastery near Lhasa, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">220</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            San Pellegrino, church of, at Ancona, <a href="#Pg310" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Sandan" id="Index-Sandan" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sandan, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">368</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            legendary or mythical hero of Western Asia, <a href="#Pg388"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sandes, the Persian Hercules, <a href="#Pg389" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Sandan"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Sandan</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Santiago Tepehuacan, Indians of, <a href="#Pg004" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg347"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>. 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sarawak, the Sea Dyaks of, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">154</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sardan or Sandan, the burning of, <a href="#Pg389" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sardanapalus, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">368</a>; the epitaph of, <a href="#Pg388"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Ashurbanapal, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">387</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sardes in Lydia, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">391</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sarn, valley of the, in Salzburg, <a href="#Pg245" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sarum use, service-books of the, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Satan annually expelled by the Wotyaks, <a href="#Pg155" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            by the Cheremiss, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">156</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saturn, the Roman god of sowing, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, <a href="#Pg306"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his festival the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">306</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and the Golden Age, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">344</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            man put to death in the character of, <a href="#Pg309" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dedication of the temple of, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">345</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the old Italian god of sowing, <a href="#Pg346" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saturnalia among the Hos and Mundaris of N. E. India, <a href=
            "#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and kindred festivals, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">306</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Roman, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">306</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as celebrated by Roman soldiers, <a href="#Pg308" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the King of the, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">311</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            its relation to the Carnival, <a href="#Pg312" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg345"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            and Lent, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">345</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Western Asia, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">354</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            wide prevalence of festivals like the, <a href="#Pg407" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Savages, their regulation of the calendar, <a href="#Pg326"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saxon cure for rupture, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scapegoat, plantain-tree as a, <a href="#Pg005" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            decked with women's ornaments, <a href="#Pg192" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Jewish use of, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            a material vehicle for the expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg224"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scapegoats, immaterial objects as, <a href="#Pg001" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            animals as, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            birds as, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">35</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human beings as, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            public, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            divine animals as, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">216</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            divine men as, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">217</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in general, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">224</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, human, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in classical antiquity, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">252</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beaten, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">255</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            stoned, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">254</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cast into the sea, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">254</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            reason for beating the, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">256</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Scaring away
            the devil”</span> at Penzance on the Eve of May Day, <a href=
            "#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scarlet thread in charm against witchcraft, <a href="#Pg267"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schechter, Dr. S., <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">364</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scheil, Father, on Elamite inscriptions, <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Schmeckostern</span></span> in Germany and
            Austria, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schönthal, the abbot of, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">105</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schönwert, village of Bohemia, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schrader, O., <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">326</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schuyler, E., <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schwaz, on the Inn, the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“grass-ringers”</span> at, <a href="#Pg247"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scorpion's bite, cure for, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">49</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scotch witch, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scotland, the Highlands of, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">20</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cure of warts in, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">48</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            witches burnt in, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">165</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Abbot of Unreason in, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">331</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Highlands" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Highlands</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scourgings, mutual, of South American Indians, <a href="#Pg262"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scythian kings married the wives of their predecessors, <a href=
            "#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Scythians, revellers disguised as, <a href="#Pg355" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sea, scapegoats cast into the, <a href="#Pg254" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Dyaks of Sarawak, their Festival of Departed Spirits, <a href=
            "#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page448">[pg 448]</span><a name=
        "Pg448" id="Pg448" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sea-god, sacrifice to, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">255</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -slugs, ceremonies at the annual appearance of, <a href=
            "#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Secret Societies in North-Western America, <a href="#Pg377"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sedna, Mistress of the Nether World, among the Esquimaux,
            <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Seed-time, annual expulsion of demons at, <a href="#Pg138" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Selangor, demons of disease expelled in a ship from, <a href=
            "#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Selemnus, the river, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Seler, E., <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">277</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Seleucia, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Semiramis, mythical and historical, <a href="#Pg369" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the mounds of, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">370</a>, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>, <a href="#Pg388"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the sad fate of her lovers, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            burnt herself on a pyre, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sena-speaking people, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">7</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Senegambia, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">16</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Banmanas of, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Senseless Thursday in Carnival, <a href="#Pg248" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            September, expulsion of evils by the Incas of Peru in, <a href=
            "#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Serpents and lizards supposed to renew their youth by casting
            their skins, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Servians, their precaution against vampyres, <a href="#Pg153"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Set, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sham fight at New Year, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">184</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as religious rite, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shaman, function of the, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">79</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shamans, necessity of, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expel demons, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">126</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            among the Esquimaux, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">380</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shammuramat and Semiramis, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shampoo, the fatal, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">42</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shans of Kengtung, their expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg116"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Southern China, their annual expulsion of the fire-spirit,
            <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">141</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shawms blown to ban witches, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sheepskins, people beaten with, <a href="#Pg265" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shepherd beloved by Ishtar, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shetland Islands, Yule in the, <a href="#Pg167" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shinto priest, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ship, sicknesses expelled in a, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demons expelled in a, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">201</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shogun's palace in Japan, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Shooting the
            Witches,”</span> <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shropshire, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">182</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the sin-eater in, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            fires on Twelfth Night in, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shrove Tuesday, the tug-of-war on, <a href="#Pg182" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances to promote the growth of the crops on, <a href="#Pg239"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Siam, the Laosians of, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">212</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Siamese year of twelve lunar months, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sicily, Ascension Day in, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">54</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sickness transferred to animals in Europe, <a href="#Pg049"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ascribed to demons, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">109</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sicknesses expelled in a ship, <a href="#Pg185" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, <a href="#Pg002" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sikhim, cairns in, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">26</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demonolatry in, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Silence, compulsory, to deceive demons, <a href="#Pg132" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg140" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Compare</span></span> <a href="#Pg142"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Silesia, expulsion of witches on Good Friday in, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            precautions against witches in, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg164" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">269</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of reckoning the Twelve Days in, <a href="#Pg327" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Silili, a Babylonian goddess, <a href="#Pg371" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sin-eater, the, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">43</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sin-eating in Wales, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">43</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Singalang Burong, a Dyak war-god, <a href="#Pg383" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sins, confession of, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">36</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">127</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred to a buffalo calf, <a href="#Pg036" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            transferred vicariously to human beings, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of people transferred to animals, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Delaware Indian remedies for, <a href="#Pg263" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sirius associated with Ishtar, <a href="#Pg359" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Situa, annual festival of the Incas, <a href="#Pg128" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Siyins, of N. E. India, their belief in demons, <a href="#Pg093"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Skin disease, supposed remedy for, <a href="#Pg266" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mexican remedy for, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Skins, creatures that slough their, supposed to renew their
            youth, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of human victims, worn by men in Mexico, <a href="#Pg265"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg288" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg290"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg296" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg301" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— of sacrificial victims used to beat people, <a href="#Pg265"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sky-goddess, the Egyptian, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sladen, Colonel, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">141</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Slave Coast, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">74</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— women, religious ceremony performed by, <a href="#Pg258"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Slaves, license granted to, at the Saturnalia, <a href="#Pg307"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg350" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            feasted by their masters, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            feasted by their mistresses, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Slavonia, Good Friday custom in, <a href="#Pg268" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Slavonic custom of <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“carrying out Death,”</span> <a href="#Pg230"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— peoples, <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Easter Smacks”</span> among the, <a href=
            "#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— year, the beginning of the, <a href="#Pg228" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Slavs, black god and white god among the, <a href="#Pg092" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sleeman, General Sir William, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sloth, the animal, imitated by masker, <a href="#Pg381" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sloughing the skin supposed to be a mode of renewing youth,
            <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">302</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Smallpox, cure for, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">6</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            attributed to a devil, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg120"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expelled in a proa, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, demon of, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">172</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            sent away in a canoe, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">188</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page449">[pg 449]</span><a name=
        "Pg449" id="Pg449" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Smell, foul, used to drive demons away, <a href="#Pg112" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Smith, W. Robertson, on Semiramis, <a href="#Pg369" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Smut in wheat, ceremony to prevent, <a href="#Pg318" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Snails as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">53</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Snake or lizard in annual ceremony for the riddance of evils,
            <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Snipe as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Social ranks, inversion of, at festivals, <a href="#Pg350" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg407"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Socrates, church historian, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sods, freshly cut, a protection against witches, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Soldiers, Roman, celebration of the Saturnalia by, <a href=
            "#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon Islanders, their expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg116"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Islands, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solstice, the winter, ceremony after the, <a href="#Pg127" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Soma, worship of, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">90</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Songs, liturgical, revealed by gods, <a href="#Pg381" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and dances, how they originate, <a href="#Pg378" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sonnenberg, popular cure for gout in, <a href="#Pg056" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Soracte, Mount, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sorcerers as protectors against demons, <a href="#Pg094" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            exorcise demons, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">113</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="fr"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Soule</span></span>, a ball contended for in
            Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Souls of the dead received once a year by their relations,
            <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">150</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            South American Indians, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg020" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sow as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sowing, prayer at, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">138</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of demons at, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">225</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the god of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">232</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances at, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">234</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Saturn the god of, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">346</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Italy, season of the spring, <a href="#Pg346" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sown fields, fire applied to, on Eve of Twelfth Night, <a href=
            "#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>,
            <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">318</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spain, the Boy Bishop in, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spear, sacred, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spears used to expel demons, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spirits, retreat of the army of, <a href="#Pg072" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            guardian, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">98</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            good and evil, personated by children, <a href="#Pg139" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Festival of Departed, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">154</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spitting as a mode of transferring evil, <a href="#Pg003" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>, <a href="#Pg010"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as a mode of transferring disease, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at ceremony for expulsion of evils, <a href="#Pg208" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spittle as a protection against demons, <a href="#Pg118" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spring, rites to ensure the revival of life in, <a href="#Pg400"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Squills used to beat human scapegoats, etc., <a href="#Pg255"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Star, the Morning, personated by a man, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            of Bethlehem, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Steele, Sir Richard, quoted, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sternberg, L., quoted, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sticks, fertilizing virtue attributed to certain, <a href=
            "#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and stones, evils transferred to, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            piled on the scene of crimes, <a href="#Pg013" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Throwing" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Throwing</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stinging young people with ants and wasps, custom of, <a href=
            "#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stone-throwing at Mecca, rite of, <a href="#Pg024" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient Greece, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stones heaped up near shrines of saints, <a href="#Pg021" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            communion by means of, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">21</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            thrown at demons, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and sticks, evil transferred to, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            piled on the scene of crimes, <a href="#Pg013" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Throwing" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Throwing</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stoning, execution by, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">24</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Stopfer</span></span>, maskers in
            Switzerland, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stow, John, on Lords of Misrule, quoted, <a href="#Pg331" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Strabo, on the Sacaea, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the worship at Zela, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">370</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the sanctuary at Zela, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">421</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Strack, H. L., <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">395</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays, <a href=
            "#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Straw wrapt round fruit-trees as a protection against evil
            spirits, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Strehlitz, in Silesia, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Strudeli and Strätteli, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Substitutes in human sacrifice, <a href="#Pg396" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg408" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sucla-Tirtha in India, expulsion of sins in, <a href="#Pg202"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Suffering, principle of vicarious, <a href="#Pg001" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Suffolk cure for ague, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">68</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Suicides, ghosts of, feared, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">17</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sukandar river, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sumatra, the Battas or Bataks of, <a href="#Pg087" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg213"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sun, appeal to the, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            charm to prevent the sun from setting, <a href="#Pg030" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            reappearance of, in the Arctic regions, ceremonies at, <a href=
            "#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg125" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            temple of the, at Cuzco, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">129</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            spirit who lives in the, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">186</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            hearts of human victims offered to the, <a href="#Pg279" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href="#Pg298"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mexican story of the creation of the, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Syrian custom of saluting the rising, <a href="#Pg416" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -god, Christmas, an old pagan festival of the, <a href=
            "#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Egyptian, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sunderland, cure for cough in, <a href="#Pg052" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Süntevögel</span></span> or <span lang="de"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Sunnenvögel</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">159</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Superhuman power supposed to be acquired by actors in sacred
            dramas, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">383</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Supplementary days of the year, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Supreme Being in West Africa, <a href="#Pg074" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— God of the Oraons, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">92</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Susa, capital of the Elamites, <a href="#Pg366" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page450">[pg 450]</span><a name=
        "Pg450" id="Pg450" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Swabia, the <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Twelve Lot Days”</span> in, <a href="#Pg322"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Swahili, the, of East Africa, their New Year's Day, <a href=
            "#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Swallow dance, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">381</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Swallows as scapegoats, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">35</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sweden, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sweeping misfortune out of house with brooms, <a href="#Pg005"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— out the town, annual ceremony of, <a href="#Pg135" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Swords used to ward off or expel demons, <a href="#Pg113" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg118"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>,
            <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            carried by mummers, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">245</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Syria, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">21</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Aphrodite and Adonis in, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">386</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Syro-Macedonian calendar, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">358</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tagbanuas of the Philippines, their custom of sending spirits of
            disease away in little ships, <a href="#Pg189" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tahiti, transference of sins in, <a href="#Pg045" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tahitians, the, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">80</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taigonos Peninsula, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">126</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taleins, the, of Burma, their worship of demons, <a href="#Pg096"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Talmud, the, on Purim, <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">363</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tamanachiers, Indian tribe of the Orinoco, <a href="#Pg303"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tamanawas</span></span>, dramatic
            performances of myths, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tamarisk branches used to beat people ceremonially, <a href=
            "#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tambaran</span></span>, demons, <a href=
            "#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>,
            <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Tammuz" id="Index-Tammuz" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tammuz, the lover of Ishtar, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">371</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual death and resurrection of, <a href="#Pg398" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            at Jerusalem, the weeping for, <a href="#Pg400" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Adonis" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Adonis</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Ishtar, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a>, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tanganyika, Lake, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tangkhuls of Assam, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tanjore, Rajah of, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taoism, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tar to keep out ghosts and witches, <a href="#Pg153" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -barrels burnt, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">169</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tarahumares, the, of Mexico, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">10</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their dances for the crops, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">236</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taros, mode of fertilizing, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tarsus in Cilicia, Sandan at, <a href="#Pg388" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>, <a href="#Pg389"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>,
            <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Taupes et
            Mulots</span></span>, fire ceremony on Eve of Twelfth Night,
            <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">317</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tavernier, J. B., quoted, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">148</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taylor, Rev. J. C., quoted, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Taylor, Rev. R., quoted, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">81</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tellemarken in Norway, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">14</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Telugu remedy for a fever, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">38</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Temple, Sir Richard C., quoted, <a href="#Pg088" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Temple, the Inner and the Middle, Lords of Misrule in the,
            <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— church, Lord of Misrule in the, <a href="#Pg333" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Temporary king, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">403</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Siam, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">151</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tench as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tenggerese of Java, their sham fight at New Year, <a href=
            "#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tepehuanes, the, of Mexico, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Teshu Lama, the, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Lumbo in Tibet, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">203</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Teso people of Central Africa, their use of bells to exorcise
            fiends, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tezcatlipoca, great Mexican god, <a href="#Pg276" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young man annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href=
            "#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thales on spirits, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">104</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thargelia, human scapegoats at the festival of the, <a href=
            "#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>,
            <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href="#Pg259"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>,
            <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">273</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thay, the, of Indo-China, their worship of spirits, <a href=
            "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Theal, G. McCall, on fear of demons, <a href="#Pg077" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Theckydaw</span></span>, expulsion of
            demons, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">147</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Then</span></span>, spirits, <a href=
            "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Theodosius and Honorius, decree of, <a href="#Pg392" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Theory of sacrifice, the Brahmanical, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thompson Indians of British Columbia, their charms against
            ghosts, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">154</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thorns, wreaths of, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">140</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thrace, Abdera in, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thrashing people to do them good, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Beating" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Beating</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">and</span></span> <a href="#Index-Whipping"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Whipping</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thread, red, in popular cure, <a href="#Pg055" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Three Kings on Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">329</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Threshold protected against witches by knives, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            by sods, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Throwing" id="Index-Throwing" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Throwing of sticks or stones interpreted as an offering or token
            of respect, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">20</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg025" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as a mode of riddance of evil, <a href="#Pg023" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thule, ceremony in Thule at the annual reappearance of the sun,
            <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thunder, the first peal heard in spring, <a href="#Pg144" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demon of, exorcised by bells, <a href="#Pg246" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thüringen, expulsion of witches in, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            custom of beating people on Holy Innocents' Day in, <a href=
            "#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tiamat, mythical Babylonian monster, <a href="#Pg410" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tibet, demonolatry in, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">94</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tiger-spirits, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">199</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tikopia, island of, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">189</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Timbo in French Guinea, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">235</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Time, personification of periods of, <a href="#Pg230" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Timor, the island of, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">8</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in the spirits of the dead in, <a href="#Pg085" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Timor fecit
            deos</span></span>, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">93</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Timor-laut Islands, the tug-of-war in the, <a href="#Pg176"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demons of sicknesses expelled in a proa from, <a href="#Pg185"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page451">[pg 451]</span><a name=
        "Pg451" id="Pg451" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tinchebray in Normandy, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tjingilli tribe of Central Australia, <a href="#Pg002" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tlacaxipeualiztli, Mexican festival, <a href="#Pg296" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tlaloc, temple of, in Mexico, <a href="#Pg284" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href="#Pg292"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tlemcen in Algeria, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toad as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">206</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toboongkoo, the, of Central Celebes, riddles among the, <a href=
            "#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toci, Mexican goddess, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">289</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Todas, the, of the Neilgherry Hills, <a href="#Pg037" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Togoland, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>; the Hos of, <a href="#Pg134" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg206"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the negroes of, their remedy for influenza, <a href="#Pg193"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tokio, annual expulsion of demons at, <a href="#Pg213" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tomb of Moses, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">21</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tonan, Mexican goddess, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">287</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg287" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tonocotes. <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Lules"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Lules</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tonquin, demon of sickness expelled in, <a href="#Pg119" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of demons in, <a href="#Pg147" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toothache, cure for, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg059"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg062" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg063"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toradjas, the, of Central Celebes, <a href="#Pg034" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            their cure by beating, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">265</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Torches used in the expulsion of demons, <a href="#Pg110" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg117"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>,
            <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg139" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg140"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>,
            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">171</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used in the expulsion of witches, etc., <a href="#Pg156" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>,
            <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg165"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            carried in procession by maskers, <a href="#Pg243" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            applied to fruit-trees on Eve of Twelfth Night, <a href="#Pg316"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Torquemada, J. de, Spanish historian of Mexico, <a href="#Pg279"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg286" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg300" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Totec, Mexican god, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">298</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            personated by a man wearing the skin of a human victim, <a href=
            "#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Totonacs, their worship of the corn-spirit, <a href="#Pg286"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tototectin, men clad in skins of human victims, <a href="#Pg298"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toxcatl, fifth month of old Mexican year, <a href="#Pg149" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Mexican festival, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">276</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trajan, Pliny's letter to, <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">420</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Transference of evil, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to other people, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">5</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to sticks and stones, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">8</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to animals, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">31</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            to men, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Europe, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Transformation of animals into men, <a href="#Pg380" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Transylvania, the Roumanians of, <a href="#Pg016" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg106"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Travancore, Rajah of, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">42</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            demon-worship in, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tree, disease transferred to, <a href="#Pg006" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            use of stick cut from a fruitful, <a href="#Pg264" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trees, evils transferred to, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trieste, St. Sylvester's Eve at, <a href="#Pg165" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trinity, the Batta, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">88</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— College, Cambridge, Lord of Misrule at, <a href="#Pg332"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Trinouxtion</span></span>, <a href="#Pg343"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tripoli, mode of laying ghosts in, <a href="#Pg063" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Troezenians, their festival resembling the Saturnalia, <a href=
            "#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trows in Shetland, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">168</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Trumpets blown to expel demons, <a href="#Pg116" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg117"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            blown at the feast of Purim, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">394</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="ja"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tsuina</span></span>, expulsion of demons in
            Japan, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">212</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tsûl, a Berber tribe, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tuaran district of British North Borneo, <a href="#Pg200" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tug-of-war as a religious or magical rite, <a href="#Pg173"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as a charm to produce rain, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">175</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg178" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tul-ya's e'en in Shetland, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">168</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tullus Hostilius, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">345</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tumleo, annual fight in, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">142</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tuna, a spirit, expulsion of, <a href="#Pg124" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tung ak, a powerful spirit, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Turkestan, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Ferghana in, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">184</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Turkish tribes of Central Asia, riddles among the, <a href=
            "#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Turner, L. M., quoted, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">79</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tuscan Romagna, the, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Twelfth-Day" id="Index-Twelfth-Day" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Twelfth Day, serious significance of, <a href="#Pg315" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Three Kings on, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">329</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> Twelfth Night
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Day, Eve of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">318</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            expulsion of witches, etc., on, <a href="#Pg166" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Twelfth-Night" id="Index-Twelfth-Night" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Night, expulsion of the powers of evil on, <a href="#Pg165"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances on, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">238</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Perchta's Day, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">244</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            (Epiphany), the King of the Bean on, <a href="#Pg313" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Twelfth-Day" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Twelfth Day</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Night, Eve of, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">316</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            old Mrs. Perchta on, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">241</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremonial fires on, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">316</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Twelve Days, weather of the twelve months supposed to be
            determined by the weather of the, <a href="#Pg322" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Macedonia, superstitions as to the, <a href="#Pg320" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in ancient India, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">324</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            accounted a miniature of the year, <a href="#Pg324" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in the Highlands of Scotland, <a href="#Pg324" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            difference of opinion as to the date of the, <a href="#Pg324"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            probably an old intercalary period at midwinter, <a href="#Pg338"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg342" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night (Epiphany), precautions
            against witches during the, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg164" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Days or Twelve Nights not of Christian origin, <a href=
            "#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— fires on Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg318" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg321" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Two-faced mask worn by image of goddess, <a href="#Pg287" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Typhon, the birth of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">341</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tyre and Sidon, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page452">[pg 452]</span><a name=
        "Pg452" id="Pg452" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tyrol, annual <span class="tei tei-q" style=
            "text-align: left">“Burning out of the Witches”</span> in the,
            <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">159</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left" xml:lang="de"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> in the, <a href=
            "#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>,
            <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">242</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Senseless Thursday in the, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">248</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Uganda Protectorate, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">42</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            funeral ceremony in, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">45</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n,</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            human scapegoats in, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Baganda" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Baganda</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Unalashka, one of the Aleutian Islands, <a href="#Pg016" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Unkareshwar, the goddess of cholera at, <a href="#Pg194" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Unreason, Abbot of, in Scotland, <a href="#Pg331" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Up-helly-a' in Shetland, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">168</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Urquhart, Sir Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Pg332" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Usener, H., <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">167</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Utch Kurgan, in Turkestan, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">45</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vampyres, charms against, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">153</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vashti and Esther, temporary queens, <a href="#Pg401" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and Haman the duplicates of Esther and Mordecai, <a href=
            "#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vedic times, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">3</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            cure for consumption in, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">51</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the creed of the, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">90</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            riddles in, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">122</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Aryans of the, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vegetation, Mars a deity of, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            out-worn deity of, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">231</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            processions representing spirits of, <a href="#Pg250" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -god, Easter an old vernal festival of the, <a href="#Pg328"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vehicle, expulsion of evils in a material, <a href="#Pg185"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg198" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg224" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vehicles, material, of immaterial things (fear, misfortune,
            disease, etc.), <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg022" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2, <a href="#Pg023" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Venus and Adonis, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">406</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> <a href=
            "#Index-Adonis" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">Adonis</a>, <a href="#Index-Aphrodite" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Aphrodite</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Verrall, A. W., <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">391</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vicarious suffering, principle of, <a href="#Pg001" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vienne, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vieux-Pont, in Orne, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">183</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vitzilopochtli, great Mexican god, <a href="#Pg280" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young man annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href=
            "#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vohumano or Vohu Manah, a Persian archangel, <a href="#Pg373"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Voigtland, cure for toothache in, <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            belief in witchcraft in, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Easter
            Smacks”</span> in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            young people beat each other at Christmas in, <a href="#Pg271"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vosges, cure for toothache in the, <a href="#Pg059" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Mountains, dances on Twelfth Day in the, <a href="#Pg315"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the Three Kings of Twelfth Day in the, <a href="#Pg330" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Vulsinii in Etruria, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">67</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, <a href="#Pg006" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Walpurgis Night, witches abroad on, <a href="#Pg158" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annual expulsion of witches on, <a href="#Pg159" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances on, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, <a href="#Pg002" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Warts, transference of, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">48</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            popular cures for, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Washamba, the, of German East Africa, <a href="#Pg029" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wasps, stinging people with, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wassailing on Eve of Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg319" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wax figures in magic, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">47</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weapons turned against spiritual foes, <a href="#Pg233" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weariness transferred to stones or sticks, <a href="#Pg008"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weather of the twelve months determined by the weather of the
            Twelve Days, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">322</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weber, A., on origin of the Twelve Days, <a href="#Pg325" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 3
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weeks, Rev. John H., quoted, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">76</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weights and measures, false, corrected in time of epidemic,
            <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">115</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weinhold, K., <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">327</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Welsh cure for cough, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— custom of sin-eating, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">43</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wendland, P., on the crucifixion of Christ, <a href="#Pg412"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg418" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wends of Saxony, their precautions against witches, <a href=
            "#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Westermarck, Dr. Edward, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">180</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Westphalia, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">266</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil, <a href="#Pg159"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Whale represented dramatically as a mystery, <a href="#Pg377"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Whipping" id="Index-Whipping" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Whipping people to rid them of ghosts, <a href="#Pg260" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Whips used in the expulsion of demons and witches, <a href=
            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>,
            <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg165"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            used by maskers, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">244</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            White as a colour to repel demons, <a href="#Pg115" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and black in relation to human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg220"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            figs worn by human scapegoats, <a href="#Pg253" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg257"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— cock, disease transferred to, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— crosses made by the King of the Bean, <a href="#Pg314" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— dog, sacrifice of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">127</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            as scapegoat, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">209</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— god and black god among the Slavs, <a href="#Pg092" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— Nile, the Dinkas of the, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Whitsuntide, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">359</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Whydah, the King of, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">234</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Widow, bald-headed, in cure, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">38</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Widows, cleansing of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">35</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wild Huntsman, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">241</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Willcock, Dr. J., <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">169</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            William of Wykeham, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Williams, Monier, quoted, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">91</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Willow used to beat people with at Easter and Christmas, <a href=
            "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>,
            <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -trees in popular remedies, <a href="#Pg056" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Willow-wood used against witches, <a href="#Pg160" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Winchester College, Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page453">[pg 453]</span><a name=
        "Pg453" id="Pg453" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wind, charm to produce a rainy or dry, <a href="#Pg176" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg178"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Winnowing-basket beaten at ceremony, <a href="#Pg145" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Winter, ceremony at the end of, <a href="#Pg124" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            dances performed only in, <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">376</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            ceremony of the expulsion of, <a href="#Pg404" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            effigies of, destroyed, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">408</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— solstice, ceremony after the, <a href="#Pg126" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Witch, fire to burn old, on Twelfth Day, <a href="#Pg319" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Witchcraft in Scotland, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            on the Congo, dread of, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">77</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            permanence of the belief in, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">89</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Moravia, precautions against, <a href="#Pg162" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Witches burnt alive, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">19</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the burning out of the, in the Tyrol, <a href="#Pg158" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Bohemia, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">161</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            in Silesia and Saxony, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">163</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            special precautions against, at certain seasons of the year,
            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            annually expelled in Calabria, Silesia, and other parts of
            Europe, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            active during the Twelve Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night,
            <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            shooting the, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            driving out the, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">164</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            burnt in Scotland, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">165</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            beaten with buckthorn, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">266</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            rob cows of milk on May Day, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wives of a king taken by his successor, <a href="#Pg368" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Woman's ornaments, scapegoat decked with, <a href="#Pg192" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Women impregnated by ghosts, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">18</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            fertilized by effigy of a baby, <a href="#Pg245" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, <a href="#Pg249"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            mode of fertilizing, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">264</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            put to death in the character of goddesses in Mexico, <a href=
            "#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wood, King of the, at Aricia, <a href="#Pg409" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            World conceived as animated, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">90</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            daily created afresh by the self-sacrifice of the deity, <a href=
            "#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Worship of the dead, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            paid to human representatives of gods in Mexico, <a href="#Pg278"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>,
            <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">293</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wotyaks of Russia, annual expulsion of Satan among the, <a href=
            "#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wuttke, A., <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">327</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Xerxes identified with Ahasuerus, <a href="#Pg360" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Xilonen, Mexican goddess of the Young Maize, <a href="#Pg285"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            woman annually sacrificed in the character of, <a href="#Pg285"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Xipe, Mexican god, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            statuette of, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">291</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his festival, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">296</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            his image, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">297</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Xixipeme, men clad in skins of human victims, <a href="#Pg298"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yabim of German New Guinea, their custom of sending disease away
            in a small canoe, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">188</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yams, ceremonies before eating the new, <a href="#Pg134" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Year, burning out the Old, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 7;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            the old Roman, began in March, <a href="#Pg229" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            supposed representatives of the old, <a href="#Pg230" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">See also</span></span> New Year
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, lunar, of old Roman calendar, <a href="#Pg232" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            equated to solar year by intercalation, <a href="#Pg325" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg342"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, solar, intercalation of the, <a href="#Pg407" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— -man, the, in Japan, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Years named after eponymous magistrates, <a href="#Pg039" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, the King of the, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">221</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yellow the royal colour among the Malays, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yopico, temple in Mexico, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">299</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            York, the Boy Bishop at, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yoruba negroes of West Africa, their use of human scapegoats,
            <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">211</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Younghusband, Sir Francis, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">13</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Youth supposed to be renewed by sloughing of skin, <a href=
            "#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yucatan, the Mayas of, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yukon River, the Lower, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">380</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yules, the, in Shetland, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">168</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Yumari</span></span>, a dance of the
            Tarahumare Indians, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">237</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zakmuk or Zagmuk, the Babylonian festival of the New Year,
            <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">356</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            —— and the Sacaea, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">399</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zambesi, the river, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">11</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zela in Pontus, Anaitis and the Sacaea at, <a href="#Pg370"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>,
            <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">373</a>, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">421</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            Omanos and Anadates at, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">373</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zeus, cake with twelve knobs offered to, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            an upstart at Olympia, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">352</a>;
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style=
          "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">
            identified with the Babylonian Bel, <a href="#Pg389" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Laphystian, associated with human sacrifices, <a href=
            "#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Lycaean, human sacrifices to, <a href="#Pg353" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg354"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Olympian, his temple at Athens, <a href="#Pg351" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            ——, Pelorian, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">350</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zimmern, H., <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">358</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg359" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 1, <a href="#Pg361" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 4, <a href="#Pg406" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">n.</span></span> 2
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zoganes, a mock king at Babylon, <a href="#Pg355" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>, <a href="#Pg357"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>,
            <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg388"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zoroaster, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">389</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zündel, G., on demonolatry in West Africa, <a href="#Pg074"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zuni sacrifice of turtle, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>
      </div>
    </div>
    <hr class="doublepage" />

    <div class="tei tei-back" style=
    "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
      <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a> <a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1>

        <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes">
          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href=
          "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span> (The
          Hague, 1886), pp. 266 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 305, 357 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, pp. 141, 340.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href=
          "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Northern Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1904),
          p. 474.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href=
          "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Pearse, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Customs connected with Death and Burial among the
          Sihanaka,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar
          Magazine</span></span>, vol. ii., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reprint of the Second
          four Numbers</span></span> (Antananarivo, 1896), pp. 146
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href=
          "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ivan Petroff, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report on the
          Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska</span></span>, p.
          158.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href=
          "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Oldenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des
          Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 322.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href=
          "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Spieth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), p. 800.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href=
          "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, vii. 23. 3.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href=
          "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. J. de Arriaga, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Extirpacion de la
          Idolatria del Piru</span></span> (Lima, 1621), p. 29.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href=
          "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This I learned from my friend W.
          Robertson Smith, who mentioned as his authority David of Antioch,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tazyin</span></span>, in the story
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Orwa.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href=
          "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographische
          Parallele und Vergleiche</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 29
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href=
          "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Lettre du
          curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque sur les mœurs et coutumes
          des Indiens soumis à ses soins,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin de la
          Société de Géographie</span></span> (Paris), Deuxième Série, ii.
          (1834) p. 182.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href=
          "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 309 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href=
          "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Hupe, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden enz. der
          Dajakkers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands
          Indië</span></span>, 1846, dl. iii. pp. 149 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; F.
          Grabowsky, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf
          Borneo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, v. (1892) p. 131.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href=
          "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Dawson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Australian
          Aborigines</span></span> (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881),
          p. 59.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href=
          "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          164 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href=
          "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Royal Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxvii.
          (1907) p. 103.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href=
          "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Cole, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxiii. (1902) p.
          313.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href=
          "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 343 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href=
          "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential
          Kafir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 146.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href=
          "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Central Provinces, Ethnographic
          Survey</span></span>, iii., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Draft Articles on Forest Tribes</span></span>
          (Allahabad, 1907), p. 63.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href=
          "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. v. Beguelin, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Religiöse Volksbräuche der Mongolen,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lvii. (1890) pp. 209
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href=
          "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          geographische Blätter</span></span>, x. 231.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href=
          "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span> (The
          Hague, 1886), p. 340.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href=
          "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. H. Codrington, D.D., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Melanesians</span></span> (Oxford, 1891), p. 186.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href=
          "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. F. de Oviedo, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire du
          Nicaragua</span></span> (Paris, 1840), pp. 42 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          (Ternaux-Compans, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux, pour
          servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de
          l'Amérique</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href=
          "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. J. de Arriaga, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Extirpacion de la
          Idolatria del Piru</span></span> (Lima, 1621), pp. 37, 130. As to
          the custom compare J. J. von Tschudi, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peru</span></span>
          (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. A. Weddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans le Nord
          de la Bolivia et dans les parties voisines du Pérou</span></span>
          (Paris and London, 1853), pp. 74 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          These latter writers interpret the stones as offerings.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href=
          "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baron E. Nordenskiöld, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and
          Argentina,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Geographical Journal</span></span>, xxi.
          (1903) p. 518.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href=
          "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lumholtz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown
          Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), ii. 282.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href=
          "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations
          civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>
          (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 564; compare iii. 486. Indians of
          Guatemala, when they cross a pass for the first time, still
          commonly add a stone to the cairn which marks the spot. See C.
          Sapper, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Gebräuche und religiösen
          Anschauungen der Kekchi-Indianer,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Internationales
          Archiv für Ethnographie</span></span>, viii. (1895) p. 197.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href=
          "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. F. R. Boileau, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Geographical
          Journal</span></span>, xiii. (1899) p. 589. In the same region Mr.
          L. Decle observed many trees or rocks on which were placed little
          heaps of stones or bits of wood, to which in passing each of his
          men added a fresh stone or bit of wood or a tuft of grass.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“This,”</span> says Mr. L. Decle,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“is a tribute to the spirits, the general
          precaution to ensure a safe return”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Three Years in Savage
          Africa</span></span>, London, 1898, p. 289). A similar practice
          prevails among the Wanyamwezi (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
          p. 345). Compare J. A. Grant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">A Walk across Africa</span></span> (Edinburgh
          and London, 1864), pp. 133 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href=
          "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cowper Rose, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Four Years in
          Southern Africa</span></span> (London, 1829), p. 147.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href=
          "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential
          Kafir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 264.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href=
          "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Kay, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels and
          Researches in Caffraria</span></span> (London, 1833), pp. 211
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Rev. H. Callaway,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious
          System of the Amazulu</span></span>, i. 66; D. Leslie, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among the Zulus and
          Amatongas</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1875), pp. 146 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Compare H. Lichtenstein, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reisen im südlichen Africa</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 411.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href=
          "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Gowland, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Dolmens and other Antiquities of Corea,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxiv. (1895) pp.
          328 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Mrs. Bishop, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korea and her
          Neighbours</span></span> (London, 1898), i. 147, ii. 223. Both
          writers speak as if the practice were to spit on the cairn rather
          than on the particular stone which the traveller adds to it;
          indeed, Mrs. Bishop omits to notice the custom of adding to the
          cairns. Mr. Gowland says that almost every traveller carries up at
          least one stone from the valley and lays it on the pile.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href=
          "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Forbes, <span class="tei tei-q">“On
          the Aymara Indians of Peru and Bolivia,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, ii. (1870) pp. 237
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; G. C. Musters, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on Bolivia,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal
          Geographical Society</span></span>, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; T. T.
          Cooper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce</span></span>
          (London, 1871), p. 275; J. A. H. Louis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Gates of Thibet,
          a Bird's Eye View of Independent Sikkhim, British Bhootan, and the
          Dooars</span></span> (Calcutta, 1894), pp. 111 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A.
          Bastian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Völker des östlichen Asien</span></span>,
          ii. (Leipsic, 1866) p. 483. So among the Mrus of Aracan, every man
          who crosses a hill, on reaching the crest, plucks a fresh young
          shoot of grass and lays it on a pile of the withered deposits of
          former travellers (T. H. Lewin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wild Races of
          South-Eastern India</span></span>, London, 1870, pp. 232
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href=
          "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. d'Orbigny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans
          l'Amérique Méridionale</span></span>, ii. (Paris and Strasburg,
          1839-1843) pp. 92 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href=
          "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) F. E. Younghusband, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“A Journey across Central Asia,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the
          Royal Geographical Society</span></span>, x. (1888) p. 494.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href=
          "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Liebrecht, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde</span></span> (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 274 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href=
          "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Liebrecht, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde</span></span>, p. 274; J. B. Holzmayer, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Osiliana,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der
          gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</span></span>, vii.
          (1872) p. 73.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href=
          "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spenser St. John, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in the Forests
          of the Far East</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (London, 1863), i. 88.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href=
          "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. H. Gomes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seventeen Years among
          the Sea Dyaks of Borneo</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 66
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href=
          "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Hose and W. McDougall,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Pagan
          Tribes of Borneo</span></span> (London, 1912), i. 123.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href=
          "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Haddon, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 357,
          360; Laisnel de la Salle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la
          France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), ii. 75, 77; J. Brand,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular
          Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 309; Hylten-Cavallius, quoted by F.
          Liebrecht, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zur Volkskunde</span></span>, p. 274; K.
          Haupt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sagenbuch der Lausitz</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1862-1863), ii. 65; K. Müllenhoff, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und
          Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig, Holstein und
          Lauenburg</span></span> (Kiel, 1845), p. 125; A. Kuhn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und
          Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 113; A. Kuhn und W.
          Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
          Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 85; A. Treichel,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Reisighäufung und Steinhäufung an
          Mordstellen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Am Ur-Quelle</span></span>, vi. (1896) p. 220;
          Georgeakis et Pineau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore de Lesbos</span></span>, p. 323; A.
          Leared, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Morocco and the Moors</span></span> (London,
          1876), pp. 105 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Figuig,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">La Géographie, Bulletin de la Société de
          Géographie</span></span> (Paris), vii. (1903) p. 197; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et
          Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp.
          424 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. von Haxthausen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Transkaukasia</span></span> (Leipsic, 1856),
          i. 222; C. T. Wilson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Peasant Life in the Holy Land</span></span>
          (London, 1906), p. 285; W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          267 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Bricknell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natural History
          of North Carolina</span></span> (Dublin, 1737), p. 380; J. Adair,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of the American Indians</span></span> (London, 1775), p. 184; K.
          Martin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bericht über eine Reise nach Nederlandsch
          West-Indien</span></span>, Erster Theil (Leyden, 1887), p. 166; G.
          C. Musters, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on Bolivia,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Royal Geographical Society</span></span>, xlvii. (1877) p.
          211; B. F. Matthes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Einige Eigenthümlichkeiten in den Festen und
          Gewohnheiten der Makassaren und Büginesen</span></span>, p. 25
          (separate reprint from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Travaux de la 6e Session du Congrès
          International des Orientalistes à Leide</span></span>, vol. ii.);
          R. A. Cruise, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of a Ten Months' Residence in New
          Zealand</span></span> (London, 1823), p. 186.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href=
          "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Wilkes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of the
          United States Exploring Expedition</span></span>, New Edition (New
          York, 1851), iii. 50.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href=
          "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Captain James Cook, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages</span></span>
          (London, 1809), vi. 479.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href=
          "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Gerard, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land beyond the
          Forest</span></span> (Edinburgh and London, 1888), i. 311,
          318.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href=
          "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Lichtenstein, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen im Südlichen
          Africa</span></span> (Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 349 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Sir James E. Alexander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of
          Africa</span></span> (London, 1838), i. 166; C. J. Andersson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lake
          Ngami</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 327; W. H.
          I. Bleek, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reynard the Fox in South Africa</span></span>
          (London, 1864), p. 76; Th. Hahn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tsuni-Goam, the
          Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 56.
          Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, p. 3.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href=
          "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Hahn, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die
          Buschmänner,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, xviii. 141.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href=
          "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Waitz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anthropologie der
          Naturvölker</span></span>, ii. (Leipsic, 1860) p. 195, referring to
          Raffenel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nouveau Voyage dans le pays des
          nègres</span></span> (Paris, 1856), i. 93 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href=
          "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eijub Abela, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss abergläubischer Gebräuche in
          Syrien,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Deutschen
          Palaestina-Vereins</span></span>, vii. (1884) p. 102.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href=
          "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Note by G. P. Badger, on <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Travels of
          Ludovico di Varthema</span></span>, translated by J. W. Jones
          (Hakluyt Society, 1863), p. 45. For more evidence of the custom in
          Syria see W. M. Thomson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Land and the Book</span></span> (London,
          1859), p. 490; F. Sessions, <span class="tei tei-q">“Some Syrian
          Folklore Notes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ix. (1898) p. 15; A.
          Jaussen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Coutumes des Arabes au pays de
          Moab</span></span> (Paris, 1908), p. 336.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href=
          "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Treichel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Reisig- und Steinhäufung bei Ermordeten oder
          Selbstmördern,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
          Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888</span></span>, p.
          (569) (bound up with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>, xx.
          1888).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href=
          "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 20 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 46
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 124 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          126 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 289 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Stones are not mentioned among the missiles hurled at ghosts,
          probably because stones are scarce in Uganda. See J. Roscoe,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 5.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href=
          "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Finaz, S.J., in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions
          Catholiques</span></span>, vii. (1875) p. 328.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href=
          "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Der Muata
          Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maraves, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas,
          und andere von Süd-Afrika,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          allgemeine Erdkunde</span></span>, vi. (1856) p. 287.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href=
          "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Asiatic Society of
          Bengal</span></span>, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 87.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href=
          "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In Centraal
          Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1900), i. 146.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href=
          "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripides, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Electra</span></span>, 327 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href=
          "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Propertius, v. 5. 77 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href=
          "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Merker, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Masai</span></span> (Berlin, 1904), p. 193.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href=
          "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Hollis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Masai</span></span> (Oxford, 1905), pp. 305 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href=
          "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. D. Clarke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels in various
          Countries of Europe and Asia</span></span>, vi. (London, 1823) p.
          165.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href=
          "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. D. Rouse, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes from Syria,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) p. 173.
          Compare F. Sessions, <span class="tei tei-q">“Some Syrian Folklore
          Notes, gathered on Mount Lebanon,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, ix. (1898) p.
          15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href=
          "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l' Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp.
          420-422.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href=
          "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span>, p. 440, quoting De Ségonzac,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage au
          Maroc</span></span>, p. 82.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href=
          "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I follow the
            exposition of E. Doutté, whose account of the sanctity or magical
            influence (<span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
            "ar"><span style="font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>)
            ascribed to the persons of living Mohammedan saints (marabouts)
            is very instructive. See his <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
            dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span>, pp. 438 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
            Mr. E. S. Hartland had previously explained the custom of
            throwing stones and sticks on cairns as acts of ceremonial union
            with the spirit who is supposed to reside in the cairn. See his
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legend
            of Perseus</span></span>, ii. (London, 1895) p. 128. While this
            theory offers a plausible explanation of some cases of the
            custom, I do not think that it will cover them all. M. René
            Dussaud argues that the stones deposited at shrines of holy men
            are simply material embodiments of the prayers which at the same
            time the suppliants address to the saints; and he holds that the
            practice of depositing stones at such places rests on a principle
            entirely different from that of throwing stones for the purpose
            of repelling evil spirits. See René Dussaud, <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“La matérialisation de la prière en Orient,”</span>
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'
            Anthropologie de Paris</span></span>, V. Série, vii. (1906) pp.
            213-220. If I am right, the fundamental idea in these customs is
            neither that the stones or sticks are offerings presented to good
            spirits nor that they are missiles hurled at bad ones, but that
            they embody the evil, whether disease, misfortune, fear, horror,
            or what not, of which the person attempts to rid himself by
            transferring it to a material vehicle. But I am far from
            confident that this explanation applies to all cases. In
            particular it is difficult to reconcile it with the custom,
            described in the text, of throwing a marked stone at a holy man
            and then recovering it. Are we to suppose that the stone carries
            away the evil to the good man and brings back his blessing
            instead? The idea is perhaps too subtle and far-fetched.</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The word
            <span lang="ar" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
            "ar"><span style="font-style: italic">baraka</span></span>, which
            in North Africa describes the powerful and in general beneficent,
            yet dangerous, influence which emanates from holy persons and
            things, is no doubt identical with the Hebrew <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">berakhah</span></span> (????) <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“blessing.”</span> The importance which the ancient
            Hebrews ascribed to the blessing or the curse of a holy man is
            familiar to us from many passages in the Old Testament. See, for
            example, Genesis xxvii., xlviii. 8 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
            Deuteronomy xxvii. 11 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, xxviii. 1 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href=
          "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 430 sq.;
          J. Wellhausen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reste arabischen
          Heidentums</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1897), p. 111. The
          explanation given in the text is regarded as probable by Professor
          M. J. de Goeje (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, xvi. ,1904, p. 42.)</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href=
          "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Etymologicum Magnum</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> ??µa???, pp. 375
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Eustathius on Homer,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, xvi. 471. As to the
          heaps of stones see Cornutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>,
          16; Babrius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, xlviii. 1 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Suidas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> ??µa???; Scholiast on
          Nicander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ther.</span></span> 150; M. P. Nilsson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Griechische Feste</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1906), pp. 388 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The method of execution by
          stoning may perhaps have been resorted to in order to avoid the
          pollution which would be entailed by contact with the guilty and
          dying man.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href=
          "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Laws</span></span>,
          ix. 12, p. 873 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a-c</span></span> ????? ??ast?? f????
          ?p? t?? ?efa??? t?? ?e???? ß????? ?f?s???t? t?? p???? ????.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href=
          "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Satapatha Brahmana</span></span>, ix. 1. 2.
          9-12, Part iv. p. 171 of J. Eggeling's translation (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the
          East</span></span>, vol. xliii., Oxford, 1897). As to Nirriti, the
          Goddess of Destruction, see H. Oldenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des
          Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 323, 351, 354, 489 note
          3.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href=
          "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for example, O. Baumann,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Durch
          Massailand zur Nilquelle</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 214; G.
          M. Dawson, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on the Shuswap People of
          British Columbia,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Transactions of the Royal Society of
          Canada</span></span>, ix. (1891) section ii. p. 38; F. Liebrecht,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde</span></span> (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 267 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          273 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 276, 278 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; R.
          Andree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ethnographische Parallelen und
          Vergleiche</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1878), p. 48; Catat, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Tour
          du Monde</span></span>, lxv. (1893), p. 40. Some of these writers
          have made a special study of the practices in question. See F.
          Liebrecht, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die geworfenen Steine,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde</span></span>, pp. 267-284; R. Andree, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Steinhaufen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographische
          Parallelen und Vergleiche</span></span>, pp. 46-58; E. S. Hartland,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Legend of Perseus</span></span>, ii. (London, 1895) pp. 204
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 419
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> With the views of the last
          of these writers I am in general agreement.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href=
          "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">However, at the waterfall of Kriml, in
          the Tyrol, it is customary for every passer-by to throw a stone
          into the water; and this attention is said to put the water-spirits
          in high good humour; for they follow the wayfarer who has complied
          with the custom and guard him from all the perils of the dangerous
          path. See F. Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span>
          (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 236 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href=
          "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. H. Louis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Gates of
          Thibet</span></span>, Second Edition (Calcutta, 1894), pp. 111
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href=
          "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. A. Waddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among the
          Himalayas</span></span> (Westminster, 1899), pp. 115, 188.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href=
          "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des nations
          civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, ii.
          564.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href=
          "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Sapper, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
          Kekchí-Indianer,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, viii. (1895) pp. 197 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href=
          "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Forbes, <span class="tei tei-q">“On
          the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, ii. (1870) pp. 237
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; G. C. Musters, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on Bolivia,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal
          Geographical Society</span></span>, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; Baron E.
          Nordenskiöld, <span class="tei tei-q">“Travels on the Boundaries of
          Bolivia and Argentina,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Geographical
          Journal</span></span>, xxi. (1903) p. 518.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href=
          "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. J. de Arriaga, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Extirpacion de la
          Idolatria del Piru</span></span> (Lima, 1621), pp. 37, 130.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href=
          "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Liebrecht, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde</span></span>, p. 274; Brett, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Dans la Corée Septentrionale,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions
          Catholiques</span></span>, xxxi. (1899) p. 237.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href=
          "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          115. <span class="tei tei-q">“In some parts of Bilaspore there may
          be seen heaps of stones, which are known as <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kuriya</span></span>, from the word
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kurhona</span></span>, meaning to heap or
          pile-up. Just how and why the practice was started the people
          cannot explain; but to this day every one who passes a <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">kuriya</span></span> will take up a stone and
          throw it on the pile. This, they say, has been done as long as they
          can remember”</span> (E. M. Gordon, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian Folk
          Tales</span></span>, London, 1908, p. 14).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href=
          "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          267 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href=
          "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 163.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href=
          "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Amaury Talbot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In the Shadow of the
          Bush</span></span> (London, 1912), p. 242. As to the goddess Nimm,
          see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, pp. 2 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href=
          "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Amaury Talbot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 91.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href=
          "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Karasek, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Waschambaa,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baessler-Archiv</span></span>, i. (1911) p.
          194.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href=
          "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Martin, <span class="tei tei-q">“A
          Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,”</span> in John
          Pinkerton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyages and Travels</span></span> (London,
          1808-1814), iii. 691.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href=
          "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Aymonier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes sur le
          Laos</span></span> (Saigon, 1885), p. 198.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href=
          "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Atkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Himalayan
          Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India</span></span>,
          ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 832.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href=
          "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. T. Cooper, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels of a Pioneer
          of Commerce</span></span> (London, 1871), p. 275. Compare W. W.
          Rockhill, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Land of the Lamas</span></span> (London,
          1891), pp. 126 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href=
          "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Macdonald, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of
          South African Tribes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xx. (1891) p. 126.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href=
          "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir James E. Alexander, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Expedition of
          Discovery into the Interior of Africa</span></span> (London, 1838),
          i. 166.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href=
          "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Kay, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels and
          Researches in Caffraria</span></span> (London, 1833), pp. 211
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> When the Bishop of Capetown
          once passed a heap of stones on the top of a mountain in the
          Amapondo country he was told that <span class="tei tei-q">“it was
          customary for every traveller to add one to the heap that it might
          have a favourable influence on his journey, and enable him to
          arrive at some kraal while the pot is yet boiling”</span> (J.
          Shooter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Kaffirs of Natal</span></span>, London,
          1857, p. 217). Here there is no mention of a prayer. Similarly a
          Basuto on a journey, when he fears that the friend with whom he is
          going to stay may have eaten up all the food before his guest's
          arrival, places a stone on a cairn to avert the danger (E. Casalis,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Basutos</span></span>, London, 1861, p. 272). The reason alleged
          for the practice in these cases is perhaps equivalent to the one
          assigned by the Melanesians and others; by ridding the traveller of
          his fatigue it enables him to journey faster and so to reach his
          destination before supper is over. But sometimes a travelling
          Mowenda will place a stone, not on a cairn, but in the fork of a
          tree, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“May the sun not set before I
          reach my destination.”</span> See Rev. E. Gottschling, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Bawenda,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxv. (1905) p. 381. This
          last custom is a charm to prevent the sun from setting. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic
          Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 318. In Senegal
          the custom of throwing stones on cairns by the wayside is said to
          be observed <span class="tei tei-q">“in order to ensure a speedy
          and prosperous return.”</span> See Dr. Bellamy, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes ethnographiques recueillies dans le
          Haut-Sénégal,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Revue d' Ethnographie</span></span>, v. (1886)
          p. 83. In the Fan country of West Africa the custom of adding a
          leafy branch to a heap of such branches in the forest was explained
          by a native, who said that it was done to prevent the trees and
          branches from falling on the traveller's head, and their roots from
          wounding his feet. See Father Trilles, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Mille lieues dans l'inconnu,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions
          Catholiques</span></span>, xxxiv. (1902) p. 142.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href=
          "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Hahn, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die
          Buschmänner,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, xviii. 141. As to the
          cairn in question, see above, p. <a href="#Pg016" class=
          "tei tei-ref">16</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href=
          "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Smith, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Trade and Travels in
          the Gulph of Guinea</span></span> (London, 1851), p. 77.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href=
          "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Dapper, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description de
          l'Afrique</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 117.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href=
          "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Leared, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morocco and the
          Moors</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 301. Compare E. Doutté,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et
          Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), p.
          454.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href=
          "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 454 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href=
          "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential
          Kafir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 261.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href=
          "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John Campbell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels in South
          Africa</span></span> (London, 1822), ii. 207 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100"
          href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 342 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101"
          href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Cayzac, <span class="tei tei-q">“La
          religion des Kikuyu,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, v. (1910) p.
          311.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102"
          href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Royal Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxvii.
          (1907) p. 111.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103"
          href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. R. F. Kaindl, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>,
          lxxvi. (1899) p. 254.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104"
          href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Goldziher, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Muhammedanische
          Studien</span></span> (Halle a. S., 1888-1890), i. 34.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105"
          href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Diguet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les
          Annamites</span></span> (Paris, 1906), pp. 283 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106"
          href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Über die Wildenstämme der Insel Formosa,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>,
          xlii. (1910) p. 237. The writer's use of the pronoun (<span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sie</span></span>) is ambiguous.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107"
          href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father E. Amat, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales de la
          Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, lxx. (1898) pp. 266
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108"
          href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. Ellis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
          Madagascar</span></span> (London, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), i. 422 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, pp. 232, 435, 436
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Rev. J. Sibree,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great
          African Island</span></span> (London, 1880), pp. 303 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As
          to divination by the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sikidy</span></span>, see J. Sibree,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Divination among the Malagasy,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iii. (1892) pp.
          193-226.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109"
          href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ellis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 374; J. Sibree, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great African
          Island</span></span>, p. 304; J. Cameron, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antananarivo Annual
          and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four
          Numbers</span></span> (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110"
          href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          Bare'e-sprekende Toradja's van Midden-Celebes</span></span>, i.
          (Batavia, 1912) p. 399.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111"
          href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ködding, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Batakschen Götter,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allgemeine
          Missions-Zeitschrift</span></span>, xii. (1885) p. 478; Dr. R.
          Römer, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bijdrage tot de Geneeskunst der
          Karo-Batak's,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
          Volkenkunde</span></span>, l. (1908) p. 223.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112"
          href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. E. Maxwell, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Folklore of the Malays,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 7
          (June, 1881), p. 27; W. W. Skeat, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay
          Magic</span></span> (London, 1900), pp. 534 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113"
          href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dio Chrysostom, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span>
          liii. vol. ii. pp. 164 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic,
          1857). Compare Plato, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, iii. 9, p. 398
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>, who ironically proposes
          to dismiss poets from his ideal state in the same manner. These
          passages of Plato and Dio Chrysostom were pointed out to me by my
          friend Professor Henry Jackson. There was a Greek saying,
          attributed to Pythagoras, that swallows should not be allowed to
          enter a house (Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Quaest. Conviv.</span></span> viii. 7,
          1).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114"
          href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. R. F. Kaindl, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>,
          lxxvi. (1899) pp. 255 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115"
          href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leviticus xiv. 7, 53.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116"
          href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Wellhausen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reste arabischen
          Heidentumes</span></span> (Berlin, 1887), p. 156; W. Robertson
          Smith, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Religion of the Semites</span></span>, New
          Edition (London, 1894), pp. 422, 428.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117"
          href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes and Castes of
          the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</span></span> (Calcutta,
          1896), iii. 434.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118"
          href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Thurston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Castes and Tribes of
          Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1909), i. 113-117;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographic Notes in
          Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1906), pp. 192-196; Captain
          H. Harkness, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race
          inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills</span></span>
          (London, 1832), p. 133; F. Metz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Tribes inhabiting
          the Neilgherry Hills</span></span>, Second Edition (Mangalore,
          1864), p. 78; Jagor, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ueber die Badagas im
          Nilgiri-Gebirge,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
          Anthropologie</span></span> (1876), pp. 196 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> At
          the Badaga funerals witnessed by Mr. E. Thurston <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“no calf was brought near the corpse, and the
          celebrants of the rites were satisfied with the mere mention by
          name of a calf, which is male or female according to the sex of the
          deceased.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119"
          href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Harkness, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120"
          href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. W. Breeks, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Account of the
          Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the Nilagiris</span></span>
          (London, 1873), pp. 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. H. R. Rivers,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Todas</span></span> (London, 1906), pp. 376 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121"
          href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Atkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Himalayan
          Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India</span></span>,
          ii. (Allahabad, 1884) pp. 927 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In other parts of
          North-Western India on the eleventh day after a death a bull calf
          is let loose with a trident branded on its shoulder or quarter
          <span class="tei tei-q">“to become a pest.”</span> See (Sir) Denzil
          C. J. Ibbetson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Report on the Revision of Settlement of the
          Panipat Tahsil and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal
          District</span></span> (Allahabad, 1883), p. 137. In Behar, a
          district of Bengal, a bullock is also let loose on the eleventh day
          of mourning for a near relative. See G. A. Grierson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bihar Peasant
          Life</span></span> (Calcutta, 1885), p. 409.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122"
          href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Caland, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altindisches
          Zauberritual</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 83; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymns of the
          Atharva-Veda</span></span>, translated by Maurice Bloomfield
          (Oxford, 1897), pp. 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the
          East</span></span>, vol. xlii.).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123"
          href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. N. Venketswami, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Telugu Superstitions,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Indian
          Antiquary</span></span>, xxiv. (1895) p. 359.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124"
          href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Grünwedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sinhalesische Masken,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Internationales
          Archiv für Ethnographie</span></span>, vi. (1893) pp. 85
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125"
          href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Dalyell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Darker Superstitions
          of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 104 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> I
          have modernised the spelling.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126"
          href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Perham, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sea Dyak Religion,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 10
          (December 1882), p. 232.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127"
          href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Richard Taylor, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Te Ika A Maui, or New
          Zealand and its Inhabitants</span></span>, Second Edition (London,
          1870), p. 101.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128"
          href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. C. Hodson, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Native Tribes of Manipur,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxi. (1901) p. 302;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Meitheis</span></span> (London, 1908), pp. 106 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129"
          href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. C. Hodson, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Native Tribes of Manipur,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxi. (1901) p. 302.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130"
          href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. C. Hodson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Meitheis</span></span> (London, 1908), pp. 104-106.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131"
          href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, pp. 116 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132"
          href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Jataha or Stories of the Buddha's former
          Births</span></span>, vol. v., translated by H. T. Francis
          (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 71 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133"
          href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 342.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134"
          href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. S. Mateer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Life in
          Travancore</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 136.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135"
          href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Aubrey, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Remaines of
          Gentilisme and Judaisme</span></span> (Folk-lore Society, London,
          1881), pp. 35 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136"
          href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bagford's letter in Leland's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span>, i. 76, quoted by J.
          Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 246
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, Bohn's edition (London,
          1882-1883).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137"
          href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Academy</span></span>, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans
          stated that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and the
          custom seems to be now quite unknown in Shropshire. See C. S. Burne
          and G. F. Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London,
          1883), pp. 307 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138"
          href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The authority for the statement is a
          Mr. Moggridge, reported in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Archaeologia Cambrensis</span></span>, second
          series, iii. 330. But Mr. Moggridge did not speak from personal
          knowledge, and as he appears to have taken it for granted that the
          practice of placing bread and salt upon the breast of a corpse was
          a survival of the custom of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“sin-eating,”</span> his evidence must be received with
          caution. He repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a
          meeting of the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, v. (1876) pp. 423
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139"
          href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. Dubois, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs des Peuples de
          l'Inde</span></span> (Paris, 1825), ii. 32 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140"
          href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Richardson, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and
          Queries</span></span>, i. p. 86, § 674 (May, 1884).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141"
          href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, i. p.
          86, § 674, ii. p. 93, § 559 (March, 1885). Some of these customs
          have been already referred to in a different connexion. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, p. 154. In Uganda the eldest son used to perform
          a funeral ceremony, which consisted in chewing some seeds which he
          took with his lips from the hand of his dead father; some of these
          seeds he then blew over the corpse and the rest over one of the
          childless widows who thereafter became his wife. The meaning of the
          ceremony is obscure. The eldest son in Uganda never inherited his
          father's property. See the Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 117.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142"
          href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, iii.
          p. 179, § 745 (July, 1886).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143"
          href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Schuyler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Turkistan</span></span> (London, 1876), ii.
          28.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144"
          href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ellis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polynesian
          Researches</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i.
          401 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145"
          href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Welsh custom of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“sin-eating”</span> has been interpreted by Mr. E. S.
          Hartland as a modification of an older custom of eating the corpse.
          See his article, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Sin-eater,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iii. (1892) 145-157;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Legend of Perseus</span></span>, ii. 291 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          iii. p. ix. I cannot think his interpretation probable or borne out
          by the evidence. The Badaga custom of transferring the sins of the
          dead to a calf which is then let loose and never used again (above,
          pp. <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>),
          the Tahitian custom of burying the sins of a person whose body is
          carefully preserved by being embalmed, and the Manipur and
          Travancore customs of transferring the sins of a Rajah before his
          death (pp. <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>, <a href=
          "#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref">42</a> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>)
          establish the practice of transferring sins in cases where there
          can be no question of eating the corpse. The original intention of
          such practices was perhaps not so much to take away the sins of the
          deceased as to rid the survivors of the dangerous pollution of
          death. This comes out to some extent in the Tahitian custom.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146"
          href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> xxviii. 86.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147"
          href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Laws</span></span>,
          xi. 12, p. 933 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148"
          href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">?f?µe??? ???a????????, 1883, col. 213,
          214; G. Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum
          Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 802, lines 48
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> (vol. ii. pp. 652
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149"
          href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xxxiv. 102. A similar cure is described
          by Pliny (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat. Hist.</span></span> xxii. 149); you are
          to touch the warts with chick-peas on the first day of the moon,
          wrap the peas in a cloth, and throw them away behind you. But Pliny
          does not say that the warts will be transferred to the person who
          picks up the peas. On this subject see further J. Hardy,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Wart and Wen Cures,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore
          Record</span></span>, i. (1878) pp. 216-228.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150"
          href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Z. Zanetti, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Medicina delle
          nostre donne</span></span> (Città di Castello, 1892), pp. 224
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. B. Thiers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité des
          Superstitions</span></span> (Paris, 1679), p. 321; B. Souché,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Croyances, présages et traditions
          diverses</span></span> (Niort, 1880), p. 19; J. W. Wolf,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge
          zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i.
          248, § 576; Dr. R. F. Kaindl, <span class="tei tei-q">“Aus dem
          Volksglauben der Rutenen in Galizien,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>,
          lxiv. (1893) p. 93; J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lancashire
          Folk-lore</span></span> (Manchester and London, 1882), p. 157; G.
          W. Black, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span> (London, 1883), p.
          41; W. Gregor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore of the North-East of
          Scotland</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 49; J. G. Campbell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands
          and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 94
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151"
          href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), ii.
          71, § 85; E. Monseur, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Le Folklore Wallon</span></span> (Brussels,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 29; H. Zahler,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals</span></span> (Bern,
          1898), p. 93; R. Andree, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Braunschweiger Volkskunde</span></span>
          (Brunswick, 1896), p. 306.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152"
          href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus
          Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i.
          483.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153"
          href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thiers, Souché, Strackerjan, Monseur,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ll.cc.</span></span>; J. G. Campbell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands
          and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), p. 95.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154"
          href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Rogers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life in
          Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 226.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155"
          href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Lammert, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksmedizin und
          medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern</span></span> (Würzburg, 1869),
          p. 264.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156"
          href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 263.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157"
          href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span> (Prague and Leipsic,
          1864), p. 167, § 1180.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158"
          href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i.
          71, § 85.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159"
          href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geoponica</span></span>, xiii. 9, xv. 1;
          Pliny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat. Hist.</span></span> xxviii. 155. The
          authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and
          Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See
          J. G. Frazer, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Language of
          Animals,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Archæological Review</span></span>, vol.
          i. (May, 1888) p. 180, note 140.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160"
          href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xii. 24.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161"
          href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Black, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span> (London, 1883),
          pp. 35 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162"
          href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xvii. 18.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163"
          href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> xxx. 61; Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xxvii. 33. The latter writer mentions
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> xxviii. 123) that the same malady might
          similarly be transferred to a live frog.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164"
          href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> xxx. 64; Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xxviii. 132.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165"
          href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marcellus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          medicamentis</span></span>, xxix. 35.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166"
          href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Henderson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of the
          Northern Counties</span></span> (London, 1879), p. 143; W. G.
          Black, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span>, p. 35; Marie
          Trevelyan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore and Folk-stories of
          Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 226.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167"
          href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i.
          72, § 86.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168"
          href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span> (Prague and Leipsic,
          1864), p. 166, § 1173, quoting Kuhn's translation of <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rig-veda</span></span>, x. 97. 13. A slightly
          different translation of the verse is given by H. Grassmann, who
          here follows R. Roth (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rig-veda übersetzt</span></span>, vol. ii. p.
          379). Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hymns of the Rigveda</span></span>, translated
          by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892), iv. 312.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169"
          href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 72, § 87.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170"
          href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Henderson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of the
          Northern Counties</span></span> (London, 1879), p. 143.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171"
          href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. D. H. Temme, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Volkssagen der
          Altmark</span></span> (Berlin, 1839), p. 83; A. Kuhn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und
          Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 62.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172"
          href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sächsische
          Volkskunde</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Dresden, 1901), p.
          372.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173"
          href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 230, § 1663. A similar remedy is prescribed
          in Bavaria. See G. Lammert, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in
          Bayern</span></span> (Würzburg, 1869), p. 249.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174"
          href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular
          Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 375; W. G. Black, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span>, p. 46.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175"
          href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Trevelyan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore and
          Folk-stories of Wales</span></span> (London, 1909), pp. 229
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176"
          href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. Schmidt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Volksleben der
          Neugriechen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1871), p. 82.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177"
          href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und
          Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 386.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178"
          href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i.
          74, § 91.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179"
          href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. J. Wiedemann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus dem inneren und
          äussern Leben der Ehsten</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp.
          451 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180"
          href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Le Tour du Monde</span></span>, lxvii. (1894)
          p. 308; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, Nouvelle Série, v. (1899)
          p. 521.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181"
          href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksglaube und
          religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</span></span> (Münster i. W.,
          1890), pp. 35 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182"
          href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 39.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183"
          href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Strausz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Bulgaren</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), p. 400, compare p.
          401.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184"
          href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Blackwood's Magazine</span></span>, February
          1886, p. 239.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185"
          href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Z. Zanetti, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La medicina delle
          nostre donne</span></span> (Città di Castello, 1892), p. 73.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186"
          href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Thiers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité des
          Superstitions</span></span> (Paris, 1679), pp. 323 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187"
          href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span> (Prague and Leipsic,
          1864), p. 167, § 1178. A Belgian cure of the same sort is reported
          by J. W. Wolf (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur deutschen
          Mythologie</span></span>, Göttingen, 1852-1857, i. 223 (wrongly
          numbered 219), § 256).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188"
          href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i.
          74, § 90.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189"
          href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          Mythologie</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii.
          979.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190"
          href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des
          Königreichs Bayern</span></span>, iv. 2 (Munich, 1867), p.
          406.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191"
          href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Schleicher, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkstümliches aus
          Sonnenberg</span></span> (Weimar, 1858), p. 150; A. Witschel,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen,
          Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p.
          283, § 82.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192"
          href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Kolbe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hessische
          Volks-Sitten und Gebrauche</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Marburg, 1888), pp. 88 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193"
          href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Meyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Aberglaube des
          Mittelalters</span></span> (Bâle, 1884), p. 104.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194"
          href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Krankheit im
          Volksglauben des Simmenthals</span></span> (Bern, 1898), p.
          94.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195"
          href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Black, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span>, p. 38.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196"
          href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Chapiseau, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de la
          Beauce et du Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 213.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197"
          href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Black, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span>, p. 39.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198"
          href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 310, §
          490.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199"
          href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span>, p. 165, § 1160.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200"
          href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span>, ii. 74 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, §
          89.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201"
          href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 979.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202"
          href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. J. Pettigrew, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On Superstitions
          connected with the History and Practice of Medicine and
          Surgery</span></span> (London, 1844), p. 77; W. G. Black,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-medicine</span></span>, p. 37.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203"
          href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span>, p. 167, § 1182.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204"
          href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span>, i. 73, § 89; A. Wuttke,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
          deutsche Volksaberglaube</span></span>,<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          pp. 309 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 490.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205"
          href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des
          Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 40; A. Meyrac,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des
          Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), p. 174; A. Schleicher,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg</span></span>
          (Weimer, 1858), p. 149; J. A. E. Köhler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksbrauch,
          Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im
          Voigtlande</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), p. 414; A. Witzschel,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen,
          Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p.
          283, § 79; H. Zahler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des
          Simmenthals</span></span> (Bern, 1898), p. 93.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206"
          href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Braunschweiger
          Volkskunde</span></span> (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207"
          href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und
          Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 66.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208"
          href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">loc.
          cit.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209"
          href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Wagler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Eiche in alter
          und neuer Zeit</span></span>, i. (Wurzen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>) p. 23.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210"
          href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), p. 436.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211"
          href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Tribes and Castes
          of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</span></span> (Calcutta,
          1896), iii. 436 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular
          Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span>
          (Westminster, 1896), i. 43, 162. Compare E. Thurston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographic Notes in
          Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1906), pp. 313, 331.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212"
          href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213"
          href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Bishop, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korea and her
          Neighbours</span></span> (London, 1898), ii. 143 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214"
          href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Giran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          Annamites</span></span> (Paris, 1912), pp. 132 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215"
          href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on folk-lore Objects collected in
          Argyleshire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) p.
          158.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216"
          href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Braunschweiger
          Volkskunde</span></span> (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217"
          href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Chapiseau, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de la
          Beauce et du Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 170.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218"
          href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Doutté, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Magie et Religion
          dans l'Afrique du Nord</span></span> (Algiers, 1908), pp. 228
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219"
          href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. V. Grohmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben und
          Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</span></span>, p. 116, § 1172.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220"
          href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Leared, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morocco and the
          Moors</span></span> (London, 1876), pp. 275 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221"
          href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Thompson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Semitic
          Magic</span></span> (London, 1908), p. 17. It would seem that in
          Macedonia demons and ghosts can be hammered into walls. See G. F.
          Abbott, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Macedonian Folklore</span></span> (Cambridge,
          1903), p. 221. In Chittagong, as soon as a coffin has been carried
          out of the house, a nail is knocked into the threshold <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“to prevent death from entering the dwelling, at least
          for a time.”</span> See Th. Bérengier, <span class="tei tei-q">“Les
          funérailles à Chittagong,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions
          Catholiques</span></span>, xiii. (1881) p. 504.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222"
          href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. W. Lane, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manners and Customs
          of the Modern Egyptians</span></span> (Paisley and London, 1895),
          ch. x. p. 240.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223"
          href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Thompson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Semitic
          Magic</span></span> (London, 1908), p. 18.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224"
          href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Strackerjan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen
          aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</span></span>, ii. 120, § 428
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>. A similar story is told of a
          house in Neuenburg (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> ii. 182, § 512
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">c</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225"
          href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6.
          24.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226"
          href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, vii. 1-3. The plague raged from
          365 to 363 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, when it was happily
          stayed in the manner described in the text.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227"
          href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, ix. 28. This happened in the
          year 313 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228"
          href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, viii. 18. These events took
          place in 331 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229"
          href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, vii. 3. Livy says nothing as to
          the place where the nails were affixed; but from Festus (p. 56 ed.
          C. O. Müller) we learn that it was the wall of a temple, and as the
          date of the ceremony was also the date of the dedication of the
          temple of Jupiter on the Capitol (Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Publicola</span></span>, 14), we may fairly
          conjecture that this temple was the scene of the rite. It is the
          more necessary to call attention to the uncertainty which exists on
          this point because modern writers, perhaps misunderstanding the
          words of Livy, have commonly stated as a fact what is at best only
          a more or less probable hypothesis. Octavian seems to have provided
          for the knocking of a nail into the temple of Mars by men who had
          held the office of censor. See Dio Cassius, lv. 10, ???? te a?t?
          ?p? t?? t?µ?te?s??t?? p??sp????s?a?.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230"
          href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, vii. 3. Festus speaks (p. 56 ed.
          C. O. Müller) of <span class="tei tei-q">“the annual nail, which
          was fixed in the walls of temples for the purpose of numbering the
          years,”</span> as if the practice were common. From Cicero's
          passing reference to the custom (<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Ex hoc die clavum anni
          movebis</span></span>,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist. ad
          Atticum</span></span>, v. 15. 1) we see that it was matter of
          notoriety. Hence we may safely reject Mommsen's theory, which Mr.
          W. Warde Fowler is disposed to accept (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Festivals
          of the period of the Republic</span></span>, London, 1899, pp. 234
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), that the supposed annual
          custom never existed except in the brains of Roman Dryasdusts.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231"
          href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Livy and Festus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ll.cc.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232"
          href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> xxviii. 63.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233"
          href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">County Folk-lore, Suffolk</span></span>,
          edited by Lady E. C. Gurdon (London, 1893), p. 14. In the
          north-west Highlands of Scotland it used to be customary to bury a
          black cock alive on the spot where an epileptic patient fell down.
          Along with the cock were buried parings of the patient's nails and
          a lock of his hair. See (Sir) Arthur Mitchell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On various
          Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of
          Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 26; J. G. Campbell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands
          and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), p. 97.
          Probably the disease was supposed to be buried with the cock in the
          ground. The ancient Hindoos imagined that epilepsy was caused by a
          dog-demon. When a boy fell down in a fit, his father or other
          competent person used to wrap the sufferer in a net, and carry him
          into the hall, not through the door, but through an opening made
          for the purpose in the roof. Then taking up some earth in the
          middle of the hall, at the place where people gambled, he sprinkled
          the spot with water, cast dice on it, and laid the boy on his back
          on the dice. After that he prayed to the dog-demon, saying,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to
          thee, barker, bender! Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to thee,
          barker, bender!”</span> See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Grihya Sutras</span></span>, translated by
          H. Oldenberg, Part i. (Oxford, 1886) pp. 296 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) pp.
          219 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 286 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred
          Books of the East</span></span>, vols. xxix. and xxx.). Apparently
          the place where people gambled was for some reason supposed to be a
          spot where an epileptic could divest himself most readily of his
          malady. But the connexion of thought is obscure.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234"
          href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The analogy of the Roman custom to
          modern superstitious practices has been rightly pointed out by Mr.
          E. S. Hartland (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 457,
          464; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Legend of Perseus</span></span>, ii. 188), but
          I am unable to accept his general explanation of these and some
          other practices as modes of communion with a divinity.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235"
          href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutsche
          Expedition an der Loango-Küste</span></span> (Jena, 1874-1875), ii.
          176.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236"
          href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 175-178. Compare Father Campana,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Congo, Mission Catholique de
          Landana,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Missions Catholiques</span></span>, xxvii.
          (1895) p. 93; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Notes Analytiques sur les Collections
          Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo</span></span>, i. (Brussels,
          1902-1906) pp. 153, 246; B. H. Mullen, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fetishes from Landana, South-West Africa,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Man</span></span>, v. (1905) pp. 102-104; R.
          E. Dennett, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bavili Notes,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) pp. 382
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">At the
          Back of the Black Man's Mind</span></span> (London, 1906), pp. 85
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 91 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          The Ethnological Museum at Berlin possesses a number of rude images
          from Loango and Congo, which are thickly studded with nails
          hammered into their bodies. The intention of the custom, as
          explained to me by Professor von Luschan, is to pain the fetish and
          so to refresh his memory, lest he should forget to do his
          duty.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237"
          href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir John Rhys, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Celtae and Galli,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the
          British Academy</span></span>, ii. (1905-1906) pp. 114 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238"
          href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lafcadio Hearn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glimpses of
          Unfamiliar Japan</span></span> (London, 1894), ii. 598 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          note.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239"
          href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Oldfield, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Aborigines of Australia,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the
          Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, N.S., iii. (1865) p.
          228.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240"
          href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Büttikoffer, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Einiges über die Eingebornen von Liberia,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, i. (1888) p. 85.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241"
          href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mary H. Kingsley, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels in West
          Africa</span></span> (London, 1897) pp. 442 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242"
          href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Zündel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
          Westafrika,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu
          Berlin</span></span>, xii. (1877) pp. 412-414. Full details as to
          the religious creed of the Ewes, including their belief in a
          Supreme Being (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mawu</span></span>), are given, to a great
          extent in the words of the natives themselves, by the German
          missionary Jakob Spieth in his elaborate and valuable works
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906) and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion der
          Eweer in Süd-Togo</span></span> (Leipsic, 1911). As to <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mawu</span></span> in particular, the meaning
          of whose name is somewhat uncertain, see J. Spieth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ewe-Stämme</span></span>, pp. 421 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Religion der Eweer in Süd-Togo</span></span>, pp. 15 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243"
          href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. H. Weeks, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
          Congo River,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xl. (1910) p. 377.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244"
          href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John H. Weeks, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among Congo
          Cannibals</span></span> (London, 1913), p. 261.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245"
          href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. H. Weeks, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
          Congo River,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xl. (1910) pp. 368, 370. The singular form
          of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mingoli</span></span> is <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mongoli</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“a disembodied spirit.”</span> Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among
          Congo Cannibals</span></span> (London, 1913), p. 252; and again
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 275. But great as is
          the fear of evil spirits among the natives of the Congo, their
          dread of witchcraft seems to be still more intense. See Rev. J. H.
          Weeks, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on some Customs of the Lower
          Congo People,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xx. (1909) pp. 51
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The belief in witchcraft affects their lives in a vast
          number of ways, and touches them socially at a hundred different
          points. It regulates their actions, modifies their mode of thought
          and speech, controls their conduct towards each other, causes
          cruelty and callousness in a people not naturally cruel, and sets
          the various members of a family against each other. A man may
          believe any theory he likes about creation, about God, and about
          the abode of departed spirits, but he must believe in witches and
          their influence for evil, and must in unmistakable terms give
          expression to that belief, or be accused of witchcraft himself....
          But for witchcraft no one would die, and the earnest longing of all
          right-minded men and women is to clear it out of the country by
          killing every discovered witch. It is an act of
          self-preservation.... Belief in witches is interwoved into the very
          fibre of every Bantu-speaking man and woman, and the person who
          does not believe in them is a monster, a witch, to be killed as
          soon as possible.”</span> Could we weigh against each other the two
          great terrors which beset the minds of savages all over the world,
          it seems probable that the dread of witches would be found far to
          outweigh the dread of evil spirits. However, it is the fear of evil
          spirits with which we are at present concerned.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246"
          href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. McCall Theal, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of
          South-Eastern Africa</span></span>, vii. (1901) pp. 405
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247"
          href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this subject Mr. Dudley Kidd has
          made some judicious observations (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Savage
          Childhood</span></span>, London, 1906, pp. 131 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).
          He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Kafirs certainly do not live
          in everlasting dread of spirits, for the chief part of their life
          is not spent in thinking at all. A merrier set of people it would
          be hard to find. They are so easy-going that it would seem to them
          too much burden to be for ever thinking of spirits.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248"
          href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) E. F. im Thurn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among the Indians of
          Guiana</span></span>. (London, 1883), pp. 356 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As
          to the dread which the Brazilian Indians entertain of demons, see
          J. B. von Spix and C. F. Ph. von Martius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reise in
          Brasilien</span></span> (Munich, 1823-1831), iii. 1108-1111.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249"
          href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Barbrooke Grubb, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Unknown People in
          an Unknown Land</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 118, 119.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250"
          href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. M. Turner, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay
          Territory,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
          Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1894), pp. 193 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251"
          href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ellis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polynesian
          Researches</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i.
          331.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252"
          href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ellis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 406.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253"
          href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Voyages of Captain James Cook round the
          World</span></span> (London, 1809), vi. 152.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254"
          href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Taylor, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Te Ika a Maui, or New
          Zealand and its Inhabitants</span></span>, Second Edition (London,
          1870), p. 104.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255"
          href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Kubary, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Religion der Pelauer,”</span> in A. Bastian's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allerlei
          aus Volks- und Menschenkunde</span></span> (Berlin, 1888), i.
          46.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256"
          href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Kubary, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Bewohner der Mortlock-Inseln,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der
          geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg</span></span>, 1878-79, p.
          36.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257"
          href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. A. Reed, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Negritos of
          Zambales</span></span> (Manilla, 1904), p. 65 (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnological Survey
          Publications</span></span>, vol. ii. Part i.).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258"
          href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mgr. Couppé <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“En Nouvelle-Poméranie,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Missions
          Catholiques</span></span>, xxiii. (1891) pp. 355 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259"
          href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. A. Kleintitschen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Küstenbewohner
          der Gazellehalbinsel</span></span> (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface
          dated 1906), pp. 336 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Joachim Graf Pfeil,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien
          und Beobachtungen aus der Südsee</span></span> (Brunswick, 1899),
          p. 159; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxvii. (1898) pp. 183
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260"
          href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Parkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dreissig Jahre in der
          Südsee</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 120, 121.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261"
          href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. van Hasselt, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Papuastämme an der Geelvinkbai
          (Neu-guinea),”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft
          zu Jena</span></span>, ix. (1891) p. 98. As to Mr. van Hasselt's
          twenty-five years' residence among these savages, see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, p.
          22.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262"
          href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stefan Lehner, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Bukaua,”</span> in R. Neuhauss's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch
          Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 414-416.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263"
          href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Lawes, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on New Guinea and its Inhabitants,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
          Society</span></span>, 1880, p. 615.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264"
          href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          geographische Blätter</span></span>, x. 278 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265"
          href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ambon en
          meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers</span></span> (Dordrecht, 1875), p.
          148.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266"
          href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Het heidendom en de Islam in Bolaang
          Mongondou,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
          Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xi. (1867) p. 259.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267"
          href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. van Eck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Schetsen van het eiland Bali,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Nederlandsch Indië</span></span>, August, 1880, p. 83.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268"
          href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. E. Harthoorn, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“De Zending op Java en meer bepaald die van
          Malang,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
          Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, iv. (1860) pp. 116 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269"
          href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. A. L. M. Schwaner, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Borneo, Beschrijving
          van het stroomgebied van den Barito</span></span> (Amsterdam,
          1853-54), i. 176.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270"
          href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Neumann, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift van het
          Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</span></span>, Tweede
          Serie, iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2
          (Amsterdam, 1886), p. 287.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271"
          href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. Hagen, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
          Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxviii. (1883) p. 508. The persons of
          the Batta Trinity are Bataraguru, Sori, and Balabulan. The most
          fundamental distinction between the persons of the Trinity appears
          to be that one of them is allowed to eat pork, while the others are
          not (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 505).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272"
          href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Joustra, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
          Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xlvi. (1902) p. 412.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273"
          href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Census of India, 1901</span></span>, vol.
          iii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Andaman and Nicobar Islands</span></span>, by Lieut.-Colonel Sir
          Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903), p. 206.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274"
          href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Borie, <span class="tei tei-q">“Notice
          sur les Mantras, tribu sauvage de la péninsule Malaise,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
          Volkenkunde</span></span>, x. (1860) p. 434.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275"
          href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Krascheninnikow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beschreibung des
          Landes Kamtschatka</span></span> (Lemgo, 1766), p. 215.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276"
          href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We may compare the instructive remarks
          made by Mr. W. E. Maxwell on the stratification of religious
          beliefs among the Malays (<span class="tei tei-q">“The Folk-lore of
          the Malays,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal
          Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 7, June, 1881, pp. 11
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). He says: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Two successive religious changes have taken place
          among them, and when we have succeeded in identifying the vestiges
          of Brahmanism which underly the external forms of the faith of
          Muhammed, long established in all Malay kingdoms, we are only
          half-way through our task. There yet remain the powerful influences
          of the still earlier indigenous faith to be noted and accounted
          for. Just as the Buddhists of Ceylon turn, in times of sickness and
          danger, not to the consolations offered by the creed of Buddha, but
          to the propitiation of the demons feared and reverenced by their
          early progenitors, and just as the Burmese and Talaings, though
          Buddhists, retain in full force the whole of the <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nat</span></span> superstition, so among the
          Malays, in spite of centuries which have passed since the
          establishment of an alien worship, the Muhammedan peasant may be
          found invoking the protection of Hindu gods against the spirits of
          evil with which his primitive faith has peopled all natural
          objects.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277"
          href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Oldenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des
          Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 39 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278"
          href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Monier Williams, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Thought and
          Life in India</span></span> (London, 1883), pp. 210 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279"
          href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Monier Williams, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 230 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The views here expressed by
          the late Professor Monier Williams are confirmed from personal
          knowledge by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Himalayan
          Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India</span></span>,
          ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 840.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280"
          href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology
          of Bengal</span></span> (Calcutta, 1872), pp. 256, 257, 258.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281"
          href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. S. Endle, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Kacharis</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 33.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282"
          href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Chin
          Hills</span></span>, i. (Rangoon, 1896) p. 196.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283"
          href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. A. Waddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Demonolatry in Sikhim Lamaism,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Indian
          Antiquary</span></span>, xxiii. (1894) p. 197.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284"
          href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. A. Waddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Buddhism of
          Tibet</span></span> (London, 1895), p. 152.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285"
          href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lt.-Colonel J. Shakespear,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Lushei Kuki Clans</span></span> (London, 1912), pp. 61, 65
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 67.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286"
          href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. S. Mateer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land of
          Charity</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 207.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287"
          href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Percival, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of the Island
          of Ceylon</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1805), pp.
          211-213.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288"
          href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. J. F. S. Forbes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British
          Burma</span></span> (London, 1878), pp. 221 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289"
          href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shway Yoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Burman, his Life
          and Notions</span></span> (London, 1882), i. 276 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290"
          href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shway Yoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 278. <span class="tei tei-q">“To the
          Burman,”</span> says A. Bastian, <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole
          world is filled with nats. Mountains, rivers, waters, the earth,
          etc., have all their nat.”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des
          östlichen Asien</span></span>, ii. 497).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291"
          href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mgr. Pallegoix, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description du
          royaume Thai ou Siam</span></span> (Paris, 1854), i. 42.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292"
          href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Bock, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Temples and
          Elephants</span></span> (London, 1884), p. 198.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293"
          href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mgr. Bruguière, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales de
          l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, v. (1831)
          p. 128.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294"
          href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Deniker, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Races of
          Man</span></span> (London, 1900), pp. 400 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295"
          href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bourlet, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Les Thay,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>,
          ii. (1907) p. 619.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296"
          href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bourlet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 632.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297"
          href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System
          of China</span></span>, v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 470.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298"
          href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 930-932. This sixth
          volume of Professor de Groot's great work is mainly devoted to an
          account of the ceaseless war waged by the Chinese people on demons
          or spectres (<span lang="zh" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "zh"><span style="font-style: italic">kwei</span></span>). A more
          summary notice of this curious national delusion will be found in
          his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Religion of the Chinese</span></span> (New
          York, 1910), chapter ii., <span class="tei tei-q">“The Struggle
          against Spectres,”</span> pp. 33-61.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299"
          href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Bishop (Isabella L. Bird),
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korea and
          her Neighbours</span></span> (London, 1898), ii. 227 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          229. I have taken the liberty of changing the writer's <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“daemon”</span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“daemoniacal”</span> into <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“demon”</span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“demoniacal.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300"
          href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. von Dittmar, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten
          Tschuktschen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Classe Historico-philologique
          de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.
          Pétersbourg</span></span>, xiii. (1856) coll. 123 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301"
          href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Jochelson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Koryak</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 28
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
          Natural History</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302"
          href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Sternberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Religion der Giljaken,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archiv für
          Religionswissenschaft</span></span>, viii. (1905) pp. 460
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303"
          href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of
          Babylonia and Assyria</span></span> (Boston, 1898), pp. 260
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens</span></span>, i. (Giessen,
          1905) pp. 278 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; C. Fossey, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Magie
          Assyrienne</span></span> (Paris, 1902), pp. 27-30, 34; E. Schrader,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament</span></span>, Dritte
          Auflage, neu bearbeitet von H. Zimmern und H. Winckler (Berlin,
          1902), pp. 458 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304"
          href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. A. Wallis Budge, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Osiris and the
          Egyptian Resurrection</span></span> (London, 1911), ii. 150.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305"
          href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. W. Lane, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manners and Customs
          of the Modern Egyptians</span></span> (Paisley and London, 1895),
          chap. x. pp. 231 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306"
          href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. B. Klunzinger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bilder aus
          Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem Rothen Meere</span></span>
          (Stuttgart, 1877), p. 382; compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
          pp. 374 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307"
          href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristotle, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          anima</span></span>, i. 5. 17; Diogenes Laertius, i. 1. 27.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308"
          href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Praeparatio Evangelii</span></span>, iv.
          23.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309"
          href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elsewhere I have attempted to shew
          that a particular class of purifications—those observed by
          mourners—is intended to protect the living from the disembodied
          spirits of the dead (<span class="tei tei-q">“On certain Burial
          Customs as illustrative of the Primitive Theory of the
          Soul,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xv. (1886) pp. 64 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310"
          href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Meyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Aberglaube des
          Mittelalters</span></span> (Bâle, 1884), pp. 109-111, 191
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311"
          href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Gerard, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Land beyond the
          Forest</span></span> (Edinburgh and London, 1888), i. 328. The
          superstitions of the Roumanians of Transylvania have been collected
          by W. Schmidt in his tract <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch
          der Romänen Siebenbürgens</span></span> (Hermannstadt, 1866).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312"
          href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Manuk Abeghian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der armenische
          Volksglaube</span></span> (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 31 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313"
          href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paul Reina, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Über die Bewohner der Insel Rook,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          allgemeine Erdkunde</span></span>, N.F., iv. (1858) p. 356.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314"
          href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Parkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Im
          Bismarck-Archipel</span></span> (Leipsic, 1887), p. 142;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dreissig Jahre in der
          Südsee</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 119.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315"
          href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Opigez, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin
          de la Société de Géographie</span></span> (Paris), VII. Série, vii.
          (1886) p. 443.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316"
          href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Gason, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxiv. (1895) p. 170.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317"
          href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. James Macdonald, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion and
          Myth</span></span> (London, 1893), pp. 100-102. The writer, who
          describes the ceremony at first hand, remarks that <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“there is no periodic purging of devils, nor are more
          spirits than one expelled at a time.”</span> He adds: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“I have noticed frequently a connection between the
          quantity of grain that could be spared for making beer, and the
          frequency of gatherings for the purging of evils.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318"
          href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[P. N. Wilken], <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der Alfoeren
          in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Nederlandsch Indië</span></span>, December 1849, pp. 392-394;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der
          Alfoeren in de Minahassa,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van
          wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, vii.
          (1863) pp. 149 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. G. F. Riedel,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“De Minahasa in 1825,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xviii. (1872)
          pp. 521 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Wilken's first and fuller
          account is reprinted in N. Graafland's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          Minahassa</span></span> (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 117-120. A German
          translation of Wilken's earlier article is printed in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          allgemeine Erdkunde</span></span>, N.F., x. (1861) pp. 43-61.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319"
          href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Galela und Tobeloresen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          Ethnologie</span></span>, xvii. (1885) p. 82; G. A. Wilken,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de
          Indischen Archipel,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde
          van Nederlandsch Indie</span></span>, xxxvi. (1887) p. 484;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verspreide
          Geschriften</span></span> (The Hague, 1912), iii. 383. When
          smallpox is raging, the Toradjas of Central Celebes abandon the
          village and live in the bush for seven days in order to make the
          spirit of smallpox believe that they are all dead. But it does not
          appear that they forcibly expel him from the village. See N.
          Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">De Bare'e-sprekende Toradja's van
          Midden-Celebes</span></span>, i. (Batavia, 1912) p. 417.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320"
          href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. M. Pleyte, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-eilanden,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch
          Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</span></span>, Tweede Serie, x. (1893)
          pp. 834 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> A briefer account of the
          custom had previously been given by J. G. F. Riedel (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span>, The
          Hague, 1886, p. 239).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321"
          href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von
          Rosenberg, <span class="tei tei-q">“Verslag omtrent het eiland
          Nias,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap
          van Kunsten en Wetenschapen</span></span>, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) pp.
          116 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. von Rosenberg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
          Malayische Archipel</span></span> (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 174
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare L. N. H. A.
          Chatelin, <span class="tei tei-q">“Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der
          Niassers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
          Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxvi. (1880) p. 139; E. Modigliani,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Un
          Viaggio a Nías</span></span> (Milan, 1890), pp. 195, 382. The Dyaks
          also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where
          there is sickness. See C. Hupe, <span class="tei tei-q">“Korte
          verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Neérlands
          Indië</span></span>, 1846, dl. iii. p. 149.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322"
          href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Kramer, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Der Götzendienst der Niasser,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxiii. (1890)
          pp. 486-488.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323"
          href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, i. 172.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324"
          href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. C. Wheeler, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sketch of the Totemism and Religion of the People of
          the Islands in the Bougainville Straits (Western Solomon
          Islands),”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Archiv für
          Religionswissenschaft</span></span>, xv. (1912) pp. 49, 51
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325"
          href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. J. F. S. Forbes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British
          Burma</span></span> (London, 1878), p. 233; Shway Yoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Burman, his Life
          and Notions</span></span> (London, 1882), i. 282, ii. 105
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des
          östlichen Asien</span></span>, ii. 98; Max and Bertha Ferrars,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Burma</span></span> (London, 1900), p.
          128.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326"
          href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) J. George Scott and J. P.
          Hardiman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan
          States</span></span>, Part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 440.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327"
          href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. H. Lewin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wild Tribes of
          South-Eastern India</span></span> (London, 1870), p. 226.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328"
          href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System
          of China</span></span>, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 981 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of the
          Chinese</span></span> (New York, 1910), pp. 40 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329"
          href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This description is taken from a
          newspaper-cutting, which was sent to me from the west of Scotland
          in October 1890, but without the name or date of the paper. The
          account, which is headed <span class="tei tei-q">“Exorcism of the
          Pest Demon in Japan,”</span> purports to be derived from a series
          of notes on medical customs of the Japanese, which were contributed
          by Dr. C. H. H. Hall, of the U.S. Navy, to the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sei-I Kwai Medical
          Journal</span></span>. Compare Lafcadio Hearn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glimpses of
          Unfamiliar Japan</span></span> (London, 1894), i. 147.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330"
          href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Masanao Koike, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Zwei Jahren in Korea,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Internationales
          Archiv für Ethnographie</span></span>, iv. (1891) p. 10; Mrs.
          Bishop, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Korea and her Neighbours</span></span>
          (London, 1898), ii. 240.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331"
          href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</span></span>,
          Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1780-1783), xvi. 206. It will be noticed
          that in this and the preceding case the principle of expulsion is
          applied for the benefit of an individual, not of a whole community.
          Yet the method of procedure in both is so similar to that adopted
          in the cases under consideration that I have allowed myself to cite
          them.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332"
          href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Zündel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
          Westafrika,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu
          Berlin</span></span>, xii. (1877) pp. 414 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333"
          href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Hecquard, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reise an die Küste
          und in das Innere von West-Afrika</span></span> (Leipsic, 1854), p.
          43.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334"
          href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. A. Plehn, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Beobachtungen in Kamerun, über die Anschauungen und
          Gebräuche einiger Negerstämme,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          Ethnologie</span></span>, xxxvi. (1904) pp. 717 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335"
          href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ph. Paulitschke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnographie
          Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und
          Somâl</span></span> (Berlin, 1893), p. 177.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336"
          href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Gabriel Sagard, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Grand Voyage du
          Pays des Hurons</span></span>, pp. 279 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          (195 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> of the reprint, Paris,
          Libraire Tross, 1865). Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relations des
          Jésuites</span></span>, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
          1858), from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of
          his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers tried to
          solve. The custom of asking riddles at certain seasons or on
          certain special occasions is curious and has not yet, so far as I
          know, been explained. Perhaps enigmas were originally
          circumlocutions adopted at times when for certain reasons the
          speaker was forbidden the use of direct terms. They appear to be
          especially employed in the neighbourhood of a dead body. Thus in
          Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when
          there is a corpse in the village. See N. P. Wilken en J. A.
          Schwarz, <span class="tei tei-q">“Allerlei over het land en volk
          van Bolaäng Mongondou,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van
          wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xi.
          (1867) p. 357. In the Aru archipelago, while a corpse is
          uncoffined, the watchers propound riddles to each other, or rather
          they think of things which the others have to guess. See J. G. F.
          Riedel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen
          Selebes en Papua</span></span>, pp. 267 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In
          Brittany after a burial, when the rest have gone to partake of the
          funeral banquet, old men remain behind in the graveyard, and having
          seated themselves on mallows, ask each other riddles. See A. de
          Nore, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces
          de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 199. Among the
          Akamba of British East Africa boys and girls at circumcision have
          to interpret certain pictographs cut on sticks: these pictographs
          are called <span class="tei tei-q">“riddles.”</span> See C. W.
          Hobley, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African
          Tribes</span></span> (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 71 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In
          Vedic times the priests proposed enigmas to each other at the great
          sacrifice of a horse. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Satapatha Brahmana</span></span>,
          translated by J. Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900), pp. 314-316
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred
          Books of the East</span></span>, vol. xliv.); H. Oldenberg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Religion des Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 475. Compare O.
          Schrader, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reallexikon der indogermanischen
          Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 647
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Among Turkish tribes of
          Central Asia girls publicly propound riddles to their wooers, who
          are punished if they cannot read them. See H. Vambery, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das
          Türkenvolk</span></span> (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 232 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Among the Alfoors of Central Celebes riddles may only be asked
          during the season when the fields are being tilled and the crops
          are growing. People meeting together at this time occupy themselves
          with asking riddles and telling stories. As soon as some one has
          found the answer to a riddle, they all cry out, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Make our rice to grow, make fat ears to grow both in
          the valleys and on the heights.”</span> But during the months which
          elapse between harvest and the preparation of new land for tillage
          the propounding of enigmas is strictly forbidden. The writer who
          reports the custom conjectures that the cry <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Make our rice to grow”</span> is addressed to the
          souls of the ancestors. See A. C. Kruijt, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
          maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van
          wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xxxix.
          (1895) pp. 142 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Amongst the Toboongkoo of
          Central Celebes riddles are propounded at harvest and by watchers
          over a corpse. See A. C. Kruijt, <span class="tei tei-q">“Eenige
          ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de
          Tomori,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
          Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xliv. (1900) pp. 223, 228.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337"
          href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. d'Orbigny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans
          l'Amérique Méridionale</span></span>, ii. (Paris and Strasburg,
          1839-1843) p. 190.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338"
          href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pedro Lozano, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description
          Chorographica del Terreno, Rios, Arboles, y Animales de las
          dilatadissimas Provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba</span></span>,
          etc. (Cordova, 1733) p. 100.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339"
          href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. H. Bancroft, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natives Races of the
          Pacific States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), i. 589 note 259,
          quoting Arlegui, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chrón. de Zacatecas</span></span>, pp. 152-3,
          182.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340"
          href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Chin
          Hills</span></span>, i. (Rangoon, 1896) p. 198.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341"
          href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Queensland</span></span> (London, 1861), p.
          441. Compare Rev. W. Ridley, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kamilaroi</span></span> (Sydney, 1875), p.
          149.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342"
          href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Report of the International Polar Expedition
          to Point Barrow, Alaska</span></span> (Washington, 1885), pp. 42
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> It is said that in Thule,
          where the sun disappeared below the horizon for forty days every
          winter, the greatest festival of the year was held when the
          luminary reappeared. <span class="tei tei-q">“It seems to
          me,”</span> says Procopius, who records the fact, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“that though the same thing happens every year, these
          islanders are very much afraid lest the sun should fail them
          altogether.”</span> See Procopius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De bello
          Gothico</span></span>, ii. 15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343"
          href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Boas, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Eskimo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal
          Society of Canada for 1887</span></span>, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888)
          sect. ii. 36 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Central Eskimo,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sixth Annual Report
          of the Bureau of Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1888), pp.
          603 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Elsewhere, however, the
          writer mentions a different explanation of the custom of harpooning
          Sedna. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Sedna feels kindly towards
          the people if they have succeeded in cutting her. If there is no
          blood on the knife, it is an ill omen. As to the reason why Sedna
          must be cut, the people say that it is an old custom, and that it
          makes her feel better, that it is the same as giving a thirsty
          person drink.”</span> See Fr. Boas, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletin of the
          American Museum of Natural History</span></span>, xv. (New York,
          1901) p. 139. However, this explanation may well be an afterthought
          devised to throw light on an old custom of which the original
          meaning had been forgotten.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344"
          href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Jochelson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Koryak</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 88
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Jesup North Pacific Expedition</span></span>, vol. vi.,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoir of
          the American Museum of Natural History</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345"
          href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg121" class=
          "tei tei-ref">121</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346"
          href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Relations des Jésuites</span></span>, 1656,
          pp. 26-28 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); J. F. Lafitau,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs des
          Sauvages Ameriquains</span></span> (Paris, 1724), i. 367-369;
          Charlevoix, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire de la Nouvelle France</span></span>,
          vi. 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Timothy Dwight,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels
          in New England and New York</span></span> (London, 1823), iv. 201
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; L. H. Morgan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">League of the
          Iroquois</span></span> (Rochester, 1851), pp. 207 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          Mrs. E. A. Smith, <span class="tei tei-q">“Myths of the
          Iroquois,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Second Annual Report of the Bureau of
          Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1883), pp. 112 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          Horatio Hale, <span class="tei tei-q">“Iroquois Sacrifice of the
          White Dog,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">American Antiquarian</span></span>, vii.
          (1885) pp. 7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. M. Beauchamp,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Iroquois White Dog Feast,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> pp. 235 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“They had one day in the year which might
          be called the Festival of Fools; for in fact they pretended to be
          mad, rushing from hut to hut, so that if they ill-treated any one
          or carried off anything, they would say next day, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘I was mad; I had not my senses about me.’</span> And
          the others would accept this explanation and exact no
          vengeance”</span> (L. Hennepin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description de la
          Louisiane</span></span>, Paris, 1683, pp. 71 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347"
          href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Payne, quoted in <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by W.
          Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes by E. G.
          Squier,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Transactions of the American Ethnological
          Society</span></span>, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 78.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348"
          href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Gay, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fragment d'un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco patrie
          des anciens Incas,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de
          Géographie</span></span> (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 29
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349"
          href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Garcilasso de la Vega, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Royal Commentaries of
          the Yncas</span></span>, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham
          (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), Part i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol.
          ii. pp. 228 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Molina, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fables and Rites of the Yncas,”</span> in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rites and Laws of the
          Yncas</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, 1873), pp. 20 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          J. de Acosta, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">History of the Indies</span></span>, bk. v.
          ch. 28, vol. ii. pp. 375 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat
          discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the
          latter that <span class="tei tei-q">“in one year they added, and in
          another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to
          circumstances.”</span> Molina places the festival in August,
          Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there
          were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were
          four hundred. Acosta's account is very brief. In the description
          given in the text features have been borrowed from all three
          accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350"
          href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Bosman, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Description of the Coast of Guinea,”</span> in J.
          Pinkerton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyages and Travels</span></span>, xvi.
          (London, 1814) p. 402; Pierre Bouche, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Côte des
          Esclaves</span></span> (Paris, 1885), p. 395.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351"
          href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Western
          Africa</span></span> (London, 1856), p. 217.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352"
          href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Narrative of Captain James Fawckner's Travels
          on the Coast of Benin, West Africa</span></span> (London, 1837),
          pp. 102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353"
          href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Extracts from
          Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, Wesleyan Missionary in West
          Africa, 1843-1848,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Man</span></span>, xii. (1912) pp. 138
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Major A. J. N.
          Tremearne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Tailed Head-hunters of
          Nigeria</span></span> (London, 1912), pp. 202 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354"
          href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Gospel on the Banks of the Niger</span></span> (London, 1859), p.
          320.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355"
          href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mansfield Parkyns, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in
          Abyssinia</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1868), pp. 285
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356"
          href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">George Brown, D.D., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melanesians and
          Polynesian</span></span> (London, 1910), pp. 413 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357"
          href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the ceremony of eating the new
          yams, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358"
          href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Spieth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. At Kotedougou
          a French officer saw a number of disguised men called <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">dou</span></span> dancing and performing
          various antics about the houses, under the trees, and in the
          fields. Hemp and palm leaves were sewn on their garments and they
          wore caps of hemp surmounted by a crest of red-ochred wood,
          sometimes by a wooden beak of a bird. He gathered that the ceremony
          takes place at the beginning of winter, and he thought that the
          processions <span class="tei tei-q">“are perhaps intended to drive
          away the evil spirits at the season of tillage or perhaps also to
          procure rain.”</span> See Le Capitaine Binger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du Niger au Golfe de
          Guinée par le pays de Kong et le Mossi</span></span> (Paris, 1892),
          pp. 378-380.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359"
          href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology
          of Bengal</span></span> (Calcutta, 1872), pp. 196 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> We
          have seen that among the Pondos of South Africa the harvest
          festival of first-fruits is in like manner a period of licence and
          debauchery. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360"
          href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major J. Biddulph, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes of the Hindoo
          Koosh</span></span> (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361"
          href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Macpherson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memorials of Service
          in India from the Correspondence of the late Major S. C.
          Macpherson</span></span> (London, 1865), pp. 357 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate
          expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps,
          however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to
          induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually
          carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with
          those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an
          agricultural festival.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362"
          href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. C. Streatfield, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ranchi,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Asiatic Society of
          Bengal</span></span>, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 36.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363"
          href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Le Tour du Monde</span></span>, iii. (Paris,
          1897) pp. 227 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, quoting <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aux sources de
          l'Irraouaddi, d'Hanoï à Calcutta par terre</span></span>, par M. E.
          Roux, Troisième Partie.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364"
          href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. van Eck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Schetsen van het eiland Bali,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Nederlandsch Indië</span></span>, N.S., viii. (1879) pp. 58-60. Van
          Eck's account is reprinted in J. Jacobs's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eenigen tijd onder de
          Baliërs</span></span> (Batavia, 1883), pp. 190 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          According to another writer, each village may choose its own day
          for expelling the devils, but the ceremony must always be performed
          at the new moon. A necessary preliminary is to mark exactly the
          boundaries of the village territory, and this is done by stretching
          the leaves of a certain palm across the roads at the boundaries.
          See F. A. Liefrinck, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bijdrage tot de
          kennis van het eiland Bali,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxiii. (1890)
          pp. 246 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“dark moon”</span> it is to be observed that some
          eastern nations, particularly the Hindoos and the Burmese, divide
          the monthly cycle of the moon into two parts, which they call the
          light moon and the dark moon respectively. The light moon is the
          first half of the month, when the luminary is waxing; the dark moon
          is the second half of the month, when the luminary is waning. See
          Francis Buchanan, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Religion and
          Literature of the Burmas,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatick
          Researches</span></span>, vi. (London, 1801) p. 171. The Balinese
          have no doubt derived the distinction, like much else, from the
          Hindoos.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365"
          href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Anderson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mandalay to
          Momien</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 308.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366"
          href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">United States Exploring Expedition,
          Ethnography and Philology</span></span>, by H. Hale (Philadelphia,
          1846), pp. 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ch. Wilkes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of the U.S.
          Exploring Expedition</span></span>, New Edition (New York, 1851),
          iii. 90 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 342. According to the
          latter writer, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived
          during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys
          remained shut up in their houses. As to the annual appearance and
          catch of the sea-slug in the seas of Fiji, see further B. Seeman,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Viti, an
          Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in
          the Years 1860-1862</span></span> (Cambridge, 1862), pp. 59-61;
          Basil Thomson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Fijians</span></span> (London, 1908), pp.
          324-327. A somewhat different account of the appearance of the slug
          (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Palolo veridis</span></span>) in the Samoan
          Sea is given from personal observation by Dr. George Brown. He
          says: <span class="tei tei-q">“This annelid, as far as I can
          remember, is about 8 or 12 inches long, and somewhat thicker than
          ordinary piping-cord. It is found only on two mornings in the year,
          and the time when it will appear and disappear can be accurately
          predicted. As a general rule only a few <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">palolo</span></span> are found on the first
          day, though occasionally the large quantity may appear first; but,
          as a rule, the large quantity appears on the second morning. And it
          is only found on these mornings for a very limited period, viz.
          from early dawn to about seven o'clock, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>
          for about two hours. It then disappears until the following year,
          except in some rare instances, when it is found for the same
          limited period in the following month after its first appearance. I
          kept records of the time, and of the state of the moon, for some
          years, with the following result: that it always appeared on two
          out of the following three days, viz. the day before, the day of,
          and the day after the last quarter of the October moon.”</span> See
          George Brown, D.D., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Melanesians and Polynesians</span></span>
          (London, 1910), pp. 135 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The slug is also caught in
          the sea off Samoa, according to one account, at intervals of six
          months. One of its appearances takes place on the eighth day after
          the new moon of October. So regular are the appearances of the
          creature that the Samoans reckon their time by them. See E. Boisse,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Les îles Samoa, Nukunono, Fakaafo, Wallis
          et Hoorn,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de
          Géographie</span></span> (Paris), vi. Série, x. (1875) pp. 430
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In antiquity every year vast
          shoals of a small fish used to ascend the river Olynthiac from the
          lake of Bolbe in Macedonia, and all the people of the neighbourhood
          caught and salted great store of them. They thought that the fish
          were sent to them by Bolbe, the mother of Olynthus, and they noted
          it as a curious fact that the fish never swam higher up than the
          tomb of Olynthus, which stood on the bank of the river Olynthiac.
          The shoals always made their appearance in the months of
          Anthesterion and Elaphebolion, and as the people of Apollonia (a
          city on the bank of the lake) celebrated their festival of the dead
          at that season, formerly in the month of Elaphebolion, but
          afterwards in the month of Anthesterion, they imagined that the
          fish came at that time on purpose. See Athenaeus, viii. 11, p. 334
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">f.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367"
          href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. J. Erdweg, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo Berlinhafen,
          Deutsch-New-Guinea,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der anthropologischen
          Gesellschaft in Wien</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) pp. 329
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368"
          href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Humbert, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Japon
          illustré</span></span> (Paris, 1870), ii. 326.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369"
          href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des
          östlichen Asien</span></span>, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 367.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370"
          href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Aston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span>
          (London, 1905), p. 309.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371"
          href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lafcadio Hearn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glimpses of
          Unfamiliar Japan</span></span> (London, 1894), ii. 498 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The
          writer agrees with Mr. Aston as to the formula of
          exorcism—<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="ja" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Oni wa soto! fuku wa
          uchi</span></span>”</span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Devils out!
          Good fortune in!”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372"
          href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eitel, <span class="tei tei-q">“Les
          Hak-ka,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">L'Anthropologie</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp.
          175 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373"
          href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, ii.
          pp. 146 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 792 (June, 1885); D. C.
          J. Ibbetson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Outlines of Panjab Ethnography</span></span>
          (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119; W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folklore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), ii.
          188, 295 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374"
          href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Richardson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of
          Persian, Arabic, and English</span></span>, New Edition (London,
          1829), p. liii.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375"
          href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System
          of China</span></span>, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 977 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376"
          href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> vi. 978.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377"
          href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> vi. 979.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378"
          href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. M. de Groot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System
          of China</span></span>, vi. 944 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of
          China</span></span> (New York, 1910), pp. 38 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J.
          H. Gray, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">China</span></span> (London, 1878), i. 251
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379"
          href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Woodville Rockhill, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions
          of Korea,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The American Anthropologist</span></span>, iv.
          (1891) p. 185.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380"
          href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Baron, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,”</span> in J.
          Pinkerton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyages and Travels</span></span>, ix.
          (London, 1811) pp. 673, 695 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; compare Richard,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“History of Tonquin,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
          p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron
          criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to
          him, the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with
          sacrifice to the honoured dead. <span class="tei tei-q">“At the
          beginning of every year they have a great solemnity in honour of
          the dead, who were in their lives renowned for their noble actions
          and valour, reckoning rebels among them. They set up several
          altars, some for sacrifices, others for the names of the persons
          they design to honour; and the king, princes, and mandarins are
          present at them, and make three profound reverences to the altars
          when the sacrifices are finished; but the king shoots five times
          against the altars where the rebels' names are; then the great guns
          are let off, and the soldiers give vollies of small shot, to put
          the souls to flight. The altars and papers made use of at the
          sacrifices are burnt, and the bonzes and sages go to eat the meat
          made use of at the sacrifice”</span> (Tavernier, in John Harris's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Collection of Voyages and
          Travels</span></span>, vol. i. (London, 1744) p. 823). The
          translation is somewhat abridged. For the French original, see J.
          B. Tavernier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux
          Indes</span></span> (The Hague, 1718), iii. 230 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381"
          href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">É. Aymonier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notice sur le
          Cambodge</span></span> (Paris, 1875), p. 62.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382"
          href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des
          östlichen Asien</span></span>, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 237, 298, 314,
          529 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Mgr. Pallegoix,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Description du Royaume Thai ou
          Siam</span></span> (Paris, 1854), i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with
          whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion
          takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both say that it
          occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i.
          253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the
          first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of
          devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. In Laos
          the year begins in the fifth month and it ends in the fifth month
          of the following year. See Lieutenant-Colonel Tournier,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notice
          sur le Laos Français</span></span> (Hanoi, 1900), p. 187. According
          to Professor E. Seler the festival of Toxcatl, celebrated in the
          fifth month, was the old Mexican festival of the New Year. See E.
          Seler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altmexikanische Studien</span></span>, ii.
          (Berlin, 1899) pp. 153, 166 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen
          aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde</span></span>, vi. Heft
          2/4). Hence it appears that in some calendars the year is not
          reckoned to begin with the first month.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383"
          href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernest Young, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Kingdom of the
          Yellow Robe</span></span> (Westminster, 1898), pp. 135 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384"
          href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Lettre de
          Mgr. Bruguière, évêque de Capse, à M. Bousquet, vicaire-général
          d'Aire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de
          la Foi</span></span>, v. (Paris and Lyons, 1831) p. 188. As to the
          temporary king of Siam, his privileges and the ceremony of
          ploughing which he performs, see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, pp. 149-151.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385"
          href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charlevoix, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire et
          description generale du Japon</span></span> (Paris, 1736), i. 128
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; C. P. Thunberg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages
          au Japon</span></span> (Paris, 1796), iv. 18-20; A. Bastian,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Völker des östlichen Asien</span></span>, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 364;
          Beaufort, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xv. (1886) p. 102; A. Morgan, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of American Folk-lore</span></span>, x. (1897) pp. 244 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Lafcadio Hearn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan</span></span>
          (London, 1894), i. 106-110, ii. 504 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The
          custom of welcoming the souls of the dead back to their old homes
          once a year has been observed in many lands. See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis,
          Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 301 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386"
          href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg123" class=
          "tei tei-ref">123</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387"
          href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesychius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          µ?a?a? ?µ??a?; t?? ???est??????? µ????, ?? a?? t?? ????? t??
          ?at????µ???? ?????a? ?d?????. Photius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.vv.</span></span>
          T??a?e ???e?; ????t? ???est???a ... t???? d? ??t?? t?? pa???µ?a?
          fas?; T??a?e ???e? ????t? ???est???a; ?? ?at? t?? p???? t???
          ???est?????? t?? ????? pe??e???µ????. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.vv.</span></span> µ?a?? ?µ??a; ?? t???
          ???s?? ???est??????? µ????, ?? ? d????s?? a? ???a? t??
          te?e?t?s??t?? ?????a?, ??µ?? ???e? ?µas??t? ?a? p?tt? t?? ???a?
          ??????. Pollux, viii. 141: pe??s?????sa? t? ?e?? ??e??? ?? ta??
          ?p?f??s? ?a? t? pa?af???a?. As to the closing of the temples, see
          further Athenaeus, x. 49, p. 447 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>. As to the Anthesteria
          in general, see E. Rohde, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 236 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          who rightly adopts Hesychius's second explanation of ???e?. The
          reasons given by August Mommsen for rejecting that explanation
          betray an imperfect acquaintance with popular superstition
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste
          der Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span>, Leipsic, 1898, p. 386,
          note 1). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the
          Study of Greek Religion</span></span>, Second Edition (Cambridge,
          1908), pp. 32 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The Greeks thought that
          branches of buckthorn (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">rhamnus</span></span>) fastened to doors or
          windows kept out witches (Dioscorides, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De materia
          medica</span></span>, i. 119). A similar virtue was attributed to
          buckthorn or hawthorn by the ancient Romans and modern European
          peasants. See A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des
          Göttertranks</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Güterslöh, 1886), pp. 209
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Murr, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pflanzenwelt in der
          griechischen Mythologie</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1890), pp.
          104-106; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 191. According to Mr. Murr,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">rhamnus</span></span> is <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lycium
          europaeum</span></span> L. I learn from Miss J. E. Harrison that
          Sir Francis Darwin believes it to be buckthorn (<span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rhamnus catharticus</span></span>). In some
          parts of Bosnia, when peasant women go to pay a visit in a house
          where a death has occurred they put a little hawthorn (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Weissdorn</span></span>) behind their
          headcloth, and on returning from the house they throw it away on
          the street. They think that if the deceased has turned into a
          vampyre, he will be so occupied in picking up the hawthorn, that he
          will not be able to follow them to their homes. See F. S. Krauss,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Vampyre im südslavischen
          Volksglauben,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lxi. (1892) p. 326. At
          childbirth also the Greeks smeared pitch on their houses to keep
          out the demons (e?? ?p??as?? t?? da?µ????) who attack women at such
          times (Photius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          ??µ???). To this day the Bulgarians try to keep wandering ghosts
          from their houses by painting crosses with tar on the outside of
          their doors, while on the inside they hang a tangled skein composed
          of countless broken threads. The ghost cannot enter until he has
          counted all the threads, and before he has done the sum the cock
          crows and the poor soul must return to the grave. See A. Strausz,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Bulgaren</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), p. 454. The Servians paint
          crosses with tar on the doors of houses and barns to keep out
          vampyres. See F. S. Krauss, <span class="tei tei-q">“Vampyre im
          südslavischen Volksglauben,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>,
          lxi. (1892) p. 326. In the Highlands of Scotland it was believed
          that tar put on a door kept witches away. See J. G. Campbell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands
          and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1902), p. 13. The
          Thompson Indians of British Columbia used to bar their houses
          against ghosts by means not unlike those adopted by the Athenians
          at the Anthesteria. When a death had happened, they hung a string
          of deer-hoofs across the inside of the house, and an old woman
          often pulled at the string to make the hoofs rattle. This kept the
          ghost out. They also placed branches of juniper at the door or
          burned them in the fire for the same purpose. See James Teit,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Thompson Indians of British
          Columbia”</span> (April 1900), p. 332 (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jesup North
          Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural
          History</span></span>). With the Athenian use of ropes to keep
          ghosts out of the temples at the Anthesteria we may compare the
          Siamese custom of roping demons out of the city at the New Year
          (above, p. <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref">149</a>). Ropes of
          rice-straw, which are supposed to repel demoniacal and evil
          influences, are hung by the Japanese in front of shrines, and at
          the New Year they hang them also before ordinary houses. See W. G.
          Aston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 335
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Some of the Kayans of Borneo
          stretch ropes round their houses to keep out demons of disease; in
          order to do so more effectually leaves of a certain plant or tree
          are fastened to the rope. See A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch
          Borneo</span></span>, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 448.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388"
          href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Aristophanes,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>, 218.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389"
          href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Perham, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sea Dyak Religion,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 14,
          December 1884, pp. 296-298.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390"
          href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>,
          v. 419-486; Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, p. 135 (p. 142 ed.
          Quicherat), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Lemures”</span>; Festus, p. 87 ed. C. O. Müller,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fabam.”</span> Ovid, who is our chief authority for
          the ceremony, speaks as if the festival lasted only one day (the
          ninth of May). But we know from the inscribed calendars that it
          lasted three days. See W. Warde Fowler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman Festivals
          of the period of the Republic</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 106
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391"
          href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Max Buch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Wotjäken</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 153 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392"
          href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Mensch in der
          Geschichte</span></span> (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 94; P. v. Stenin,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der
          Tscheremissen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lviii. (1890) p.
          204.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393"
          href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vincenzo Dorsa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La tradizione
          greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria
          Citeriore</span></span> (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 42 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394"
          href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vincenzo Dorsa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La tradizione
          greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria
          Citeriore</span></span>, p. 48.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395"
          href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. von Hahn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Albanesische
          Studien</span></span> (Jena, 1854), i. 160. Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, pp. 264 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396"
          href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i.
          86.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397"
          href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the activity of the evil powers
          on the twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, see Gustav
          Bilfinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das germanische Julfest</span></span>
          (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; as to witches on St.
          George's Eve, May Eve, and Midsummer Eve, see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the
          Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 52 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          127, 334 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398"
          href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Bilfinger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das germanische
          Julfest</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1901), p. 76.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399"
          href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen
          und Sagen Tirols</span></span> (Zurich, 1857), pp. 260 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Compare J. E. Waldfreund, <span class="tei tei-q">“Volksgebräuche
          und Aberglauben,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und
          Sittenkunde</span></span>, iii. (1855) p. 339. A Westphalian form
          of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Süntevögel</span></span>, <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sunnenvögel</span></span>, or <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sommervögel</span></span>, that is, the
          butterfly. On St. Peter's Day, 22nd February, children go from
          house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel
          rhymes in which they bid the <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sommervögel</span></span> to depart. Presents
          are given to them at every house. Or the people of the house
          themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the doors, to
          drive away the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Sunnenvögel</span></span>. If
          this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes
          will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and
          other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will
          multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. See J. F. L. Woeste, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksüberlieferungen
          in der Grafschaft Mark</span></span> (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 24; J. W.
          Wolf, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur deutschen
          Mythologie</span></span>, i. (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852) p. 87;
          A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und
          Märchen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 119-121, §§ 366-374;
          Montanus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche, und
          deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> (Iserlohn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 21 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; U.
          Jahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht</span></span>
          (Breslau, 1884), pp. 94-96.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400"
          href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des
          Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1866), ii. 272, iii.
          302 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 934; O. Freiherr von
          Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das festliche Jahr</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1863), p. 137.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401"
          href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></span>, Ninth
          Edition, xx. 493.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402"
          href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Eisel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagenbuch des
          Voigtlandes</span></span> (Gera, 1871), p. 210.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403"
          href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Witzschel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten, Sagen und
          Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), pp. 262
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404"
          href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 210-212; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das
          festliche Jahr</span></span> (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137; Alois John,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte,
          Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, 1905), pp. 70-73.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405"
          href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alois John, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 71.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406"
          href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Willibald Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur
          Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and
          Olmutz, 1893), p. 324.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407"
          href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i.
          108-110. With regard to the dance of the witches in the snow, it is
          a common saying in the northern district of the Harz Mountains that
          the witches must dance the snow away on the top of the Blocksberg
          on the first of May. See A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen,
          Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 376. At
          Dabelow in Mecklenburg all utensils are removed from the fireplace
          on Walpurgis Night, lest the witches should ride on them to the
          Blocksberg. See A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408"
          href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sächsische
          Volkskunde</span></span> (Dresden, 1901), p. 359.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409"
          href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lady Agnes Macdonell, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Times</span></span>, May 3rd, 1913, p. 6. In a letter to me (dated
          31, Kensington Park Gardens, May 5th [1913]) Lady Macdonell was
          kind enough to give me some further particulars as to the custom.
          It seems that the boys use their horns on May Day as well as on the
          thirtieth of April. Processions of boys and girls decorated with
          flowers and leaves, and carrying flags and horns, went about
          Penzance on May Day of the present year (1913). The horns are
          straight; some of them terminate in a bell-shaped opening, others
          have no such appendage. The latter and plainer are the older
          pattern.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410"
          href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i.
          15-18. With regard to the superstitions attached to these twelve
          days or twelve nights, as the Germans call them, see further A.
          Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
          Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 408-418; A. Kuhn,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen,
          Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859),
          ii. 111-117; L. Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum
          Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 28 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          M. Toeppen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aberglauben aus
          Masuren</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Danzig, 1867), pp. 61
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), pp. 61
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, § 74; E. Mogk,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Mythologie,”</span> in H. Paul's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundriss
          der germanischen Philologie</span></span>,<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          iii. (Strasburg, 1900) pp. 260 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Alois John, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen
          Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), pp. 11 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411"
          href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, preface dated 1861), p. 602.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412"
          href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Aston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span>
          (London, 1905), p. 312, referring to Lady Burton's life of her
          husband.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413"
          href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Thiselton Dyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Popular
          Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 506.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414"
          href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Dalyell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Darker
          Superstitions of Scotland</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1834), p.
          670.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415"
          href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rheinisches
          Museum</span></span>, N.F., xxx. (1875) p. 198; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. (Leipzic and Berlin, 1913), p. 109; E.
          Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Feste und Bräuche des
          Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416"
          href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Herzog, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schweizerische
          Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span> (Aaran, 1884), pp.
          212 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417"
          href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Nore, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes, et
          Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons,
          1846), pp. 81, 85.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418"
          href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to Befana and her connexion with
          Epiphany, see J. Grimm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span>,<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i.
          234. The personified Befana, an ugly but good-natured old woman, is
          known in Sicily as well as Italy. See G. Pitrè, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spettacoli e Feste
          Popolari Siciliane</span></span> (Palermo, 1881), p. 167. As to the
          ceremony in the Piazza Navona, see H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 108
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, who rightly compares it to
          the Swiss ceremonies observed at and near Brunnen on Twelfth Night.
          I witnessed the noisy scene in the Piazza Navona in January,
          1901.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419"
          href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Fabbri, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Canti popolari raccolti sui monti della
          Romagna-Toscana,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni
          Popolari</span></span>, xxii. (1903) pp. 356 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H.
          Usener, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kleine Schriften</span></span>, iv. 108 note
          62. In the Abruzzi, on the evening before Epiphany, musicians go
          from house to house serenading the inmates with songs and the
          strains of fiddles, guitars, organs, and so forth. They are
          accompanied by others carrying lanterns, torches, or burning
          branches of juniper. See Antonio de Nino, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Usi e Costumi
          Abruzzesi</span></span> (Florence, 1879-1883), ii. 178-180; G.
          Finamore, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Credenze, Usi e Costumi
          Abruzzesi</span></span> (Palermo, 1890), pp. 88 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Such house to house visitations may be a relic of an old expulsion
          of witches and demons.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420"
          href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E.
          Saxby, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Home of a Naturalist</span></span>
          (London, 1888), p. 136. Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County
          Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iii. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orkney and Shetland
          Islands</span></span>, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p.
          196. As to the Trows, whose name is doubtless identical with the
          Norse Trolls (Swedish <span lang="sv" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="sv"><span style="font-style: italic">troll</span></span>,
          Norwegian <span lang="no" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "no"><span style="font-style: italic">trold</span></span>), see
          Edmondston and Saxby, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 189 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          John Jamieson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish
          Language</span></span>, New Edition, edited by J. Longmuir and D.
          Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iv. 630 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          who observes that <span class="tei tei-q">“while the Fairies are
          uniformly represented as social, cheerful, and benevolent beings,
          the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Trows</span></span> are described as gloomy
          and malignant, ever prone to injure men.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421"
          href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E.
          Saxby, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Home of a Naturalist</span></span>
          (London, 1888), p. 146. Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County
          Folk-lore</span></span>, vol. iii. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orkney and Shetland
          Islands</span></span>, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), pp.
          202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422"
          href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Shetland
            News</span></span>, February 1st, 1913, p. 5. As January 5th is
            reckoned Christmas in Shetland, the celebration of Up-helly-a'
            falls on January 29th. See J. Nicolson, in <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The World's Work
            and Play</span></span>, February, 1906, pp. 283 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
            For further information relating to the ceremony I am indebted to
            the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie (formerly
            of Lerwick, now of Kilmarnock). According to one of his
            correspondents, the Rev. Dr. J. Willcock of Lerwick, the present
            elaborate form of the ceremony dates only from 1882, when the
            Duke of Edinburgh visited Lerwick on naval business, and
            Up-helly-a' was celebrated in his honour on a grander scale than
            ever before. Yet Dr. Willcock apparently does not deny the
            antiquity of the festival in a simpler form, for in his letter he
            says: <span class="tei tei-q">“In former times an old boat filled
            with tar was set on fire and dragged about, as were also lighted
            tar-barrels.”</span> Another authority on Shetland antiquities,
            Mr. Gilbert Goudie, writes to Sheriff Mackenzie that <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“the kicking about and burning a tar-barrel is very
            old in Lerwick.”</span> Compare <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County
            Folk-lore</span></span>, iii. <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orkney and Shetland
            Islands</span></span>, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903),
            p. 205: <span class="tei tei-q">“Formerly, blazing tar-barrels
            were dragged about the town, and afterwards, with the first break
            of morning, dashed over the knab into the sea.”</span>
            Up-helly-a', the Shetland name for Antinmas, is no doubt the same
            with Uphalyday, which Dr. J. Jamieson (<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of the
            Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition, iv. 676) defines as
            <span class="tei tei-q">“the first day after the termination of
            the Christmas holidays,”</span> quoting two official documents of
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1494 and 1541
            respectively.</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have to
            thank my friend Miss Anderson of Barskimming, Mauchline,
            Ayrshire, for kindly calling my attention to this interesting
            relic of the past.</p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423"
          href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stephen Powers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes of
          California</span></span> (Washington, 1877), p. 159.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424"
          href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Catlin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North American
          Indians</span></span>, Fourth Edition (London, 1844), i. 166
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">O-kee-pa,
          a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the
          Mandans</span></span> (London, 1867).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425"
          href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diego de Landa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relation des Choses
          de Yucatan</span></span> (Paris, 1864), pp. 203-205, 211-215; E.
          Seler, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Mexican Chronology,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bureau of
          American Ethnology, Bulletin 28</span></span> (Washington, 1904),
          p. 17. As to the Maya calendar see further Cyrus Thomas,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Maya
          Year</span></span> (Washington, 1894), pp. 19 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of
          Ethnology</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426"
          href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. E. Roth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethnological Studies
          among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines</span></span>
          (Brisbane and London, 1897), pp. 120-125.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427"
          href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Moura, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Royaume du
          Cambodge</span></span> (Paris, 1883), i. 172. Compare above, p.
          149.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428"
          href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. H. Elliot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Experiences of a
          Planter in the Jungles of Mysore</span></span> (London, 1871), i.
          60 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429"
          href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Winter, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Russische Volksbräuche bei Seuchen,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lxxix. (1901) p. 302.
          For the Russian ceremony of drawing a plough round a village to
          keep out the cattle plague, see also W. R. S. Ralston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian
          People</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 396
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430"
          href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Kohl, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen</span></span> (Dresden and
          Leipsic, 1841), ii. 278.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431"
          href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vii. (1889)
          p. 174.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432"
          href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major P. R. T. Gurdon, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Khasis</span></span> (London, 1907), p. 157; A. Bastian, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
          Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</span></span>, 1881, p.
          151; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Völkerstämme am
          Brahmaputra</span></span> (Berlin, 1883), pp. 6 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433"
          href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Boas, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Central Eskimo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of
          Ethnology</span></span> (Washington, 1888), p. 605. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, p. 259.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434"
          href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capt. T. H. Lewin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wild Races of
          South-Eastern India</span></span> (London, 1870), p. 185.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435"
          href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Sangermano, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the
          Burmese Empire</span></span> (Rangoon, 1885), p. 98; Capt. C. J. F.
          S. Forbes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">British Burma</span></span> (London, 1878),
          pp. 216 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Shway Yoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Burman, his Life
          and Notions</span></span> (London, 1882), ii. 334 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          342.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436"
          href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. E. Sawyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“S. Swithin and Rainmakers,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore
          Journal</span></span>, i. (1883) p. 214.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437"
          href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Francis Buchanan, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatick
          Researches</span></span>, vi. (London, 1801) pp. 193 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Compare Lieut.-General A. Fytche, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Burma Past and
          Present</span></span> (London, 1878), i. 248 note 1; Max and Bertha
          Ferrars, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Burma</span></span> (London, 1900), p. 184;
          (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gazetteer of Upper
          Burma and the Shan States</span></span> (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part
          ii. vol. ii. pp. 95, 279.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438"
          href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Celebes en Papua</span></span> (The
          Hague, 1886), p. 282.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439"
          href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For particulars as to the winds of
          Assam I am indebted to my friend Mr. J. D. Anderson, formerly of
          the Indian Civil Service, who resided many years in that
          country.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440"
          href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 98 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441"
          href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoevell,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Leti-eilanden,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxiii. (1890)
          p. 207. However, it is not quite clear from the writer's words
          (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="nl" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="nl"><span style="font-style: italic">Immers de mannen en
          vrouwen in twee partijeen verdeelt en elk een stuk van de roten in
          de hande houdende bootsen toch ook door't voor- en achteroverbuigen
          van't lichaam de bewegingen van cohabitie na</span></span>”</span>)
          whether the men and women take opposite sides or are distributed
          between the two.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442"
          href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. C. Hodson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Naga Tribes of
          Manipur</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 168; compare 64.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Chirus have six crop festivals, one of
          which, that before the crops are cut, is marked by a rope-pulling
          ceremony of the same nature as that observed among the
          Tangkhuls”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 172). The headman
          (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">khullakpa</span></span>) <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“is a sacrosanct person, the representative of the
          village in all religious rites, and surrounded by special
          alimentary, social and conjugal <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">gennas</span></span>”</span> or taboos
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 110).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443"
          href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stewart Culin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korean
          Games</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 35; A. C. Haddon,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Study
          of Man</span></span> (London and New York, 1898), p. 274.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444"
          href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. W. Steller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beschreibung von dem
          Lande Kamtschatka</span></span> (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp.
          327 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445"
          href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. von Rosenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der malayisch
          Archipel</span></span> (Leipsic, 1878), p. 462.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446"
          href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edward Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
          Morocco,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxii. (1911) pp. 158
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with
          Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in
          Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 122.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447"
          href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ceremonies and
          Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar
          Year, and the Weather in Morocco</span></span> (Helsingfors, 1913).
          pp. 121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448"
          href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
          Morocco,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxii. (1911) p.
          159.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449"
          href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Coudreau, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chez nos Indiens,
          Quatre Années dans la Guayane Française</span></span> (Paris,
          1895), p. 234.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450"
          href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major Forbes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eleven Years in
          Ceylon</span></span> (London, 1840), i. 358.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451"
          href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Henry M. Elliot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoirs on the
          History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the
          North-Western Provinces of India</span></span>, edited, revised,
          and re-arranged by John Beames (London, 1869), i. 235.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452"
          href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), ii.
          321.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453"
          href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
          Morocco,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxii. (1911) p.
          158.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454"
          href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span>, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 92;
          Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shropshire
          Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1883), pp. 319-321.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455"
          href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 321.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456"
          href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jules Lecœur, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage
          Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), i. 13, ii.
          153-165. Compare Laisnel de la Salle, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes
          du Centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), i. 86
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; and as to the game of
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">soule</span></span>, see Guerry, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires
          des Antiquaires de France</span></span>, viii. (1829) pp.
          459-461.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457"
          href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the parish of Vieux-Pont, in the
          department of Orne, the man who is last married before the first
          Sunday in Lent must throw a ball from the foot of the cross. The
          village lads compete with each other for its possession. To win it
          the lad must carry it through three parishes without being
          overtaken by his rivals. See A. de Nore, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes, et
          Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons,
          1846), pp. 244 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458"
          href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer
          Volksstamm,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde
          van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, liii. (1901) pp. 140
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459"
          href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edouard Chavannes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Documents sur les
          Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1903),
          p. 148.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460"
          href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">François Valentyn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oud- en nieuw
          Ost-Indiën</span></span> (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii.
          14. L. de Backer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">L'Archipel Indien</span></span>, Paris, 1874,
          pp. 377 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) copies from Valentyn.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461"
          href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span> (The
          Hague, 1886), pp. 304 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462"
          href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 25 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463"
          href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 141.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464"
          href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg155" class=
          "tei tei-ref">155</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465"
          href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 78.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466"
          href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 357.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467"
          href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 266, 304 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          327, 357; H. Ling Roth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Natives of Sarawak and British North
          Borneo</span></span> (London, 1896), i. 284.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468"
          href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Hose and W. McDougall,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Pagan
          Tribes of Borneo</span></span> (London, 1912), ii. 122 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469"
          href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. W. Skeat, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay
          Magic</span></span> (London, 1900), pp. 433-435. For other examples
          of sending away plague-laden boats in the Malay region see J. G. F.
          Riedel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 181, 210; R. van
          Eck, <span class="tei tei-q">“Schetsen van het eiland Bali,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch
          Indië</span></span>, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 104; A. Bastian,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Indonesien</span></span>, i. 147; C. Hupe,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst,
          zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor
          Neêrlands Indië</span></span>, 1846, dl. iii. 150; C. F. H. Campen,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche
          Alfoeren,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
          Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 12,
          pp. 229-231; A. L. van Hasselt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksbeschrijving van
          Midden-Sumatra</span></span> (Leyden, 1882), p. 98; C. M. Pleyte,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Ethnographische Beschrijving der
          Kei-Eilanden,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch
          Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</span></span>, Tweede Serie, x. (1893)
          p. 835; H. Ling Roth, <span class="tei tei-q">“Low's Natives of
          Sarawak,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological
          Institute</span></span>, xxii, (1893) p. 25; C. Snouck Hurgronje,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          Atjehers</span></span> (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. 461
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. A. Jacobsen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen in
          der Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres</span></span> (Berlin, 1896), p.
          110.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470"
          href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahn, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die
          Jabim,”</span> in R. Neuhauss's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch
          Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (1911) pp. 329 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471"
          href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Blumentritt, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der
          Inselgruppe der Talamianen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>,
          lix. (1891) p. 183.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472"
          href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Dumont D'Urville, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage autour du
          monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette
          Astrolabe</span></span> (Paris, 1832-1833), v. 311.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473"
          href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Roepstorff, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der
          Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und
          Urgeschichte</span></span> (1881), p. 401; W. Svoboda, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, vi. (1893) pp. 10 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474"
          href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Denjoy, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“An-nam, Médecins et Sorciers, Remèdes et
          Superstitions,”</span> etc., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de
          Paris</span></span>, v. (1894) pp. 409 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Compare É. Aymonier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyage dans le Laos</span></span> (Paris,
          1895-1897), i. 121. For Siamese applications of the same principle
          to the cure of individuals, see A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Völker des
          östlichen Asien</span></span>, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 295
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 485 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475"
          href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, i. p.
          48, § 418 (January, 1884).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476"
          href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Id.</span></span>, iii. p. 81, § 373 (February
          1886).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477"
          href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          142. Bulls are used as scapegoats for cholera in Cashmeer (H. G. M.
          Murray-Aynsley, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) pp. 398
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478"
          href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rambles
          and Recollections of Indian Official</span></span>, New Edition
          (Westminster, 1893), i. 203.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_479" name="note_479"
          href="#noteref_479">479.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 198.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_480" name="note_480"
          href="#noteref_480">480.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Fawcett, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“On the Saoras (or Savaras), an Aboriginal Hill People
          of the Eastern Ghats,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological Society of
          Bombay</span></span>, i. 213, note.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_481" name="note_481"
          href="#noteref_481">481.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Y. V. Athalye, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Society of Bombay</span></span>, i. 37.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_482" name="note_482"
          href="#noteref_482">482.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          169 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes
          and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</span></span>
          (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 445.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_483" name="note_483"
          href="#noteref_483">483.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kausika Sutra</span></span>, xiv. 22 (W.
          Caland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altindisches Zauberritual</span></span>,
          Amsterdam, 1900, p. 29); H. Oldenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des
          Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 498.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_484" name="note_484"
          href="#noteref_484">484.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kausika Sutra</span></span>, xviii. 16 (W.
          Caland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altindisches Zauberritual</span></span>, pp.
          44 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_485" name="note_485"
          href="#noteref_485">485.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dom Daniel Sour Dharim Dena (a Dinka
          convert), in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Annales de la Propagation de la
          Foi</span></span>, lx. (1888) pp. 57 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_486" name="note_486"
          href="#noteref_486">486.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Seidel, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Krankheit, Tod, und Begräbnis bei den
          Togonegern,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lxxii. (1897) p.
          24.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_487" name="note_487"
          href="#noteref_487">487.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Forbes, <span class="tei tei-q">“On
          the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, vol. ii. No. 3
          (October, 1870), p. 237.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_488" name="note_488"
          href="#noteref_488">488.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jivangi Jimshedji Modi, B.A.,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Chariot of the Goddess, a Supposed
          Remedy for driving out an Epidemic,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Anthropological Society of Bombay</span></span>, vol. iv. No. 8
          (Bombay, 1899), pp. 420-424; Captain C. Eckford Luard, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Census of
          India, 1901</span></span>, vol. xix., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Central
          India</span></span> (Lucknow, 1902), p. 78.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_489" name="note_489"
          href="#noteref_489">489.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 342.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_490" name="note_490"
          href="#noteref_490">490.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Baganda</span></span>, pp. 109, 200. As to the perpetual fire at
          the entrance to a king's enclosure, see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span> pp.
          103, 197, 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_491" name="note_491"
          href="#noteref_491">491.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Gray, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">China</span></span>
          (London, 1878), ii. 306.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_492" name="note_492"
          href="#noteref_492">492.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, i. p.
          75, § 598 (April, 1884); W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          170.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_493" name="note_493"
          href="#noteref_493">493.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. F. Hahn, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the
          Oraos”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journal of the Asiatic Society of
          Bengal</span></span>, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 17;
          compare H. C. Streatfield, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 37.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_494" name="note_494"
          href="#noteref_494">494.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">North Indian Notes and Queries</span></span>,
          i. pp. 55, 74 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 77, §§ 417, 499, 516 (July
          and August, 1891), quoting G. W. Traill, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Sketch of
          Kumaun</span></span>, pp. 68 sq., and Moorcroft and Trebeck,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels
          in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the
          Panjáb</span></span>, i. 17 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare E. T. Atkinson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of
          India</span></span>, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 834 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_495" name="note_495"
          href="#noteref_495">495.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Woodville Rockhill, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tibet, A Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical
          Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal
          Asiatic Society for 1891</span></span> (London, 1891), p. 209.
          Compare Hue, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le
          Thibet</span></span>, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 379
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> For a description of Potala
          Hill and its grand palace, see L. Austine Waddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lhasa and its
          Mysteries</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 330 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          387 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_496" name="note_496"
          href="#noteref_496">496.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
          Notes and Queries</span></span>, No. 3 (Singapore, 1886), pp. 80
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_497" name="note_497"
          href="#noteref_497">497.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. F. Riedel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De sluik- en
          kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</span></span> (The
          Hague, 1886), p. 393.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_498" name="note_498"
          href="#noteref_498">498.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Mensch in der
          Geschichte</span></span> (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 93.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_499" name="note_499"
          href="#noteref_499">499.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ivor H. N. Evans, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions,
          Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk
          Districts, British North Borneo,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal
          Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xlii. (1912) pp.
          382-384.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_500" name="note_500"
          href="#noteref_500">500.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Bastian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 91.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_501" name="note_501"
          href="#noteref_501">501.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">V. Solomon, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) pp.
          228 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_502" name="note_502"
          href="#noteref_502">502.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Captain F. Wilford, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“An Essay on the Sacred Isles in the West,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic
          Researches</span></span>, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 96 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_503" name="note_503"
          href="#noteref_503">503.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Gray, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">China</span></span>
          (London, 1878), ii. 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_504" name="note_504"
          href="#noteref_504">504.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Woodville Rockhill, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions
          of Corea,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The American Anthropologist</span></span>, iv.
          (1891) p. 185; Mrs. Bishop, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Korea and her Neighbours</span></span>
          (London, 1898), ii. 56.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_505" name="note_505"
          href="#noteref_505">505.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stewart Culin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Korean
          Games</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 12.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_506" name="note_506"
          href="#noteref_506">506.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to
          Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa</span></span>,
          edited by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1876), pp. 106
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Sarat Chandra Das,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journey
          to Lhasa and Central Tibet</span></span> (London, 1902), p.
          116.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_507" name="note_507"
          href="#noteref_507">507.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Missionary Fage, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales de la
          Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, xxix. (1857) p. 321.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_508" name="note_508"
          href="#noteref_508">508.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. J. Hutchinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Impressions of
          Western Africa</span></span> (London, 1858), p. 162; Rev. J.
          Macdonald, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Religion and Myth</span></span> (London,
          1893), pp. 105-107; Hugh Goldie, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Calabar and its
          Mission</span></span>, New Edition (Edinburgh and London, 1901),
          pp. 49 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Miss Mary H. Kingsley,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels
          in West Africa</span></span> (London, 1897), p. 495; Major A. G.
          Leonard, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Lower Niger and its Tribes</span></span>
          (London, 1906), pp. 449-451. The ceremony takes place both in Creek
          Town and Duke Town. The date of it, according to Miss Kingsley, is
          either every November or every second November; but with the
          exception of Mr. Macdonald, who does not mention the period, the
          other authorities agree in describing the ceremony as biennial.
          According to Major Leonard it is celebrated usually towards the end
          of the year. Miss Kingsley speaks of the effigies being set up in
          the houses themselves; but all the other writers say or imply that
          they are set up at the doors of the houses in the streets.
          According to Mr. Goldie the spirits expelled are <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“all the ghosts of those who have died since the last
          lustration.”</span> He makes no mention of devils.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_509" name="note_509"
          href="#noteref_509">509.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Missionary F. Terrien, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales de la
          Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, liv. (1882) pp. 375-377.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_510" name="note_510"
          href="#noteref_510">510.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_511" name="note_511"
          href="#noteref_511">511.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jakob Spieth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. We have seen
          (above, p. 193) that these people used a toad as a scapegoat to
          free them from the influenza.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_512" name="note_512"
          href="#noteref_512">512.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. von Wlislocki, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksglaube und
          religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner</span></span> (Münster i. W., 1891),
          pp. 65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_513" name="note_513"
          href="#noteref_513">513.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major A. Playfair, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Garos</span></span> (London, 1909), p. 92.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_514" name="note_514"
          href="#noteref_514">514.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Atkinson, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of
          the North-West Provinces,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the
          Asiatic Society of Bengal</span></span>, liii. Pt. i. (1884) p. 62;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Himalayan
          Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India</span></span>,
          ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 871.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_515" name="note_515"
          href="#noteref_515">515.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth
          Century</span></span>, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre,
          edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_516" name="note_516"
          href="#noteref_516">516.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. M. Beauchamp, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Iroquois White Dog Feast,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American
          Antiquarian</span></span>, vii. (1885) p. 237.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_517" name="note_517"
          href="#noteref_517">517.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 236; T. Dwight,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels
          in New England and New York</span></span> (London, 1823), iv.
          202.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_518" name="note_518"
          href="#noteref_518">518.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg127" class=
          "tei tei-ref">127</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_519" name="note_519"
          href="#noteref_519">519.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leviticus xvi. The word translated
          <span class="tei tei-q">“scapegoat”</span> in the Authorised
          Version is Azazel, which appears rather to be the name of a bad
          angel or demon, to whom the goat was sent away. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“In later Jewish literature (Book of Enoch) Azazel
          appears as the prince of the fallen angels, the offspring of the
          unions described in Gen. vi. 1 ff. The familiar rendering
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘scapegoat,’</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>
          the goat which is allowed to escape, goes back to the <span lang=
          "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">caper emissarius</span></span> of the Vulgate,
          and is based on an untenable etymology”</span> (Professor A. R. S.
          Kennedy, in his commentary on Leviticus xvi. 8, in the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Century
          Bible</span></span>). There is some ground for thinking that the
          animal was killed by being thrown over a certain crag that
          overhangs a rocky chasm not far from Jerusalem. See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopædia
          Biblica</span></span>, ed. T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, vol. i.
          (London, 1899) coll. 394 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Azazel.”</span> Modern Jews sacrifice a
          white cock on the eve of the Day of Atonement, nine days after the
          beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the
          cock thrice against his own head, saying, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my
          place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed
          on me and on all Israel.”</span> Then he cuts its throat and dashes
          the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the
          roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the
          poor. See J. Buxtorf, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Synagoga Judaica</span></span> (Bâle, 1661),
          ch. xxv. pp. 508 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_520" name="note_520"
          href="#noteref_520">520.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Gospel on the Banks of the Niger</span></span> (London, 1859), pp.
          343-345. Compare J. F. Schön and S. Crowther, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Journals</span></span> (London, 1848), pp. 48
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The account of the custom by
          J. Africanus B. Horton (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">West African Countries and
          Peoples</span></span>, pp. 185 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) is
          taken entirely from Taylor.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_521" name="note_521"
          href="#noteref_521">521.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major A. G. Leonard, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Lower Niger and
          its Tribes</span></span> (London, 1906), pp. 446 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_522" name="note_522"
          href="#noteref_522">522.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">An Igbodu is a sacred grove in which
          oracles are given. It is divided into three compartments by fences
          of palm branches and the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">omu</span></span> shrub. Into the first
          compartment women and uninitiated men may enter; into the other two
          only priestly officials are permitted, according to their rank in
          the hierarchy, to enter. See Bishop James Johnson, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Yoruba Heathenism,”</span> quoted by R. E. Dennett,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">At the
          Back of the Black Man's Mind</span></span> (London, 1906), p.
          254.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_523" name="note_523"
          href="#noteref_523">523.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bishop James Johnson, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 263. Bishop Johnson is a native African. It
          does not appear whether the sacrifice which he describes is
          occasional or periodical.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_524" name="note_524"
          href="#noteref_524">524.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Turpin, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“History of Siam,”</span> in J. Pinkerton's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages
          and Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), ix. 579.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_525" name="note_525"
          href="#noteref_525">525.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The <span lang="ja" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">oho-harahi</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Great Purification”</span> is a ceremony, which used
          to be performed in the Japanese capital twice every year, namely on
          the last days of the sixth and twelfth month. It included a
          preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the recital of a
          <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">norito</span></span> or formula (not a
          prayer), in which the Mikado, by virtue of an authority transmitted
          to him from the Sun-goddess, pronounced to his ministers and people
          the absolution and remission of their sins. See W. G. Aston,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 294
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The writer adds (p. 295):
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Chinese had an <span lang="ja" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">oho-harahi</span></span>, defined by Mr. Giles
          in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chinese Dictionary</span></span> as
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘a religious ceremony of purification
          performed in spring and autumn, with a view to secure divine
          protection for agricultural interests.’</span>?”</span> The popular
          celebrations of the first of May and the first of November in
          Europe seem to be relics of similar biennial purifications.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_526" name="note_526"
          href="#noteref_526">526.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Aston, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span>,
          pp. 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_527" name="note_527"
          href="#noteref_527">527.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Ködding, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Batakschen Götter und ihr Verhältnis zum
          Brahmanismus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift</span></span>,
          xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_528" name="note_528"
          href="#noteref_528">528.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aeneas Sylvius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opera</span></span>
          (Bâle, 1571), pp. 423 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_529" name="note_529"
          href="#noteref_529">529.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rheinisches
          Museum</span></span>, N.F., xxx. (1875) p. 198; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 109
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The custom seems to have
          been revived in the latter part of the nineteenth century; perhaps
          it may still be observed. See H. Herzog, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schweizerische
          Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span> (Aarau, 1884), pp.
          293 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Hoffmann-Krayer,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und
          Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zurich, 1913), p.
          101.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_530" name="note_530"
          href="#noteref_530">530.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Curtius, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Christi Himmelfahrt,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archiv für
          Religionswissenschaft</span></span>, xiv. (1911) p. 307, quoting
          the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten</span></span>,
          No. 235, May 21st, 1909.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_531" name="note_531"
          href="#noteref_531">531.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 164 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_532" name="note_532"
          href="#noteref_532">532.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the use of eponymous magistrates as
          annual scapegoats see above, pp. <a href="#Pg039" class=
          "tei tei-ref">39-41</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_533" name="note_533"
          href="#noteref_533">533.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Thomas Phillips, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of the
          Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of
          Malabar</span></span> (London, 1717), pp. 6, 12 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_534" name="note_534"
          href="#noteref_534">534.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, ii. 39.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_535" name="note_535"
          href="#noteref_535">535.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Sir J. Gardner
          Wilkinson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Manners and Customs of the Ancient
          Egyptians</span></span>, New Edition (London, 1878), iii. 403
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_536" name="note_536"
          href="#noteref_536">536.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span> As
          to the worship of sacred bulls in ancient Egypt, see further
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits
          of the Corn and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 34 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_537" name="note_537"
          href="#noteref_537">537.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 175 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 314 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_538" name="note_538"
          href="#noteref_538">538.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, ii. p.
          54, § 335 (December, 1884).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_539" name="note_539"
          href="#noteref_539">539.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. For the
          custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, compare Demosthenes,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> xxiii. 68, p. 642;
          Pausanias, iii. 20. 9.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_540" name="note_540"
          href="#noteref_540">540.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ceremony referred to is perhaps
          the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_541" name="note_541"
          href="#noteref_541">541.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Report of a
          Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,”</span> etc.,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Royal Geographical Society</span></span>, xxxviii. (1868)
          pp. 167, 170 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Four Years Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of
          the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the
          Royal Geographical Society</span></span>, N.S. vii. (1885) pp. 67
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Woodville Rockhill,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Tibet, a Geographical, Ethnographical, and
          Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891</span></span> (London, 1891),
          pp. 211 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; L. A. Waddell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Buddhism of
          Tibet</span></span> (London, 1895), pp. 504 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          512 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mission
          Scientifique dans la Haute Asie 1890-1895: Récit du
          Voyage</span></span> (Paris, 1897), pp. 257 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The
          accounts supplement each other, though they differ in some
          particulars. I have endeavoured to combine them. According to Mr.
          Rockhill's account, which is drawn from Chinese sources, at one
          point of the ceremonies the troops march thrice round the temple
          and fire volleys of musketry to drive away the devil. With the like
          intent they discharge a great old cannon, which bears the
          inscription, <span class="tei tei-q">“My power breaks up and
          destroys rebellion.”</span> The same account speaks of a fencing
          with battle-axes by a troop of boy-dancers, a great illumination of
          the cathedral with lanterns, and its decoration with figures made
          out of butter and flour to represent men, animals, dragons, etc.;
          also it makes mention of a horse-race and a foot-race, both run by
          boys. The clerical invasion of the capital at this season is
          graphically described by an eye-witness. See Huc, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Souvenirs d'un Voyage
          dans la Tartarie et le Thibet</span></span>, Sixième Édition
          (Paris, 1878), ii. 380 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_542" name="note_542"
          href="#noteref_542">542.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the Dassera festival, as celebrated
          in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion
          of demons preceded by a time of license. The festival occurs at the
          beginning of October and lasts ten days. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“During its continuance there is a general holiday
          among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time
          is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather
          by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are
          closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of
          the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery
          always at the Dassera of all prisoners.”</span> This seems a trace
          of a period of license. At this time <span class="tei tei-q">“it is
          a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of
          money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have
          given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as
          well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like
          our <span class="tei tei-q">‘boxing-time’</span> at
          Christmas.”</span> On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade
          of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a
          given signal the regiments begin to fire, the artillery takes it
          up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it
          suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the
          demons. <span class="tei tei-q">“The grand cutting of the
          rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and
          commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.”</span> See
          the description of the festival in H. A. Oldfield's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sketches from
          Nipal</span></span> (London, 1880), ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in
          India, see J. A. Dubois, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples
          de l'Inde</span></span> (Paris, 1825), ii. 329 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          The Besisi of the Malay Peninsula hold a regular carnival at the
          end of the rice-harvest, when they are said to be allowed to
          exchange wives. See W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pagan Races of the
          Malay Peninsula</span></span> (London, 1906), ii. 70, 76, 145,
          compare 120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Amongst the Swahili of East
          Africa New Year's Day was formerly a day of general license,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels
          were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no
          inquiry was instituted about the matter.”</span> See Ch. New,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life,
          Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa</span></span> (London,
          1873), p. 65; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span>,<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          iii. 250. An annual period of anarchy and license, lasting three
          days, is reported by Borelli to be observed by some of the Gallas.
          See Ph. Paulitschke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige
          Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somal</span></span> (Berlin, 1896),
          p. 158. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time
          of general license. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 62.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_543" name="note_543"
          href="#noteref_543">543.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying
          God</span></span>, pp. 233 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 264.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_544" name="note_544"
          href="#noteref_544">544.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg186" class=
          "tei tei-ref">186</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class=
          "tei tei-ref">189</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class=
          "tei tei-ref">201</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_545" name="note_545"
          href="#noteref_545">545.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rheinisches
          Museum</span></span>, N.F. (1875) xxx. 194; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) p.
          105.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_546" name="note_546"
          href="#noteref_546">546.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joannes Lydus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          mensibus</span></span>, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion
          on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a
          mistake. See H. Usener, <span class="tei tei-q">“Italische
          Mythen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rheinisches Museum</span></span>, xxx. (1875)
          pp. 209 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 122
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Again, Lydus does not
          expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city,
          but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical
          prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus
          only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius
          Veturius is preserved by Varro, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De lingua
          latina</span></span>, vi. 45; Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 131;
          Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Numa</span></span>, 13. Mr. W. Warde Fowler is
          disposed to be sceptical as to the antiquity of the ceremony of
          expelling Mamurius. See his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Roman Festivals of the period of the
          Republic</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 44-50.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_547" name="note_547"
          href="#noteref_547">547.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> pp. 212 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. 125 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W.
          H. Roscher, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Apollon und Mars</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1873), p. 27; L. Preller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Römische Mythologie</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 360; A. Vanicek, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches
          Wörterbuch</span></span> (Leipsic, 1877), p. 715. The three latter
          scholars take Veturius as = <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">annuus</span></span>, because <span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">vetus</span></span> is etymologically
          equivalent to ?t??. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite
          unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the
          Latin.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_548" name="note_548"
          href="#noteref_548">548.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De agri
          cultura</span></span>, 141.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_549" name="note_549"
          href="#noteref_549">549.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Varro, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De lingua
          latina</span></span>, v. 85.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_550" name="note_550"
          href="#noteref_550">550.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the song of the Arval Brothers in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acta
          Fratrum Arvalium</span></span>, ed. G. Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp.
          26 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Wordsworth, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragments and
          Specimens of Early Latin</span></span> (Oxford, 1874), p. 158; H.
          Dessau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</span></span>,
          ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) p. 276.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_551" name="note_551"
          href="#noteref_551">551.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 42 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_552" name="note_552"
          href="#noteref_552">552.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De agri
          cultura</span></span>, 83.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_553" name="note_553"
          href="#noteref_553">553.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 55, 124 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_554" name="note_554"
          href="#noteref_554">554.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Preller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> i. 360; W. H. Roscher,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apollon
          und Mars</span></span>, p. 49; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon
          der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 2408
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. Usener, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland
          New Year ceremony already described. See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn
          and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 322 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_555" name="note_555"
          href="#noteref_555">555.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">But the Biyârs, a mixed tribe of
          North-Western India, observe an annual ceremony which they call
          <span class="tei tei-q">“burning the old year.”</span> The old year
          is represented by a stake of the wood of the cotton-tree, which is
          planted in the ground at an appointed place outside of the village,
          and then burned on the day of the full moon in the month of Pûs.
          Fire is first put to it by the village priest, and then all the
          people follow his example, parch stalks of barley in the fire, and
          afterwards eat them. Next day they throw the ashes of the burnt
          wood in the air; and on the morrow the festival ends with a regular
          saturnalia, at which decency and order are forgotten. See W.
          Crooke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tribes and Castes of the North-Western
          Provinces and Oudh</span></span> (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 137
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular
          Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span>
          (Westminster, 1896), ii. 319.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_556" name="note_556"
          href="#noteref_556">556.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Propertius, v. 2. 61 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H.
          Usener, <span class="tei tei-q">“Italische Mythen,”</span> p. 210;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine
          Schriften</span></span>, iv. 123.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_557" name="note_557"
          href="#noteref_557">557.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Varro, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De lingua
          latina</span></span>, vi. 45 ed. C. O. Müller; Festus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Mamuri Veturi,”</span> p. 131 ed. C. O.
          Müller; Ovid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iii. 389 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Numa</span></span>, 13.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_558" name="note_558"
          href="#noteref_558">558.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servius, on Virgil, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span>
          vii. 188, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Cui [scil. Mamurio] et diem consecrarunt, quo
          pellem virgis feriunt</span></span>”</span>; Minucius Felix,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Octavius</span></span>, 24, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Nudi cruda hieme discurrunt,
          alii incedunt pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt, pelles
          caedunt</span></span>.”</span> Neither Servius nor Minucius Felix
          expressly mentions the Salii, but the description given by the
          latter writer (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pilleati, scuta vetera
          circumferunt</span></span>”</span>) proves that he alludes to them.
          The expression of Minucius Felix <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">pelles caedunt</span></span> is conclusive in
          favour of <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">pellem</span></span> in the
          passage of Servius, where some would wrongly substitute <span lang=
          "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">peltam</span></span>, the reading of a single
          MS. That the beating of the skin-clad representative of Mamurius
          was done by the Salii was long ago rightly pointed out by Dr. W. H.
          Roscher (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Apollon und Mars</span></span>, p. 49).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_559" name="note_559"
          href="#noteref_559">559.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Varro, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De lingua
          latina</span></span>, v. 85, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang=
          "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saliia salitando, quod facere in comitio in
          sacris quotannis et solent et debent</span></span>.”</span> Compare
          Ovid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iii. 387, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Iam dederat Saliis a saltu
          nomina dicta</span></span>”</span>; Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Numa</span></span>,
          13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquitates
          Romanae</span></span>, ii. 70.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_560" name="note_560"
          href="#noteref_560">560.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Marquardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Staatsverwaltung</span></span>, iii.<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Leipsic, 1885) p. 431; G. Wissowa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultus
          der Römer</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Munich, 1912), p. 144; W.
          Warde Fowler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Religious Experience of the Roman
          People</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 96 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_561" name="note_561"
          href="#noteref_561">561.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 325,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Qui deus in
          saliaribus Saturnus nominatur, videlicet a
          sationibus</span></span>.”</span> In this passage Ritschl reads
          <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saeturnus</span></span> for <span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnus</span></span>. The best MSS. of the
          epitome read <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Sateurnus</span></span>. See
          J. Wordsworth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fragments and Specimens of Early
          Latin</span></span> (Oxford, 1884), p. 405. As to Saturn in this
          capacity see below, p. 306.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_562" name="note_562"
          href="#noteref_562">562.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Columella, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re
          rustica</span></span>, ii. 9. 6 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_563" name="note_563"
          href="#noteref_563">563.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 137 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_564" name="note_564"
          href="#noteref_564">564.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Marquardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Staatsverwaltung</span></span>, iii.<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 427 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_565" name="note_565"
          href="#noteref_565">565.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Preller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Mythologie</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1881-1883), i.
          359. As to the lunar year of the old Roman Calendar see L. Ideler,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch
          der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 38 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_566" name="note_566"
          href="#noteref_566">566.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to their number and badge see Aulus
          Gellius, vi. (vii., ed. M. Hertz) 7. 8; as to their function see
          Varro, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          lingua latina</span></span>, v. 85, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Fratres Arvales dicti sunt,
          qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva, a
          ferendo et arvis fratres arvales dicti</span></span>.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_567" name="note_567"
          href="#noteref_567">567.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, i. 20. 4; Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Numa</span></span>,
          13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquitates
          Romanae</span></span>, ii. 70. Livy only mentions the shields. From
          an ancient relief we learn that the staves of the Salii terminated
          in a knob at each end. Hence we may correct the statement of
          Dionysius, who describes the weapon doubtfully as ?????? ? ??ßd?? ?
          t? t????? ?te???. See J. Marquardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Staatsverwaltung</span></span>, iii.<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          432, note 6.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_568" name="note_568"
          href="#noteref_568">568.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg113" class=
          "tei tei-ref">113</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class=
          "tei tei-ref">116</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class=
          "tei tei-ref">117</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class=
          "tei tei-ref">132</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class=
          "tei tei-ref">139</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class=
          "tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class=
          "tei tei-ref">147</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class=
          "tei tei-ref">158</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class=
          "tei tei-ref">159</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
          "tei tei-ref">161</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class=
          "tei tei-ref">163</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class=
          "tei tei-ref">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class=
          "tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class=
          "tei tei-ref">186</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
          "tei tei-ref">191</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class=
          "tei tei-ref">196</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class=
          "tei tei-ref">200</a>, <a href="#Pg204" class=
          "tei tei-ref">204</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class=
          "tei tei-ref">214</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_569" name="note_569"
          href="#noteref_569">569.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, i. 20. 4; J. Marquardt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> iii.<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> 432 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W.
          Smith, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dictionary of Greek and Roman
          Antiquities</span></span>, Third Edition (London, 1891), vol. ii.
          p. 590, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Salii.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_570" name="note_570"
          href="#noteref_570">570.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg111" class=
          "tei tei-ref">111</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_571" name="note_571"
          href="#noteref_571">571.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg138" class=
          "tei tei-ref">138</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_572" name="note_572"
          href="#noteref_572">572.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Labat, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage du Chevalier
          Des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne</span></span>
          (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. 80 (p. 99 of the Paris edition).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_573" name="note_573"
          href="#noteref_573">573.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Olivier de Sanderval, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De l'Atlantique au
          Niger par le Foutah-Djallon</span></span> (Paris, 1883), p. 230.
          The phrase which I have translated <span class="tei tei-q">“for
          exorcising the spirits”</span> is <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">pour conjurer les
          esprits</span></span>.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_574" name="note_574"
          href="#noteref_574">574.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ludovico di Varthema, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels in Egypt,
          Syria</span></span>, etc., translated by J. W. Jones (Hakluyt
          Society, London, 1863), pp. 166 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_575" name="note_575"
          href="#noteref_575">575.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 95, 186 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_576" name="note_576"
          href="#noteref_576">576.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 111 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_577" name="note_577"
          href="#noteref_577">577.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Annales de la Propagation de la
          Foi</span></span>, liii. (1881) p. 178.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_578" name="note_578"
          href="#noteref_578">578.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lumholtz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown
          Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 330 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_579" name="note_579"
          href="#noteref_579">579.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lumholtz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown
          Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 335 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          352 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_580" name="note_580"
          href="#noteref_580">580.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Th. Preuss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Nayarit-Expedition</span></span>, I. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion der
          Cora-Indianer</span></span> (Leipsic, 1912), pp. xcviii.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 61-63. As to the sowing
          festival of the Mexican Indians, compare K. Th. Preuss,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Die religiösen Gesänge und Mythen einiger
          Stämme der mexikanischen Sierra Madre,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archiv für
          Religionswissenschaft</span></span>, xi. (1908) pp. 374
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_581" name="note_581"
          href="#noteref_581">581.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 137-139.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_582" name="note_582"
          href="#noteref_582">582.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. F. J. Vonbun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur
          deutschen Mythologie gesammelt in Churrhaetien</span></span> (Chur,
          1862), p. 21, quoting J. Stumpf and Ulr. Campell. As the passage is
          curious and the work probably rare, I will quote the original in
          full: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sicherlich auch im zusammenhange mit
          Donarcultus war ein brauch der leute in der Grub (in
          Graubünden).</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die landleute in der Grub haben noch etwas
          anererbte bräuche, indem dass sie sich zu etlichen jahren (meistens
          zur zeit der sonnenwende) besammelten, verbutzten (sich als masken
          vermummten) und einander unbekannt machten, legten harnisch und
          geweer an, und nahm jeder ein grossen kolben oder knüttel, zugen in
          einer rott mit einander von einem dorf zum andern, triben hohe
          sprünge und seltsame abentheur.—Sie luffen gestracks laufs
          aneinander, stiessen mit kräften je einer den andern, dass es
          erhillt, stiessen laut mit ihren grössen stöcken und knütteln,
          deswegen sie vom landvolk genannt werden die Stopfer. Diese
          thorechte abentheuer triben sie zum aberglauben, dass ihnen das
          korn destobas gerathen sölle, haben aber anjetzo abgelassen, und
          sind diese Stopfer in keiner achtung mehr</span></span>.’</span>
          (Joh. Stumpf). <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Auch Ulr. Campell erwähnt
          dieses volksbrauch (s. 11) und bemerkt</span></span>: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">mit diesem gebrauche hing
          früher der glaube zusammen, dass dessen ausübung ein fruchtbares
          jahr bringe.</span></span>’</span>?”</span> The word <span lang=
          "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Stopfer</span></span> means <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“stopper,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“rammer,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“crammer,”</span> etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_583" name="note_583"
          href="#noteref_583">583.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          Mythologie</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 226
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, iii. 88 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Fr. Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span>
          (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 247 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ii. 381; I. V. Zingerle,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Perahta in Tirol,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          deutsche Mythologie</span></span>, iii. (Göttingen, 1855), pp.
          203-206; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten, Bräuche und
          Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 128 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 138 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq</span></span>.; J.
          M. Ritter von Alpenburg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mythen und Sagen Tirols</span></span> (Zürich,
          1857), pp. 46-51, 63-65; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des
          Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A.
          Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), § 25, pp.
          25-27; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer
          Nachbarstämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), pp. 542 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Karl Weinhold, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland
          und Schlesien</span></span> (Vienna, 1875), pp. 19 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          E. Mogk, in H. Paul's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Grundriss der germanischen
          Philologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> iii. (Strasburg, 1900), pp.
          280 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq</span></span>. (where it is said that
          Perchta <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">spendet dem Acker Fruchtbarkeit und lässt das
          Vieh gedeihen</span></span>”</span>); E. H. Meyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologie der
          Germanen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 424 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          P. Herrmann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Deutsche Mythologie</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1906), pp. 303 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; M. Andree-Eysen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volkskundliches aus dem
          bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet</span></span> (Brunswick,
          1910), pp. 156 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. Hoffmann-Krayer,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und
          Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zürich, 1913), pp. 118
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_584" name="note_584"
          href="#noteref_584">584.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Grimm, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche
          Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 231; I. V. Zingerle,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten,
          Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 542 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J.
          M. Ritter von Alpenburg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mythen und Sagen Tirols</span></span> (Zürich,
          1857), pp. 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; K. Weinhold, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Weinacht-Spiele und
          Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien</span></span> (Vienna,
          1875), pp. 21 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_585" name="note_585"
          href="#noteref_585">585.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkskundliches aus
          dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet</span></span> (Brunswick,
          1910), pp. 156-175.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_586" name="note_586"
          href="#noteref_586">586.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkskundliches aus
          dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet</span></span> (Brunswick,
          1910), pp. 179 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The authoress kindly
          presented me with a copy of her valuable work in May 1910, when I
          had the pleasure of visiting her and her husband, the eminent
          anthropologist, the late Dr. Richard Andree, in their home at
          Munich.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_587" name="note_587"
          href="#noteref_587">587.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See P. Sartori, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für
          Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) pp. 360 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          The use in classical antiquity of bells, gongs, and the clash of
          bronze generally to ban the demon host has been learnedly
          illustrated by Mr. A. B. Cook in his article, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Gong at Dodona,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic
          Studies</span></span>, xxii. (1902) pp. 14 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_588" name="note_588"
          href="#noteref_588">588.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. A. L. Kitching, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the Backwaters of
          the Nile</span></span> (London, 1912), p. 264. As to the country of
          the Teso people, who do not belong to the Bantu stock, see
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, pp. 26 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_589" name="note_589"
          href="#noteref_589">589.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 180-182. As to the custom of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“ringing-out the grass,”</span> see further W.
          Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 540; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the
          Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 343 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_590" name="note_590"
          href="#noteref_590">590.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 182.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_591" name="note_591"
          href="#noteref_591">591.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_592" name="note_592"
          href="#noteref_592">592.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Seifart, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen,
          Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift
          Hildesheim</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 180.
          For more evidence of the supposed fertilizing influence of bells,
          see P. Sartori, <span class="tei tei-q">“Glockensagen und
          Glockenaberglaube,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für
          Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) pp. 363 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_593" name="note_593"
          href="#noteref_593">593.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I. V. Zingerle, Sitten, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bräuche und Meinungen
          des Tiroler Volkes</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 135 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 139, § 1196, 1211,
          1212.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_594" name="note_594"
          href="#noteref_594">594.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 268 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_595" name="note_595"
          href="#noteref_595">595.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marie Andree-Eysn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 182 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_596" name="note_596"
          href="#noteref_596">596.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 548.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_597" name="note_597"
          href="#noteref_597">597.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_598" name="note_598"
          href="#noteref_598">598.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg236" class=
          "tei tei-ref">236</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_599" name="note_599"
          href="#noteref_599">599.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 325 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_600" name="note_600"
          href="#noteref_600">600.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Popular
          Customs</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 32; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County Folk-lore,
          Printed Extracts, No. 3, Leicestershire and
          Rutlandshire</span></span>, collected and edited by C. J. Billson
          (London, 1895), pp. 93 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_601" name="note_601"
          href="#noteref_601">601.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. Lilly Grove (Mrs. J. G. Frazer),
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dancing</span></span> (London, 1895), pp. 147
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. K. Chambers,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford, 1903), i. 195 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_602" name="note_602"
          href="#noteref_602">602.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the swords carried by the
          <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Perchten</span></span> see above, p. <a href=
          "#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a>; as to those carried by the
          dancers on Plough Monday, see J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1882-1883), i. 505. As to
          the sword-dance in general, see K. Müllenhoff, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Über den Schwerttanz,”</span> in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Festgaben für Gustav
          Homeyer</span></span> (Berlin, 1871), pp. 111-147 (who compares the
          dances of the Salii); Mrs. Lilly Grove, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 189 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 211 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          E. K. Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> i. 182 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_603" name="note_603"
          href="#noteref_603">603.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg331" class=
          "tei tei-ref">331</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_604" name="note_604"
          href="#noteref_604">604.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaest.
          conviv.</span></span> vi. 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_605" name="note_605"
          href="#noteref_605">605.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg143" class=
          "tei tei-ref">143</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 209.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_606" name="note_606"
          href="#noteref_606">606.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servius on Virgil, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span>
          iii. 57, following Petronius; Lactantius Placidius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentarii in Statii
          Thebaida</span></span> x. 793, p. 452, ed. R. Jahnke (Leipsic,
          1898). According to the former writer, the scapegoat was cast out
          (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">projiciebatur</span></span>”</span>);
          according to the latter, he was stoned to death by the people
          outside of the walls (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">extra pomeria saxis occidebatur a
          populo</span></span>”</span>). The statement of some modern writers
          that he was killed by being hurled from a height rests on a reading
          (<span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">praecipitabatur</span></span>”</span> for
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">projiciebatur</span></span>”</span>) in the
          text of Servius, which appears to have no manuscript authority and
          to be merely a conjecture of R. Stephan's. Yet the conjecture has
          been inserted in the text by F. Buecheler in his edition of
          Petronius (Third Edition, Berlin, 1882, p. 109) without any
          intimation that all the MSS. present a different reading. See the
          critical edition of Servius edited by G. Thilo and H. Hagen, vol.
          i. (Leipsic, 1881), p. 346.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_607" name="note_607"
          href="#noteref_607">607.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Helladius, in Photius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, p. 534 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">A</span></span>, ed. Im. Bekker (Berlin,
          1824); Scholiast on Aristophanes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>,
          734, and on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Knights</span></span>, 1136; Hesychius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          fa?µa???; compare Suidas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.vv.</span></span>
          ???a?µa, fa?µa???, and fa?µa????; Lysias, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span>
          vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration.
          See next note. When the people of Cyrene sacrificed to Saturn
          (Cronus), they wore crowns of fresh figs on their heads. See
          Macrobius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturn</span></span>, i. 7. 25.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_608" name="note_608"
          href="#noteref_608">608.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Harpocration, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          fa?µa???, who says d?? ??d?a? ??????s?? ?????? ?a???s?a ?s?µ?????
          t?? p??e?? ?? t??? Ta????????, ??a µ?? ?p?? t?? ??d???, ??a d? ?p??
          t?? ???a????. He does not expressly state that they were put to
          death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the
          execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may
          infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> fa?µa???) copies
          Harpocration. As to the human scapegoats employed by the Greeks at
          the Thargelia and on other occasions see W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische
          Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 124 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          J. Töpffer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur griechischen
          Altertumswissenschaft</span></span> (Berlin, 1897), pp. 130
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; August Mommsen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der
          Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Miss J. E. Harrison,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
          Religion</span></span>, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 95
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; M. P. Nilsson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Griechische Feste</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1906), pp. 105 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. R. Paton, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The fa?µa??? and the Story of the Fall,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Archéologique</span></span>, iv. Série ix. (1907) pp. 51-57.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_609" name="note_609"
          href="#noteref_609">609.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ovid,
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Ibis</span></span>, 467 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>:</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
            "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Aut te devoveat certis Abdera
            diebus</span><br />
            <span style="font-style: italic">Saxaque devotum grandine plura
            petant</span></span>,”</span></p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">with the two
            scholia quoted respectively by M. P. Nilsson, <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische
            Feste</span></span>, p. 108 note 6, and by O. Schneider, in his
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Callimachea</span></span> (Leipsic,
            1870-1873), ii. 684. The scholiast refers to Callimachus as his
            authority.</p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_610" name="note_610"
          href="#noteref_610">610.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, x. 2. 9, p. 542; Photius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          ?e???t??; L. Ampelius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Liber Memorialis</span></span>, viii. 4;
          Servius, on Virgil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span> iii. 279; Ptolemaeus
          Hephaest., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nov. Histor.</span></span> in Photius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, cod. 190, p. 153,
          ed. Im. Bekker; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mythographi Graeci</span></span>, ed. A.
          Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), pp. 198 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          According to the manuscript reading in Photius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>,
          the priests flung themselves into the sea; but the reading has been
          altered by the editors. As to the Kumaon ceremony see above, pp.
          <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196</a> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_611" name="note_611"
          href="#noteref_611">611.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suidas and Photius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          pe????µa. The word which I have translated <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“offscouring”</span> (pe????µa) occurs in 1 Corinthians
          iv. 13, where it is similarly translated in the English version. It
          means properly that on which something is wiped off, like a sponge
          or a duster.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_612" name="note_612"
          href="#noteref_612">612.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Tzetzes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chiliades</span></span>, v. 726-761 (ed. Th.
          Kiesseling, Leipsic, 1826). Tzetzes's authority is the satirical
          poet Hipponax. The tune which was played by the flutes while the
          man was being beaten is mentioned by Hesychius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          ??ad??? ??µ??. Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          ??ad?s?t??; Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">De musica</span></span>, 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_613" name="note_613"
          href="#noteref_613">613.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This may be inferred from the verse of
          Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, ix. 9, p. 370 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>, where for fa?µ???? we
          should perhaps read fa?µa??? with Schneidewin (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Poetae lyrici
          Graeci</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> ed. Th. Bergk, ii.
          763).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_614" name="note_614"
          href="#noteref_614">614.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische
          Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          especially 123 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 133.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_615" name="note_615"
          href="#noteref_615">615.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> xx. 101; Dioscorides, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De materia
          medica</span></span>, ii. 202; Lucian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Necyom.</span></span>
          7; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, Alexander, 47;
          Theophrastus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Superstitious Man</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_616" name="note_616"
          href="#noteref_616">616.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theocritus, vii. 106 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          with the scholiast.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_617" name="note_617"
          href="#noteref_617">617.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Aug. Mommsen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), pp.
          414 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der
          Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 479 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          M. P. Nilsson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Griechische Feste</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1906), pp. 105, iii <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und
          Feldkulte</span></span> (Berlin, 1877), p. 215.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_618" name="note_618"
          href="#noteref_618">618.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood
          was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the
          face of the idol. See Diego de Landa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relation des choses
          de Yucatan</span></span>, texte espagnol et traduction française
          par l'Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864), p. 167. Was the
          original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh
          supply of reproductive energy?</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_619" name="note_619"
          href="#noteref_619">619.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aelian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Anim.</span></span> ix. 26.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_620" name="note_620"
          href="#noteref_620">620.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 239
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_621" name="note_621"
          href="#noteref_621">621.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, p. 114.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_622" name="note_622"
          href="#noteref_622">622.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the other hand, W. Mannhardt
          regarded the victims as representing the demons of infertility,
          dearth, and sickness, who in the persons of their representatives
          were thus hounded with blows out of the city. See his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische
          Forschungen</span></span>, p. 129.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_623" name="note_623"
          href="#noteref_623">623.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. Paton, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The fa?µa??? and the Story of the Fall,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Archéologique</span></span>, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 51
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_624" name="note_624"
          href="#noteref_624">624.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 313 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_625" name="note_625"
          href="#noteref_625">625.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dionysius Halicarnasensis,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Antiquitates Romanae</span></span>, ii. 56. 4.
          Compare Livy, i. 16. 4; Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Romulus</span></span>, 27.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_626" name="note_626"
          href="#noteref_626">626.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 248. Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis,
          Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 331 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_627" name="note_627"
          href="#noteref_627">627.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for example, Helladius, cited by
          Photius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, p. 534 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, ed.
          Im. Bekker, ?a? ????te? t? ???? ?e? ?a?a??e?? t?? p???? t???
          fa?µa????; Harpocration, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> fa?µa??? (vol. i. p. 298,
          ed. G. Dindorf), d?? ??d?a? ?????s?? ?????? ?a???s?a ?s?µ????? t??
          p??e??; Scholiast on Aristophanes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Knights</span></span>, 1136, d?µ?s???? d?,
          t??? ?e??µ????? fa?µa????, ??pe? ?a?a????s? t?? p??e?? t? ?a?t??
          f???.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_628" name="note_628"
          href="#noteref_628">628.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Paton ingeniously suggests that in
          the Biblical narrative of Adam and Eve, who for eating a particular
          fruit were condemned to death and driven out of the happy garden
          with aprons of fig-leaves about their loins (Genesis iii.), we have
          a reminiscence of a custom of fertilizing fig-trees by a pair of
          human scapegoats, who, like the victims at the Thargelia,
          assimilated themselves to the tree by wearing its foliage or fruit.
          See W. R. Paton, <span class="tei tei-q">“The fa?µa??? and the
          Story of the Fall,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Revue Archéologique</span></span>, iv. Série,
          ix. (1907) pp. 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_629" name="note_629"
          href="#noteref_629">629.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg002" class=
          "tei tei-ref">2</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>.
          Compare Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Parallela</span></span>, 35, where a woman is
          represented as going from house to house striking sick people with
          a hammer and bidding them be whole.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_630" name="note_630"
          href="#noteref_630">630.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Religion and
          Folk-lore of Northern India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), i.
          99, 155; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes and Castes of
          the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</span></span> (Calcutta,
          1896), iii. 333, 441, 445.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_631" name="note_631"
          href="#noteref_631">631.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Algérie
          Traditionnelle</span></span> (Paris and Algiers, 1884), p.
          189.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_632" name="note_632"
          href="#noteref_632">632.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Kern, <span class="tei tei-q">“Een
          Spanisch schrijver over den godsdienst der heidensche
          Bikollers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde
          van Nederlandsch-Indië</span></span>, xlvii. (1897) pp. 232
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The Spanish authority is
          Father José Castaño. An ancient Egyptian relief from Saqqarah
          represents a mummy at the entrance of the tomb, while the women
          tear out their hair and the men wave palm-branches, apparently to
          drive evil spirits away. The custom has been inherited by the
          modern Arabs, who similarly beat off the invisible foes with
          palm-branches. See A. Wiedemann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Herodots Zweites
          Buch</span></span> (Leipsic, 1890), p. 347. However, in these cases
          the blows seem to be administered to the demons and not to the
          corpse.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_633" name="note_633"
          href="#noteref_633">633.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. M. van Baarda, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ile de Halmaheira,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulletins de la
          Société d'Anthropologie de Paris</span></span>, Quatrième Série,
          iii. (1892) p. 545. As to throwing a banana-trunk into the grave,
          see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 97.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_634" name="note_634"
          href="#noteref_634">634.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Batchelor, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Ainu and their
          Folk-lore</span></span> (London, 1901), p. 550.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_635" name="note_635"
          href="#noteref_635">635.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Revue d'Ethnographie</span></span>, iii.
          (1885) pp. 395 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_636" name="note_636"
          href="#noteref_636">636.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Schomburgk, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen in
          Britisch-Guiana</span></span> (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 457
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Rev. J. H. Bernau,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Missionary Labours in British
          Guiana</span></span> (London, 1847), p. 52; C. F. Ph. von Martius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens</span></span> (Leipsic,
          1867), pp. 694 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Crevaux, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages dans
          l'Amérique du Sud</span></span> (Paris, 1883), p. 548.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_637" name="note_637"
          href="#noteref_637">637.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servius, on Virgil, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span> i.
          329. For more evidence see C. Boetticher, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus der
          Hellenen</span></span> (Berlin, 1856), pp. 369 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_638" name="note_638"
          href="#noteref_638">638.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8,
          vol. ii. pp. 276 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_639" name="note_639"
          href="#noteref_639">639.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">V. Solomon, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxii. (1902) p.
          227.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_640" name="note_640"
          href="#noteref_640">640.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
          Indies</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 375 (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880). See above, pp. <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref">128</a>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_641" name="note_641"
          href="#noteref_641">641.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Lozano, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descripcion
          Chorographica del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales de las
          dilatadissimas provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba</span></span>,
          etc. (Cordova, 1733), p. 67. The reappearance of the Pleiades
          probably marked the beginning of the year for these people. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits
          of the Corn and of the Wild</span></span>, i. 307 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_642" name="note_642"
          href="#noteref_642">642.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Osculati, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esplorazione delle
          regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle
          Amazzoni</span></span> (Milan, 1850), p. 118.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_643" name="note_643"
          href="#noteref_643">643.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Coudreau, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chez nos Indiens:
          quatre années dans la Guyane Française</span></span> (Paris, 1895),
          p. 544.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_644" name="note_644"
          href="#noteref_644">644.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. H. Loskiel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
          Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North
          America</span></span> (London, 1794), Part i. p. 37.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_645" name="note_645"
          href="#noteref_645">645.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Satapatha
          Brahmana</span></span>, v. 4. 4. 7, translated by J. Eggeling, Part
          iii. (Oxford, 1894) p. 108 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the East</span></span>, vol.
          xli.).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_646" name="note_646"
          href="#noteref_646">646.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Chwolsohn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Ssabier und der
          Ssabismus</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 34.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_647" name="note_647"
          href="#noteref_647">647.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the positive benefits supposed in
          certain cases to flow from a beating compare S. Reinach,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“La flagellation rituelle,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cultes,
          Mythes et Religions</span></span>, i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 180
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. S. Hartland,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive
          Paternity</span></span> (London, 1909-1910), i. 102 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_648" name="note_648"
          href="#noteref_648">648.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,”</span> in R. Neuhauss's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch
          Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 124.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_649" name="note_649"
          href="#noteref_649">649.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Lambert, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Mœurs et Superstitions de la tribu Bélep,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les
          Missions Catholique</span></span>, xii. (1880) p. 273; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs et
          Superstitions des Néo-Calédoniens</span></span> (Nouméa, 1900), p.
          218.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_650" name="note_650"
          href="#noteref_650">650.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. J. de Santa-Anna Nery, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore
          Brésilien</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 253.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_651" name="note_651"
          href="#noteref_651">651.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Temesváry, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksbräuche und
          Aberglauben in der Geburtshilfe und der Pflege des Neugeborenen in
          Ungarn</span></span> (Leipsic, 1900), p. 8. Compare E. S. Hartland,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive
          Paternity</span></span> (London, 1909-1910), i. 106.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_652" name="note_652"
          href="#noteref_652">652.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruyt, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en
          zijne beteekenis,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke
          Akademie van Wetenschappen</span></span>, Afdeeling Letterkunde,
          iv. Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 199.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_653" name="note_653"
          href="#noteref_653">653.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Beardmore, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Natives of Mowat, Daudai, New Guinea,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xix. (1890) p.
          464.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_654" name="note_654"
          href="#noteref_654">654.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
          Morocco,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xxii. (1911) pp.
          163-165.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_655" name="note_655"
          href="#noteref_655">655.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg298" class=
          "tei tei-ref">298</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class=
          "tei tei-ref">302</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class=
          "tei tei-ref">304</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_656" name="note_656"
          href="#noteref_656">656.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Westermarck, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 165 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 170, 178. The purificatory
          character of the rite is duly recognised by Dr. Westermarck
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 178).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_657" name="note_657"
          href="#noteref_657">657.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. v. Hahn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Albanesische
          Studien</span></span> (Jena, 1854), i. 155.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_658" name="note_658"
          href="#noteref_658">658.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. H. D. Rouse, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, x. (1899) p.
          179.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_659" name="note_659"
          href="#noteref_659">659.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Bartsch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und
          Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p.
          258, § 1348.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_660" name="note_660"
          href="#noteref_660">660.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. F. L. Woeste, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksüberlieferungen
          in der Grafschaft Mark</span></span> (Iserlohn, 1848), pp. 25
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Kuhn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des
          Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 161 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The ceremony takes its name
          of <span class="tei tei-q">“quickening”</span> from <span lang="de"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Quieke</span></span> or <span lang="de" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Quickenbaum</span></span>, a German name for
          the rowan-tree. Quicken-tree is also an English name for the
          rowan.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_661" name="note_661"
          href="#noteref_661">661.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_662" name="note_662"
          href="#noteref_662">662.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. Gregor, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the
          Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland</span></span> (London,
          1881), p. 188.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_663" name="note_663"
          href="#noteref_663">663.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 106, §
          145.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_664" name="note_664"
          href="#noteref_664">664.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. F. L. Woeste, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksüberlieferungen
          in der Grafschaft Mark</span></span> (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 26.
          Compare A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des
          Göttertranks</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Gütersloh, 1886), p.
          179.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_665" name="note_665"
          href="#noteref_665">665.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. S. Krauss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kroatien und
          Slavonien</span></span> (Vienna, 1889), p. 108.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_666" name="note_666"
          href="#noteref_666">666.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 257.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_667" name="note_667"
          href="#noteref_667">667.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Vernaleken, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche
          des Volkes in Österreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), pp. 300
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; O. Freiherr von
          Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 163-167; A. Peter, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus
          Österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii.
          285; J. A. E. Köhler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte
          Überlieferungen im Voigtlande</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), pp.
          173 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M. Toeppen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aberglauben aus
          Masuren</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span>, (Danzig, 1867), pp. 69
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 70, §
          83; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Der Baumkultus</span></span> (Berlin, 1875),
          pp. 258-263; W. Müller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in
          Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 322, 399
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Dr. F. Tetzner,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Tschechen und Mährer in
          Schlesien,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340;
          P. Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in
          Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), pp. 100 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Alois John, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauche und Volksglaube im deutschen
          Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), pp. 67 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          Mannhardt's whole discussion of what he calls <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the Blow with the Rod of Life”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Schlag mit der
          Lebensrute</span></span>”</span>) deserves to be studied. See his
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 251-303; and
          compare his treatment of the same theme, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Der Schlag mit dem Februum,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische
          Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113-153. The
          custom of <span class="tei tei-q">“Easter Smacks”</span> can be
          traced back to the twelfth century, when the practice was for women
          to beat their husbands on Easter Monday and for husbands to
          retaliate on their wives on Easter Tuesday. See J. Belethus,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationale
          Divinorum Officiorum</span></span>, cap. 120, appended to G.
          Durandus's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rationale Divinorum Officiorum</span></span>
          (Lyons, 1584), p. 546 recto: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang=
          "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Notandum quoque est in plerisque regionibus
          secundo die post Pascha mulieres maritos suos verberare, ac
          vicissim viros eas tertio die quemadmodum licebat servis in
          Decembri dominos suos impune accusare.</span></span>”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_668" name="note_668"
          href="#noteref_668">668.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alois John, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905),
          pp. 5, 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 25, 28. Compare Th.
          Vernaleken, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in
          Österreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), pp. 301 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_669" name="note_669"
          href="#noteref_669">669.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. E. Köhler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksbrauch,
          Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im
          Voigtlande</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), p. 174; W. Mannhardt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 264 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_670" name="note_670"
          href="#noteref_670">670.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Witzschel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und
          Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), pp. 181
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 265. Compare G.
          Bilfinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Unterschungen über die Zeitrechnung der alten
          Germanen</span></span>, ii., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das Germanische Julfest</span></span>
          (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_671" name="note_671"
          href="#noteref_671">671.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 24 sq. It is highly significant that the
          heathen of Harran celebrated the marriage festival of all the gods
          and goddesses in the very month (March) in which the artificial
          fertilization of the date-palm was effected (D. Chwolsohn,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Ssabier und der Ssabismus</span></span>, St. Petersburg, 1856, ii.
          36, 251). The frequency with which the artificial fertilization of
          the palm-tree by a mythical winged figure is represented on
          Assyrian monuments furnishes strong evidence of the religious and
          economic importance of the ceremony.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_672" name="note_672"
          href="#noteref_672">672.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, ii. 376 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_673" name="note_673"
          href="#noteref_673">673.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (London, Hakluyt Society,
          1880), ii. 323. I have modernized the spelling of the old English
          translator, whose version was originally published in 1604. Acosta
          resided both in Peru and Mexico, and published his work at Seville
          in 1590. It was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894.
          Compare A. de Herrera, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">General History of the Vast Continent and
          Islands of America</span></span>, translated by Captain John
          Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 207 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_674" name="note_674"
          href="#noteref_674">674.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">On appelait le
          cinquième moi</span></span> toxcatl. <span lang="fr" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Au
          premier jour on faisait une grande fête en l'honneur du dieu
          appelé</span></span> Titlacauan, <span lang="fr" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">autrement dit</span></span> Tezcatlipoca,
          <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">que l'on croyait être le dieu des dieux.
          C'était en son honneur que l'on tuait, le jour de sa fête, un jeune
          homme choisi.... Cette fête était la principale de toutes, comme
          qui dirait la Pâque, et, en réalité, elle se célébrait aux environs
          de la Pâque de résurrection, ou quelques jours
          après</span></span>.”</span> Compare J. de Torquemada, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. p. 256 (Madrid,
          1723). As to Tezcatlipoca, the greatest of the Mexican gods, see J.
          G. Müller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte der amerikanischen
          Urreligionen</span></span> (Bâle, 1867), pp. 613 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          H. H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), iii. 199 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          237 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. Seler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altmexikanische
          Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 125 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum
          für Völkerkunde</span></span>, vol. vi. Heft 2/4).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_675" name="note_675"
          href="#noteref_675">675.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the twenty-third of April according
          to the Spanish text of Sahagun's work as translated in French by D.
          Jourdanet and R. Simeon (p. 52); the twenty-seventh of April
          according to the Aztec text of Sahagun's work as translated into
          German by Professor E. Seler (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altmexikanische Studien</span></span>, ii.
          194).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_676" name="note_676"
          href="#noteref_676">676.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880), ii. 378, 380; Diego Duran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de las
          Indias de Nueva España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 99,
          101; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des
          Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs
          traditions</span></span>, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp.
          159, 160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> According to Clavigero, the
          fifth Mexican month, in which the sacrifice of the human
          representative of Tezcatlipoca took place, began on the 17th of May
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen, London, 1807, i.
          299); but this must be an error.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_677" name="note_677"
          href="#noteref_677">677.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Seler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altmexikanische
          Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 117 note 1, 121-125,
          153 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 166 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum
          für Völkerkunde</span></span>, vol. vi. Heft 2/4).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_678" name="note_678"
          href="#noteref_678">678.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 380; Diego Duran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 101; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des
          Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs
          traditions</span></span>, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), p.
          160; J. de Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap.
          14, vol. ii. p. 257 (Madrid, 1723). I have modernized the spelling
          of Acosta's old translator (Edward Grimston).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_679" name="note_679"
          href="#noteref_679">679.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet, et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          96-99, 103; E. Seler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altmexikanische Studien</span></span>, ii.
          (Berlin, 1899), pp. 116-165, 194-209 (the latter passage contains
          the Aztec text of Sahagun's account with a German translation); J.
          de Acosta, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Natural and Moral History of the
          Indies</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), pp. 350
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manuscrit Ramirez,
          Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne
          selon leurs traditions</span></span>, publié par D. Charnay (Paris,
          1903), pp. 157 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 180 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Diego Duran, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Historia de las Indias de Nueva
          España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 98-105; J. de
          Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap.
          14, vol. ii. pp. 256 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> (Madrid, 1723); F. S.
          Clavigero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">History of Mexico</span></span>, translated by
          Charles Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 300; Brasseur de
          Bourbourg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et
          de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span> (Paris, 1857-1859), iii.
          510-512; H. H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), iii. 319 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          According to Torquemada the flesh of the human victim was eaten by
          the elders <span class="tei tei-q">“as a sacred and divine
          flesh”</span>; but this is not mentioned by the other authorities
          of the sixteenth century cited above. Elsewhere (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn
          and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 92 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) I
          cited this cannibal banquet as an example of a sacramental
          communion with the deity; but the silence of most early writers on
          the point makes it doubtful whether the custom has been correctly
          reported by Torquemada and later writers.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_680" name="note_680"
          href="#noteref_680">680.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 99-104; E. Seler,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altmexikanische Studien</span></span>, ii.
          (Berlin, 1899) pp. 159-165, 202-209; F. S. Clavigero, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
          Mexico</span></span>, translated by Ch. Cullen, Second Edition
          (London, 1807), i. 301-303; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations
          civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii.
          512-516; H. H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span>, ii. 321-324. As to the dances of the maidens
          wearing garlands of maize, see also J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (London, 1880), ii. 380.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_681" name="note_681"
          href="#noteref_681">681.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880), ii. 321; Diego Duran, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Historia de las Indias de Nueva
          España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 118-120; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manuscrit Ramirez,
          Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne
          selon leurs traditions</span></span>, publié par D. Charnay (Paris,
          1903), pp. 182 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Acosta's description of the
          idol is abridged. As to the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, worshipped
          especially by the people of Cholula, see J. G. Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          amerikanischen Urreligionen</span></span> (Bâle, 1867), pp. 577
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Native Races of the Pacific States</span></span> (London,
          1875-1876), iii. 248 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_682" name="note_682"
          href="#noteref_682">682.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880), ii. 384-386. I have modernized the old translator's
          spelling. The accounts of Duran and the anonymous author of the
          Ramirez manuscript agree verbally with that of Acosta. It is plain
          that Acosta and Duran drew on the same source, which may be the
          Ramirez manuscript. However, Duran is the only one of the three who
          gives the date of the festival (the third of February). See Diego
          Duran, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Historia de las Indias de Nueva
          España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 120 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manuscrit
          Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle
          Espagne selon leurs traditions</span></span>, publié par de Charnay
          (Paris, 1903), pp. 182 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare A. de Herrera,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of
          America</span></span>, translated by Captain John Stevens (London,
          1725-1726), iii. 218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. G. Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          amerikanischen Urreligionen</span></span> (Bâle, 1867), pp. 589
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Native Races of the Pacific States</span></span> (London,
          1875-1876), iii. 286.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_683" name="note_683"
          href="#noteref_683">683.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 64, 115-117; J. de
          Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span> (Madrid,
          1723), lib. x. cap. 18, vol. ii. p. 268. Compare F. S. Clavigero,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i.
          305; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique et
          de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii. 517 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H.
          H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span>, ii. 325-327.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_684" name="note_684"
          href="#noteref_684">684.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 65 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          118-126; J. de Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span> (Madrid,
          1723), lib. x. cap. 19, vol. ii. pp. 269-271; E. J. Payne,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of the New World called America</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1892)
          pp. 421-423. Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations
          civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii.
          518-520; H. H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span>, ii. 326 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> I have followed Torquemada
          (vol. ii. p. 269) and the French translators of Sahagun (p. 65,
          note 2) in deriving the name of Xilonen from <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">xilotl</span></span> in the sense of
          <span class="tei tei-q">“young cobs of maize.”</span> But according
          to E. J. Payne, the word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">xilotl</span></span> means <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“hair,”</span> and Xilonen is <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Hairy Mother”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Mater
          comata</span></span>) with reference to the hair-like fibres or
          tassels that shoot from the maize-cobs. See E. J. Payne,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 417. On either interpretation the goddess is
          a personification of the young maize. The goddess of the maize in
          general was called Cinteotl or Centeotl (Centeutl), a name which,
          according to Torquemada, is derived from <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">centli</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“maize-cob”</span> (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span>, lib. vi. cap. 25, vol. ii. p. 52). But E. J.
          Payne, while he regards Cinteotl as the maize-goddess, explains her
          name differently. He says (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> i. 416 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>):
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Totonacs worshipped the corn-spirit
          under names which were translated into Mexican as Tzinteotl
          (goddess of beginning or origin) and Tonacayohua (provider of our
          food). They considered her to be the wife of the sun, their supreme
          god. Theoretically subordinated to him, the maize-goddess was in
          practice the chief deity of the Totonacs: it was to her service
          that the principal warriors, quitting their wives and children,
          dedicated themselves in their old age.”</span> Similarly Clavigero,
          who lived many years in Mexico and learned the Mexican language,
          explains Cinteotl (Tzinteotl) to mean <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“original goddess”</span>; he adds that the Maize
          Goddess changed her name <span class="tei tei-q">“according to the
          different states of the grain in the progress of its growth”</span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen, i. 253 note p).
          Another name applied to the Maize Goddess Cinteotl was
          Chicomecohuatl or <span class="tei tei-q">“Seven Snakes.”</span>
          See J. de Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap.
          13, vol. ii. p. 255; J. G. Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          amerikanischen Urreligionen</span></span> (Bâle, 1867), pp. 491
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. Seler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altmexikanische
          Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 108 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          112. Some have held that Cinteotl was a Maize God rather than a
          Maize Goddess. See H. H. Bancroft, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Native Races of
          the Pacific States</span></span>, iii. 349 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_685" name="note_685"
          href="#noteref_685">685.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Mexican year of three hundred and
          sixty-five days was divided into eighteen months of twenty days
          each, with five supplementary days over. See J. de Torquemada,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap. 36, vol. ii. p. 300 (Madrid,
          1723); B. de Sahagun, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle
          Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon
          (Paris, 1880), p. lxvii.; F. S. Clavigero, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
          Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i.
          290 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_686" name="note_686"
          href="#noteref_686">686.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 75, 158-160; J. de
          Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap.
          29, vol. ii. pp. 284 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Madrid, 1723). Compare F.
          S. Clavigero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">History of Mexico</span></span>, translated by
          C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 312; Brasseur de Bourbourg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire
          des Nations Civilisées du Mexique et de l'
          Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii. 535 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H.
          H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span>, ii. 337 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_687" name="note_687"
          href="#noteref_687">687.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 18 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 68
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 133-139: J. de Torquemada,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span> (Madrid, 1723), lib. x. cap. 23, vol. ii. pp.
          275 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Diego Duran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de las
          Indias de Nueva España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii.
          185-191. Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations
          civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii.
          523-525; H. H. Bancroft, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Native Races of the Pacific
          States</span></span>, iii. 353-359; E. J. Payne, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the New
          World called America</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1892), pp. 470
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> A statue of basalt, about
          half the size of life, said to have come from Tezcuco, represents a
          man clothed in a human skin which he wears on his body, his arms,
          and his face; his own skin is painted bright red, the other skin a
          dirty white. See H. H. Bancroft, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> iv. 522; Marquis de Nadaillac, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Amérique
          Préhistorique</span></span> (Paris, 1883), p. 295, fig. 119. In the
          Art Museum (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Kunst-Museum</span></span>)
          at Bâle there is a statuette of the same sort. It is labelled:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">Xipe. Der in einer
          Menschenhaut gekleidete Gott. Gesch. v. H. Luk. Vischer
          (1828-1837).</span></span>”</span> The figure is about eighteen
          inches high and appears to be made of a porous stone. It represents
          a man seated on his haunches with his feet crossed in front of him
          and his hands resting on his knees. His own skin, of which the
          legs, feet, hands, wrists, neck and part of the face are visible,
          is coloured a terra-cotta red. The rest of his body is covered by
          the representation of the skin of a human victim, of a greyish
          colour, quite distinct from that of the wearer, and this skin is
          also worn like a mask on his face. At his back the jacket of human
          skin only partially meets, displaying the wearer's red skin under
          it for some distance; it is as if the skin of the human victim had
          been split up the back and then drawn together and fastened at the
          back of the wearer like an ill-fitting and imperfectly buttoned
          coat. The hands of the human victim are represented dangling at the
          wrists of the seated figure. I saw this remarkable statuette in the
          Museum at Bâle on July 25th, 1912, but I was not able to remove it
          from the case for closer examination. As to Xipe, the Mexican god
          clad in a human skin, whom the statuette represents, see below, pp.
          296 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_688" name="note_688"
          href="#noteref_688">688.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to this name for the Maize Goddess,
          see above, p. <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>, note
          1.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_689" name="note_689"
          href="#noteref_689">689.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diego Duran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de las
          Indias de Nueva España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii.
          179-184. This remarkable festival appears not to be noticed by the
          other early Spanish writers such as Sahagun, Acosta, and
          Torquemada, who have given us detailed descriptions of the Mexican
          festivals. It might perhaps have been conjectured that Duran was
          here describing the similar festival of the Mother of the Gods (see
          above, pp. <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>), which fell about the same
          time of the year. But the conjecture is excluded by the simple fact
          that Duran describes both festivals, the one immediately after the
          other, assigning as their dates the fifteenth and sixteenth of
          September respectively (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> ii. 180, 185
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). Almost nothing is known
          about Duran except that he was a Spanish monk, apparently a native
          of Mexico, who had weak health and died in 1588. His work remained
          in manuscript till it was edited at Mexico in 1867-1880 by José F.
          Ramirez. The original manuscript is preserved in the Natìonal
          Library at Madrid. The accounts contained in his history bear
          internal marks of authenticity and are in general supported by the
          independent testimony of the other early Spanish authorities.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_690" name="note_690"
          href="#noteref_690">690.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 236 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_691" name="note_691"
          href="#noteref_691">691.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 37 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          58-60, 87-94, 584 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Seler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altmexikanische
          Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 76-100, 171-188 (the
          latter passage gives the Aztec text of Sahagun's account with a
          German translation); Diego Duran, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de las
          Indias de Nueva España</span></span> (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii.
          147-155; J. de Torquemada, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monarquia Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap.
          11, vol. ii. pp. 252 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Madrid, 1723). Compare F.
          S. Clavigero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">History of Mexico</span></span>, translated by
          C. Cullen, Second Edition (London, 1807), i. 297 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et
          de l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span> (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 503
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Native Races of the Pacific States</span></span> (London,
          1875-1876), ii. 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> According to Torquemada,
          the prisoners were flayed alive, but this statement is not, so far
          as I know, supported by the other early Spanish authorities. It is
          Duran who gives the 20th of March as the date of the festival at
          which the captives were killed and skinned; but this is
          inconsistent with the evidence of Sahagun, according to whom the
          second Aztec month, in which the festival fell, ended with the 13th
          of March. See B. de Sahagun, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle
          Espagne</span></span>, p. 51.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_692" name="note_692"
          href="#noteref_692">692.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Torquemada, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap. 30, vol. ii. pp. 285
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (Mexico, 1723); B. de
          Sahagun, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle
          Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon
          (Paris, 1880), pp. 164 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The latter writer does not
          describe the mode in which the victims were sacrificed at this
          quadriennial festival; but he describes as in the text the annual
          sacrifice of victims in honour of the fire-god in the tenth month
          of the Mexican year (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 67 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          129 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). Compare F. S. Clavigero,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
          of Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen, Second Edition
          (London, 1807), i. 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Native Races of the Pacific States</span></span>, ii. 329
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_693" name="note_693"
          href="#noteref_693">693.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Torquemada, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monarquia
          Indiana</span></span>, lib. x. cap. 30, vol. ii. p. 286 (Madrid,
          1723). Compare F. S. Clavigero, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
          Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen, Second Edition
          (London, 1807), i. 283 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Brasseur de Bourbourg,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire
          des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de
          l'Amérique-Centrale</span></span>, iii. 539 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_694" name="note_694"
          href="#noteref_694">694.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon, pp. 37, 93; E. Seler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altmexikanische
          Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin. 1889) pp. 96, 185 (quoting the
          Aztec text of Sahagun).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_695" name="note_695"
          href="#noteref_695">695.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Schomburgk, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reisen in
          Britisch-Guiana</span></span> (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 319. I have
          already noticed this and the following stories of the origin of
          death in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Belief in Immortality</span></span>, i. 69
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_696" name="note_696"
          href="#noteref_696">696.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Schomburgk, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 320.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_697" name="note_697"
          href="#noteref_697">697.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Landes, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Contes et Légendes Annamites,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cochinchine
          française, Excursions et Reconnaissances</span></span>, No. 25
          (Saigon, 1886), pp. 108 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_698" name="note_698"
          href="#noteref_698">698.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Sundermann, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift</span></span>,
          xi. (1884) p. 451; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Insel Nias und
          die Mission daselbst</span></span> (Barmen, 1905), p. 68; E.
          Modigliani, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Un Viaggio a Nias</span></span> (Milan, 1890),
          p. 295; A. Fehr, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Der Niasser im Leben und Sterben</span></span>
          (Barmen, 1901), p. 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_699" name="note_699"
          href="#noteref_699">699.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Kleintitschen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Küstenbewohner
          der Gazellehalbinsel</span></span> (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface
          dated Christmas, 1906), p. 334.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_700" name="note_700"
          href="#noteref_700">700.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. H. Codrington, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Melanesians</span></span> (Oxford, 1891), pp. 260, 265; W. Gray,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Some Notes on the Tannese,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Internationales Archiv für
          Ethnographie</span></span>, vii. (1894) p. 232. The same story of
          the origin of death has been recorded in the Shortlands Islands and
          among the Kai of German New Guinea. See C. Ribbe, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den
          Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln</span></span> (Dresden-Blasowitz,
          1903), p. 148; Ch. Keysser, <span class="tei tei-q">“Aus dem Leben
          der Kaileute,”</span> in R. Neuhauss's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch
          Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 161 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> It
          is also told with some variations by the natives of the Admiralty
          Islands. See Josef Meier, <span class="tei tei-q">“Mythen und Sagen
          der Admiralitätsinsulaner,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, iii. (1908) p.
          193.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_701" name="note_701"
          href="#noteref_701">701.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss A. Werner, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Two Galla Legends,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Man</span></span>,
          xiii. (1913) pp. 90 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_702" name="note_702"
          href="#noteref_702">702.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, ii. 376 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_703" name="note_703"
          href="#noteref_703">703.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Virgil, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span>
          ii. 536-540, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span> viii. 319-327, with the
          comments of Servius; Tibullus, i. 3. 35-48; Ovid, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>,
          i. 233 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Lucian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnalia</span></span>, 7; Macrobius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span> i. 7. 21-26; Justin,
          xliii. 1. 3-5; Aurelius Victor, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origo gentis
          Romanae</span></span>, 3; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquit.
          Rom.</span></span> i. 34. On Saturn and the Saturnalia see
          especially L. Preller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Römische Mythologie</span></span>,<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          ii. 10 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare J. Marquardt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Staatsverwaltung</span></span>, iii.<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 586 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. Warde Fowler,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Roman
          Festivals of the Period of the Republic</span></span> (London,
          1899), pp. 268-273; G. Wissowa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion und Kultus
          der Römer</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Munich, 1912), pp. 204
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in
          W. H. Roscher's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm.
          Mythologie</span></span>, iv. 427 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> A
          good account of the Saturnalia, based on the texts of the classical
          writers, is given by Dezobry (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Rome au siècle
          d'Auguste</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> iii. 143 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>).
          The name Saturn seems to be etymologically akin to <span lang="la"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">satus</span></span> and <span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">satio</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“a sowing”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“planting.”</span> Compare Varro, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De lingua
          Latina</span></span>, v. 64, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang=
          "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ab satu est dictus
          Saturnus</span></span>”</span>; Festus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Opima spolia,”</span> p. 186 ed. C. O.
          Müller: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ipse [Saturnus] agrorum cultor habetur,
          nominatus a satu, tenensque falcem effingitur, quae est insigne
          agricolae</span></span>.”</span> Compare Tertullian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad
          Nationes</span></span>, ii. 12; Arnobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adversus
          Nationes</span></span>, iv. 9; Augustine, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De civitate
          Dei</span></span>, vii. 2, 3, 13, 15, 18, 19. The god's name
          appears in the form Saeturnus inscribed on an ancient bowl (H.
          Dessau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</span></span>,
          vol. ii. pars i. p. 2, No. 2966).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_704" name="note_704"
          href="#noteref_704">704.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dionysius Halicarnasensis,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ant.
          Rom.</span></span> i. 38; Macrobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span>
          i. 7. 31; Lactantius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Divin. Inst.</span></span> i. 21; Arnobius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adversus
          Nationes</span></span>, ii. 68.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_705" name="note_705"
          href="#noteref_705">705.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the general dissipation of the
          Saturnalia see Seneca, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> 18; for the seven days of
          the popular festival see Martial, xiv. 72. 2; Macrobius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> i. 10. 2; Lucian,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnalia</span></span>, 21.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_706" name="note_706"
          href="#noteref_706">706.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Horace, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span>
          ii. 7. 4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Macrobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span>
          i. 7. 26; Justin, xliii. 1. 4; Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sulla</span></span>,
          18; Lucian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnalia</span></span>, 5, 7; Porphyry,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De antro
          nympharum</span></span>, 23.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_707" name="note_707"
          href="#noteref_707">707.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Macrobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span>
          i. 12. 7, i. 24. 23; Solinus, i. 35; Joannes Lydus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          mensibus</span></span>, iii. 15; Athenaeus, xiv. 44, p. 639
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>; Dio Cassius, lx.
          19.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_708" name="note_708"
          href="#noteref_708">708.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Seneca, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span>
          47. 14. Compare Porphyry, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">De abstinentia</span></span>, ii. 23.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_709" name="note_709"
          href="#noteref_709">709.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annals</span></span>,
          xiii. 15; Arrian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Epicteti Dissert.</span></span> i. 25. 8;
          Lucian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnalia</span></span>, 4.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_710" name="note_710"
          href="#noteref_710">710.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Les Actes de
          S. Dasius,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Analecta Bollandiana</span></span>, xvi.
          (1897) pp. 5-16. I have to thank Prof. Cumont for courteously
          sending me a copy of this important paper. The bearing of the new
          evidence on the Saturnalia has been further discussed by Messrs.
          Parmentier and Cumont (<span class="tei tei-q">“Le roi des
          Saturnales,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Revue de Philologie</span></span>, xxi. (1897)
          pp. 143-153).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_711" name="note_711"
          href="#noteref_711">711.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The phrase of the Paris MS. is
          ambiguous (t??? ?????µ??? ?a? µ?sa???? e?d????? p??se??µ??e? ?a?t??
          sp??d??, ??a????µe??? ?p? µa?a??a?); but the other two versions say
          plainly that the mock king perished by his own hand (µ?????ta
          ?a?t?? ?p?sf??a? t? ß?µ? t?? ??????, Berlin MS.; ?a?t?? ?p?sf??a?
          a?t??e???? t? ?????, Milan MS.).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_712" name="note_712"
          href="#noteref_712">712.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Cumont, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Le tombeau de S. Dasius de Durostorum,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analecta
          Bollandiana</span></span>, xxvii. (Brussels, 1908) pp. 369-372. The
          inscription on the sarcophagus runs thus: ??ta??a ?ata?e?ta? ?
          ????? µ??t?? ??s??? ??e??e?? ?p? ????st????. The inscription on the
          altar runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Vetere diruta nobiliorem FF. Karmelitani
          excalciati aram extruxerunt subter qua sanctorum martyrum Peregrini
          Flaviani Dasii corpora et infantium ab Herode necatorum ossa minus
          decenter antiquitus recondita honorificentius et populo spectanda
          reponi curaverunt die virgini et matri Theresiae sacro anno
          MDCCCIV.</span></span>”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_713" name="note_713"
          href="#noteref_713">713.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The opinion that at Rome a man used to
          be sacrificed at the Saturnalia cannot be regarded as in itself
          improbable, when we remember that down apparently to the
          establishment of Christianity a human victim was slaughtered every
          year at Rome in honour of Latian Jupiter. See Tertullian,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Apologeticus</span></span>, 9, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contra Gnosticos
          Scorpiace</span></span>, 7; Minucius Felix, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Octavius</span></span>, 22 and 30; Lactantius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divin.
          Instit.</span></span> i. 21; Porphyry, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          abstinentia</span></span>, ii. 56. We may conjecture that at first
          the sacrifice took place on the top of the Alban Mountain, and was
          offered to Saturn, to whom, as we have seen, high places were
          sacred.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_714" name="note_714"
          href="#noteref_714">714.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 220
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_715" name="note_715"
          href="#noteref_715">715.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joannes Boemus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mores, Leges, et
          Ritus Omnium Gentium</span></span> (Lyons, 1541), p. 122;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by
          Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe,
          1570</span></span>, edited by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), pp. 45
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. Pasquier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches de la
          France</span></span> (Paris, 1633), pp. 375 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; R.
          Herrick, <span class="tei tei-q">“Twelfth Night, or King and
          Queene,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Works of Robert Herrick</span></span>
          (Edinburgh, 1823), ii. 171 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 21 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">British Popular Customs</span></span> (London,
          1876), pp. 24-28; R. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of
          Days</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 61 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          Desgranges, <span class="tei tei-q">“Usages du Canton de
          Bonneval,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires
          de France</span></span>, i. (Paris, 1817) pp. 233-236; L. Beaulieu,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Archéologie de la Lorraine</span></span>
          (Paris, 1840-1843), i. 255 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Calendrier Belge</span></span> (Brussels,
          1861-1862), i. 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das
          festliche Jahr</span></span> (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 20-23; E. Cortet,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur
          les Fêtes religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 29-50; J. H.
          Schmitz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und
          Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> (Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 6;
          Laisnel de la Salle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la
          France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), i. 19-29; J. Lecœur,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses
          du Bocage Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii.
          125; L. Bonnemère, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le Jour des Rois en
          Normandie,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions populaires</span></span>,
          ii. (1887) pp. 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; P. Sébillot, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“La Fête des Rois,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions
          populaires</span></span>, iii. (1888) pp. 7-12; A. Meyrac,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des
          Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890), pp. 74 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J.
          L. M. Noguès, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en
          Aunis</span></span> (Saintes, 1891), pp. 49 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          L. F. Sauvé, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</span></span>
          (Paris, 1889), pp. 16 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ch. Beauquier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en
          Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), pp. 16 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; F.
          Chapiseau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du
          Perche</span></span> (Paris, 1902), i. 312-315; Anatole France,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Le roy boit,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales Politiques et
          Littéraires</span></span>, 5 Janvier, 1902, pp. 4 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Bresse
          Louhannaise</span></span>, Janvier, 1906, pp. 42-46. The custom of
          making white crosses on the ceiling is reported for Germany and
          Switzerland, but apparently not for France. It is mentioned in the
          earliest of the works cited above, namely that of Joannes Boemus,
          whose description applies especially to Franconia (Franken).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_716" name="note_716"
          href="#noteref_716">716.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This I learn from my friend M. Léon
          Chouville of Rouen and Cambridge. The custom is also kept up in
          Bresse (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">La Bresse Louhannaise</span></span>, Janvier,
          1906, pp. 44-46).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_717" name="note_717"
          href="#noteref_717">717.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Beaulieu, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archéologie de la
          Lorraine</span></span> (Paris, 1840-1843), i. 256 note 1; E.
          Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Essai stir les Fêtes religieuses</span></span>
          (Paris, 1867), p. 43.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_718" name="note_718"
          href="#noteref_718">718.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 17 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_719" name="note_719"
          href="#noteref_719">719.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Anatole France, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Le roy boit,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales Politiques et
          Littéraires</span></span>, 5 Janvier, 1902, p. 5. In some parts of
          France divination was practised for this purpose on Christmas Day.
          Twelve grains of wheat, each representing a month of the year, were
          placed, one after the other, on a hot fire-shovel; if the grain
          bounced up from the shovel, wheat would be dear in the
          corresponding month, but it would be cheap if the grain remained
          still. See J. B. Thiers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Traité des Superstitions</span></span> (Paris,
          1679), p. 268. See further P. Sébillot, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore de
          France</span></span>, iii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 510 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_720" name="note_720"
          href="#noteref_720">720.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Beauquier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en
          Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), p. 12.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_721" name="note_721"
          href="#noteref_721">721.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Lecœur, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage
          Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 126-129.
          Compare Amélie Bosquet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">La Normandie Romanesque et
          Merveilleuse</span></span> (Paris and Rouen, 1845), pp. 295
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
          Baumkultus</span></span> (Berlin, 1875), pp. 536 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_722" name="note_722"
          href="#noteref_722">722.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Meyrac, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions, Coutumes,
          Légendes et Contes des Ardennes</span></span> (Charleville, 1890),
          pp. 75 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_723" name="note_723"
          href="#noteref_723">723.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span>, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 33.
          In many parishes of Gloucestershire it used to be customary on
          Twelfth Day to light twelve small fires and one large one (J.
          Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> i. 28).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_724" name="note_724"
          href="#noteref_724">724.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Gentleman's Magazine</span></span>, vol.
          lxi., February, 1791, p. 116. The article is signed J. W. and dated
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Hereford, Jan. 24.”</span> The passage is
          quoted, correctly in substance, but with many verbal changes, by J.
          Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities of Great
          Britain</span></span>, i. 30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, and by (Mrs.) E. M.
          Leather, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore of Herefordshire</span></span>
          (Hereford and London, 1912), p. 93.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_725" name="note_725"
          href="#noteref_725">725.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Mrs.) Ella Mary Leather, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore of
          Herefordshire</span></span> (Hereford and London, 1912), pp. 93
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_726" name="note_726"
          href="#noteref_726">726.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Mrs.) E. M. Leather, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 94 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_727" name="note_727"
          href="#noteref_727">727.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg164" class=
          "tei tei-ref">164</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_728" name="note_728"
          href="#noteref_728">728.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. F. Abbott. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macedonian
          Folk-lore</span></span> (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 73-75.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_729" name="note_729"
          href="#noteref_729">729.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This opinion is mentioned by (Mrs.) E.
          M. Leather, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore of Herefordshire</span></span>,
          p. 95.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_730" name="note_730"
          href="#noteref_730">730.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Pennant, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“A Tour in Scotland, 1769,”</span> in John Pinkerton's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages
          and Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_731" name="note_731"
          href="#noteref_731">731.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Hyde, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia religionis
          veterum Persarum</span></span> (Oxford, 1700), p. 257.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_732" name="note_732"
          href="#noteref_732">732.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Henry Piers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the
          County of Westmeath</span></span>, quoted by J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 25.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_733" name="note_733"
          href="#noteref_733">733.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. J. Byrne, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in
          Connaught,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xviii. (1907) p.
          439.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_734" name="note_734"
          href="#noteref_734">734.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London,
          1883), p. 408.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_735" name="note_735"
          href="#noteref_735">735.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist,
          written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by
          Barnabe Googe, 1570</span></span>, edited by R. C. Hope (London,
          1880), p. 46; E. Meier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus
          Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 473, § 237; A.
          Birlinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</span></span>
          (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 468, § 696; A. Kuhn und W.
          Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
          Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 411; A. Kuhn,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen,
          Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859),
          ii. 115, § 354; A. Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 61, §
          74; Montanus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und
          deutscher Volksglaube</span></span> (Iserlohn, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 18; M. Toeppen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aberglauben aus
          Masuren</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Danzig, 1867), p. 61; L.
          Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum
          Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 29, § 294; August
          Witzschel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus
          Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 175; K. Bartsch,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen,
          Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, 1880),
          p. 250, § 1292; Christian Schneller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märchen und Sagen aus
          Wälschtirol</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 231; J. Haltrich,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur
          Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen</span></span> (Vienna, 1885),
          p. 282; Willibald Müller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in
          Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 317; Alois John,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte,
          Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, 1905), p. 12; P. Drechsler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 16
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_736" name="note_736"
          href="#noteref_736">736.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen,
          Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852),
          p. 473, § 237; A. Birlinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</span></span>
          (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 468, § 696.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_737" name="note_737"
          href="#noteref_737">737.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 470.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_738" name="note_738"
          href="#noteref_738">738.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. J. Vonbun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur
          deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Chur, 1862), p. 131; A.
          Birlinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</span></span>, i.
          469; Chr. Schneller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Märchen und Sagen aus
          Wälschtirol</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 231.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_739" name="note_739"
          href="#noteref_739">739.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jules Lecoeur, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage
          Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 20
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_740" name="note_740"
          href="#noteref_740">740.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Loth, <span class="tei tei-q">“Les
          douze jours supplémentaires (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">gourdeziou</span></em>) des Bretons et les
          douze jours des Germains et des Indous,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Celtique</span></span>, xxiv. (1903) pp. 310 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_741" name="note_741"
          href="#noteref_741">741.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Campbell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Witchcraft and Second
          Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</span></span>
          (Glasgow, 1902), p. 243.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_742" name="note_742"
          href="#noteref_742">742.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Pennant, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“A Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides in
          1772,”</span> in John Pinkerton's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages and
          Travels</span></span> (London, 1808-1814), iii. 384.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_743" name="note_743"
          href="#noteref_743">743.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Hymns of the Rigveda</span></span>,
          translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892), book iv. hymn
          33, vol. ii. pp. 150 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; H. Zimmer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altindisches
          Leben</span></span> (Berlin, 1879), pp. 365-367; A. Hillebrandt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ritual-Litteratur, Vedische Opfer und
          Zauber</span></span> (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 5 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          However, the Ribhus are very obscure figures in Vedic mythology.
          Compare H. Oldenberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Religion des Veda</span></span> (Berlin,
          1894), pp. 235 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. A. Macdonnell,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedic
          Mythology</span></span> (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 131 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_744" name="note_744"
          href="#noteref_744">744.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Max Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the
          Science of Language</span></span>, Sixth Edition (London, 1871), i.
          6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; O. Schrader, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der
          indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), p.
          547; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung
          und Urgeschichte</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Jena, 1906-1907), ii.
          228.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_745" name="note_745"
          href="#noteref_745">745.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This explanation of the sacredness of
          the twelve days among the Indo-European peoples of the East and
          West is due to A. Weber. See O. Schrader, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der
          indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901),
          pp. 391-394; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung
          und Urgeschichte</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Jena, 1906-1907), ii. 2.
          pp. 228-234. It is accepted by J. Loth (in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Celtique</span></span>, xxiv. 1903, pp. 311 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>),
          Professor H. Hirt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Indogermanen</span></span>, Strasburg,
          1905-1907, ii. 537, 544), Professor J. H. Moulton (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Two Lectures on the
          Science of Language</span></span>, Cambridge, 1903, pp. 47
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), and J. A. MacCulloch (in
          Dr. J. Hastings's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of Religion and
          Ethics</span></span>, iii. 81 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), but is rejected on what
          seem to me insufficient grounds by Professor O. Schrader
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ll.cc.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_746" name="note_746"
          href="#noteref_746">746.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 307 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_747" name="note_747"
          href="#noteref_747">747.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die gestriegelte
          Rockenphilosophie</span></span> (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 860, 861;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bavaria,
          Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</span></span>
          (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 61; P.
          Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in
          Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 15; A. John,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte,
          Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, 1905), p. 11. The phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          Twelve Nights”</span> in the sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          Twelve Days and Nights”</span> is doubtless derived from the
          ancient Aryan custom of counting by nights instead of by days and
          of regarding the period of the earth's revolution on its axis as
          beginning with the night rather than with the day. See Caesar,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De bello
          Gallico</span></span>, vi. 18; Tacitus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Germania</span></span>, 11; O. Schrader,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reallexikon der indogermanischen
          Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 844
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. Loth, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“L'Année celtique,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Celtique</span></span>, xxv. (1904) pp. 115 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          The Athenians reckoned a day from sunset to sunset, and the Romans
          reckoned it from midnight to midnight (Censorinus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die
          natali</span></span>, xxiii. 3).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_748" name="note_748"
          href="#noteref_748">748.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Tille, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Geschichte der
          deutschen Weihnacht</span></span> (Leipsic, preface dated 1893),
          pp. 3 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 281 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          O. Schrader, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Reallexikon der indogermanischen
          Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), p. 392.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_749" name="note_749"
          href="#noteref_749">749.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und
          Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i.
          15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_750" name="note_750"
          href="#noteref_750">750.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 61, §
          74. As to the varying dates of the Twelve Nights see further E.
          Mogk, <span class="tei tei-q">“Mythologie,”</span> in H. Paul's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundriss
          der germanischen Philologie</span></span>, iii.<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Strasburg, 1900), p. 260.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_751" name="note_751"
          href="#noteref_751">751.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg324" class=
          "tei tei-ref">324</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_752" name="note_752"
          href="#noteref_752">752.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus A. Wuttke observes that by far
          the greater part of the superstitions attaching to the Twelve
          Nights are of purely heathen origin (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche
          Volksaberglaube</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> p. 61); and K. Weinhold
          similarly remarks that the superstitions in question cannot have
          originated in Christian dogmas, and that they point to the
          sacredness of the winter solstice among the heathen tribes of
          Germany (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland
          und Schlesien</span></span>, Vienna, 1875, p. 4).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_753" name="note_753"
          href="#noteref_753">753.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis,
          Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 254 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          and for Easter in particular see my letter <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Attis and Christ,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Athenaeum</span></span>, No. 4184, January 4th, 1908, pp. 19
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Franz Cumont, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Religions
          orientales dans le Paganisme romain</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Paris, 1909), pp. 106 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 333 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_754" name="note_754"
          href="#noteref_754">754.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 21 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E.
          Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses</span></span>
          (Paris, 1867), pp. 32, 38, 39-42; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Calendrier Belge</span></span> (Brussels,
          1861-1862), i. 21 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 30 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus
          Böhmen</span></span> (Prague, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 18; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das
          festliche Jahr</span></span> (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 23-26;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bavaria,
          Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</span></span>
          (Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 262 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; L. F. Sauvé, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des
          Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), pp. 15-18; Ch.
          Beauquier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Mois en Franche-Comté</span></span>
          (Paris, 1900), pp. 13-15; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">La Bresse Louhannaise</span></span>, Janvier,
          1906, p. 42; P. Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in
          Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 51; A. John,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte,
          Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, 1905), pp. 32-34; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste und Bräuche des
          Schweizervolkes</span></span> (Zürich, 1913), pp. 104, 121.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_755" name="note_755"
          href="#noteref_755">755.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew ii. 1-12.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_756" name="note_756"
          href="#noteref_756">756.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Beauquier, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en
          Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), pp. 13-16.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_757" name="note_757"
          href="#noteref_757">757.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des
          Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), pp. 15-17. Compare the
          old Roman cure for the falling sickness (above, p. <a href="#Pg068"
          class="tei tei-ref">68</a>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_758" name="note_758"
          href="#noteref_758">758.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</span></span>
          (Prague, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 17 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_759" name="note_759"
          href="#noteref_759">759.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Calendrier
          Belge</span></span> (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 22. The mere names of
          the three kings worn on the person were believed to be a cure for
          epilepsy. See J. B. Thiers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Traité des Superstitions</span></span> (Paris,
          1679), pp. 350 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_760" name="note_760"
          href="#noteref_760">760.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of
          Days</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 62, referring
          to Warton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">History of English Poetry</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_761" name="note_761"
          href="#noteref_761">761.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 497 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          E. K. Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford,
          1903), i. 403 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_762" name="note_762"
          href="#noteref_762">762.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Stow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Survey of London,
          written in the year 1598</span></span>, edited by William J. Thoms
          (London, 1876), p. 37.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_763" name="note_763"
          href="#noteref_763">763.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Thomas Urquhart, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Discovery of a
          most Exquisite Jewel, more precious than Diamonds inchased in
          Gold</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1774), p. 146.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_764" name="note_764"
          href="#noteref_764">764.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 499.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_765" name="note_765"
          href="#noteref_765">765.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 497 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> As
          to the Lords of Misrule in colleges and the Inns of Court see
          further E. K. Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Mediaeval Stage</span></span>, i. 407
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_766" name="note_766"
          href="#noteref_766">766.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Richard Steele, in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Spectator</span></span>, Friday, 14th December 1711.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_767" name="note_767"
          href="#noteref_767">767.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. K. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Mediaeval
          Stage</span></span>, i. 405-407.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_768" name="note_768"
          href="#noteref_768">768.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Superstitions et
          Survivances</span></span>, iv. (Paris, 1896) pp. 4 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          quoting Jacob, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mœurs et Coutumes du Moyen-Age</span></span>.
          Compare E. Cortet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes religieuses</span></span>
          (Paris, 1867), pp. 50 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> In some places the festival
          was held on the octave of Epiphany. See E. K. Chambers,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford, 1903), i. 323.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_769" name="note_769"
          href="#noteref_769">769.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Cortet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 51; Papon, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale de
          la Provence</span></span>, iii. p. 212, quoted by L. J. B.
          Bérenger-Feraud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> iv. 9 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E.
          K. Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford,
          1903), i. 293 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, quoting a circular letter
          which was addressed by the Faculty of Theology at Paris to the
          bishops and chapters of France on March 12th, 1445. Many details as
          to the mode of celebrating the Festival of Fools in different parts
          of France are on record. See A. de Nore, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes, Mythes, et
          Traditions des Provinces de France</span></span> (Paris and Lyons,
          1846), pp. 293-295; E. Cortet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. J. B. Bérenger-Feraud,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> iv. 5 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; G. Bilfinger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Untersuchungen über
          die Zeitrechnung der alten Germanen</span></span>, ii. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das germanische
          Julfest</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 72 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          and especially E. K. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Mediaeval
          Stage</span></span>, i. 274 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_770" name="note_770"
          href="#noteref_770">770.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Cortet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes
          religieuses</span></span> (Paris, 1867), pp. 53-56; L. J. B.
          Bérenger-Feraud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Superstitions et Survivances</span></span>,
          iv. 28-41; E. K. Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford,
          1903), i. 330-334. While the Festival of Fools appears to have been
          most popular in France, it is known to have been celebrated also in
          Germany, Bohemia, and England. See E. K. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 318 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> In his youth the Bohemian
          reformer John Huss took part in these mummeries. The revellers wore
          masks. <span class="tei tei-q">“A clerk, grotesquely vested, was
          dubbed <span class="tei tei-q">‘bishop,’</span> set on an ass with
          his face to the tail, and led to mass in the church. He was regaled
          on a platter of broth and a bowl of beer, and Huss recalls the
          unseemly revel which took place. Torches were borne instead of
          candles, and the clergy turned their garments inside out and
          danced”</span> (E. K. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 320 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_771" name="note_771"
          href="#noteref_771">771.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Cortet, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Fêtes
          religieuses</span></span>, p. 58; E. K. Chambers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Mediaeval
          Stage</span></span> (Oxford, 1903), i. 317 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          336 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare L. J. B.
          Bérenger-Feraud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Superstitions et Survivances</span></span>,
          iv. 25-28. From the evidence collected by the latter writer it
          appears that in some places the election of the Boy Bishop took
          place on other days than Childermas. At Alençon the election took
          place on the sixth of December; at Vienne, in Dauphiné, on the
          fifteenth, and at Soissons on St. Thomas's Day (the twenty-first of
          December).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_772" name="note_772"
          href="#noteref_772">772.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This I learn from my wife, who as a
          girl was educated in the convent.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_773" name="note_773"
          href="#noteref_773">773.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities
          of Great Britain</span></span> (London, 1883), i. 421-431; E. K.
          Chambers, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Mediaeval Stage</span></span> (Oxford,
          1903), i. 352 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; (Mrs.) Ella Mary Leather,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Folk-lore of Herefordshire</span></span> (Hereford and London,
          1912), pp. 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">County
          Folk-lore</span></span>, II. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the
          Ainsty</span></span>, edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), pp. 352
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_774" name="note_774"
          href="#noteref_774">774.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> i. 426.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_775" name="note_775"
          href="#noteref_775">775.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the Aztec year see above, p.
          <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a> note 1.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_776" name="note_776"
          href="#noteref_776">776.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 77, 283; E. Seler,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Mexican Chronology,”</span> in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bureau of
          American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 28</span></span> (Washington,
          1904), p. 16 (where some extracts from the Aztec text of Sahagun
          are quoted and translated); J. de Acosta, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural and Moral
          History of the Indies</span></span> (Hakluyt Society, London,
          1880), ii. 392.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_777" name="note_777"
          href="#noteref_777">777.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diego de Landa, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relation des Choses
          de Yucatan</span></span> (Paris, 1864), pp. 204 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          276 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_778" name="note_778"
          href="#noteref_778">778.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa
          Astronomiae</span></span>, viii. 18, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius
          (Leipsic, 1898).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_779" name="note_779"
          href="#noteref_779">779.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Foucart, in Dr. J. Hastings's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of Religion and
          Ethics</span></span>, iii. (1910) p. 93. Professor Ed. Meyer
          adduces astronomical and other grounds for thinking that the
          ancient Egyptian calendar, as we know it, began on the 19th of
          July, 4241 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, which accordingly he
          calls <span class="tei tei-q">“the oldest sure date in the history
          of the world.”</span> See Ed. Meyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des
          Altertums</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span>, i. 2. (Stuttgart and
          Berlin, 1909), pp. 101 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 197; and against this
          view C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, in the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English Historical
          Review</span></span>, April 1913, p. 348.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_780" name="note_780"
          href="#noteref_780">780.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et
          Osiris</span></span>, 12. Compare Diodorus Siculus, i. 13. 4
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to Keb and Nut, the
          parents of Osiris, Isis, and the rest, see A. Erman, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die ägyptische
          Religion</span></span> (Berlin, 1905), p. 29. The Egyptian deities
          Keb, Nut, and Thoth are called by Plutarch by the Greek names of
          Cronus, Rhea, and Hermes. On account of these Greek names the myth
          was long thought to be of comparatively recent date; <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“but the Leyden Papyrus (i. 346) has shown that the
          legend existed in its essential features in the time of the
          Thebans, and the Texts of the Pyramids have carried it back to the
          very beginnings of Egyptian mythology”</span> (G. Foucart,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>). As five days are the
          seventy-second, not the seventieth, part of three hundred and sixty
          days, it was proposed by Wyttenbach to read t? ?ßd?µ???st??
          de?te??? instead of t? ?ßd?µ???st?? in Plutarch's text. See D.
          Wyttenbachius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Animadversiones in Plutarchi
          Moralia</span></span> (Leipsic, 1820-1834), iii. 143 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_781" name="note_781"
          href="#noteref_781">781.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zimmer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altindisches
          Leben</span></span> (Berlin, 1879), pp. 365-370. Compare
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Hymns
          of the Rigveda</span></span>, translated by R. T. H. Griffith
          (Benares, 1889-1892), Book i. Hymn 164, stanza 48 (vol. i. p. 293),
          Book iii. Hymn 55, stanza 18 (vol. ii. pp. 76 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_782" name="note_782"
          href="#noteref_782">782.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. A.
            MacCulloch, in Dr. J. Hastings's <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of
            Religion and Ethics</span></span>, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) pp. 78
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare S. de Ricci,
            <span class="tei tei-q">“Le calendrier Gaulois de
            Coligny,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Revue Celtique</span></span>, xix. (1898)
            pp. 213-223; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“Le calendrier Celtique de Coligny,”</span>
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
            Celtique</span></span>, xxi. (1900) pp. 10-27; <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
            <span class="tei tei-q">“Un passage remarquable du calendrier de
            Coligny,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Revue Celtique</span></span>, xxiv. (1903)
            pp. 313-316; J. Loth, <span class="tei tei-q">“L'année
            Celtique,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Revue Celtique</span></span>, xxv. (1904)
            pp. 113-162; Sir John Rhys, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Coligny
            Calendar”</span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Proceedings of the British Academy,
            1909-1910</span></span>, pp. 207 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
            As the calendar stands, the number of days in the ordinary year
            is 355, not 354, seven of the months having thirty days and five
            of them twenty-nine days. But the month Equos has attached to it
            the sign ANM, which is attached to all the months of twenty-nine
            days but to none of the months of thirty days except Equos, all
            of which, except Equos, are marked with the sign MAT. Hence,
            following a suggestion of M. S. de Ricci (<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
            Celtique</span></span>, xxi. 25), I suppose that the month Equos
            had regularly twenty-nine days instead of thirty, and that the
            attribution of thirty days to it is an error of the scribe or
            mason who engraved the calendar.</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Coligny
            calendar the summer solstice seems to be marked by the word
            <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">trinouxtion</span></span> affixed to the
            seventeenth day of the first month (Samonios, nearly equivalent
            to our June). As interpreted by Sir John Rhys (<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
            cit.</span></span> p. 217), the word means <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“a period of three nights of equal length.”</span> If
            he is right, it follows that the Celts who constructed the
            calendar had observed the summer solstice.</p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_783" name="note_783"
          href="#noteref_783">783.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. MacCulloch, in Dr. J. Hastings's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia of Religion and
          Ethics</span></span>, iii. 79. Compare Sir J. Rhys, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Coligny Calendar,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the
          British Academy, 1909-1910</span></span>, pp. 292 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_784" name="note_784"
          href="#noteref_784">784.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We know from Livy (xxii. i. 19
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) that the Saturnalia was
          celebrated in December as early as the year 217 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>; and in his learned
          discussion of the proper date of the festival the antiquary
          Macrobius gives no hint that it ever fell at any other time than in
          December (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturnal.</span></span> i. 10). It would be a
          mistake to infer from Livy's account of the Saturnalia in the year
          217 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> that he supposed the
          festival to have been first instituted in that year; for elsewhere
          (ii. 21. 1) he tells us that it was established at the time when
          the temple of Saturn was dedicated, namely in the year 497
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> Macrobius
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span> i. 8. 1) refers the
          institution of the Saturnalia to King Tullus Hostilius. More
          probably the festival was of immemorial antiquity.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_785" name="note_785"
          href="#noteref_785">785.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Macrobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> i.
          12. 7; Solinus, i. 35, p. 13 ed. Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1864);
          Joannes Lydus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">De Mensibus</span></span>, iii. 15. On the
          other hand, we know that the ceremony of renewing the laurels,
          which originally took place on the first of March, was long
          afterwards transferred to the first of January. See Ovid,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iii. 135 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          and Macrobius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span> i. 12. 6, compared with
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geoponica</span></span>, xi. 2. 6, where the
          note of the commentator Niclas may be consulted. This transference
          is strictly analogous to the change which I conjecture to have been
          made in the date of celebrating the Saturnalia.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_786" name="note_786"
          href="#noteref_786">786.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re
          rustica</span></span>, books iii. and iv. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">passim.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_787" name="note_787"
          href="#noteref_787">787.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 137-139.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_788" name="note_788"
          href="#noteref_788">788.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, i. 136-144, ii. 97 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_789" name="note_789"
          href="#noteref_789">789.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare C. Lumholtz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown
          Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), ii. 268: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“To the Huichol so closely are corn, deer, and hikuli
          associated that by consuming the broth of the deer-meat and the
          hikuli they think the same effect is produced—namely, making the
          corn grow. Therefore when clearing the fields they eat hikuli
          before starting the day's work.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_790" name="note_790"
          href="#noteref_790">790.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The Indians of Santiago
          Tepehuacan abstain from flesh, eggs, and grease while they are
          engaged in sowing cotton and chilis, because they believe that were
          they to partake of these viands at that time, the blossoms would
          fall and the crop would suffer. See <span class="tei tei-q">“Lettre
          du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque sur les mœurs et
          coutumes des Indiens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de
          Géographie</span></span> (Paris), Deuxième Série, ii. (1834) p.
          181.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_791" name="note_791"
          href="#noteref_791">791.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Franche-Comté not only husbands and
          wives were expected to be continent from the first Sunday of Lent
          to the first Sunday after Easter, but even sweethearts separated
          during that time, bidding each other a formal farewell on the first
          of these days and meeting again with similar formality on the last.
          See C. Beauquier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Mois en Franche-Comté</span></span>
          (Paris, 1900), p. 35. I am informed that the observance of chastity
          during Lent is enjoined generally by the Catholic church. As to its
          injunction by the Coptic church see F. Wüstenfeld, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macrizi's Geschichte
          der Copten</span></span> (Göttingen, 1845), p. 84; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Il</span></span>
          Fetha Nagast, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">o Legislazione dei Re, codice ecclesiastico e
          civile di Abissinia, tradotto e annotato da</span></span> Ignazio
          Guidi (Rome, 1899), p. 164.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_792" name="note_792"
          href="#noteref_792">792.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia
          Ecclesiastica</span></span>, v. 22; Sozomenus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia
          Ecclesiastica</span></span>, vii. 19 (Migne, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patrologia
          Graeca</span></span>, lxvii. coll. 632-636, 1477); W. Smith and S.
          Cheetham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Dictionary of Christian
          Antiquities</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Lent,”</span> vol. ii. pp. 972 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Mgr. L. Duchesne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Origines du Culte Chrétien</span></span>
          (Paris, 1903), pp. 241-243.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_793" name="note_793"
          href="#noteref_793">793.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Firmicus Maternus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De errore profanarum
          religionum</span></span>, 27.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_794" name="note_794"
          href="#noteref_794">794.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et
          Osiris</span></span>, 69: ?a? ??? ?????s? ??ste???s?? a? ???a??e?
          ?? ?esµ?f?????? ?aµa? ?a??µe?a?, ?a? ????t?? t? t?? ??a??? µ??a?a
          ?????s??, ?pa??? t?? ???t?? ??e???? ???µ????te?, ?? d?? t?? t??
          ????? ????d?? ?? ??e? t?? ??µ?t??? ??s??. ?st? d? ? µ?? ??t?? pe??
          p?e??da sp???µ??, ?? ???? ????pt???, ??a?e????a d? ????a???,
          ????t?? d? ?aµ?t???? ?a???s?. As to the festival and the rule of
          chastity observed at it, see further <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn
          and of the Wild</span></span>, i. 116, ii. 17 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_795" name="note_795"
          href="#noteref_795">795.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Fielding, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Soul of a
          People</span></span> (London, 1898), pp. 172 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The
          orthodox explanation of the custom is that during these three
          months the Buddha retired to a monastery. But <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the custom was far older even than that—so old that we
          do not know how it arose. Its origin is lost in the mists of
          far-away time.”</span> Compare C. J. F. S. Forbes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British
          Burma</span></span> (London, 1878), pp. 170 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Shway Yoe, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Burman, his Life and Notions</span></span>
          (London, 1882), i. 257, 262 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_796" name="note_796"
          href="#noteref_796">796.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, xiv. 44 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          pp. 639 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">B</span></span>-640 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_797" name="note_797"
          href="#noteref_797">797.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Macrobius, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturn.</span></span>
          i. 7. 37 and i. 10. 22; Demosthenes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Or.</span></span>
          xxiv. 26, p. 708. As to the temple of Cronus and Rhea, see
          Pausanias, i. 18. 7; Im. Bekker's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anecdota
          Graeca</span></span> (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. p. 273, lines 20
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> That the Attic month
          Hecatombaeon was formerly called Cronius is mentioned by Plutarch
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Theseus</span></span>, 12). Other Greek
          states, including Samos, Amorgos, Perinthus, and Patmos, had a
          month called Cronion, that is, the month of Cronus, which seems to
          have coincided with June or July. See G. Dittenberger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum
          Graecarum</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898-1901), Nos.
          644 and 645; E. Bischoff, <span class="tei tei-q">“De fastis
          Graecorum antiquioribus,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leipziger Studien für
          classischen Philologie</span></span>, vii. (1884) p. 400. At
          Magnesia on the Maeander the month of Cronion was the time of
          sowing (Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> No. 553, lines 15
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), which cannot have fallen
          in the height of summer. Compare <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn
          and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_798" name="note_798"
          href="#noteref_798">798.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum</span></span>,
          iii. No. 77; Ch. Michel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques</span></span>
          (Brussels, 1900), No. 692, pp. 595 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; I.
          de Prott et L. Ziehen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Leges Graecorum Sacrae</span></span>, i.
          (Leipsic, 1896), No. 3, pp. 7 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. S. Roberts and E. A.
          Gardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Introduction to Greek Epigraphy</span></span>,
          Part II. (Cambridge, 1905), No. 142, pp. 387 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          From the same inscription we learn that cakes with twelve knobs
          were offered to other deities, including Apollo and Artemis, Zeus,
          Poseidon, and Hercules.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_799" name="note_799"
          href="#noteref_799">799.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Hesiod, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and
          Days</span></span>, 370 (p. 170 ed. E. Vollbehr, Kiel, 1844): ?a?
          ?? t??? pat????? ?st?? ???t? ???????a, ?a?? ?? ??te ????t?? ??te
          µ?s??t?? e???e?? t?? ?p??a?se?? t?? ????? ?eµ?t?? ??, ???? ??sa?ta?
          p?s? µetad?d??a? t?? d???? t?? ?????s??. As to the festival of the
          opening of the wine-jars see August Mommsen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), pp.
          349 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der
          Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 384
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“When the slaves,”</span> says Plutarch, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“feast at the Cronia or go about celebrating the
          festival of Dionysus in the country, the shouts they raise and the
          tumult they make in their rude merriment are intolerable”</span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Non
          posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum</span></span>, 26). That the
          original festival of Cronus fell at Athens in Anthesterion is the
          view of Aug. Mommsen (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span>, pp. 22, 79;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der
          Stadt Athen</span></span>, p. 402).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_800" name="note_800"
          href="#noteref_800">800.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, vi. 20. 1. Compare
          Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Antiquit. Rom.</span></span> i. 34. The
          magistrates called <span class="tei tei-q">“kings”</span> (ßas??a?)
          by Pausanias are doubtless identical with <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the kings”</span> (t?? ßas???e?) mentioned in a law of
          Elis, which was found inscribed on a bronze plate at Olympia. See
          H. Roehl, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Inscriptiones Graecae
          Antiquissimae</span></span> (Berlin, 1882), No. 112, p. 39; C.
          Cauer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Delectus Inscriptionum Graecarum propter
          dialectum memorabilium</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Leipsic, 1883), No. 253, p. 175; H. Collitz, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sammlung der
          griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften</span></span>, No. 1152 (vol. i.
          Göttingen, 1884, p. 321); Ch. Michel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil
          d'Inscriptions Grecques</span></span>, No. 195, p. 179.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_801" name="note_801"
          href="#noteref_801">801.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the
          Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 44 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          ii. 177, 361.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_802" name="note_802"
          href="#noteref_802">802.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and
          Days</span></span>, 111, 169; Plato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Politicus</span></span>, p. 269 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>; Diodorus Siculus, iii.
          61, v. 66; Julian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Epistola ad Themistium</span></span>, p. 258
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span> (pp. 334 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          ed. F. C. Hertlein, Leipsic, 1875-1876); <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Anonymi Chronologica,”</span> printed in L. Dindorf's
          edition of J. Malalas (Bonn, 1831), p. 17. See further M. Mayer's
          article <span class="tei tei-q">“Kronos,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon
          der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, ii. (Leipsic,
          1890-1897) col. 1458.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_803" name="note_803"
          href="#noteref_803">803.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See M. Mayer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> ii. 1501 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_804" name="note_804"
          href="#noteref_804">804.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, vi. 20. 4 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_805" name="note_805"
          href="#noteref_805">805.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, ix. p. 565
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">d
          e</span></span>; pseudo-Plato, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Minos</span></span>,
          p. 315 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>; Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> viii. 81; Pausanias, viii. 2 and 38; Porphyry,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          abstinentia</span></span>, ii. 27; Augustine, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De civitate
          Dei</span></span>, xviii. 17. The suggestion that Lycaean Zeus may
          have been merely a successor of Cronus is due to my friend
          Professor W. Ridgeway.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_806" name="note_806"
          href="#noteref_806">806.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Porphyry, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          abstinentia</span></span>, ii. 54.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_807" name="note_807"
          href="#noteref_807">807.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 161
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_808" name="note_808"
          href="#noteref_808">808.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 113
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_809" name="note_809"
          href="#noteref_809">809.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, xiv. 44, p. 639
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>; Dio Chrysostom,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> iv. 69 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          (vol. i. p. 76 ed. L. Dindorf, Leipsic, 1857). From Athenaeus we
          learn that the festival was described or mentioned by Berosus in
          his first book and by Ctesias in his second.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_810" name="note_810"
          href="#noteref_810">810.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xi. 8. 5, p. 512.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_811" name="note_811"
          href="#noteref_811">811.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xi. 14. 16, pp. 532
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ed. Meyer's article
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Anaitis,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon
          der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, i. (Leipsic,
          1884-1890) pp. 330 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_812" name="note_812"
          href="#noteref_812">812.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By A. H. Sayce, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion of the
          Ancient Babylonians</span></span> (London and Edinburgh, 1887), p.
          68; Bruno Meissner, <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur
          Entstehungsgeschichte des Purimfestes,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift der
          deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</span></span>, l. (1896)
          pp. 296-301; H. Winckler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altorientalische Forschungen</span></span>,
          Zweite Reihe, ii. Heft 3 (Leipsic, 1900), p. 345; C. Brockelmann,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in
          Assyrien,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Assyriologie</span></span>,
          xvi. (1902) pp. 391 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_813" name="note_813"
          href="#noteref_813">813.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Jensen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Kosmologie der
          Babylonier</span></span> (Strasburg, 1890), pp. 84 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          H. Zimmern, <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge
          des Purimfestes,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche
          Wissenschaft</span></span>, xi. (1891) pp. 159 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          A. Jeremias, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Marduk,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon der griech.
          und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 2347 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M.
          Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Religion of Babylonia and
          Assyria</span></span> (Boston, U.S.A., 1898), pp. 186, 677
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; R. F. Harper, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyrian and
          Babylonian Literature</span></span> (New York, 1901), pp. 136
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 137, 140, 149; C.
          Brocklemann, <span class="tei tei-q">“Wesen und Ursprung des
          Eponymats in Assyrien,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
          Assyriologie</span></span>, xvi. (1902) pp. 391 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), pp. 370
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 374, 384 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">n.</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">4</span></span>,
          402, 514 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Zum Babylonischen Neujahrsfest,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Berichte
          über die Verhandlungen der königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der
          Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-historische
          Klasse</span></span>, lviii. (1906) pp. 126-156; M. J. Lagrange,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études
          sur les Religions Sémitiques</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Paris, 1905); pp. 285 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> King Gudea is thought to
          have flourished about 2340 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> See Ed. Meyer,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte des
          Altertums</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> i. 2. (Stuttgart and
          Berlin, 1909) pp. 488 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the ceremony of
          grasping the hands of Marduk's image, see also C. F. Lehmann
          (-Haupt), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Šamaššumukin, König von
          Babylonien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1892), pp. 50 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          Sir G. Maspero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient
          Classique</span></span>, iii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Empires</span></span> (Paris, 1899). pp.
          381 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_814" name="note_814"
          href="#noteref_814">814.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this subject the Master of St.
          Catharine's College, Cambridge (the Rev. C. H. W. Johns), has
          kindly furnished me with the following note: <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“ZAG is the name of the ideogram meaning <span class=
          "tei tei-q">‘head or beginning.’</span> MU is the sign for
          <span class="tei tei-q">‘year.’</span> When put together ZAG-MU
          means <span class="tei tei-q">‘beginning of year.’</span> But
          ZAG-MU-KU means ZAG MU-d, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> ZAG with MU suffixed.
          Therefore it is the name of the ideogram, and there is as yet no
          <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">proof</span></em> that it was ever read
          Zakmuk. Hence any similarity of sound with either Sacaea or Zoganes
          is precarious. I cannot prove that the signs were <em class=
          "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">never</span></em>
          read Zakmuku, but that is not a Semitic word nor a Sumerian
          word.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_815" name="note_815"
          href="#noteref_815">815.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The statement occurs in an inscription
          of Nebuchadnezzar. See P. Jensen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Kosmologie der
          Babylonier</span></span>, p. 85; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1902), p. 402. The title of the president of the divine
          synod, <span class="tei tei-q">“king of the gods of heaven and
          earth,”</span> is believed by Professor Zimmern to have originally
          referred to the god Nabu, though at a later time it was applied to
          Marduk.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_816" name="note_816"
          href="#noteref_816">816.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">See The Dying God</span></span>, p. 116 note
          1. In Egypt the Macedonian calendar seems to have fallen into great
          confusion. See W. Dittenberger, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orientis Graeci
          Inscriptiones Selectae</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1905), ii. pp.
          649 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> I would remind the reader
          that while the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">dates</span></em> of the Syro-Macedonian
          months varied in different places, their <em class=
          "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">order</span></em>
          was the same everywhere.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_817" name="note_817"
          href="#noteref_817">817.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg355" class=
          "tei tei-ref">355</a>, note 5. On the other hand Prof. H. Zimmern
          prefers to suppose that the Sacaea was quite distinct from Zakmuk,
          and that it fell in July at the time of the heliacal rising of
          Sirius, which seems to have been associated with the goddess
          Ishtar. See H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften
          und das Alte Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1902), pp. 426 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_818" name="note_818"
          href="#noteref_818">818.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Biblica</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Year,”</span> vol. iv. (London, 1903) coll. 5365
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_819" name="note_819"
          href="#noteref_819">819.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_820" name="note_820"
          href="#noteref_820">820.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span>, Second
          Edition, iii. 237 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_821" name="note_821"
          href="#noteref_821">821.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Marquardt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Römische
          Staatsverwaltung</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 200
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_822" name="note_822"
          href="#noteref_822">822.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zimmern, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche
          Wissenschaft</span></span>, xi. (1891) pp. 157-169; W. Nowack,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch
          der hebräischen Archäologie</span></span> (Freiburg i. B. and
          Leipsic, 1894), ii. 198 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Br. Meissner, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Purimfestes,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
          Gesellschaft</span></span>, l. (1896) pp. 296-301; Fr. Cumont,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Le roi des Saturnales,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue de
          Philologie</span></span>, xxi. (1897) p. 150; P. Haupt,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Purim</span></span> (Leipsic, 1906). The
          various theories which have been propounded as to the origin of
          Purim are stated and discussed by Prof. L. B. Paton in his
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Book of Esther</span></span>
          (Edinburgh, 1908), pp. 77-94. See also <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia
          Biblica</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> vol. iii. (London, 1902) coll. 3976
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_823" name="note_823"
          href="#noteref_823">823.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. R. Driver, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the
          Literature of the Old Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">8</span></span>
          (Edinburgh, 1909), p. 484. Professor T. Witton Davies would date
          the book about 130 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ezra, Nehemiah and
          Esther</span></span>, edited by Rev. T. Witton Davies (Edinburgh
          and London, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), pp. 299-301
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Century Bible</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_824" name="note_824"
          href="#noteref_824">824.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">2 Maccabees xv. 36. As to the date of
          this book, see S. R. Driver, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 481.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_825" name="note_825"
          href="#noteref_825">825.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We know from Josephus (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Antiquit.</span></span> iii. 10. 5) that in
          the month Nisan, the first month of the Jewish year, the sun was in
          Aries. Now the sun is in Aries from March 20th or 21st to April
          19th or 20th; hence Nisan answers approximately to April, and Adar
          to March.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_826" name="note_826"
          href="#noteref_826">826.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther iii. 7.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_827" name="note_827"
          href="#noteref_827">827.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther iii. 7, ix. 26.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_828" name="note_828"
          href="#noteref_828">828.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the view of H. Zimmern
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche
          Wissenschaft</span></span>, xi. (1891) pp. 157 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>),
          and it is favoured by W. Nowack (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der
          hebräischen Archäologie</span></span>, ii. 198 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).
          Compare H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften
          und das Alte Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1902), p. 518.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_829" name="note_829"
          href="#noteref_829">829.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Jensen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Kosmologie der
          Babylonier</span></span>, pp. 240 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_830" name="note_830"
          href="#noteref_830">830.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The explanation is that of P. Jensen,
          quoted by Th. Nöldeke in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Biblica</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Esther,”</span> vol. ii. (London, 1901) col. 1404 note
          1. In Greek, for a similar reason, the word for <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“pebble”</span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“vote”</span> is identical (??f??). As to this
          etymology see also C. H. W. Johns, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia
          Biblica</span></span>, iii. (London, 1902) coll. 3979 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_831" name="note_831"
          href="#noteref_831">831.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther x. 22.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_832" name="note_832"
          href="#noteref_832">832.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Buxtorf, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Synagoga
          Judaica</span></span> (Bâle, 1661), pp. 554 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          559 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_833" name="note_833"
          href="#noteref_833">833.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Buxtorf, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 559; Schickard, quoted by Lagarde,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abhandlungen der kön.
          Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</span></span>, xxxiv.
          (1887) pp. 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare J. Chr. G.
          Bodenschatz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kirchliche Verfassung der heutigen
          Juden</span></span> (Erlangen, 1748), ii. 256. For the rule
          forbidding men and women to exchange garments, see Deuteronomy
          xxii. 5.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_834" name="note_834"
          href="#noteref_834">834.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. Schudt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische
          Merkwürdigkeiten</span></span> (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1714), ii.
          Theil, pp. 309, 314, 316, iv. Theiles die ii. Continuation, p. 347;
          I. Abrahams, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</span></span>
          (London, 1896), pp. 261 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> I have to thank my learned
          friend Dr. S. Schechter for bringing both these works to my
          notice.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_835" name="note_835"
          href="#noteref_835">835.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">P. Jensen,
            <span class="tei tei-q">“Elamitische Eigennamen,”</span>
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wiener
            Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</span></span>, vi.
            (1892) pp. 47-70; compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">ib.</span></span> pp. 209-212. All Jensen's
            etymologies are accepted by W. Nowack (<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der
            hebräischen Archäologie</span></span>, Freiburg i. Baden and
            Leipsic, 1894, ii. 199 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>); H. Gunkel (<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schöpfung und
            Chaos</span></span>, Göttingen, 1895, pp. 310 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>);
            D. G. Wildeboer (in his commentary on Esther, pp. 173
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, forming part of K.
            Marti's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum alten
            Testament</span></span>, Freiburg i. B. 1898); Th. Nöldeke
            (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
            "tei tei-q">“Esther,”</span> <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia
            Biblica</span></span>, vol. ii. coll. 1404 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>);
            and H. Zimmern (in E. Schrader's <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften
            und das Alte Testament</span></span>,<span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
            Berlin, 1902, pp. 485, 516 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). On the other hand, Br.
            Meissner (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
            Gesellschaft</span></span>, I. (1896) p. 301) and M. Jastrow
            (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
            Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</span></span>, p. 686, note 2)
            suspend their judgment as to the identification of Haman and
            Vashti with Elamite deities, though they apparently regard the
            identification of Mordecai and Esther with Marduk and Ishtar as
            quite certain. The doubt which these scholars felt as to the
            derivation of one at least of these names (Vashti) is now known
            to be well founded. See below, p. <a href="#Pg367" class=
            "tei tei-ref">367</a>, note 3.</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It deserves to
            be noted that on the twenty-seventh day of the month Tammuz the
            heathen of Harran used to sacrifice nine male lambs to Haman,
            <span class="tei tei-q">“the supreme God, the father of the
            gods,”</span> and they ate and drank on that day. Chwolsohn
            suggests a comparison of the festival with the Athenian Cronia.
            See D. Chwolsohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus</span></span>
            (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 27 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
            211 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_836" name="note_836"
          href="#noteref_836">836.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Nöldeke, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Esther,”</span> in <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia
          Biblica</span></span>, vol. ii. (London, 1901) coll. 1405. But in a
          letter, written to me (20th May 1901) since the publication of the
          last edition of this book, Professor Nöldeke expresses a doubt
          whether he has not followed Jensen's mythological identifications
          in the book of Esther too far.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_837" name="note_837"
          href="#noteref_837">837.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The change of
          <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">m</span></em> to <em class=
          "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">w</span></em> or
          <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">v</span></em> (the Hebrew ? = <span lang="he"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">waw</span></span>) is frequent and
          certain”</span> (the Rev. C. H. W. Johns in a letter to me, May
          19th, 1913). The change is vouched for also by my friend Professor
          A. A. Bevan, who cites as an instance the name of the Babylonian
          king Amel-Marduk, which in Hebrew is changed into Evil-Merodach (2
          Kings xxv. 27; Jeremiah lii. 31). See E. Schrader, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften
          und das Alte Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1902), p. 396.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_838" name="note_838"
          href="#noteref_838">838.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name of the Elamite goddess is
          read as Parti by the Rev. Father Scheil. See E. Cosquin,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le
          Prologue-cadre des Mille et Une Nuits, les Légendes Perses, et le
          Livre d'Esther</span></span> (Paris, 1909), p. 68 (extract from the
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
          Biblique Internationale</span></span>, Janvier et Avril, 1909,
          published by the Dominicans of Jerusalem). The Master of St.
          Catharine's College, Cambridge (the Rev. C. H. W. Johns), has
          kindly examined the facsimile of the inscriptions for me. He
          informs me that Father Scheil's reading is correct and that the
          reading Mashti is quite wrong. He further tells me that Jensen was
          misled by an incorrect edition of the inscriptions to which alone
          he had access. The signs for <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">par</span></span> (or <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">bar</span></span>) and <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">mash</span></span> in the inscriptions
          resemble each other and therefore might easily be confused by a
          copyist. All Jensen's etymologies, except that of Mordecai, are
          adversely criticized by M. Emile Cosquin in the work to which I
          have referred (pp. 67 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). He prefers with Oppert to
          derive all the names except Mordecai (the identity of which with
          Marduk he does not dispute) from the old Persian. However, these
          derivations from the Persian are rejected by Professor Th. Nöldeke,
          whose opinion on such a point is entitled to carry great weight.
          See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Biblica</span></span>, ii.
          (London, 1901) col. 1402, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Esther.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_839" name="note_839"
          href="#noteref_839">839.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. C. Movers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Phoenizier</span></span>, i. (Bonn, 1841) pp. 490 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; 2
          Samuel xvi. 21 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, compare xii. 8. It was a
          well-attested custom of the Assyrian kings, when they had conquered
          a city, to take into their harem the daughters of the vanquished
          princes and rulers. See C. F. Lehmann (-Haupt), <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Šamaššumutkîn König
          von Babylonien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1892), p. 31. The Persian
          and Scythian kings seem also to have married the wives of their
          predecessors. See Herodotus, iii. 68 and 88, iv. 78; K. Neumann,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Hellenen im Skythenlande</span></span>, i. (Berlin, 1855) p. 301.
          Such a custom points to an old system of mother-kin under which the
          royal dignity was transmitted through women. See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the
          Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 268 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_840" name="note_840"
          href="#noteref_840">840.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ed. Meyer, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Anaitis,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon
          der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, i. (Leipsic,
          1884-1890) coll. 352 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> At the temple of Anaitis in
          Acilisena, a city of Armenia, the daughters of the noblest families
          regularly prostituted themselves for a long time before marriage
          (Strabo, xi. 14. 16, p. 532). Agathias identified Anaitis with
          Aphrodite (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> ii. 24), and when the
          Greeks spoke of the Oriental Aphrodite, they meant Astarte or one
          of her equivalents. Jensen proposes to identify Anaitis with an
          Elamite goddess Nahuntí, whom he takes to have been equivalent to
          Ishtar or Astarte, especially in her quality of the Evening Star.
          See his article, <span class="tei tei-q">“Elamitische
          Eigennamen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des
          Morgenlandes</span></span>, vi. (1892) pp. 64-67, 70.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_841" name="note_841"
          href="#noteref_841">841.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, ii. 20; Aelian,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Var.
          Hist.</span></span> vii. 1.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_842" name="note_842"
          href="#noteref_842">842.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Robertson Smith, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Ctesias and the Semiramis Legend,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English Historical
          Review</span></span>, ii. (1887) pp. 303-317. Amongst other
          evidence, Smith refers to Diodorus Siculus, from whose account (ii.
          4) of the birth of Semiramis he infers that she <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“is the daughter of Derceto, the fish goddess of
          Ascalon, and is herself the Astarte whose sacred doves were
          honoured at Ascalon and throughout Syria.”</span> It seems probable
          that the legendary Semiramis is to be identified with Shammuramat,
          the <span class="tei tei-q">“palace wife”</span> of Samsi-Adad,
          king of Assyria, and mother of King Adad-Nirari; she lived towards
          the end of the ninth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, and is known to us
          from Assyrian inscriptions. See C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die historische
          Semiramis und ihre Zeit</span></span> (Tübingen, 1910), pp. 1
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Semiramis,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon der griech.
          und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, iv. coll. 678 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_843" name="note_843"
          href="#noteref_843">843.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xii. 3. 37, p. 559, compare
          xi. 8. 4, p. 512. Zela is the modern Zileh, a town of about 20,000
          inhabitants clustered at the foot of the so-called mound of
          Semiramis, which is an inconsiderable protuberance of natural rock
          crowned by the walls of an old citadel. The place is singularly
          destitute of ancient remains, but every year in the first fortnight
          of December a fair is held in the town, to which merchants come not
          only from the whole of Asia Minor, but also from the Caucasus,
          Armenia, and Persia. This fair may very well be a direct descendant
          of a great festival held in honour of Anaitis or Astarte. See G.
          Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Art dans
          l'Antiquité</span></span>, iv. (Paris, 1887) p. 649; F. Cumont et
          E. Cumont, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Voyage d'Exploration archéologique dans le
          Pont et la Petite Arménie</span></span> (Brussels, 1906), pp. 188
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_844" name="note_844"
          href="#noteref_844">844.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Berosus, cited by Clement of
          Alexandria, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> v. 65, p. 57 ed.
          Potter (where for ?a?a?d?? we should read ??a?t?d??, as is done by
          C. Müller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fragmenta Historicorum
          Graecorum</span></span>, ii. 509).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_845" name="note_845"
          href="#noteref_845">845.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xi. 8. 4, p. 512, xii. 3. 37,
          p. 559. The nature of the ?e??d????? at Zela is indicated by Strabo
          in a passage (xii. 3. 36) where he describes a similar state of
          things at Comana, a city not far from Zela. His words are p?????
          ???a???? t?? ???a??µ???? ?p? t?? s?µat??, ?? a? p?e???? e?s??
          ?e?a?.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_846" name="note_846"
          href="#noteref_846">846.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, i. 184; Strabo, xvi. i. 2,
          p. 737; Diodorus Siculus, ii. 14.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_847" name="note_847"
          href="#noteref_847">847.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ctesias, cited by John of Antioch, in
          C. Müller's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fragmenta Historicorum
          Graecorum</span></span>, iv. 539.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_848" name="note_848"
          href="#noteref_848">848.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, ii. 13. Note that
          the first husband of Semiramis is said to have hanged himself
          (Diodorus Siculus, ii. 6).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_849" name="note_849"
          href="#noteref_849">849.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Jeremias, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Izdubar-Nimrod</span></span>, (Leipsic, 1891),
          pp. 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of
          Babylonia and Assyria</span></span> (Boston, U.S.A., 1898), p. 482;
          L. W. King, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Babylonian Religion and
          Mythology</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 159 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          P. Jensen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Assyrisch-Babylonische Mythen und
          Epen</span></span> (Berlin, 1900), pp. 169, 171; R. F. Harper,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyrian
          and Babylonian Literature</span></span> (New York, 1901), pp. 338
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Gilgamesch-Epos,
          neu übersetzt von</span></span> Arthur Ungnad <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">und
          gemeinverständlich erklärt von</span></span> Hugo Gressmann
          (Göttingen, 1911), pp. 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The true name of the
          Babylonian hero, which used to be read as Izdubar, has been found
          to be Gilgamesh. See M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 468 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. Zimmern, in E.
          Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), p. 566 note
          4; A. Ungnad, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das Gilgamesch-Epos</span></span>, pp. 76
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Aelian mentions
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          natura animalium</span></span>, xii. 21) a Babylonian king,
          Gilgamus, whose name is doubtless identical with that of the
          hero.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_850" name="note_850"
          href="#noteref_850">850.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Jeremias, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 475 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 484 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
          Herodotus, i. 199. The name which Herodotus gives to the goddess is
          Mylitta, but this is only a corruption of one of her Semitic
          titles, whether Baalath (Hebrew ????) <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“mistress,”</span> or perhaps rather <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mullittu</span></span>, from <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mu'allidtu</span></span> (Hebrew ?????),
          <span class="tei tei-q">“she who helps to the birth.”</span> See E.
          Meyer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Astarte,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon der griech.
          und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, i. 648; H. Zimmern, in E.
          Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), p. 423 note
          7. The female <span class="tei tei-q">“votaries of Marduk”</span>
          are repeatedly mentioned in the code of Hammurabi. See C. H. W.
          Johns, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and
          Letters</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1904), pp. 54, 55, 59, 60, 61;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis,
          Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 63.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_851" name="note_851"
          href="#noteref_851">851.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Along with Anaitis at Zela there were
          worshipped two deities named Omanos and Anadates; Strabo says that
          they were Persian divinities, and certainly their ritual as
          described by him was purely Persian. See Strabo, xi. 8. 4, p. 512,
          xv. 3. 15, p. 733; Franz Cumont, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Religions
          orientales dans le Paganisme romain</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Paris, 1909), pp. 214 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> It has been proposed to
          identify their names, first, with those of the two Persian
          archangels (Amshaspands), Vohumano or Vohu Manah (<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Good Thought”</span>) and Ameretât (<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Immortality”</span>), and, second, with those of Haman
          and his father Hammedatha in the book of Esther (iii. 1). In order
          to support the identification of Anadates with Ameretât and
          Hammedatha it has been further proposed to alter Anadates into
          Amadates or Amardates in the text of Strabo, which would assimilate
          the name to Amurdâd, a late form of Ameretât. See P. Jensen,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hittiter
          und Armenier</span></span> (Strasburg, 1898), p. 181; Franz Cumont,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Textes et
          Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra</span></span>, i.
          (Brussels, 1899) pp. 130, 131; H. Winckler, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altorientalische
          Forschungen</span></span>, Dritte Reihe, i. (Leipsic, 1901) p. 4;
          H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), p. 516 note
          3; P. Haupt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Purim</span></span> (Leipsic, 1906), p. 26; L.
          B. Paton, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book
          of Esther</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1908), pp. 88, 92. As to the
          Persian archangels (Amshaspands) see C. P. Tiele, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          Religion im Altertum</span></span> (Gotha, 1896-1903), ii. 200
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. H. Gray, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Double Nature of the Iranian Archangels,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archiv
          für Religionswissenschaft</span></span>, vii. (1904) pp. 345
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. H. Moulton,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Early
          Religious Poetry of Persia</span></span> (Cambridge, 1911), pp. 58
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> But apart from the
          philological difficulty created by the forcible alteration of
          Strabo's text in order to bring it into conformity with the theory,
          it is difficult to see how the highly abstract conceptions of the
          archangels <span class="tei tei-q">“Good Thought”</span> and
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Immortality”</span> could have passed into
          the highly concrete and by no means angelic figures of Haman and
          Hammedatha. This latter difficulty has been pointed out to me in a
          letter (8th June, 1901) by my friend the Rev. Professor J. H.
          Moulton, who further informs me that in Persian religion Vohu Manah
          is never linked with Ameretât, whereas Ameretât is constantly
          linked with another archangel Haurvatât (<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Health”</span>). Professor Theodor Nöldeke in a letter
          to me (20th May, 1901) also expresses himself sceptical as to the
          proposed identifications; he tells me that the name of a Persian
          god cannot end in <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">data</span></span>, just as the name of a
          Greek god cannot end in -d???? or -d?t??. On the whole it seems
          better to leave Omanos and Anadates out of the present
          discussion.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_852" name="note_852"
          href="#noteref_852">852.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of
          the Kwakiutl Indians,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Report of the United States National Museum
          for 1895</span></span> (Washington, 1897), p. 396.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_853" name="note_853"
          href="#noteref_853">853.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Franz Boas, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 420 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The description applies
          specially to the masked dances of the Kwakiutl tribe, but probably
          it holds good for the similar dances of the other Indian tribes on
          the same coast. Thus among the Bella Coola Indians <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the masks used in the dances represent mythical
          personages, and the dances are pantomimic representations of myths.
          Among others, the thunder bird and his servant ... appear in the
          dances”</span> (F. Boas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 651).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_854" name="note_854"
          href="#noteref_854">854.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tamanawas</span></span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">tamanous</span></span> is a Chinook term
          signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“guardian spirits.”</span> See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Totemism
          and Exogamy</span></span>, iii. 405 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_855" name="note_855"
          href="#noteref_855">855.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James G. Swan, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Indians of Cape
          Flattery</span></span>, p. 66, quoted by Franz Boas, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 637 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_856" name="note_856"
          href="#noteref_856">856.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Adrian Jacobsen, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Geheimbünde der Küstenbewohner
          Nordwest-America's,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
          Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</span></span> (1891),
          pp. 384 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The passage has been already
          quoted by me in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Totemism and Exogamy</span></span>, iii.
          500-502.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_857" name="note_857"
          href="#noteref_857">857.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the belief of these Esquimaux
          that at the Festival of the Dead the spirits of the departed enter
          into and animate their human namesakes, see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils
          of the Soul</span></span>, p. 371.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_858" name="note_858"
          href="#noteref_858">858.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. W. Nelson, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Eskimo about Bering Strait,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eighteenth Annual
          Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part i.
          (Washington, 1899) pp. 394 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_859" name="note_859"
          href="#noteref_859">859.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Th. Preuss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Nayarit
          Expedition</span></span>, I. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Religion der Cora Indianer</span></span>
          (Leipsic, 1912), pp. xcii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, xcv. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_860" name="note_860"
          href="#noteref_860">860.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Koch-Grünberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den
          Indianern</span></span> (Berlin, 1909-1910), i. 130-140, ii.
          169-201. The passage translated in the text occurs in vol. ii. p.
          196.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_861" name="note_861"
          href="#noteref_861">861.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Vormann, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Tänze und Tanzfestlichkeiten der Monumbo-Papua
          (Deutsch-Neuguinea),”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, vi. (1911) pp. 415
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 418 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          426 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_862" name="note_862"
          href="#noteref_862">862.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch
          Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 324. As to these
          masquerades of the Kayans see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, i. 95 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 186 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_863" name="note_863"
          href="#noteref_863">863.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Perham, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Mengap, the Song of the Dyak Sea Feast,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal
          of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>,
          No. 2 (Singapore, December, 1878), pp. 123 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          134; H. Ling Roth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Natives of Sarawak and British North
          Borneo</span></span> (London, 1896), ii. 174 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          183. Compare E. H. Gomes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of
          Borneo</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 213 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“This song of the head feast takes the form
          of a story setting forth how the mythical hero Klieng held a head
          feast on his return from the warpath, and invited the god of war,
          Singalang Burong, to attend it. It describes at great length all
          that happened on that occasion. The singing of this song takes up
          the whole night. It begins before 8 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">p.m.</span></span>, and lasts till next
          morning. Except for a short interval for rest in the middle of the
          night, the performers are marching and singing all the
          time.”</span> On the third day of the festival the people go out on
          the open-air platform in front of the house and sacrifice a pig.
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The people shout together (<span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">manjong</span></span>) at short intervals
          until a hawk is seen flying in the heavens. That hawk is Singalang
          Burong, who has taken that form to manifest himself to them. He has
          accepted their offerings and has heard their cry”</span> (E. H.
          Gomes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 214).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_864" name="note_864"
          href="#noteref_864">864.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. E. Haigh, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Attic
          Theatre</span></span> (Oxford, 1889), pp. 4 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq,</span></span>
          The religious origin of Greek tragedy is maintained by Professor W.
          Ridgeway (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Origin of Tragedy</span></span>,
          Cambridge, 1910), but he finds its immediate inspiration in the
          worship of the dead rather than in the worship of Dionysus.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_865" name="note_865"
          href="#noteref_865">865.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Oldenberg, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Literatur des
          alten Indien</span></span> (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1903), pp. 236
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Professor Oldenberg holds
          that the evolution of the Indian drama was probably not influenced
          by that of Greece.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_866" name="note_866"
          href="#noteref_866">866.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second
          Edition, pp. 239 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_867" name="note_867"
          href="#noteref_867">867.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of
          Kings</span></span>, ii. 97 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_868" name="note_868"
          href="#noteref_868">868.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. P. Tiele, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Babylonisch-Assyrische
          Geschichte</span></span> (Gotha, 1886-1888), pp. 351 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          M. Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Religion of Babylonia and
          Assyria</span></span> (Boston, U.S.A., 1898), p. 43; Sir G.
          Maspero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient
          Classique</span></span>, iii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Les Empires</span></span> (Paris, 1899), pp.
          378 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; C. F. Harper, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyrian and
          Babylonian Literature</span></span> (New York, 1901), pp. 94
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_869" name="note_869"
          href="#noteref_869">869.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, xii. 38 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          pp. 528 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">f</span></span>-530 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>; Diodorus Siculus, ii.
          23 and 27; Justin, i. 3. Several different versions of the king's
          epitaph have come down to us. I have followed the version of
          Choerilus, the original of which is said to have been carved in
          Chaldean letters on a tombstone that surmounted a great barrow at
          Nineveh. This barrow may, as I suggest in the text, have been one
          of the so-called mounds of Semiramis.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_870" name="note_870"
          href="#noteref_870">870.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammianus Marcellinus, xiv. 8; Dio
          Chrysostom, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> xxxiii. p. 408 (vol. ii. p.
          16 ed. L. Dindorf, Leipsic, 1857). Coins of Tarsus exhibit the
          effigy on the pyre, which seems to be composed of a pyramid of
          great beams resting on a cubical base. See K. O. Müller,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Sandon und Sardanapal,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kunstarchäologische Werke</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1873), iii. 8 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, whose valuable essay I
          follow. For fuller details see <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis,
          Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 91 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>,
          139 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_871" name="note_871"
          href="#noteref_871">871.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Agathias, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span>
          ii. 24.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_872" name="note_872"
          href="#noteref_872">872.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joannes Lydus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
          magistratibus</span></span>, iii. 64; Apollodorus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, ii. 6. 2
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Lucian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.
          deorum</span></span>, xiii. 2.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_873" name="note_873"
          href="#noteref_873">873.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. O. Müller, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sandon und Sardanapal,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kunstarchäologische
          Werke</span></span> (Berlin, 1873), iii. 16 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The
          writer adds that there is authority for every stroke in the
          picture. His principal source is the sixty-second speech of Dio
          Chrysostom (vol. ii. p. 202 ed. L. Dindorf), where the unmanly
          Sardanapalus, seated cross-legged on a gilded couch with purple
          hangings, is compared to <span class="tei tei-q">“the Adonis for
          whom the women wail.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_874" name="note_874"
          href="#noteref_874">874.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, i. 7.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_875" name="note_875"
          href="#noteref_875">875.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, i. 86 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          with J. C. F. Bähr's note. According to another and perhaps more
          probable tradition the king sought a voluntary death in the flames.
          See Bacchylides, iii. 24-62; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second
          Edition, pp. 141 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_876" name="note_876"
          href="#noteref_876">876.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 41
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_877" name="note_877"
          href="#noteref_877">877.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sophocles,
            <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Trachiniae</span></span>, 1195 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>:</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">p????? µ??
            ???? t?? ßa???????? d???? ?e??a?ta p????? d? ??se? ??teµ???? ?µ??
            ?????? ??a???, s?µa t??µ?? ?µßa?e??.</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The passage
            was pointed out to me by my friend the late Dr. A. W. Verrall.
            The poet's language suggests that of old a sacred fire was
            kindled by the friction of oak and wild olive wood, and that in
            accordance with a notion common among rude peoples, one of the
            pieces of wood (in this case the wild olive) was regarded as male
            and the other (the oak) as female. On this hypothesis, the fire
            was kindled by drilling a hole in a piece of oak with a stick of
            wild olive. As to the different sorts of wood used by the
            ancients in making fire by friction, see A. Kuhn, <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des
            Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
            (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 35 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and
            the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 249 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
            In South Africa a special fire is procured for sacrifices by the
            friction of two pieces of the <span class=
            "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Uzwati</span></span> tree, which are known
            respectively as husband and wife. See <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn
            and of the Wild</span></span>, ii. 65.</p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_878" name="note_878"
          href="#noteref_878">878.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Spirits of the Corn and of the
          Wild</span></span>, ii. 68.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_879" name="note_879"
          href="#noteref_879">879.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. C. Movers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Phoenizier</span></span>, i. (Bonn, 1841) p. 496.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_880" name="note_880"
          href="#noteref_880">880.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This suggestion was made by F.
          Liebrecht, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zur Volkskunde</span></span> (Heilbronn,
          1879), p. 9. It occurred to me independently.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_881" name="note_881"
          href="#noteref_881">881.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucian, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De dea
          Syria</span></span>, 49.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_882" name="note_882"
          href="#noteref_882">882.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Codex Theodosianus, Lib. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">xvi.</span></span> Tit. viii. § 18:
          <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Judaeos quodam
          festivitatis suae solleni Aman ad poenae quondam recordationem
          incendere, et sanctae crucis adsimulatam speciem in contemptu
          Christianae fidei sacrilega mente exurere provinciarum rectores
          prohibeant: ne locis suis fidei nostrae signum immisceant, sed
          ritus suos infra contemptum Christianae legis retineant: amissuri
          sine dubio permissa hactenus, nisi ab inlicitis
          temperaverint.</span></span>”</span> The decree is dated at
          Constantinople, in the consulship of Bassus and Philip. For
          <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">locis</span></span> we should probably read
          <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">jocis</span></span> with Mommsen.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_883" name="note_883"
          href="#noteref_883">883.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Cumont, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Une formule grecque de renonciation au
          judaïsme,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Wiener Studien</span></span>, xxiv. (1902) p.
          468. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Christian fast”</span> referred
          to in the formula is no doubt Lent. The mention of the Jewish
          Sabbath (the Christian Saturday) raises a difficulty, which has
          been pointed out by the editor, Franz Cumont, in a note (p. 470):
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The festival of Purim was celebrated on
          the 14th of Adar, that is, in February or March, about the
          beginning of the Christian Lent; but that festival, the date of
          which is fixed in the Jewish calendar, does not always fall on a
          Saturday. Either the author made a mistake or the civil authority
          obliged the Jews to transfer their rejoicings to a Sabbath”</span>
          (Saturday).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_884" name="note_884"
          href="#noteref_884">884.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Israel Abrahams, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of Delight
          and other Papers</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1912), pp. 266
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Mr. Abrahams ingeniously
          suggests (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 267 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>)
          that the ring waved over the fire was an emblem of the sun, and
          that the kindling of the Purim fires was originally a ceremony of
          imitative magic to ensure a supply of solar light and heat.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_885" name="note_885"
          href="#noteref_885">885.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Albîrûnî, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Chronology of
          Ancient Nations</span></span>, translated and edited by Dr. C.
          Edward Sachau (London, 1879), pp. 273 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_886" name="note_886"
          href="#noteref_886">886.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted by Lagarde, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> p. 13 (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abhandlungen der
          königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
          Göttingen</span></span>, xxxiv. 1887).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_887" name="note_887"
          href="#noteref_887">887.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Güdemann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des
          Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der abendländischen
          Juden</span></span> (Vienna, 1880-1888), ii. 211 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; I.
          Abrahams, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</span></span>
          (London, 1896), pp. 260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_888" name="note_888"
          href="#noteref_888">888.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. Schudt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische
          Merkwürdigkeiten</span></span> (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1714), ii.
          Theil, p. 309.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_889" name="note_889"
          href="#noteref_889">889.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia
          Ecclesiastica</span></span>, vii. 16; Theophanes, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chronographia</span></span>, ed. J. Classen
          (Bonn, 1839-1841), vol. i. p. 129. Theophanes places the event in
          the year 408 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> From a note in
          Migne's edition of Socrates, I learn that in the Alexandrian
          calendar, which Theophanes used, the year 408 corresponded to the
          year which in our reckoning began on the first of September 415.
          Hence if the murder was perpetrated in spring at Purim it must have
          taken place in 416.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_890" name="note_890"
          href="#noteref_890">890.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the view of H. Graetz
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          Juden</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> iv. Leipsic, 1866, pp. 393
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) and Dr. M. R. James
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life and
          Miracles of St. William of Norwich</span></span> (Cambridge, 1896),
          by A. Jessopp and M. R. James, pp. lxiii. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_891" name="note_891"
          href="#noteref_891">891.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For an examination of some of these
          reported murders, see M. R. James, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. lxii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; H. L. Strack, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Blut im Glauben
          und Aberglauben der Menschheit</span></span> (Munich, 1900), pp.
          121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Both writers incline to
          dismiss the charges as groundless.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_892" name="note_892"
          href="#noteref_892">892.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg353" class=
          "tei tei-ref">353</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_893" name="note_893"
          href="#noteref_893">893.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Buxtorf, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Synagoga
          Judaica</span></span> (Bâle, 1661), cap. xxix. p. 554; J. Chr. G.
          Bodenschatz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kirchliche Verfassung der heutigen
          Juden</span></span> (Erlangen, 1748), ii. 253 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_894" name="note_894"
          href="#noteref_894">894.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther iv. 3 and 16, ix. 31.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_895" name="note_895"
          href="#noteref_895">895.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So far as I know, Professor Jensen has
          not yet published his theory, but he has stated it in letters to
          correspondents. See W. Nowack, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der
          hebräischen Archäologie</span></span> (Freiburg i. Baden and
          Leipsic, 1894), ii. 200; H. Günkel, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schöpfung und
          Chaos</span></span> (Göttingen, 1895), pp. 311 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          D. G. Wildeboer, in his commentary on Esther, pp. 174 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kurzer
          Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament</span></span>, herausgegeben von
          D. K. Marti, Lieferung 6, Freiburg i. B., 1898). In the Babylonian
          calendar the 13th of Adar was so far a fast day that on it no fish
          or fowl might be eaten. In one tablet the 13th of Adar is marked
          <span class="tei tei-q">“not good,”</span> while the 14th and 15th
          are marked <span class="tei tei-q">“good.”</span> See C. H. W.
          Johns, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Biblica</span></span>, iii.
          (London, 1902) col. 3980.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_896" name="note_896"
          href="#noteref_896">896.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religion of
          Babylonia and Assyria</span></span> (Boston, U.S.A., 1898), pp. 471
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 475 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          481-486, 510-512; L. W. King, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Babylonian Religion and
          Mythology</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 146 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          P. Jensen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Assyrisch-Babylonische Mythen und
          Epen</span></span> (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273; R. F. Harper,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyrian
          and Babylonian Literature</span></span> (New York, 1901), pp.
          324-368; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften
          und das Alte Testament</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1902), pp. 566-582; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das Gilgamesch-Epos, neu übersetzt
          von</span></span> Arthur Ungnad <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">und
          gemeinverständlich erklärt von</span></span> Hugo Gressmann
          (Göttingen, 1911). Professor Jastrow points out that though a
          relation cannot be traced between each of the tablets of the poem
          and the corresponding month of the year, such a relation appears
          undoubtedly to exist between some of the tablets and the months.
          Thus, for example, the sixth tablet describes the affection of
          Ishtar for Gilgamesh, and the visit which she paid to Anu, her
          father in heaven, to complain of the hero's contemptuous rejection
          of her love. Now the sixth Babylonian month was called the
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Mission of Ishtar,”</span> and in it was
          held the festival of Tammuz, the hapless lover of the goddess.
          Again, the story of the great flood is told in the eleventh tablet,
          and the eleventh month was called the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“month of rain.”</span> See M. Jastrow, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> pp. 484, 510.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_897" name="note_897"
          href="#noteref_897">897.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ezekiel viii. 14.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_898" name="note_898"
          href="#noteref_898">898.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second
          Edition, pp. 183 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 227.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_899" name="note_899"
          href="#noteref_899">899.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther vii. 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_900" name="note_900"
          href="#noteref_900">900.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg368" class=
          "tei tei-ref">368</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_901" name="note_901"
          href="#noteref_901">901.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second
          Edition, p. 183.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_902" name="note_902"
          href="#noteref_902">902.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. Schudt, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische
          Merkwürdigkeiten</span></span> (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1714), ii.
          Theil, p. 316.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_903" name="note_903"
          href="#noteref_903">903.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dio Chrysostom makes Diogenes say to
          Alexander the Great, ??? ???e????a? t?? t?? Sa?a??? ???t??, ??
          ???sa? ????s?? (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> iv. vol. i. p. 76 ed. L.
          Dindorf). The festival was mentioned by Ctesias in the second book
          of his Persian history (Athenaeus, xiv. 44 p. 639 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>); and down to the time
          of Strabo it was associated with the nominal worship of the Persian
          goddess Anaitis (Strabo, xi. 8. 4 and 5, p. 512).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_904" name="note_904"
          href="#noteref_904">904.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lagarde, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Purim,”</span> pp. 51 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Abhandlungen der königl. Gesellschaft der
          Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</span></span>, xxxiv. 1887).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_905" name="note_905"
          href="#noteref_905">905.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Hyde, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia religionis
          veterum Persarum</span></span> (Oxford, 1700), pp. 183, 249-251;
          Albîrûnî, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Chronology of Ancient
          Nations</span></span>, translated and edited by Dr. C. Edward
          Sachau (London, 1879), p. 211.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_906" name="note_906"
          href="#noteref_906">906.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 148
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_907" name="note_907"
          href="#noteref_907">907.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther vi. 8 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>,
          viii. 15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_908" name="note_908"
          href="#noteref_908">908.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 254
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_909" name="note_909"
          href="#noteref_909">909.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">
            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The goddess
            Ishtar certainly seems to have embodied the principle of
            fertility in animals as well as in plants; for in the poem which
            describes her descent into the world of the dead it is said
            that</p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
            "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">After the mistress Ishtar had descended to
            the land of No-Return,</span><br />
            <span style="font-style: italic">The bull did not mount the cow,
            nor did the ass leap upon the she-ass,</span><br />
            <span style="font-style: italic">The man did not approach the
            maid in the street,</span><br />
            <span style="font-style: italic">The man lay down to sleep upon
            his own couch,</span><br />
            <span style="font-style: italic">While the maid slept by
            herself.</span></span>”</span></p>

            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See C. F.
            Harper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Assyrian and Babylonian
            Literature</span></span> (New York, 1901), pp. 410 <span class=
            "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>;
            P. Jensen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Assyrisch-Babylonische Mythen und
            Epen</span></span> (Berlin, 1900), p. 87.</p>
          </dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_910" name="note_910"
          href="#noteref_910">910.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The interpretation here given of the
          four principal personages in the book of Esther was suggested by me
          in the second edition of this book (1900). It agrees substantially
          with the one which has since been adopted by Professor H. Zimmern
          (in E. Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> Berlin, 1902, p. 519), and
          by Professor P. Haupt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Purim</span></span>, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 21
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_911" name="note_911"
          href="#noteref_911">911.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In this connexion it deserves to be
          noted that among the ancient Persians marriages are said to have
          been usually celebrated at the vernal equinox (Strabo, xv. 3. 17,
          p. 733).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_912" name="note_912"
          href="#noteref_912">912.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The five days' duration of the mock
          king's reign may possibly have been an intercalary period
          introduced, as in ancient Egypt and Mexico, for the purpose of
          equalizing a year of 360 days (twelve months of 30 days each) to a
          solar year reckoned at 365 days. See above, pp. 339 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_913" name="note_913"
          href="#noteref_913">913.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">However, the legend that Semiramis
          burned herself on a pyre in Babylon for grief at the loss of a
          favourite horse (Hyginus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Fab.</span></span> 243; compare Pliny,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat.
          Hist.</span></span> viii. 155) may perhaps point to an old custom
          of compelling the human representative of the goddess to perish in
          the flames. We have seen (above, p. <a href="#Pg371" class=
          "tei tei-ref">371</a>) that one of the lovers of Ishtar had the
          form of a horse. Hence the legend recorded by Hyginus is a fresh
          link in the chain of evidence which binds Semiramis to Ishtar.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_914" name="note_914"
          href="#noteref_914">914.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 148
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_915" name="note_915"
          href="#noteref_915">915.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 46
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_916" name="note_916"
          href="#noteref_916">916.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des
          Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite par D.
          Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 478-480. Compare E.
          Seler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Altmexikanische Studien</span></span>, ii.
          (Berlin, 1899) p. 117.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_917" name="note_917"
          href="#noteref_917">917.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Berosus, quoted by Eusebius,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chronicorum liber prior</span></span>, ed. A.
          Schoene (Berlin, 1875), coll. 14-18; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragmenta
          Historicorum Graecorum</span></span>, ed. C. Muller, ii. 497
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; P. Jensen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Assyrisch-Babylonische Mythen und
          Epen</span></span> (Berlin, 1900), pp. 2 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          L. W. King, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Babylonian Religion and
          Mythology</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 54 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          M. Jastrow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Religion of Babylonia and
          Assyria</span></span> (Boston, U.S.A., 1898), pp. 408 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
          Testament</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), pp. 488
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; M. J. Lagrange,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études
          sur les Religions Sémitiques</span></span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span>
          (Paris, 1905), pp. 366 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; R. W. Rogers, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cuneiform Parallels
          to the Old Testament</span></span> (Oxford, preface dated 1911),
          pp. 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 36. In the Hebrew account
          of the creation (Genesis i. 2) <span class="tei tei-q">“the
          deep”</span> (???? <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">tehom</span></span>)
          is a reminiscence of the Babylonian mythical monster Tiamat.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_918" name="note_918"
          href="#noteref_918">918.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hymns of the Rig Veda</span></span>, x. 90
          (vol. iv. pp. 289-293 of R. T. H. Griffith's translation, Benares,
          1889-1892). Compare A. A. Macdonell, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedic
          Mythology</span></span> (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 12 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_919" name="note_919"
          href="#noteref_919">919.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Satapatha Brâhmana</span></span>,
          translated by Julius Eggeling, Part iv. (Oxford, 1897) pp.
          xiv.-xxiv. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Sacred Books of the East</span></span>,
          vol. xliii.). Compare Sylvain Lévi, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La doctrine du
          sacrifice dans les Brâhmanas</span></span> (Paris, 1898), pp. 13
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_920" name="note_920"
          href="#noteref_920">920.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[The following Note formed part of the
          text in the Second Edition of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span> (London, 1900),
          vol. iii. pp. 186-198. The hypothesis which it sets forth has not
          been confirmed by subsequent research, and is admittedly in a high
          degree speculative and uncertain. Hence I have removed it from the
          text but preserved it as an appendix on the chance that, under a
          pile of conjectures, it contains some grains of truth which may
          ultimately contribute to a solution of the problem. As my views on
          this subject appear to have been strangely misunderstood, I desire
          to point out explicitly that my theory assumes the historical
          reality of Jesus of Nazareth as a great religious and moral
          teacher, who founded Christianity and was crucified at Jerusalem
          under the governorship of Pontius Pilate. The testimony of the
          Gospels, confirmed by the hostile evidence of Tacitus (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annals</span></span>,
          xv. 44) and the younger Pliny (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span>
          x. 96), appears amply sufficient to establish these facts to the
          satisfaction of all unprejudiced enquirers. It is only the details
          of the life and death of Christ that remain, and will probably
          always remain, shrouded in the mists of uncertainty. The doubts
          which have been cast on the historical reality of Jesus are in my
          judgment unworthy of serious attention. Quite apart from the
          positive evidence of history and tradition, the origin of a great
          religious and moral reform is inexplicable without the personal
          existence of a great reformer. To dissolve the founder of
          Christianity into a myth, as some would do, is hardly less absurd
          than it would be to do the same for Mohammed, Luther, and Calvin.
          Such dissolving views are for the most part the dreams of students
          who know the great world chiefly through its pale reflection in
          books. These extravagances of scepticism have been well exposed by
          Professor C. F. Lehmann-Haupt in his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Israel, seine
          Entwicklung im Rahmen der Weltgeschichte</span></span> (Tübingen,
          1911), pp. 275-285. In reprinting the statement of my theory I have
          added a few notes, which are distinguished by being enclosed in
          square brackets.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_921" name="note_921"
          href="#noteref_921">921.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Wendland, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Jesus als Saturnalien-König,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span>,
          xxxiii. (1898) pp. 175-179.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_922" name="note_922"
          href="#noteref_922">922.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The resemblance had struck me when I
          wrote this book originally [1889-1890], but as I could not
          definitely explain it I preferred to leave it unnoticed. [The first
          in recent years to call attention to the resemblance seems to have
          been Mr. W. R. Paton, who further conjectured that the crucifixion
          of Christ between two malefactors was not accidental, but had a
          ritual significance <span class="tei tei-q">“as an expiatory
          sacrifice to a triple god.”</span> See F. C. Conybeare,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Apology and Acts of Apollonius and other Monuments of Early
          Christianity</span></span> (London, 1894), pp. 257 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>;
          W. R. Paton, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Kreuzigung Jesu,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche
          Wissenschaft</span></span>, ii. (1901) pp. 339-341. The grounds for
          the conjecture are somewhat slender. It is true that a Persian
          martyr, S. Hiztibouzit, is said to have been crucified between two
          malefactors on a hill top, opposite the sun (F. C. Conybeare,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op.
          cit.</span></span> p. 270), but the narrator of the martyrdom gives
          no hint of any sacred significance attaching to the triple
          crucifixion.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_923" name="note_923"
          href="#noteref_923">923.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew xxvii. 26-31. Mark's
          description (xv. 15-20) is nearly identical.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_924" name="note_924"
          href="#noteref_924">924.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dio Chrysostom, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> iv.
          vol. i. p. 76 ed. L. Dindorf. As I have already mentioned, the
          Greek word which describes the execution (????µasa?) leaves it
          uncertain whether the man was crucified or hanged.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_925" name="note_925"
          href="#noteref_925">925.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg392" class=
          "tei tei-ref">392</a>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_926" name="note_926"
          href="#noteref_926">926.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[The extreme improbability involved in
          the suggested transference of the date of the Crucifixion is
          rightly emphasized by my colleague and friend Professor C. F.
          Lehmann-Haupt in some observations and criticisms with which he has
          favoured me. He writes: <span class="tei tei-q">“I regard it as out
          of the question that <span class="tei tei-q">‘Christian tradition
          shifted the date of the Crucifixion by a month.’</span> You
          yourself regard it as improbable; but in my opinion it is
          impossible. All that we hear of the Passion is only explicable by
          the Passover festival and by the circumstance that at that time
          every believing Jew had to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Without
          the background of the festival all that we know of the Crucifixion
          and of what led up to it is totally unintelligible.”</span>]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_927" name="note_927"
          href="#noteref_927">927.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esther iii. 7.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_928" name="note_928"
          href="#noteref_928">928.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span>
          iii. 24 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, compared with ii. 74.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_929" name="note_929"
          href="#noteref_929">929.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Luke xxiii. 11.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_930" name="note_930"
          href="#noteref_930">930.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew xxvii. 37; Mark xv. 26; Luke
          xxiii. 38; John xix. 19.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_931" name="note_931"
          href="#noteref_931">931.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew xxvii. 15-26; Mark xv. 6-15;
          Luke xxiii. 16-25; John xviii. 38-40.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_932" name="note_932"
          href="#noteref_932">932.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philo Judaeus, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adversus
          Flaccum</span></span>, vol. ii. pp. 520-523 ed. Th. Mangey (London,
          1742). The first to call attention to this passage was Mr. P.
          Wendland (<span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus als
          Saturnalien-König,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span>, xxxiii. (1898) pp. 175
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). [Mar-na, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Our Lord,”</span> was the title of a Philistine deity
          worshipped at Gaza and elsewhere. See C. P. Tiele, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          Religion im Altertum</span></span> (Gotha, 1896-1903), i. 258.
          Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hebrew and English Lexicon</span></span>,
          edited by F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and Ch. A. Briggs (Oxford, 1906),
          p. 1101.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_933" name="note_933"
          href="#noteref_933">933.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew xxi. 1-13; Mark xi. 1-17; Luke
          xix. 28-46; John xii. 12-15. [As to the license accorded to
          temporary kings, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 56
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 148 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq</span></span>.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_934" name="note_934"
          href="#noteref_934">934.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 166
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_935" name="note_935"
          href="#noteref_935">935.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[In favour of the theory in the text,
          which supposes that in the tragic drama of the crucifixion Jesus
          and Barabbas played parts which were the complements, if not the
          duplicates, of each other, it might, as M. Salomon Reinach has
          pointed out, be alleged that in the Armenian and old Syriac
          versions of Matthew xxvii. 16 and 17, as well as in some Greek
          cursive manuscripts, the name of the prisoner whom Pilate proposed
          to release is given as Jesus Barabbas, a reading which was also
          known to Origen and was not absolutely rejected by him. See
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia Biblica</span></span> (London,
          1899-1903), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Barabbas,”</span> vol. i. col. 477; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelion
          da-Mepharreshe</span></span>, edited by F. C. Burkitt (Cambridge,
          1904), i. 165, ii. 277 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In the latter passage Prof.
          Burkitt argues that Jesus Barabbas was probably the original
          reading in the Greek text, though the name Jesus is omitted in
          nearly all our existing manuscripts. Compare S. Reinach,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Le roi supplicié,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cultes, Mythes, et
          Religions</span></span>, i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 339 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_936" name="note_936"
          href="#noteref_936">936.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span>
          x. 96. The province which Pliny governed was known officially as
          Bithynia and Pontus, and extended from the river Rhyndacos on the
          west to beyond Amisus on the east. See Professor [Sir] W. M.
          Ramsay, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Church in the Roman Empire</span></span>
          (London, 1893), p. 224. Professor Ramsay is of opinion <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“that the description of the great power acquired by
          the new religion in the province applies to Eastern Pontus at
          least.”</span> The chief religious centre of this district appears
          to have been the great sanctuary of Anaitis or Semiramis at Zela,
          to which I have already had occasion to call the reader's
          attention. Strabo tells us (xii. 3. 37) that all the people of
          Pontus took their most solemn oaths at this shrine. In the same
          district there was another very popular sanctuary of a similar type
          at Comana, where the worship of a native goddess called Ma was
          carried on by a host of sacred harlots and by a high priest, who
          wore a diadem and was second only to the king in rank. At the
          festivals of the goddess crowds of men and women flocked into
          Comana from all the region round about, from the country as well as
          from the cities. The luxury and debauchery of this holy town
          suggest to Strabo a comparison with the famous or rather infamous
          Corinth. See Strabo, xii. 3. 32 and 36, compared with xii. 2. 3.
          Such were some of the hot-beds in which the seeds of Christianity
          first struck root.</dd>
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