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    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">History of Free Thought</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">in Reference to</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Christian Religion</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Eight Lectures</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Preached Before The</p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">University of Oxford, in the
year M.DCCC.LXII., on the Foundation of the Late Rev. John Bampton, M.A., Canon of
Salisbury.</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">By</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Adam Storey Farrar, M.A.</span></p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michel Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford.</p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York:</p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">D. Appleton And Company,</p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">443 &amp; 445 Broadway.</p>
      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1863</p>
    </div>
    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
      <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>
      <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Will of Rev. John Bampton.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">Analysis of the lectures.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Lecture I. On The Subject, Method, And Purpose Of The Course
Of Lectures.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Lecture II. The Literary Opposition of Heathens Against Christianity
in the Early Ages.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">Lecture III. Free Thought During The Middle Ages, and At The Renaissance;
Together With Its Rise in Modern Times.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Lecture IV. Deism in England Previous to A.D. 1760.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Lecture V. Infidelity in France in the Eighteenth Century, and
Unbelief in England Subsequent to 1760.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">Lecture VI. Free Thought In The Theology Of Germany From
1750-1835.</a></li><li><a href="#toc19">Lecture VII. Free Thought: In Germany Subsequently To 1835;
And In France During The Present Century.</a></li><li><a href="#toc21">Lecture VIII. Free Thought in England in the Present Century;
Summary of the Course of Lectures;
Inferences in Reference to Present Dangers and Duties.</a></li><li><a href="#toc23">Notes.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc25">Lecture I.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc26">Lecture II.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc27">Lecture III.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc28">Lecture IV.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">Lecture V.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc30">Lecture VI.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">Lecture VII.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc32">Lecture VIII.</a></li><li><a href="#toc33">Index.</a></li><li><a href="#toc35">Footnotes</a></li></ul>
    </div>

  </div>
<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiii">[pg iii]</span><a name="Pgiii" id="Pgiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a>
<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Will of Rev. John Bampton.</span></h1>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Extract
From The Last Will And Testament
Of The Late
Rev. John Bampton,
Canon Of Salisbury.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“——I give and bequeath my Lands and Estates to the
Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Oxford
for ever, to have and to hold all and singular the said Lands
or Estates upon trust, and to the intents and purposes hereinafter
mentioned; that is to say, I will and appoint that the
Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford for the time being
shall take and receive all the rents, issues, and profits thereof,
and (after all taxes, reparations, and necessary deductions made)
that he pay all the remainder to the endowment of eight Divinity
Lecture Sermons, to be established for ever in the said University,
and to be performed in the manner following:</span>
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“I direct and appoint, that, upon the first Tuesday in Easter
Term, a Lecturer be yearly chosen by the Heads of Colleges
only, and by no others, in the room adjoining to the Printing-House,
between the hours of ten in the morning and two in the
afternoon, to preach eight Divinity Lecture Sermons, the year
following, at St. Mary's in Oxford, between the commencement
of the last month in Lent Term, and the end of the third week
in Act Term.</span>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiv">[pg iv]</span><a name="Pg0iv" id="Pg0iv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Also I direct and appoint, that the eight Divinity Lecture
Sermons shall be preached upon either of the following Subjects—to
confirm and establish the Christian Faith, and to confute
all heretics and schismatics—upon the divine authority of
the holy Scriptures—upon the authority of the writings of the
primitive Fathers, as to the faith and practice of the primitive
Church—upon the Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ—upon the Divinity of the Holy Ghost—upon the Articles
of the Christian Faith as comprehended in the Apostles' and
Nicene Creeds.</span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Also I direct, that thirty copies of the eight Divinity Lecture
Sermons shall be always printed, within two months after they
are preached; and one copy shall be given to the Chancellor of
the University, and one copy to the Head of every College, and
one copy to the Mayor of the city of Oxford, and one copy to
be put into the Bodleian Library; and the expense of printing
them shall be paid out of the revenue of the Land or Estates
given for establishing the Divinity Lecture Sermons; and the
Preacher shall not be paid nor be entitled to the revenue before
they are printed.</span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Also I direct and appoint, that no person shall be qualified
to preach the Divinity Lecture Sermons, unless he hath taken
the degree of Master of Arts at least, in one of the two Universities
of Oxford or Cambridge; and that the same person
shall never preach the Divinity Lecture Sermons twice.”</span>
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a>
<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The object of this Preface is to explain the design of the following
Lectures, and to enumerate the sources on which they
are founded.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
What is the province and mode of inquiry intended in a
<span class="tei tei-q">“Critical History of Free Thought”</span>?<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> What are the causes which
led the author into this line of study?<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> What the object proposed
by the work?<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> What the sources from which it is
drawn?<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a>—these
probably are the questions which will at once
suggest themselves to the reader. The answers to most of them
are so fully given in the work,<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> that it will only be necessary
here to touch upon them briefly.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The word <span class="tei tei-q">“free thought”</span> is now commonly used, at least in
foreign literature<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a>,
to express the result of the revolt of the mind
against the pressure of external authority in any department of
life or speculation. Information concerning the history of the
term is given elsewhere.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> It will be sufficient now to state, that
the cognate term, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">free thinking</span></span>, was appropriated by Collins early
in the last century<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a>
to express Deism. It differs from the modern
term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">free thought</span></span>, both in being restricted to religion, and in
conveying the idea rather of the method than of its result, the freedom
of the mode of inquiry rather than the character of the conclusions
attained; but the same fundamental idea of independence
and freedom from authority is implied in the modern term.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Within the sphere of its application to the Christian religion,
free thought is generally used to denote three different systems;
viz. Protestantism, scepticism, and unbelief. Its application to
the first of these is unfair.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a>
It is true that all three agree in resisting
the dogmatism of any earthly authority; but Protestantism
reposes implicitly on what it believes to be the divine
authority of the inspired writers of the books of holy scripture;
whereas the other two forms acknowledge no authority external
to the mind, no communication superior to reason and science.
Thus, though Protestantism by its attitude of independence seems
similar to the other two systems, it is really separated by a difference
of kind, and not merely of degree.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> The present history is
restricted accordingly to the treatment of the two latter species
of free thought,—the resistance of the human mind to the Christian
religion as communicated through revelation, either in part
or in whole, neither the scepticism which disintegrates it, or the
unbelief which rejects it: the former directing itself especially
against Christianity, the latter against the idea of revelation, or
even of the supernatural generally.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An analogous reason to that which excludes the history of
Protestantism, excludes also that of the opposition made to Christianity
by heresy, and by rival religions:<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> inasmuch as they
repose on authorities, however false, and do not profess to resort
to an unassisted study of nature and truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This account of the province included under free thought will
prepare the way for the explanation of the mode in which the
subject is treated.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is clear that the history, in order to rise above a chronicle,
must inquire into the causes which have made freedom of inquiry
develop into unbelief. The causes have usually been regarded
by theologians to be of two kinds, viz. either superhuman or
human; and, if of the latter kind, to be either moral or intellectual.
Bishop Van Mildert, in his History of Infidelity, restricted
himself entirely to the former.<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> Holding strongly that
the existence of evil in the world was attributable, not only
indirectly and originally, but directly and perpetually, to the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
operation of the evil spirit, he regarded every form of heresy and
unbelief to be the attempt of an invisible evil agent to thwart the
truth of God; and viewed the history of infidelity as the study
of the results of the operation of this cause in destroying the
kingdom of righteousness. Such a view invests human life and
history with a very solemn character, and is not without practical
value; but it will be obvious that an analysis of this kind
must be strictly theological, and removes the inquiry from the
province of human science. Even when completed, it leaves
unexplored the whole field in which such an evil principle operates,
and the agencies which he employs as his instruments.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The majority of writers on unbelief accordingly have treated
the subject from a less elevated point of view, and have limited
their inquiry to the sphere of the operation of human causes, the
<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">media axiomata</span></span>
as it were,<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> which express the motives and
agencies which have been manifested on the theatre of the world,
and visible in actual history. It will be clear that within this
sphere the causes are specially of two kinds; viz. those which
have their source in the will, and arise from the antagonism of
feeling, which wishes revelation untrue, and those which manifest
themselves in the intellect, and are exhibited under the form
of difficulties which beset the mind, or doubts which mislead it,
in respect to the evidence on which revelation reposes. The
former, it may be feared, are generally the ground of unbelief;
the latter the basis of doubt. Christian writers, in the wish to
refer unbelief to the source of efficient causation in the human
will, with a view of enforcing on the doubter the moral lesson of
responsibility, have generally restricted themselves to the former
of these two classes; and by doing so have omitted to explore
the interesting field of inquiry presented in the natural history of
the variety of forms assumed by scepticism, and their relation to
the general causes which have operated in particular ages:—a
subject most important, if the intellectual antecedents thus discovered
be regarded as causes of doubt; and not less interesting,
if, instead of being causes, they are merely considered to be
instruments and conditions made use of by the emotional powers.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A history of free thought seems to point especially to the
study of the latter class. A biographical history of free thinkers
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
would imply the former; the investigation of the moral history
of the individuals, the play of their will and feelings and character;
but the history of free thought points to that which has
been the product of their characters, the doctrines which they
have taught. Science however no less than piety would decline
entirely to separate the two;<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> piety, because, though admitting
the possibility that a judgment may be formed in the abstract on
free thought, it would feel itself constantly drawn into the inquiry
of the moral responsibility of the freethinker in judging of the
concrete cases;—science, because, even in an intellectual point of
view, the analysis of a work of art is defective if it be studied
apart from the personality of the mental and moral character of
the artist who produces it. If even the inquiry be restricted to
the analysis of intellectual causes, a biographic treatment of the
subject, which would allow for the existence of the emotional,
would be requisite.<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The province of the following work accordingly is, the examination
of this neglected branch in the analysis of unbelief. While
admitting most fully and unhesitatingly the operation of emotional
causes, and the absolute necessity, scientific as well as practical,
of allowing for their operation, it is proposed to analyse
the forms of doubt or unbelief in reference mainly to the intellectual
element which has entered into them, and the discovery
of the intellectual causes which have produced or modified them.
Thus the history, while not ceasing to belong to church history,
becomes also a chapter in the history of philosophy, a page in
the history of the human mind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The enumeration of the causes into which the intellectual elements
of doubt are resolvable, is furnished in the text of the first
Lecture.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a>
If the nature of some of them be obscure, and the
reader be unaccustomed to the philosophical study necessary for
fully understanding them; information must be sought in the
books to which references are elsewhere given, as the subject is
too large to be developed in the limited space of this Preface.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work however professes to be not merely a narrative, but
a <span class="tei tei-q">“critical history.”</span> The idea of criticism in a history imparts
to it an ethical aspect. For criticism does not rest content with
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageix">[pg ix]</span><a name="Pgix" id="Pgix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
ideas, viewed as facts, but as realities. It seeks to pass above the
relative, and attain the absolute; to determine either what is
right or what is true. It may make this determination by means
of two different standards. It may be either independent or
dogmatic;—independent if it enters upon a new field candidly
and without prepossessions, and rests content with the inferences
which the study suggests;—dogmatic, when it approaches a subject
with views derived from other sources, and pronounces on
right or wrong, truth or falsehood, by reference to them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is hoped that the reader will not be unduly prejudiced, if
the confession be frankly made, that the criticism in these Lectures
is of the latter kind. This indeed might be expected from
their very character. The Bampton Lecture is an establishment
for producing apologetic treatises. The authors are supposed to
assume the truth of Christianity, and to seek to repel attacks
upon it. They are defenders, not investigators. The reader has
a right to demand fairness, but not independence; truth in the
facts, but not hesitation in the inferences. While however the
writer of these Lectures takes a definite line in the controversy,
and one not adopted professionally, but with cordial assent and
heartfelt conviction, he has nevertheless considered that it is due
to the cause of scientific truth to intermingle his own opinions as
little as possible with the facts of the history. A history without
inferences is ethically and religiously worthless: it is a chronicle,
not a philosophical narrative. But a history distorted to suit the
inferences is not only worthless, but harmful. It is for the reader
to judge how far the author has succeeded in the result: but his
aim has been not to allow his opinions to warp his view of the
facts. History ought to be written with the same spirit of cold
analysis which belongs to science. Caricature must not be substituted
for portrait, nor vituperation for description.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a mode of treatment in the present instance was the
more possible, from the circumstance that the writer, when studying
the subject for his private information, without any design
to write upon it, had endeavoured to bring his own principles
and views perpetually to the test; and to reconsider them candidly
by the light of the new suggestions which were brought before
him. Instead of approaching the inquiry with a spirit of hostility,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagex">[pg x]</span><a name="Pgx" id="Pgx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
he had investigated it as a student, not as a partisan. It
may perhaps be permitted him without egotism to explain the
causes which led him to the study. He had taken holy orders,
cordially and heartily believing the truths taught by the church
of which he is privileged to be an humble minister. Before
doing so, he had read thoughtfully the great works of evidences
of the last century, and knew directly or indirectly the character
of the deist doubts against which they were directed. His own
faith was one of the head as well as the heart; founded on the
study of the evidences, as well as on the religious training of
early years. But he perceived in the English church earnest
men who held a different view; and, on becoming acquainted
with contemporary theology, he found the theological literature
of a whole people, the Germans, constructed on another basis; a
literature which was acknowledged to be so full of learning, that
contemporary English writers of theology not only perpetually
referred to it, but largely borrowed their materials from German
sources. He wished therefore fully to understand the character
of these new forms of doubt, and the causes which had produced
them. He may confess that, reposing on the affirmative verities
of the Christian faith, as gathered from the scriptures and embodied
in the immemorial teaching of Christ's church, he did
not anticipate that he should discover that which would overthrow
or even materially modify his own faith; but he wished,
while exploring this field, and gratifying intellectual curiosity, to
re-examine his opinions at each point by the light of those with
which he might meet in the inquiry. The serious wish also to
fulfill his duty in the sphere in which he might move, made him
desire to understand these new views; that if false, he might
know how to refute them when they came before him, and not
be first made aware of their existence from the harsh satire of
sceptical critics. His own studies were accordingly conducted
in a spirit of fairness—the fairness of the inquirer, not of the
doubter; and a habit of mind formed by the study of the history
of philosophy, was brought to bear upon the investigation of this
chapter in church history: first, of modern forms of doubt, and
afterwards the consecutive history of unbelief generally. Accordingly,
while he hopes that he has taken care to leave the
student in no case unguided, who may accompany him in these
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi" id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
pages through the history, he has wished to place him, as he
strove to place himself, in the position to see the subject in its
true light before drawing the inferences; to understand each
topic to a certain extent, as it appears when seen from the opposite
point of view, as well as when seen from the Christian. And
when this has been effected, he has criticised each by a comparison
with those principles which form his standard for testing
them, the truth of which the study has confirmed to the writer's
own mind. The criticism therefore does not profess to be independent,
but dogmatic; but it is hoped that the definite character
of the results will not be found to have prevented fairness
in the method of inquiry. If the student has the facts correctly,
he can form his own judgment on the inferences.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The standard of truth here adopted, as the point of view in
criticism, is the teaching of Scripture as expressed in the dogmatic
teaching of the creeds of the church; or, if it will facilitate clearness
to be more definite, three great truths may be specified,
which present themselves to the writer's mind as the very foundation
of the Christian religion: (1) the doctrine of the reality of
the vicarious atonement provided by the passion of our blessed
Lord; (2) the supernatural and miraculous character of the religious
revelation in the book of God; and (3) the direct operation
of the Holy Ghost in converting and communing with the
human soul. Lacking the first of these, Christianity appears to
him to be a religion without a system of redemption; lacking the
second, a doctrine without authority; lacking the third, a system
of ethics without spiritual power. These three principles accordingly
are the measure, by agreement with which the truth and
falsehood of systems of free thought are ultimately tested.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The above remarks, together with those which occur in the
text, where fuller explanation is afforded, will illustrate the province
of the inquiry, and the spirit in which it is conducted.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The explanation also of the further question concerning the
object which the writer proposed to effect, by the treatment of
such a subject in a course of Bampton Lectures, is given so fully
elsewhere, that a few words may here suffice in reference to it.<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexii">[pg xii]</span><a name="Pgxii" id="Pgxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Experience of the wants of students in this time of doubt and
transition, which those who are practically acquainted with the
subject will best understand, as well as observation of the tone of
thought expressed in our sceptical literature, led him to believe
that a history, natural as well as literary, of doubt; an analysis
of the forms and a statement of the intellectual causes of it, would
have a value, direct and indirect, in many ways. His desire, he
is willing to confess, was to guide the student, rather than to
refute the unbeliever. He did not expect to furnish the combatant
with ready-made weapons, which would make him omnipotent
in conflict; but he hoped to give him some suggestions in
reference to the tactics for conducting the contest. The Lectures
have a polemical aspect, but they seek to obtain their end by
means of the educational. The writer has aimed at assisting the
student, in the struggle with his doubts, in the inquiry for truth,
in the quiet meditative search for light and knowledge, preparatory
to ministering to others. The survey of a new region, which
ordinary works on the history of infidelity rarely touch, may lay
bare unsuspected or undetected causes of unbelief; and thus indirectly
offer a refutation of it; for intellectual error is refuted,
when the origin of it is referred to false systems of thought.
The anatomy of error is the first step to its cure.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In another point of view, independently of the value of the
line of inquiry generally, and the special suitability of it to individual
minds, there is a further use, which in the present day
belongs to it in common with all inquiries into the history of
thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is hard to persuade the students of a past generation that
the historic mode of approaching any problem is the first step
toward its successful solution. Yet a little reflection may at least
make the meaning of the assertion understood. If we view the
literary characteristic of the present, in comparison with that of
past ages, we are perhaps right in stating, that its peculiar feature
is the prevalence of the method of historical criticism. If
the four centuries since the Renaissance be considered, the critical
peculiarity of the sixteenth and seventeenth will be found to be
the investigation of ancient literature; in the former directed to
<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">words</span></em>, in the latter to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">things</span></em>. The eighteenth century broke
away from the past, and, emancipating itself from authority, tried
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiii">[pg xiii]</span><a name="Pgxiii" id="Pgxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to rebuild truth from its foundations from present materials, independent
of the judgment formed by past ages. The nineteenth
century unites both methods. It ventures not to explore the universe,
unguided by the experience of the past; but, while reuniting
itself to the past, it does not bow to it. It accepts it as
a fact, not as an authority. The seventeenth century worshipped
the past; the eighteenth despised it: the nineteenth mediates,
by means of criticism. Accordingly, in literary investigations
at present, each question is approached from the historic side,
with the belief that the historico-critical inquiry not only gratifies
curiosity, but actually contributes to the solution of the problem.
Some indeed assert<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> this, because they think that the historic
study of philosophy is the whole of philosophy; and, believing
that all truth is relative to its age, are hopeless of attaining the
absolute and unaltering solution of any problem. We, on the
other hand, are content to believe that the history of philosophy
is only the entrance to philosophy. But in either case, truth is
sought by means of a philosophical history of the past; which,
tracking the progress of truth and error in any particular department,
lays bare the natural as well as the literary history; the
causes of the past, as well as its form. Truth and error are thus
discovered, not by breaking with the past, and using abstract
speculations on original data, but by tracing the growth of
thought, gathering the harvest of past investigations, and learning
by experience to escape error.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These considerations bear upon the present subject in this
manner: they show not only the special adaptation to the passing
tastes of the age, of an historic mode of approaching a subject,
but exhibit also that the mode of proof and of refutation must be
sought, not on abstract grounds, but historic. The position of an
enemy is not to be forced, but turned; his premises to be refuted,
not his conclusions; the antecedent reasons which led him into
his opinion to be exhibited, not merely evidence offered of the
fact that he is in error.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This view, that doubt might be refuted by the historic analysis
of its operation, by laying bare the antecedent grounds which
had produced it, will explain why the author was led to believe
that a chapter of mental and moral physiology might be useful,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiv">[pg xiv]</span><a name="Pgxiv" id="Pgxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which would not merely carry out the anatomy of actual forms
of disease, but discover their origin by the study of the preceding
natural history of the patients.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will perhaps suffice for explaining the object
which was proposed in writing this history; and may justify the
hope that this work, thus adapted to the wants of the time, may
offer such a contribution to the subject of the Christian evidences,
as not only to possess an intellectual value, but to coincide with
the purpose contemplated by the founder of the Lectures.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It remains to state the sources which have been used for the
literary materials of the history. Though they are sufficiently
indicated in the notes, a general description of them may be useful.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
They may be distributed under four classes;
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The histories which have been professedly devoted to the
subject.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The notices of the history of unbelief in general histories
of the church or of literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. (Which ought indeed to rank first in importance;) the
original authorities for the facts, i.e. the works of the sceptical
writers themselves; or of the contemporary authors who have
refuted them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
4. The monographs, which treat of particular writers, ages, or
schools, of sceptical thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In approaching the subject, a student would probably commence
with the first two classes; and after having thus acquired
for himself a <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">carte du
pays</span></span>, would then explore it in detail by the
aid of the third and fourth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The works which have professedly treated of the history of
infidelity, as a whole, are not of great importance.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One of the earliest was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia Univ. Atheismi</span></span>, 1725, of
Reimannus; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Atheismo</span></span>, 1737, of Buddeus. (An explanation
of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Atheism</span></span>, as employed by them, is given in
Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>. p. <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref">413</a>.)
hey furnish, as the name implies, a history
of scepticism, as well as of sceptics; yet, though the labours of
such diligent and learned men can never be useless, they afford
little information now available. Their date also necessarily precluded
them from knowing the more recent forms of unbelief.
Perhaps under this head we ought also to name the chapters on
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexv">[pg xv]</span><a name="Pgxv" id="Pgxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
polemical theology in the great works of bibliography of the
German scholars of the same time, such as Pfaff (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Litt.
Thol.</span></span>); Buddeus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>);
Fabricius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delectus Argum.</span></span>);
Walch's (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Theol. Select.</span></span>); which contain lists of sceptical
works, either directly, or indirectly by naming the apologists who
have answered them. The references to these works will be found
in Note <a href="#Note_39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>. p. <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref">436</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among French writers, the only one of importance is Houtteville,
who prefixed an Introduction to his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Religion
Chrétienne prouvée par des faits</span></span>, 1722, containing an account of
the writers for and against Christianity from the earliest times.
(Translated 1739.) It contains little information concerning the
authors or the events, but a clearly and correctly written analysis
of their works and thoughts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among the English writers who have attempted a consecutive
history of the whole subject was Van Mildert, afterwards
bishop of Durham, who has been already named. The first volume
of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lectures</span></span>, in 1802-4, was devoted to the history
of infidelity; the second to a general statement of the evidences
for Christianity. This work, on account of its date, necessarily
stops short before the existence of modern forms of doubt; and
indeed evinces no knowledge concerning the contemporary forms
of literature in Germany, which had already attracted the attention
of Dr. Herbert Marsh. The point of view of the work, as
already described, almost entirely precludes the author from
entering upon the analysis of the causes, either emotional or intellectual,
which have produced unbelief. Its value accordingly is
chiefly in the literary materials collected in the notes; in which
respect it bears marks of careful study. Though mostly drawn
from second-hand sources, it exhibits wide reading and thoughtful
judgment.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A portion of the Bampton Lectures for 1852, by the Rev.
J. C. Riddle, was devoted to the subject of infidelity. The author's
object, as the title<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> implies, was to give the natural history
of unbelief, to the neglect of the literary. Psychological rather
than historical analysis was used by him for the investigation;
and his examination of the moral causes of doubt is better than
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvi">[pg xvi]</span><a name="Pgxvi" id="Pgxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the intellectual. The notes contain a collection of valuable
quotations, which supplement those of Van Mildert, but are unfortunately
given, for the most part, without references.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This completes<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a>
the enumeration of the histories professedly
devoted to infidelity, with the exception of a small but very
creditable production published since several of these lectures
were written, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Defence of the Faith; Part I. Forms of Unbelief</span></span>, by
the Rev. S. Robins, forming the first part of a work, of which the
second is to treat the evidences; the third to draw the moral.
It does not profess to be a very deep work;<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a>
but it is interesting;
drawn generally from the best sources, and written in an
eloquent style and devout spirit.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The transition is natural from these works, which treat of
the history of unbelief or give lists of the works of unbelievers,
to the notices of sceptical writers contained in general histories
of the church or of literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this, as in the former case, it is only in modern times that
important notices occur concerning forms of unbelief. The circumstance
that in the early ages unbelief took the form of opposition
or persecution on the part of heathens, and that in the
middle ages it was so rare, caused the ancient church historians
and mediæval church chroniclers to record little respecting actual
unbelief, though they give information about heresy. Even in
modern times, it is not till the early part of the eighteenth century
that any attention is bestowed on the subject. The earlier
historians, both Protestant, such as the Magdeburg Centuriators,
and Catholic, like Baronius, wrote the history of the past for a
controversial purpose in relation to the contests of their own
times: and in the next period, in the one church, Arnold confined
himself to the history of heresy rather than unbelief; and in the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvii">[pg xvii]</span><a name="Pgxvii" id="Pgxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
other, Fleury and Tillemont wrote the history of deeds rather
than of ideas, and afford no information, except in a few allusions
of the latter writer to the early intellectual opposition of the
heathens.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But about the middle of the eighteenth century, in the period
of cold orthodoxy and solid learning which immediately preceded
the rise of rationalism, as well as in that of incipient free
thought, we meet not only with the historians of theological
literature already named above, but with historians of thought
like Brucker, and of the church like Mosheim, possessed of large
taste for inquiry, and wide literary sympathies, who contribute
information on the subject: and towards the close of the century
we find Schröckh, who, in his lengthy and careful history of
the church since the Reformation,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a>
has taken so extensive a view
of the nature of church history, that he has included in it an
account of the struggle with freethinkers. Among the same class,
with the exception that he differs in being marked by rationalist
sympathies, must be ranked Henke.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the present century the spread of the scientific spirit, which
counts no facts unworthy of notice, together with the attention
bestowed on the history of doctrine, and the special interest in
understanding the fortunes of free thought, which sympathy in
danger created during the rationalist movement, prevented the
historians from passing lightly over so important a series of facts.
It may be sufficient to instance, in proof, the notices of unbelief
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexviii">[pg xviii]</span><a name="Pgxviii" id="Pgxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which occur in Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>. General histories also
of literature, like Schlosser's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature in the Eighteenth
Century</span></span>, or the more theological one of Hagenbach (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
des 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">n</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> Jahrhunderts</span></span>) incidentally afford information.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The various works just named are the chief of this class which
furnish assistance.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. After a general preliminary idea of the history has been
obtained from these sources, in order to prevent being confused
with details; it is necessary to resort next to the original sources
of information, without careful study of which the history must
lack a real basis.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In reference to the early unbelievers, the direct materials are
lost; but the contemporary replies to these writings remain.
In the case of later unbelievers, both the works and the answers
to them exist. It will be presumed that in so large a subject the
writer cannot have read all the sceptical works which have been
written, and are here named. With the exception however of
Averroes and of the Paduan school,<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> in which cases he has
chiefly adopted second-hand information, and merely himself
consulted a few passages of the original writers, he has in all
other instances read the chief works of the sceptical writers,
sufficiently at least to make himself acquainted with their
doubts, and in many cases has even made an analysis of their
works. The reader will perceive by the foot-notes the instances
in which this applies.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may be due to some of the historians who have made a
special study of particular periods from original sources, to state,
that so far as his limited experience extends he can bear witness
to their exactness. Leehler's work on English deism, for
example,<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a>
is a singular example of truthful narrative; and
Leland's,<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a>
though controversial, is worthy of nearly the same praise.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
4. There remains a fourth source of materials in the separate
monographs on particular men, opinions, or schools of thought.
We shall enumerate these according to the order of the lectures;
dwelling briefly on the majority of them, as being described elsewhere;
and describing at greater length those only which relate
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexix">[pg xix]</span><a name="Pgxix" id="Pgxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to the history of the theological movements in Germany described
in Lectures <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a> and
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a>; inasmuch as references are there frequently
made to these works without a specific description of
their respective characters.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In relation to the early struggle of Paganism against
Christianity,<a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a>
the work of Lardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Collection of Ancient Jewish and
Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Religion</span></span> (1764-7)
(Works, vols. vii.-ix.), is well known for carefulness of treatment
and the value of its references. Portions also of the works of
J. A. Fabricius, especially his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Græca</span></span>
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lux Evangelii</span></span>
(1732) are useful in reference to the lost works, and for bibliographical
knowledge: also a monograph by Kortholt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paganus
Obtrectator</span></span> (1703), on the objections made by Christians in the
early ages, gathered from the Apologies.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among recent works it is only necessary to specify one, viz.
the second series of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Eglise Chrétienne</span></span>, by E.
de Pressensé (1861), containing <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Grande Lutte du Christianisme
contre le Paganisme</span></span>, the account of the struggle both of deeds and
ideas on the part of the heathens against Christianity, and of the
apology of the Christians in reply. The sketches of the arguments
used both by the heathens, as recovered from fragments,
and by the Christian apologists, are most ably executed. The
frequent references to it in the foot-notes will show the importance
which the writer attaches to this work.<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The long period of the middle ages, together with early
modern<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a>
history, so far as the latter bears upon the present subject,
is spanned by the aid of four works; Cousin's Memoir on
Abelard (1836); the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Reforme</span></span> of Laurent (1861), a professor at
Ghent; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span> of E. Renan (1851), one of the ablest among
the younger writers of France; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essais de Philosophie
Religieuse</span></span> of E. Saisset (1859). All these works are full of learning;
some of them are works of mind as well as of erudition.
Cousin's treatise is well known,<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> and may be said to have reopened
the study of medieval philosophy. The contents of
Laurent's work are specified elsewhere.<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> That of Renan, besides
containing a sketch of the life and philosophy of Averroes, studies
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexx">[pg xx]</span><a name="Pgxx" id="Pgxx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
his influence in the three great spheres where it was felt,—the
Spanish Jews, the Scholastic philosophers, and the Peripatetics
of Padua. The work of Saisset is a most instructive critical
sketch on religious philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The period of English Deism<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> is treated in two works; the
well-known work of Leland above cited, and the one also named
above by Lechler, now general superintendent at Leipsic; a work
full of information, and exceedingly complete; one of the carefully
executed monographs with which many of the younger
German scholars first bring their names into notice. Though
the interest of the subject is limited, it well merits a
translator.<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is a deficiency of any similar work on the history of
infidelity in France,<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> treating it separately and exhaustively.
The work which most nearly deserves the description is vol. vi.
of Henke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>.<a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> This want however is the less
felt, because almost every portion of the period has been treated
in detail by French critics of various schools; among which some
of the sketches of Bartholmess, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Critique des Doctrines
Religieuses de la Philosophie Moderne</span></span>, 1855; and of Damiron,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire de Philosophie au 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">
siècle</span></span>;<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> are
perhaps the most useful for our purpose. One portion of Mr.
Buckle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilisation</span></span>,
the best written part of his first
volume, also affords much information, in the main trustworthy,
in reference to the intellectual condition of France of the same
period.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A description of the events of a period so complex as that of
the German theological movement of the last hundred years<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a>
would have been an object too ambitious to attempt, especially
when it must necessarily, from the size of the subject, be
grounded on an acquaintance with single writers of a school, or
single works of an author used as samples of the remainder; if
it were not that abundant guidance is supplied in the memoirs
by German theologians of all shades of opinion, who have studied
the history of their country, and not only narrated facts, but
investigated causes. A few narratives of it also exist by scholars
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxi">[pg xxi]</span><a name="Pgxxi" id="Pgxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of other countries; but these are founded on the former. We
shall in the main preserve the order of their publication in enumerating
these various works.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The materials for the condition of Germany at the beginning
of the last century, antecedently to the introduction of the new
influences which created rationalism,<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a>
are conveyed in Weismann,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introductio in Memorabilia Eccl. Hist.</span></span> (1718), and in
Schröckh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Kirchengeschichte</span></span> (1768-1812). The first
distinct examination however of the peculiar character of the
movement which ensued, called Rationalism, occurred in the
discussion as to its meaning and province; in which Tittmann,
Röhr, Staüdlin, Bretschneider, Hahn, &amp;c., were engaged; an
account of which, with a list of their works,<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> is given under the
explanation of the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Rationalism”</span> in Note 21, p. <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref">416</a>.
The chief value of these works at present is, partly to enable us to
understand how contemporaries viewed the movement while in
progress; partly to reproduce the state of belief which existed in
the older school of rationalists, and its opponents, before the
reaction toward orthodoxy had fully altered theological thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Whilst the dispute between rationalism and supernaturalism
was still going on, and the latter was gradually gaining the victory,
through the reaction under Schleiermacher just alluded to,
an English writer, Mr. Hugh James Rose,<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> published some
sermons preached at Cambridge in 1825, which were the means
of directing attention to the subject both at home and abroad,
and stimulating investigation into the history. As this work,
and especially the reply of one writer to it, are often here quoted,
it may be well to narrate the interesting literary controversy, now
forgotten, which ensued upon its publication.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Mr. Rose described the havoc made by the rationalist speculations,
alike in dogma, in interpretation, and in church history,
and attributed the evil chiefly to the absence of an efficient system
of internal church government which would have suppressed
such a movement. He was answered (1828) by Mr.
(now Dr.) Pusey, then a junior Fellow of Oriel, who, having
visited Germany, and become acquainted with the forms of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxii">[pg xxii]</span><a name="Pgxxii" id="Pgxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
German thought, and the circumstances which had marked its
development, conceived justly that the reasons of a moral phenomenon
like the overthrow of religious faith in Germany must
be sought in intrinsic causes, and not merely in an extrinsic
cause, such as the absence of efficient means of ecclesiastical repression.
In this work,<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> marked by great knowledge of the
subject, and characterized by just and philosophical reflections,
the author pointed out an internal law of development in the
events of the history, and traced the ultimate cause of the movement
to the divorce between dogma and piety which had characterized
the age preceding the rise of rationalism. His motive
for entering the contest was, not the wish to defend the movement,
for his own position was fixed upon the faith of the creeds;
but seems to have been partly a love of truth, which did not like
to see an imperfect view of a great question set forth; and partly
the wish to prevent attention being diverted by Mr. Rose's explanation,
from perceiving the extreme resemblance of the contemporary
time in England to that of the age which preceded
rationalism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
To this work Mr. Rose replied in a Letter to the Bishop of
London, misunderstanding Mr. Pusey's object, and conveying the
impression that he had made himself responsible for the rationalism
which it had been the object of the sermons to condemn. He
felt himself however compelled, in a second edition of the
sermons,<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a>
to enter more largely into proofs from German literature
of the position which he had assumed; and produced a collection
of literary facts, of value in reference to the movement.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Mr. Pusey replied (1830) with a triumphant vindication alike
of his own meaning, and the truth of his own
position.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> The
work is necessarily less interesting than the former, as it turns
more upon personal questions, and is more polemical; but the
literary information conveyed is equally valuable.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If we may be permitted to form an opinion concerning the
controversy, it may perhaps be true to say, that Mr. Rose's fault
(if indeed we may say so of one who so worthily received honour
in his generation) was, that he approached the subject from the
polemic and practical instead of the historic side. His work is
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiii">[pg xxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxiii" id="Pgxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
like the description of a battle-field, which gives an idea of the
mangled remains that strew the field, but does not recount the
causes of contest, nor the progress of the action. The work of
his opponent describes the mustering of the forces preparatory to
the action, and the causes which led to the struggle. Perhaps,
in a few matters of detail, the former writer has taken a truer,
though a less hopeful, view than his opponent, of certain classes
of opinions, or of certain men; but the latter has better preserved
the historical perspective. The former saw mainly the old forms
of rationalism, the latter descried the partial return toward the
faith which had already begun, and has since gone forward so
energetically.<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These works must always afford much information on the
topics which they embrace. It is proper however to add, that
Dr. Pusey, some years ago, recalled the remaining copies of the
edition of his work. On this account the writer of these lectures,
when he has had occasion to give references to it, has taken
care not to quote it for opinions, but only for facts.<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The attack of Mr. Rose on German theology caused replies
abroad as well as at home. Several German theologians were led
to a more careful study of their own history and position, to
which references will be found in Mr. Rose's replies.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Previously to the publication of Dr. Pusey's treatises, a work
had been written with a purpose less directly controversial, by
Tholuck: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abriss Einer Geschichte der umwälzung, welche seit 1750,
auf dem Gebiete der Theologie in Deutschland statt gefunden</span></span>, now
contained in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischte Schriften</span></span>, 1839, vol.
2.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> It is valuable
for the earlier history of Rationalism. The spirit of it is very
similar to that of Dr. Pusey's work. Indeed the latter author,
though not aware of the publication of Tholuck's work, was cognisant
of his views on these questions, through lectures heard
from him abroad.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These works however were all previous to the great agitation
in German theology, which ensued in consequence of Strauss's
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiv">[pg xxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxiv" id="Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, in 1835. After the first excitement of that event had
passed, we meet with three works, two French and one German,
in which the history is brought down to a later period. The
French ones were, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Critique du Rationalisme</span></span>, 1841, of
Amand Saintes, translated 1849; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Critiques sur le
Rationalisme Contemporain</span></span>, of the Abbé H. de Valroger, 1846;
the latter of which works the writer of these lectures has been
unable to see. The German one was, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Protestantismus</span></span>,
1847,<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> and is attributed to Hundeshagen, professor at
Heidelberg.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critical History</span></span> of Amand Saintes, though thought by
the Germans<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a>
to be defective, in consequence of want of sufficiently
separating between the various forms of rationalism, is more
replete than any other book with stores of information, and extracts
arranged in a very clear form.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a>
It is very useful, if the
reader first possesses a better scheme into which to arrange the
materials. It is written also in a truly evangelical spirit.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Hundeshagen had a political object as well as a
religious. It was composed just before the revolution of 1848,
when Germany was panting for freedom; and its object was to
defend the position of the constitutional party in church and
state; and with a view to establish the importance of their moral
and doctrinal position, he surveyed the recent history of his
country.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span> (translated), which was published
nearly about the same time, also contains a very interesting
sketch, with valuable notes, of the chief writers and works in the
movement of German theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The view of the history given in Tholuck and Hundeshagen
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxv">[pg xxv]</span><a name="Pgxxv" id="Pgxxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
is that which is taken by the school called the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mediation
school”</span> in German theology.<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a>
The general cause assigned by
them for scepticism was the separation of dogma and piety; the
recovery from the rationalistic state being due to the reunion of
these elements, which Hundeshagen shows to have been also the
great feature of the German reformation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After an interval of about ten years, when the tendencies
created by Strauss's movement had become definitely manifest,
the history was again surveyed in two works, the one, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
des Deutschen Protestantismus</span></span>, by Kahnis (translated 1856), who
belongs to the Lutheran reactionary party; the other, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
der neuesten Theologie</span></span>, 1856, by C. Schwarz, whose work is so
candid and free from party bias, that it is unimportant to remark
the party to which he belongs.<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The narrative of Kahnis, originally a series of papers in a
magazine, is very full of facts, and generally fair; but it wants
form. The author's view is, that the sceptical movement arose
from abandoning the dogmatic expression of revealed truth, contained
in the old Confessions of the Lutheran church; and he
considers the reaction of the Mediation school in favour of orthodoxy
to be imperfect; the true restoration being only found by
returning to the Confessions.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Schwarz is restricted to the latest forms of German
theology, and goes back no farther than the circumstances
which led to the work of Strauss. It is unequalled in clearness;
bearing the mark of German exactness and fulness, and rivalling
French histories in didactic power. These two works differ from
most of those previously named, in being histories of modern
German theology generally, and not merely of the rationalist
forms of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such are the chief sources in which a student may learn the
view taken by the German critics of different schools, concerning
the recent church history of their country at various moments of
its progress. The fulness of this account will be excused, if it
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxvi">[pg xxvi]</span><a name="Pgxxvi" id="Pgxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
provide information concerning works to which reference is made
in the foot-notes of those lectures which treat of this period.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In describing the doubts of the present century in France,<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a>
considerable help has been found in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la
Littérature</span></span>, &amp;c. written by Nettement,<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essais</span></span>
of Damiron,<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> as well
as in criticisms by recent French writers; which are cited in the
foot-notes to the lecture which treats of the period.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subject of the contemporary doubt in England<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> has been
felt to be a delicate one. It has however been thought better to
carry the history down to the present time, and to deal frankly
in expressing the writer's own opinion. Delicacy forbade the
introduction of the names<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> of writers into the text of this part
of the Sermons, but they have been inserted in the foot-notes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mention of one additional source of information will complete
the examination which was proposed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be observed, that references have been very frequently
given in the notes, to the Reviews, English and French, and occasionally
German, for papers which treat on the subjects embraced
in the history. When the writer studied the subject for publication,
he took care to consult these, as affording a kind of commentary
by contemporaries on the different portions of the history.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxvii">[pg xxvii]</span><a name="Pgxxvii" id="Pgxxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
It is hoped that the references to those written in the two
former languages will be found to be tolerably complete. The
enormous number of those which exist in German, together with
the absence for the most part of indexes to them, renders it
probable that many separate papers of great value, the special
studies by different scholars of passages in the literary history of
their own nation, have been left unenumerated. The German
literary periodicals are indeed the solitary source of information
which the writer considers has not been fully worked for these
lectures.<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among the articles in English Reviews, many bear marks of
careful study; and it is a pleasure to have the opportunity of
rescuing them from the neglect which is likely to occur to papers
written without name, and in periodicals. The freethinking
Reviews have discussed the opinions of the friends of free thought
more frequently than the others; but those here cited are of all
shades of opinion; and the writer has found many to be of great
use, even when differing widely from the conclusions drawn. He
is glad indeed to take this opportunity of expressing his thanks
to the unknown authors of these various productions, which have
afforded him so much instruction, and often so much help. He
trusts that he has in all cases candidly and fully acknowledged
his obligations when he has borrowed their materials, or condensed
their thoughts. If he has in any case, through inadvertence,
failed to do so, he hopes that this acknowledgment will
be allowed to compensate for the unintentional omission.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The reader being now in possession both of the purpose designed
in the lectures, and of the sources of the information used
in their composition, it only remains to add a few miscellaneous
remarks.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the delivery of the lectures, several portions were omitted,
on account of the excessive length to which they would have
run. It has not been thought necessary to indicate these passages
by brackets; but, as those who heard them may perhaps wish
to have an enumeration, a list is here subjoined.<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxviii">[pg xxviii]</span><a name="Pgxxviii" id="Pgxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The notes, it will be perceived, are placed, some at the foot
of the text, others at the end. Those are put as foot-notes which
either were very brief, or which supplied information that the
reader might be supposed to desire in connection with the text.
Most of those which are appended are of the same character as
the foot-notes; i.e. sources of information in reference to the subjects
discussed in the text. A few however supply information
on collateral subjects. The Notes <a href="#Note_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>,
<a href="#Note_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>, and <a href="#Note_49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>, will be found to
contain a history of Apologetic Literature parallel with the history
of Free Thought; and Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a> discusses the history of some
technical terms commonly employed in the history of doubt.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The size of the subject has precluded the possibility of giving
many extracts from other works; but it may be permitted to
remark, that the literary references given are designed to supply
sources of real and valuable information on the various points in
relation to which they are cited. It can hardly be necessary to
state, that the writer must not in any way be held responsible for
the sentiments expressed in the works to which he may have
given references. In a subject such as that which is here treated,
many of the works cited are neutral in character, and many are
objectionable. But it is right to supply complete literary materials,
as well as references to works which state both sides of
the questions considered.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The index appended is brief, and devoted chiefly to Proper
Names; the fulness of the Table of Contents seeming to render
a longer one unnecessary, which should contain references to
subjects.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The writer wishes to express his acknowledgments to the
chief Librarian of the Bodleian, the Rev. H. O. Coxe, for his
kindness in procuring for his use a few foreign works which were
necessary. He avails himself also of this opportunity of expressing
publicly his thanks to the same individual, for the perseverance
with which he has accomplished the scheme of providing a
reading-room in connection with the Bodleian Library, open to
students in an evening. Those whose time and strength are spent
in college or private tuition during the mornings, are thus enabled
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxix">[pg xxix]</span><a name="Pgxxix" id="Pgxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to avail themselves of the treasures of a library, which until this
recent alteration was in a great degree useless to many of the
most active minds and diligent students in the university.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thanks are also due to a few other persons for their advice
and courtesy in the loan of scarce books; also, in some instances,
for assistance in the verification of a reference;<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> and in one case,
to a distinguished scholar, for his kindness in revising one of the
Notes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The spirit in which the writer has composed the history has
been stated elsewhere.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> His work now goes forth with no extraneous
claims on public attention. If it be, by the Divine blessing,
the means of affording instruction, guidance, or comfort, to a
single mind, the writer's labour will be amply recompensed.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxi">[pg xxxi]</span><a name="Pgxxxi" id="Pgxxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a>
<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Analysis of the lectures.</span></h1>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture I.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the subject, method, and purpose of the course of Lectures.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subject stated to be the struggle of the human mind against the
Christian revelation, in whole or in part. (p. <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>.) Explanation
of the points which form the occasion of the conflict. (pp.
<a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref">1-3</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mode of treatment, being that of a critical history, includes (p.
<a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>) the discovery of (1) the facts, (2) the causes, and
(3) the moral.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The main part of this first lecture is occupied in explaining the second
of these divisions.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Importance, if the investigation were to be fully conducted, of carrying
out a comparative study of religions and of the attitude of the mind in
reference to all doctrine that rests on authority. (pp. <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref">4-6</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The idea of causes implies,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I. The law of the operation of the causes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
II. The enumeration of the causes which act according to this
assumed law.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The empirical law, or formula descriptive of the action of reason
on religion, is explained to be one form of the principle of progress
by antagonism, the conservation or discovery of truth by
means of inquiry and controversy; a merciful Providence leaving
men responsible for their errors, but ultimately overruling evil for
good. (p. <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This great fact illustrated in the four Crises of the Christian
faith in Europe, viz. In the struggle
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) With heathen philosophy, about A.D. 160-360. (p. <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(2) With sceptical tendencies in Scholasticism, in the
middle ages (1100-1400). (p. <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(3) With literature, at the Renaissance, in Italy (1400-1625).
(p. <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>.)
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxii">[pg xxxii]</span><a name="Pgxxxii" id="Pgxxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(4) With modern philosophy in three forms (p. <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>): viz.
English Deism in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries (p. <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>); French Infidelity in the eighteenth
century; German Rationalism in the eighteenth and
nineteenth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Proposal to study the natural as well as literary history of these
forms of doubt.—The investigation separated from inquiries
into heresy as distinct from scepticism. (p. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The causes, seen to act according to the law just described, which
make free thought develope into unbelief, stated to be twofold.
(p. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. Emotional causes.—Necessity for showing the relation of the
intellectual causes to the emotional, both per se, and because
the idea of a history of thought, together with the
comparative rarity of the process here undertaken, implies
the restriction of the attention mainly to the intellectual.
(p. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Influence of the emotional causes shown, both from psychology
and from the analysis of the nature of the evidence
offered in religion (pp. <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>,
<a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>).—Historical illustrations of
their influence. (pp. <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref">15-17</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Other instances where the doubt is in origin purely intellectual
(p. <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>), but where nevertheless opportunity is seen
for the latent operation of the emotional. (p. <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Explanation how far religious doubt is sin. (pp. <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>,
<a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. Intellectual causes, which are the chief subject of these
lectures; the conjoint influence however of the emotional
being always presupposed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The intellectual causes shown to be (p. <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>):
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(α) the new material of knowledge which arises from the
advance of the various sciences; viz. Criticism;
Physical, Moral, and Ontological science. (p. <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(β) the various metaphysical tests of truth or grounds
of certitude employed. (p. <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An illustration of the meaning (pp. <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>,
<a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref">23</a>), drawn from
literature, in a brief comparison of the types of
thought shown in Milton, Pope, and Tennyson.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Statement of the exact position of this inquiry in the
subdivisions of metaphysical science (pp. <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref">24</a>,
<a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>),
and detailed explanation of the advantages and
disadvantages of applying to religion the tests of
Sense, subjective Forms of Thought, Intuition, and
Feeling, respectively; as the standard of appeal.
(pp. <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref">25-32</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Advantage of a biographic mode of treatment in the investigation
of the operation of these causes in the history
of doubt. (pp. <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32-34</a>.)
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxiii">[pg xxxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxxiii" id="Pgxxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Statement of the utility of the inquiry:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) Intellectually, (α) in a didactic and polemical point of view,
in that it refers the origin of the intellectual elements in
error to false philosophy and faulty modes of judging, and
thus refutes error by analysing it into the causes which
produce it; and also (β) in an indirect contribution to the
Christian evidences by the historic study of former contests.
(p. <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(2) Morally, in creating deep pity for the sinner, united with
hatred for the sin. (p. <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concluding remarks on the spirit which has influenced the writer in
these lectures. (pp. <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>,
<a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture II.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The literary opposition of Heathens against Christianity in the early
ages.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The first of the four crises of the faith.</span></span> (pp.
<a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref">39-74</a>.) Agreement
and difference of this crisis with the modern. (p. <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>.)
Sources for ascertaining its nature, the original writings of unbelievers being lost.
(pp. <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref">42</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Preliminary explanation of four states of belief among the heathens
in reference to religion, from which opposition to Christianity would
arise: (pp. <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref">43-118</a>) viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) the tendency to absolute disbelief of religion, as seen in
Lucian and the Epicurean school. (p. <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>.)
(2) a reactionary attachment to the national creed,—the effect of
prejudice in the lower orders, and of policy in the educated.
(pp. <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.)
(3) the philosophical tendency, in the Stoics, (p. <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>) and
Neo-Platonists. (pp. <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.)
(4) the mystic inclination for magic rites. (p. <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Detailed critical history of the successive literary attacks on Christianity.
(p. <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48</a> seq.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. that of Lucian, about A.D. 170, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peregrinus Proteus</span></span>.
(pp. <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48-50</a>.)
2. that of Celsus, about the same date. (pp. <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref">50-55</a>.)
3. that of Porphyry, about 270. (pp. <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref">56-61</a>.)
4. that of Hierocles about 303, founded on the earlier work of
Philostratus respecting the life of Apollonius of Tyana.
(pp. <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref">62-64</a>.)
5. that of Julian, A.D. 363; an example of the struggle in
deeds as well as in ideas. (pp. <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref">65-68</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(Account of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philopatris</span></span> of the Pseudo-Lucian. (p.
<a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref">67</a>.))
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Conclusion; showing the relation of these attacks to the intellectual
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxiv">[pg xxxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxxiv" id="Pgxxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
tendencies before mentioned (p. <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>),
and to the general intellectual causes
sketched in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I.</a> (p.
<a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref">69</a>.)—Insufficiency of these causes to explain the
whole phenomenon of unbelief, unless the conjoint action of emotional
causes be supposed. (pp. <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref">72</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Analogy of this early conflict to the modern. Lessons from consideration
of the means by which the early Church repelled it. (pp.
<a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref">72-74</a>.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture III.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Free Thought during the middle ages, and at the Renaissance; together
with its rise in modern times.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This period embraces the second and third of the four epochs of
doubt, and the commencement of the fourth. Brief outline of the events
which it includes. (pp. <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref">75</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Second crisis</span></span>, from A.D. 1100-1400. (pp.
<a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref">76-92</a>.) It is a struggle
political as well as intellectual, Ghibellinism as well as scepticism.
(p. <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The intellectual tendencies in this period are four:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The scepticism developed in the scholastic philosophy, as seen in
the Nominalism of Abélard in the twelfth century.
Account of the scholastic philosophy, pp. <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref">77-80</a>; and of
Abélard as a sceptic in his treatise <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non.</span></span> (pp.
<a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref">81-85</a>.)
2. The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mot</span></span> of progress in religion in the Franciscan
book called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Everlasting Gospel</span></span> in the thirteenth
century. (pp. <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref">86</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>.)
3. The idea of the comparative study of religion, as seen in the
legend of the book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Tribus Impostoribus</span></span> in the thirteenth
century; and in the poetry of the period. (pp. <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>,
<a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref">89</a>.)
4. The influence of the Mahometan philosophy of Averroes in creating
a pantheistic disbelief of immortality. (pp. <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref">90</a>,
<a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the mode used to oppose these movements; and critical
estimate of the period. (pp. <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref">91</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Third crisis</span></span>, from 1400-1625. (pp.
<a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93-105</a>.) Peculiarity of this
period as the era of the Renaissance and of <span class="tei tei-q">“Humanism,”</span> and as the
transition from mediæval society to modern. (p. <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two chief sceptical tendencies in it:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) The literary tendency in Tuscany and Rome in the fifteenth
century; the dissolution of faith being indicated by
(a) the poetry of the romantic epic. (p. <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>.)
(b) the revival of heathen tastes. (p. <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref">95</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Estimate of the political and social causes likely to generate
doubt, which were then acting. (pp. <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>,
<a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref">98</a>.) the unbelief
was confined to Italy.—Reasons why so vast a movement as
the Reformation passed without fostering unbelief. (p. <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>.)
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxv">[pg xxxv]</span><a name="Pgxxxv" id="Pgxxxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The philosophical tendency in the university of Padua in the
sixteenth century. (p. <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a> seq.)
The spirit of it, pantheism (p. <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>), in two forms; one
arising from the doctrines of Averroes; the other seen in
Pomponatius, from Alexander of Aphrodisias. (p. <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref">101</a>.)
The relation of other philosophers, such as Bruno and
Vanini, to this twofold tendency. (pp. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102-104</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the mode used to oppose doubt (p. <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref">104</a>); and
estimate of the crisis. (p. <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fourth crisis</span></span>; (pp. <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105-339</a>)
commencing in the seventeenth century, through the effects of
the philosophy of Bacon and Descartes. (p. <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The remainder of the lecture is occupied with the treatment of the
influence of Cartesianism, as seen in Spinoza.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Examination of Spinoza's philosophy (pp. <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106-110</a>); of his
criticism in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologico-Politicus</span></span> (pp.
<a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109-113</a>); and of his indirect influence.
(p. <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a>, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concluding remarks on the government of Providence, as witnessed in
the history of large periods of time, such as that comprised in this lecture.
(p. <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref">115</a>.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture IV.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deism in England previous to A.D. 1760.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This lecture contains the first of the three forms which doubt has
taken in the fourth crisis. (p. <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref">116</a>.)—Sketch of the
chief events, political and intellectual, which influenced the mind of England during
the seventeenth century (p. <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>); especial mention of the
systems of Bacon and Descartes, as exhibiting the peculiarity that they were
philosophies of method. (pp. <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref">117</a>,
<a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref">118</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of Deism studied:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I. Its rise traced, 1640-1700. (pp. <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119-125</a>.)
In this period the religious inquiry has a political aspect, as seen
(1) in Lord Herbert of Cherbury (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate</span></span> and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religio
Laici</span></span>) in the reign of Charles I. (pp. <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref">119</a>,
<a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>.) (2) In Hobbes's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leviathan</span></span>. (pp.
<a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref">121</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>.)
(3) In Blount (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles of Reason</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of
Apollonius</span></span>),
in the reign of Charles II., in whom a deeper political
antipathy to religion is seen. (pp. <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref">123</a>,
<a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
II. The maturity of Deism (1700-1740), pp. <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref">125-144</a>.
This period includes (p. <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref">127</a>):
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The examination of the first principles of religion, on its
doctrinal side, in Toland's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity not Mysterious</span></span>,
&amp;c. (pp. <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref">126-130</a>.)
2. Ditto, on its ethical side, in Lord Shaftesbury. (pp. <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref">130</a>,
<a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref">131</a>.)
3. An attack on the external evidences, viz.
On prophecy, by Collins, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scheme of Literal Prophecy</span></span>,
&amp;c. (pp. <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132-136</a>).
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxvi">[pg xxxvi]</span><a name="Pgxxxvi" id="Pgxxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
On Miracles, by Woolston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourses on Miracles</span></span>.
(pp. <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136-138</a>); and by Arnobius. (p.
<a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>.)
4. The substitution of natural religion for revealed,
in Tindal, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity as old as the Creation</span></span>. (pp.
<a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138-140</a>.),
in Morgan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moral Philosopher</span></span>. (pp. <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref">140</a>,
<a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>.),
and in Chubb, Miscellaneous Works. (pp. <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142</a>,
<a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
III. The decline of Deism, 1740-1760. (pp. <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref">144-153</a>):
1. in Bolingbroke, a combined view of deist objections.
(pp. <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143-147</a>.)
2. in Hume, an assault on the evidence of testimony,
which substantiates miracles. (pp. <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147-153</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the peculiarities of Deism, the intellectual causes which
contributed to produce it (pp. <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a>,
<a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref">155</a>); and a comparison of it with the
unbelief of other periods. (p. <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Estimate of the whole period; and consideration of the intellectual
and spiritual means used for repelling unbelief in it (pp.
<a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157-161</a>); the
former in the school of evidences, of which Butler is the type, the mention
of whom leads to remarks on his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analogy</span></span> (pp.
<a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157-159</a>); and the latter in
spiritual labours like those of Wesley. (pp. <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>,
<a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref">161</a>.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture V.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infidelity in France in the eighteenth century; and unbelief in England
subsequent to 1760.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Infidelity in France</span></span> (pp.
<a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref">163-194</a>).—This is the second phase of
unbelief in the fourth crisis of faith.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Sketch of the state of France, ecclesiastical, political (pp.
<a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>,)
and intellectual (partly through the philosophy of Condillac, pp.
<a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref">166</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref">167</a>),
which created such a mental and moral condition as to allow unbelief to
gain a power there unknown elsewhere.—The unbelief stated to be caused
chiefly by the influence of English Deism, transplanted into the soil thus
prepared. (p. <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref">203</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history studied (1) in its assault on the Church; as seen in Voltaire;
the analysis of whose character is necessary,
because his influence was mainly due to
the teacher, not the doctrine taught. (pp.
<a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref">169-176</a>.)
(2) in the transition to an assault on the State, in
Diderot, (pp. <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref">179</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>);
the philosophy of
the Encyclopædists (p. <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>); Helvetius (p.
<a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref">180</a>); and D'Holbach. (p. <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>.)
(3) in the attack on the State, in Rousseau (pp.
<a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref">183-187</a>).—Analysis of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>
for his views on religion, (p. <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref">185</a>), and comparison
with Voltaire. (p. <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>.)
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxvii">[pg xxxvii]</span><a name="Pgxxxvii" id="Pgxxxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
(4) in the Revolution, both the political movement
and blasphemous irreligion (pp. <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref">188</a>,
<a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>); and the intellectual movement in Volney (Analysis
of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ruines</span></span>, pp. <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref">191</a>,
<a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref">192</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Estimate of the period (pp. <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref">193</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Unbelief in England</span></span>, from 1760 to a date a little later than
the end of the century (pp. <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>-209), continued from Lecture IV.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These later forms of it stated to differ slightly from the former, by being
partially influenced by French thought. (p. <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref">195</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The following instances of it examined:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) Gibbon viewed as a writer and a critic on religion (pp.
<a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196-199</a>).
(2) T. Paine: account of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Age of Reason</span></span>
(pp. <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199-201</a>).
(3) The socialist philosophy of R. Owen (p. <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref">202</a>).
(4) The scepticism in the poetry of Byron and Shelley (pp.
<a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref">203-207</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The last two forms of unbelief, though occurring in the present
century, really embody the spirit of the last.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Statement of the mode used to meet the doubt in England during this
period. Office of the Evidences (pp. <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207-209</a>).
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VI.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Free Thought in the Theology of Germany, from 1750-1835.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This is the third phase of free thought in that which was called the
fourth crisis of faith.—Importance of the movement, which is called
<span class="tei tei-q">“rationalism,”</span> as the theological phase of the literary movement of Germany
(p. <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>).—Deviation from the plan previously adopted, in
that a sketch is here given of German theological inquiry generally, and not
merely of unbelief (p. <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Brief preliminary sketch of German theology since the Reformation.
Two great tendencies shown in it during the seventeenth century
(p. <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref">211</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) The dogmatic and scholastic, science without earnestness
(p. <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref">212</a>).
(2) The pietistic, earnestness without science (p. <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the first half of the eighteenth century, three new influences are introduced
(pp. <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214</a>),
which are the means of creating rationalism in the
latter half: viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(α) The philosophy of Wolff, explained to be a formal
expression of Leibnitz's principles; and the evil effect
of it, accidental and indirect (pp. <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref">214-216</a>).
(β) The works of the English deists (p. <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref">216</a>).
(γ) The influence of the colony of French infidels at the
court of Frederick II. of Prussia (p. <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref">217</a>).
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxviii">[pg xxxviii]</span><a name="Pgxxxviii" id="Pgxxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subsequent history is studied in three periods (p. <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>);
viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period I.</span></span> (1750-1810).—Destructive in
character, inaugurated
by Semler (pp. <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218-234</a>).
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period II.</span></span> (1810-1835).—Reconstructive in character,
inaugurated by Schleiermacher (pp. <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239-261</a>).
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period III.</span></span> (1835 to present time)—Exhibiting definite
and final tendencies, inaugurated by Strauss (Lect. VII).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period I</span></span>. (1750-1810), is
studied under two Sub-periods:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Sub-period I. (1750-1790, pp. <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219-228</a>), which includes three
movements;
(1) Within the church (p. <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a> seq.); dogmatic; literary
in Michaelis and Ernesti; and freethinking in Semler
(pp. <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref">221-224</a>), the author of the historic method of
interpretation.
(2) External to the church (pp. <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref">224-226</a>); literary deism
in Lessing, and in the Wolfenbüttel fragments of Reimarus
(p. <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>).
(3) External to the church; practical deism, in the educational
institutions of Basedow (p. <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Sub-period II. (1790-1810, pp. <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref">227-234</a>); the difference
caused
by the introduction of two new influences; viz,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(α) The literary, of the court of Weimar and of the great
men gathered there (p. <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref">228</a>).
(β) The philosophy of Kant, (the effect of which is explained,
pp. <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref">229</a>, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a>);
the home of both of which
was at Jena.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As the result of these new influences, three movements are visible in
the Church (p. <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a>); viz,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) The critical <span class="tei tei-q">“rationalism”</span> of Eichhorn and Paulus,
the intellectual successors of Semler (pp. <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>,
<a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref">232</a>).
(2) The dogmatic, more or less varying from orthodoxy,
seen towards the end of this period in Bretschneider,
Röhr, and Wegscheider (pp. <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref">233</a>,
<a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref">234</a>).
(3) The supernaturalism of Reinhardt and Storr (p. <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period II.</span></span> (1810-1835.)—Introduction
of four new influences (p.
<a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>), which completely altered the theological tone; viz.
(α) New systems of speculative philosophy; of Jacobi,
who followed out the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">material</span></em> element of Kant's philosophy
(p. <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref">235</a>); and of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel,
who followed out the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formal</span></em> (p. <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref">238</a>).
(β) The <span class="tei tei-q">“romantic”</span> school of poetry (p. <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>).
(γ) The moral tone, generated by the liberation wars of
1813. (p. <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>.)
(δ) The excitement caused by the theses of Harms at the
tercentenary of the Reformation in 1817. (pp. <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref">240</a>,
<a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.)
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxix">[pg xxxix]</span><a name="Pgxxxix" id="Pgxxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The result of these is seen (p. <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>) in
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) An improved doctrinal school under Schleiermacher
(pp. <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>-250), (description of
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaubenslehre</span></span>, p.
<a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a> seq.); and under his successors, Neander, &amp;c.
(pp. <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250-252</a>.)
(2) An improved critical tone (p. <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref">252</a> seq.) as seen in De
Wette and Ewald, which is illustrated by an explanation
of the Pentateuch controversy (pp. <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref">254-258</a>).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concluding notice of two other movements to be treated in the next
lecture (p. <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>); viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) an attempt, different from that of Schleiermacher, in the school
of Hegel, to find a new philosophical basis for Christianity; and
(2) the return to the biblical orthodoxy of the Lutheran church.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the benevolence of Providence in overruling free inquiry
to the discovery of truth. (pp. <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259-261</a>).
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VII.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Free Thought in Germany subsequently to 1835; and in France during
the present century.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Free Thought in Germany</span></span> (continued).—History of the
transition from Period II. named in the last lecture, to Period III.
(pp. <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref">262-274</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Explanation of the attempt, noticed pp. <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref">242</a>,
<a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref">259</a>, of the Hegelian school
to find a philosophy of Christianity. Critical remarks on Hegel's system,
(pp. <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref">263-267</a>-267); its
tendency to create an <span class="tei tei-q">“ideological”</span> spirit in religion
(p. <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref">264</a>):—the school
which it at first formed is seen best in Marheinecke.
(p. <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref">265</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The circumstance which created an epoch in German theology was the
publication of Strauss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>
in 1835 (p. <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref">266</a>). Description of it (α)
in its critical aspect (pp. <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>,
<a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>), which leads to an explanation of the
previous discussions in Germany concerning the origin and credibility of
the Gospels (pp. <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>,
<a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref">269</a>); and (β) in its philosophical, as related to Hegel
(p. <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref">270</a>); together with an analysis of
the work (p. <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref">271</a>). Statement of the
effects produced by it on the various theological
parties. (pp. <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref">272</a>, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref">273</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Period III.</span></span> As the result of the agitation caused by Strauss's
work, four theological tendencies are seen; viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) One external to the church, thoroughly antichristian, as in
Bruno Bauer, Feuerbach, and Stirner. (pp. <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref">274-276</a>.)
(2) The historico-critical school of Tübingen, founded by Chr.
Bauer. (pp. <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277-279</a>.)
(3) The <span class="tei tei-q">“mediation”</span> school, seen in Dorner and Rothe, (pp.
<a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279-282</a>.)
(4) A return to the Lutheran orthodoxy, (pp. <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282-285</a>,) at first
partly created by an attempt to unite the Lutheran and Reformed
churches, (p. <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>); seen in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Neo-Lutheranism”</span>
of Hengstenberg and Hävernick, (p. <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref">282</a>), and the
<span class="tei tei-q">“Hyper-Lutheranism”</span>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexl">[pg xl]</span><a name="Pgxl" id="Pgxl" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of Stahl and the younger members of the
school. (pp. <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref">283</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Mention of the contemporaneous increase of spiritual life in Germany.
(p. <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref">285</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concluding estimate of the whole movement,
(pp. <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref">287</a>); and
lessons for students in reference to it.
(pp. <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref">288</a>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Free Thought in France</span></span> during the present
century (pp. <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>-305),
(continued from Lect. IV. p. <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In its tone it is constructive of belief, if compared with that of the
eighteenth century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
From 1800-1852.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The speculative thought has exhibited four distinct forms. (p.
<a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) The ideology of De Tracy, in the early part of the century.
(2) The theological school of De Maistre, &amp;c. to re-establish the
dogmatic authority of the Romish church.
(3) Socialist philosophy, St. Simon, Fourier, Comte.
(4) The Eclectic school (Cousin, &amp;c.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the first school.—The recovery of French philosophy
and thought from the ideas of this school, partly due to the
literary tone of Chateaubriand. (pp. <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>,
<a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Influence of the Revolution of 1830 in giving a stimulus to
thought. (p. <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the third school.—Explanation of socialism as
taught by St. Simon (pp. <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref">292</a>,
<a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref">293</a>); as taught by Fourier
(pp. <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref">293</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>);
and difference from English socialism.
(p. <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref">294</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Positivism, both as an offshoot of the last school, and in itself as
a religion and a philosophy. (pp. <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>,
<a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref">296</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the fourth school.—Eclecticism as taught by Cousin,
viewed as a philosophy and a religion. (pp. <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref">297-299</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Remarks on the second school; viewed as an attempt to refute
the preceding schools. (p. <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
From 1852-1862.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
New form of eclecticism under the empire
(p. <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>), viz. the historic
method, based on Hegel, as Cousin's was based on Schelling.—E. Renan
the type. (pp. <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref">302</a>-304.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Free thought in the Protestant church
(pp. <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref">305</a>) regarded as an
attempt to meet by concession doubts of contemporaries.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VIII.</span></h2>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Free Thought in England in the present century: Summary of the
Course of Lectures: and Inferences in reference to
present dangers and duties.</span></span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Modern unbelief in England</span></span>
(continued from Lect V.):—Introductory
remarks on the alteration of its tone. (pp.
<a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref">306</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a>.)—The cause of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexli">[pg xli]</span><a name="Pgxli" id="Pgxli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which is stated to be a general one, the subjective
tone created (p. <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref">308</a>) by
such influences as, (1) the modern poetry (p. <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref">309</a>), and
(2) the two great
attempts by Bentham and Coleridge to reconstruct philosophy. (pp.
<a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref">309</a>, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The doubt and unbelief treated in the following order
(p. <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref">311</a>):
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) That which appeals to Sensational experience and to Physical
science as the test of truth; viz.
(α) Positivism among the educated (p. <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>).
(β) Secularism or Naturalism among the masses (p. <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref">313</a>);
and in a minor degree,
(γ) The doubts created by Physical science (p. <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref">314</a>).
(2) That which appeals to the faculty of Intuition
(p. <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref">315</a>);—expressed
in literature, by Carlyle, (pp. <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref">316</a>,
<a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>); and by the
American, Emerson. (p. <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>.)
Influence also of the modern literature of romance, (p. <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref">318</a>.)
(3) Direct attacks on Christianity, critical rather than philosophical:
viz.
(α) The examination of the historic problem of the development
of religious ideas among the Hebrews, by R.
W. Mackay (pp. <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref">319</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref">320</a>).
(β) A summary of objections to revelation, by Mr. Greg,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Creed of Christendom</span></span> (p. <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref">321</a>).
(γ) The examination of the psychical origin of religion and
Christianity, by Miss S. Hennell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thoughts in aid of
Faith</span></span>, (p. <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref">323</a>.)
(4) The deism, and appeal to the Intuitional consciousness, expressed
by Mr. Theodore Parker (pp. <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref">325</a>,
<a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326</a>), and Mr. F. Newman
(pp. <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref">326-329</a>).
(5) The traces of free thought within the Christian
church (p. <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>);
viz.:
(α) The philosophical tendency which originates with
Coleridge. (pp. <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330-333</a>.)
(β) The critical tendency, investigating the facts of revelation.
(pp. <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334-336</a>.)
(γ) The critical tendency, the literature which
contains it. (pp. <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref">336</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref">337</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This completes the history of the fourth crisis
of faith (p. <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339</a>), the
history of which began near the end of Lect. III. at p. <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Summary</span></span> of the course of
lectures. (pp. <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref">339-41</a>.)—Recapitulation of
the original purpose, which is stated to have been, while assuming the
potency of the moral, to analyse the intellectual causes of doubt, which
have been generally left uninvestigated.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Refutation of objections which might be made; such as
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) One directed against the utility of the inquiry. (p. <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>.)
(2) One directed against its uncontroversial character.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A critical history shown to be useful in the present age, (1) in an educational
point of view for those who are to be clergymen, and to encounter
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexlii">[pg xlii]</span><a name="Pgxlii" id="Pgxlii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
current forms of doubt by word or by writing
(pp. <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342-345</a>); and (2)
in a controversial point of view, by resolving the intellectual element in
many cases of unbelief into incorrect metaphysical philosophy; the value
of which inquiry is real, even if such intellectual causes be regarded only
as the conditions, and not the causes, of unbelief. (p. <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.)
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Further objections anticipated and refuted in reference (3) to the
candour of the mode of inquiry, and the absence of vituperation which is
stated not to be due to indifference to Christian truth, but wholly to the
demands of a scientific mode of treatment
(p. <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>); (4) to the absence of
an eager advocacy of any particular metaphysical theory; which is due to
the circumstance that the purpose was to exhibit errors as logical corollaries
from certain theories, without assuming the necessary existence of
these corollaries in actual life (p.
<a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>); (5) to the insufficiency of the
causes enumerated to produce doubt without taking account of the moral
causes; which objection is not only admitted, but shown to be at once the
peculiar property which belongs to the analysis of intellectual phenomena,
and also a witness to the instinctive conviction that the ultimate cause of
belief and unbelief is moral, not intellectual; which had been constantly
assumed. (p. <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref">347</a>.)
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Lessons</span></span> derived from
the whole historical survey. (p. <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a> seq.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I. What has been the office of doubt in history? (p. <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Opposite opinions on this subject stated. (p. <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>.) Examination
of the ordinary Christian opinion on the one hand, which regards
it as a mischief (p. <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref">348</a>),
and of Mr. Buckle's on the other, which
regards it as a good. (p. <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref">349</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The office is shown to be, to bring all truths to the test.
(p. <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref">349</a>.) Historical instances of its value in destroying the
Roman catholic errors. (p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. Free inquiry also shown in some cases to be forced on man
by the presentation of new knowledge, which demands consideration.
(p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>.) Denial of the statement that the doubts
thus created are an entire imitation of older doubt. (p. <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref">352</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. The office of it in the hands of Providence to elicit truth by
the very controversies which it creates (p. <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref">352</a>); the
responsibility of the inquirer not being destroyed, but the overruling
providence of God made visible. (p. <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
II. What does the history teach, as to the doubts most likely to present
themselves at this time, and the best modes of meeting them?
(p. <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The materials shown to be presented for a final answer to these
questions. (p. <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The probability shown from consideration of the state of the
various sciences, mechanical, physiological (p. <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>), and
mental (p. <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>), that no new difficulties can be suggested
hereafter, distinct in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></span> from the present; nor any unknown
kinds of evidence presented on behalf of Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Analogy of the present age as a whole, in disintegration of
belief, to the declining age of Roman civilization. (p. <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>.)
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexliii">[pg xliii]</span><a name="Pgxliii" id="Pgxliii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The doubts which beset us in the present age stated to be chiefly three
(p. <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>), viz.:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The relation of the natural to the supernatural.
This doubt is sometimes expressed in a spirit of utter unbelief;
sometimes in a tone of sadness (p. <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>), arising from
mental struggles, of which some are enumerated (p. <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref">358</a>).
The intellectual and moral means of meeting these doubts.
(p. <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The relation of the atoning work of Christ to the human
race. (p. <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>.) Explanation of the defective view which
would regard it only as reconciling man to God, and would
destroy the priestly work of Christ; and statement of the
modes in which its advocates reconcile it with Christianity.
(p. <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref">361</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The importance that such doubts be answered by reason, not
merely silenced by force. (p. <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An answer sought by studying the various modes used in
other ages of the church (p. <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>); especially by those who
have had to encounter the like difficulties, e.g. the Alexandrian
fathers in the third century, and the faithful in
Germany in the present. (p. <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref">363</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This method shown to have been to present the philosophical
prior to the historical evidence, in order to create the sense
of religious want, before exhibiting Christianity as the divine
supply for it. (p. <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In regard to the historic evidence, three misgivings of the
doubter require to be met for his full satisfaction (p. <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>);
viz.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(α) The literary question of the trustworthiness of the
books of the New Testament.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mode of meeting this explained, with the possibility
of establishing Christian dogmas, even if the most
extravagant rationalism were for argument's sake
conceded. (p. <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref">367</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(β) The doubt whether the Christian dogmas, and
especially the atonement, are really taught in the New
Testament. The value of the fathers, and the progress
of the doctrine in church history, shown in
reference to this question. (p. <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref">368</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(γ) The final difficulty which the doubter may put,
whether even apostolic and miraculous teaching is to
overrule the moral sense. (p. <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The possibility shown of independent corroboration of
the apostolic teaching, in the testimony of the living
church, and the experience of religious men. (p. <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref">371</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The utter improbability of error in this part of scriptural
teaching, even if the existence of error elsewhere
were for argument's sake conceded. (p. <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref">370</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Difference of this appeal from that of Schleiermacher to
the Christian consciousness.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexliv">[pg xliv]</span><a name="Pgxliv" id="Pgxliv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. The relation of the Bible to the church, whether it is a record
or an authority. (p. <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref">372</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Statement of the modes of viewing the question in different
ages. (p. <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref">373</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Bible an authority; but the importance shown of using
wisdom in not pressing the difficulties of scripture on an
inquirer, so as to quench incipient faith. (p. <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref">374</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mention of the emotional causes of doubt conjoined with the
intellectual, a warning that, in addition to all arguments, the help of
the divine Spirit to hallow the emotions must be sought and expected.
(p. <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Final lesson to Christian students, that in all ages of peril, earnest
men have found the truth by the method of study united to prayer.
(pp. <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref">376-379</a>.)
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name="Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a>
<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>
<a name="Lecture_I" id="Lecture_I" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture I. On The Subject, Method, And Purpose Of The Course
Of Lectures.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Luke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> vii. 51.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Suppose ye that I am come to give peace on earth? I tell you, nay; but
rather division.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The present course of lectures relates to one of the
conflicts exhibited in the history of the Church; viz.
the struggle of the human spirit to free itself from the
authority of the Christian faith.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Christianity offers occasion for opposition by its
inherent claims, independently of accidental causes.
For it asserts authority over religious belief in virtue
of being a supernatural communication from God, and
claims the right to control human thought in virtue of
possessing sacred books which are at once the record
and the instrument of this communication, written by
men endowed with supernatural inspiration. The inspiration
of the writers is transferred to the books, the
matter of which, so far as it forms the subject of the
revelation, is received as true because divine, not
merely regarded as divine because perceived to be true.
The religion, together with the series of revelations of
which it is the consummation, differs in kind from ethnic
religions, and from human philosophy; and the sacred
literature differs in kind from other books. Each is
unique, a solitary miracle of its class in human history.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The contents also of the sacred books bring them into
contact with the efforts of speculative thought. Though
at first glance they might seem to belong to a different
sphere, that of the soul rather than the intellect, and
to possess a different function, explaining duties rather
than discovering truth; yet in deep problems of physical
or moral history, such as Providence, Sin, Reconciliation,
they supply materials for limiting belief in the
very class of subjects which is embraced in the compass
of human philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A conflict accordingly might naturally be anticipated,
between the reasoning faculties of man and a
religion which claims the right on superhuman authority
to impose limits on the field or manner of their
exercise; the intensity of which at various epochs
would depend, partly upon the amount of critical activity,
and partly on the presence of causes which might
create a divergence between the current ideas and those
supplied by the sacred literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The materials are wanting for detecting traces of
this struggle in other parts of the world than Europe;
but the progress of it may be fully observed in European
history, altering concomitantly with changes in
the condition of knowledge, or in the methods of seeking
it; at first as an open conflict, philosophical or
critical, with the literary pagans, subsiding as Christianity
succeeded in introducing its own conceptions into
every region of thought; afterwards reviving in the
middle ages, and gradually growing more intense in
modern times as material has been offered for it through
the increase of knowledge or the activity of speculation;
varying in name, in form, in degree, but referable
to similar causes, and teaching similar lessons.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is the chief of these movements of free thought in
Europe which it is my purpose to describe, in their
historic succession and their connection with intellectual
causes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We must ascertain the facts; discover the causes;
and read the moral. These three inquiries, though distinct
in idea, cannot be disjoined in a critical history.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
The facts must first be presented in place and time: the
history is thus far a mere chronicle. They must next
be combined with a view to interpretation. Yet in
making this first combination, taste guides more than
hypothesis. The classification is artistic rather than
logical, and merely presents the facts with as much
individual vividness as is compatible with the preservation
of the perspective requisite in the general historic
picture. At this point the artistic sphere of history
ceases, and the scientific commences as soon as the
mind searches for any regularity or periodicity in the
occurrence of the facts, such as may be the effect of
fixed causes. If an empirical law be by this means
ascertained to exist, an explanation of it must then be
sought in the higher science which investigates mind.
Analysis traces out the ultimate typical forms of
thought which are manifested in it; and if it does not
aspire to arbitrate on their truth, it explains how they
have become grounds on which particular views have
been assumed to be true. The intellect is then satisfied,
and the science of history ends. But the heart
still craves a further investigation. It demands to view
the moral and theological aspects of the subject, to harmonize
faith and discovery, or at least to introduce the
question of human responsibility, and reverently to
search for the final cause which the events subserve in
the moral purposes of providence. The drama of history
must not develope itself without the chorus to
interpret its purpose. The artistic,—the scientific,—the
ethical,—these are the three phases of history. (<a href="#Note_1" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The chief portion of the present lecture will be devoted
to explain the mode of applying the plan just
indicated; more especially to develop the second of
these three branches, by stating the law which has
marked the struggle of free thought with Christianity,
and illustrating the intellectual causes which have been
manifested in it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In searching for such a law, or such causes, we
ought not to forget that, if we wished to lay a sound
basis for generalization, it would be necessary not to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
restrict our attention to the history of Christianity, but
to institute a comparative study of religions, ethnic or
revealed, in order to trace the action of reason in the
collective religious history of the race. Whether the
religions of nature be regarded as the distortion of
primitive traditions, or as the spontaneous creation of
the religious faculties, the agreement or contrast suggested
by a comparison of them with the Hebrew
and Christian religions, which are preternaturally revealed,
is most important as a means of discovering the
universal laws of the human mind; the exceptional
character which belongs to the latter member of the
comparison increasing rather than diminishing the value
of the study. All alike are adjusted, the one class
naturally and accidentally, the other designedly and
supernaturally, to the religious elements of human
nature. All have a subjective existence as aspirations
of the heart, an objective as institutions, and a history
which is connected with the revolutions of literature
and society. (<a href="#Note_2" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Comparative observation of this kind gives some
approach to the exactness of experiment; for we watch
providence as it were executing an experiment for our
information, which exhibits the operations of the same
law under altered circumstances. If, for example, we
should find that Christianity was the only religion, the
history of which presented a struggle of reason against
authority, we should pronounce that there must be
peculiar elements in it which arouse the special opposition;
or if the phenomenon be seen to be common to
all creeds, but to vary in intensity with the activity of
thought and progress of knowledge, this discovery
would suggest to us the existence of a law of the human
mind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a study would also furnish valuable data for
determining precisely the variation of form which
alteration of conditions causes in the development of
such a struggle. In the East, the history of religion,
for which material is supplied by the study of the Zend
and Sanskrit literature, (<a href="#Note_3" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>) would furnish examples of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
attempts made by philosophers to find a rational solution
of the problems of the universe, and to adjust the
theories of speculative thought to the national creed
deposited in supposed sacred books. And though, in a
western nation such as Greece, the separation of religion
from philosophy was too wide to admit of much parallel
in the speculative aspect of free thought, yet in reference
to the critical, many instances of the application
of an analogous process to a national creed may be seen
in the examination made of the early mythology, the
attempt to rationalize it by searching for historical data
in it, or to moralize it by allegory.<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> Again, within the
sphere of the Hebrew religion which, though supernaturally
suggested, developed in connexion with human
events so as to admit the possibility of the rise of mental
difficulties in the progress of its history, how much
hallowed truth, both theoretical and practical, might be
learned from the divine breathings of pious inquirers,
such as the sacred authors of the seventy-third Psalm,
or of the books of Job and Ecclesiastes, which give
expression to painful doubts about Providence, not fully
solved by religion, but which nevertheless faith was
willing to leave unexplained.<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> If in the Oriental systems
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
free thought is seen to operate on a national creed
by adjusting it to new ideas through philosophical dogmatism;
if in the Greek by explaining it away through
scepticism; in the Hebrew it is hushed by the holier
logic of the feelings. The two former illustrate steps
in the intellectual progress of free thought; the last
exhibits the moral lesson of resignation and submission
in the soul of the inquirer.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor ought this method of comparison to be laid
aside even at this point. It would be requisite, for a
full discovery of the intellectual causes that the generalization
should be carried further, and the operations
of free thought watched in reference to other subjects
than religion.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> Reason in its action, first on Christianity
both in Europe and elsewhere, secondly on Jewish
and heathen religions, lastly on any body of truth
which rests on traditional authority,—these would be
the scientific steps necessary for eliminating accidental
phenomena, and discovering the real laws which have
operated in this branch of intellectual history. The
suggestion of such a plan of study, though obviously too
large to be here pursued, may offer matter of thought
to reflective minds, and may at least help to raise the
subject out of the narrow sphere to which it is usually
supposed to belong. The result of the survey would
confirm the view of the struggle now about to be given
which is suggested by European history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When any new material of thought, such as a new
religion which interferes with the previous standard of
belief, is presented to the human mind; or when conversely
any alteration in the state of knowledge on
which the human mind forms its judgment, imparts to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
an old established religion an aspect of opposition which
was before unperceived; the religion is subjected to the
ordeal of an investigation. Science examines the doctrines
taught by it, criticism the evidence on which they
profess to rest, and the literature which is their expression.
And if such an investigation fail to establish the
harmony of the old and the new, the result takes two
forms: either the total rejection of the particular religion,
and sometimes even of the supernatural generally,
or else an eclecticism which seeks by means of
philosophy to discover and appropriate the hidden truth
to which the religion was an attempt to give expression.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The attack however calls forth the defence. Accordingly
the result of this action and reaction is to produce
scientific precision, either apologetic or dogmatic,
within the religious system, and scepticism outside of
it; both reconstructive in purpose, but the former
defensive in its method, the latter destructive. The
elements of truth which exist on both sides are brought
to light by the controversy, and after the struggle has
passed become the permanent property of the world.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These statements, which convey a general expression
for the influence of free thought in relation to religion,
are verified in the history of Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are four epochs at which the struggle of
reason against the authority of the Christian religion
has been especially manifest, each characterized by
energy and intensity of speculative thought, and exhibiting
on the one hand partial or entire unbelief, or
on the other a more systematic expression of Christian
doctrine; epochs in fact of temporary peril, of permanent
gain.<a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the first of these periods, extending from the
second to the fourth century, Christianity is seen in
antagonism with forms of Greek or Eastern philosophy,
and the existence is apparent of different forms of scepticism
or reason used in attack. The very attempt of
the Alexandrian school of theology to adjust the mysteries
of Christianity and of the Bible to speculative
thought, by a well meant but extravagant use of allegorical
interpretation, is itself a witness of the presence
or pressure of free thought. The less violent of the two
forms of unbelief is seen in the Gnostics, the rationalists
of the early Church, who summoned Christianity to the
bar of philosophy, and desired to appropriate the portion
of its teachings which approved itself to their
eclectic tastes; the more violent kind in the rejection
of Christianity as an imposture, or in the attempts made
to refer its origin to psychological causes, on the part
of the early enemies of Christianity, Celsus and Julian,
prototypes of the positive unbelievers of later times.
The Greek theology, which embodied the dogmatic
statements in which the Christian Church under the
action of controversy gave explicit expression to its
implicit belief, is the example of the stimulus which the
pressure of free thought gave to the use of reason in
defence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As we pass down the course of European history,
the Pagan literature which had suggested the first attack
disappears: but as soon as the elements of civilization,
which survived the deluge that overwhelmed the Roman
empire, had been sufficiently consolidated to allow of
the renewal of speculation, a repetition of the contest
may be observed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The revived study of the Greek philosophers, and of
their Arabic commentators introduced from the Moorish
universities of Spain, with the consequent rise of the
scholastic philosophy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
furnished material for a renewal of the struggle
of reason against authority, a second crisis in the history
of the Church. The history of it becomes complicated
by the circumstance that free thought, in the process of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
disintegrating the body of authoritative teaching, now
began to assume on several occasions a new shape, a
kind of incipient Protestantism. Doubting neither
Christianity nor the Bible, it is seen to challenge
merely that part of the actual religion which, as it conceived,
had insinuated itself from human sources in the
lapse of ages. Accordingly, the critical independence
of Nominalism, in a mind like that of Abélard, represents
the destructive action of free thought, partly as
early Protestantism, partly as scepticism; while the
series of noted Realists, of which Aquinas is an example,
that tried anew to adjust faith to science, and thus
created the Latin theology, represents the defensive
action of reason. The imparting scientific definition to
the immemorial doctrines of the Church constituted the
defence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the later middle ages, however, philosophy gradually
succeeded in emancipating itself so entirely from
theology, that when the Renaissance came, and a large
body of heathen thought was introduced into the current
of European life by means of ancient literature, a
third crisis occurred. The independence passed into
open revolt, and, fostered by political confusion and
material luxury, expressed itself in a literature of unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mental awakening which had commenced in
art and extended to literature paved the way for a spiritual
awakening. The Reformation itself, though the
product of a deep consciousness of spiritual need, an
emancipation of soul as well as mind, is nevertheless a
special instance of the same dissolution of mediæval life,
and must therefore be regarded as belonging to the
same general movement of free thought, though not to
that sceptical form of it which comes within the field of
our investigation. For Protestantism, though it be
scepticism in respect of the authority of the traditional
teaching of the Church, yet reposes implicitly on an
outward authority revealed in the sacred books of holy
Scripture, and restricts the exercise of freedom within
the limits prescribed by this authority; whereas scepticism
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
proper is an insurrection against the outward authority
or truth of the inspired books, and reposes on
the unrevealed, either on consciousness or on science.
The one is analogous to a school of art which desires to
reform itself by the use of ancient models; the other to
one which professes to return to an unassisted study of
nature. The spiritual earnestness which characterized
the Reformation prevented the changes in religious belief
from developing into scepticism proper; and the
theology of the Reformation is accordingly an example
of defence and reconstruction as well as of revulsion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During the century which followed, mental activity
found employment in other channels in connexion with
the political struggles which resulted from the religious
changes. But the seventeenth age was another of those
epochs which form crises in the history of the human
mind. The reconstruction at that time of the methods
on which science depends, by Bacon from the empirical
side, by Descartes from the intellectual, created as great
a revolution in knowledge as the Renaissance had produced
in literature or the Reformation in religion; and
a body of materials was presented from which philosophers
ventured to criticise the Bible and the dogmatic
teaching of the Church. This fourth great period of
free thought, which extends to the present time, has
been marked by more striking events than former ones.<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a>
Though the movement relates to a similar sphere, the
history is rendered more complex by union with literature,
and connexion as cause or effect with social
changes, as well as by the reciprocal operation of its
influence in different countries. Language, which is
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
always a record of opinion, popular or scientific,<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> classifies
the forms of this last great movement of free thought
under three names, viz. Deism in England in the early
part of the eighteenth century; Infidelity in France in
the latter part of it; and Rationalism in Germany in
the nineteenth; movements which exhibit characteristics
respectively of the three nations, and of their intellectual
and general history. English Deism, the product
of the reasoning spirit which was stimulated by
political events, directed itself against the special revelation
of Christianity from the stand-point of the religion
of natural reason, and ran a course parallel
with the gradual emancipation of the individual from
the power of the state. French infidelity, breathing the
spirit of materialist philosophy, halted not till it brought
its devotees even to atheism, and mingled itself with
the great movements of political revolution, which ultimately
reconstituted French society. German Rationalism,
empirical or spiritual,<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> in two parallel developments,
the philosophical and the literary, neither coldly
denied Christianity with the practical doubts of the
English deists, nor flippantly denounced it as imposture
with the trenchant and undiscriminating logic of the
French infidels; but appreciating its beauty with the
freshness of a poetical genius, and regarding it as one
phase of the religious consciousness, endeavoured, by
means of the methods employed in secular learning, to
collect the precious ideas of eternal truth to which
Christianity seemed to it to give expression, and by
means of speculative criticism to exhibit the literary and
psychological causes which it supposed had overlaid
them with error.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor has the activity of reason used in defence been
less manifest in these later movements. The great
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
works on the Christian evidences are the witness to its
presence; and the deeper and truer appreciation of
Christianity now shown in every country, and the increasing
interest felt in religion, are the indirect effect,
under the guidance of divine Providence, of the stirring
of the religious apprehension by controversy.<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have thus at once exhibited the province which
will be hereafter investigated in detail, and stated the
general law observable in the conflict between free
thought and Christianity. The type reappears, perpetuated
by the fixity of mind, though the form varies
under the force of circumstances. Christianity being
stationary and authoritative, thought progressive and
independent, the causes which stimulate the restlessness
of the latter interrupt the harmony which ordinarily
exists between belief and knowledge, and produce crises
during which religion is re-examined. Disorganization
is the temporary result; theological advance the subsequent.
Whatever is evil is eliminated in the conflict;
whatever is good is retained. Under the overruling of
a beneficent Providence, antagonism is made the law
of human progress.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The restriction of our inquiry to the consideration of
the free action of reason will cause our attention to be
almost entirely confined to the operation of reason in
its attack on Christianity, to the neglect of the evidences
which the other office of it has presented in defence;
and will also exclude altogether the study of struggles,
where the opposition to Christianity has rested on an
appeal to the authority of rival sacred books; such for
example as the conflict with rival religions like the Jewish
(<a href="#Note_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>) or Mahometan (<a href="#Note_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>);
as well as of heresies which,
like the Socinian (<a href="#Note_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>), claim, however unjustly, to rest on
the authority of the Christian revelation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The law thus sketched of this struggle needs fuller
explanation. We must employ a more exact analysis
to gain a conception of the causes which have operated
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
at different periods to make free thought develop into
unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be obvious that the causes must depend,
either upon the nature of the Christian religion, which
is the subject, or of the mind of man, which is the agent
of attack. The former were touched upon in the opening
remarks of this lecture, and may be reconsidered
hereafter;<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a>
but it is necessary to gain a general view of
the latter before treating them in their application in
future lectures.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These causes, so far as they are spiritual and disconnected
from admixture with political circumstances,
may be stated to be of two kinds, viz. intellectual and
moral; the intellectual explaining the types of thought,
the moral the motives which have from time to time
existed.<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> The actions, and generally the
opinions of a human being, are the complex result arising from the
union of both. Yet the two elements, though closely
intertwined in a concrete instance, can be apprehended
separately as objects of abstract thought; and the forms
of manifestation and mode of operation peculiar to each
can be separately traced.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In a history of thought, the antagonism created by
the intellect rather than by the heart seems the more
appropriate subject of study, and will be almost exclusively
considered in these lectures. Nevertheless a
brief analysis must be here given of the mode in which
the moral is united with the intellectual in the formation
of opinions. This is the more necessary, lest we should
seem to commit the mistake of ignoring the existence
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
or importance of the emotional element, if the restriction
of our point of view to the intellectual should hereafter
prevent frequent references to it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The influence of the moral causes in generating
doubt, though sometimes exaggerated, is nevertheless
real. Psychological analysis shows that the emotions
operate immediately on the will, and the will on the
intellect. Consequently the emotion of dislike is able
through the will to prejudice the judgment, and cause
disbelief of a doctrine against which it is directed.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a>
Nor can we doubt that experience confirms the fact.
Though we must not rashly judge our neighbour, nor
attempt to measure in any particular mind the precise
amount of doubt which is due to moral causes, yet it is
evident that where a freethinker is a man of immoral
or unspiritual life, whose interests incline him to disbelieve
in the reality of Christianity, his arguments may
reasonably be suspected to be suggested by sins of character,
and by dislike to the moral standard of the Christian
religion, and, though not on this account necessarily
undeserving of attention, must be watched at every
point with caution, in order that the emotional may be
eliminated from the intellectual causes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is also a peculiarity belonging to the kind of evidence
on which religion rests for proof, that it offers an
opportunity for the subtle influence of moral causes,
where at first sight intellectual might seem alone to
act. For the evidence of religion is probable, not demonstrative;
and it is the property of probable evidence
that the character and experience determine the comparative
weight which the mind assigns in it to the
premises.<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>
In demonstrative evidence there is no opportunity
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
for the intrusion of emotion; but in probable
reasoning the judgment ultimately formed by the mind
depends often as much upon the antecedent presumptions
brought to the investigation of the subject, as
upon the actual proofs presented; the state of feeling
causing a variation in the force with which a proposition
commends itself to the mind at different times.
The very subtlety of this influence, which requires careful
analysis for its detection, causes it to be overlooked.
Accordingly, in a subject like religion, the emotions
may secretly insinuate themselves in the preliminary
step of determining the weight due to the premises,
even where the final process of inference is purely intellectual.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We can select illustrations of this view of the subtlety
of the operation of prejudice from instances of a
kind unlike the one previously named; in which it will
be seen that the disinclination of the inquirer to accept
Christianity has not arisen primarily from the obstacle
caused by the enmity of his own carnal heart, but from
antipathy toward the moral character of those who have
professed the Christian faith.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Who can doubt, that the corrupt lives of Christians
in the later centuries of the middle ages, the avarice of
the Avignon popes, the selfishness shown in the great
schism, the simony and nepotism of the Roman court
of the fifteenth century, excited disgust and hatred toward
Christianity in the hearts of the literary men of the
Renaissance, which disqualified them for the reception
of the Christian evidences; or that the social disaffection
in the last century in France incensed the mind
against the Church that supported alleged public
abuses,<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> until it blinded a Voltaire from seeing any
goodness in Christianity; or that the religious intolerance
shown within the present century by the ecclesiastical
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
power in Italy drove a Leopardi<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> and a Bini<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> into
doubt; or that the sense of supposed personal wrong
and social isolation deepened the unbelief of Shelley<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>
and of Heinrich Heine?<a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> Whatever other motives
may have operated in these respective cases, the prejudices
which arose from the causes just named, doubtless
created an antecedent impression against religion, which
impeded the lending an unbiassed ear to its evidence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subtlety of the influence in these instances
makes them the more instructive. If, as we contemplate
them, our sympathies are so far enlisted on the
side of the doubters that it becomes necessary to check
ourselves in exculpating them, by the consideration that
they were responsible for failing to separate the essential
truth of Christianity from the accidental abuse of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
it shown in the lives of its professors, we can imagine
so much the more clearly, how great was the danger to
these doubters themselves of omitting the introspection
of their own characters necessary for detecting the prejudice
which actually seemed to have conscience on its
side; and can realize more vividly from these instances
the secrecy and intense subtlety of the influence of the
feelings in the formation of doubt, and infer the necessity
of most careful attention for its discovery in others,
and watchfulness in detecting it in our own hearts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are other cases of doubt, however, where the
influence of the emotional element, if it operates at all,
is reduced to a minimum, and the cause accordingly
seems wholly intellectual. This may happen when the
previous convictions of the mind are shaken by the
knowledge of some fact newly brought before its notice;
such as the apparent conflict between the Hebrew
record of a universal deluge<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> and the negative evidence
of geology as to its non-occurrence; or the historical
discrepancies between the books of Kings and Chronicles,<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a>
or the varying accounts of the genealogy and resurrection
of Christ. A doubt purely intellectual in its
origin might also arise, as we know was the case with
the pious Bengel,<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> in consequence of perceiving the variety
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of readings in the sacred text; or, as in many of
the German critics, from the difficulty created by the
long habit of examining the classical legends and myths,
in satisfying themselves about the reasons why similar
criticism should not be extended to the early national
literature of the Hebrews. Causes of doubt like these,
which spring from the advance of knowledge, necessarily
belong primarily to the intellectual region. The
intellect is the cause and not merely the condition of
them. But there is room even here for an emotional
element; and the state of heart may be tested by noticing
whether the mind gladly and proudly grasps at
them or thoughtfully weighs them with serious effort to
discover the truth. The moral causes may reinforce or
may check the intellectual: but the distinctness of the
two classes is apparent. Though co-existing and interlocked,
they may be made subjects of independent
study.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The preceding analysis of the relations of the moral
and intellectual facilities in the formation of religious
opinions might enable us to criticise the ethical inferences
drawn in reference to man's responsibility for his
belief. Those who think that our characters, moral
and intellectual, are formed for us by circumstances,
are consistent in denying or depreciating responsibility.<a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a>
There is a danger however among Christian writers of
falling into the opposite error, of dwelling so entirely
on the moral causes, in forgetfulness of the intellectual,
as to teach not only that unbelief of the Christian religion
is sin, (which few would dispute,) but that even
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
transient doubt of it is sinful; and thus to repel unbelievers
by imputing to them motives of which their consciences
acquit them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A truth however is contained in this opinion, though
obscured by being stated with exaggeration, inasmuch
as the fact is overlooked that doubts may be of many
different kinds. Sinfulness cannot, for example, be imputed
to the mere scepticism of inquiry, the healthy
critical investigation of methods or results; nor to the
scepticism of despair, which, hopeless of finding truth,
takes up a reactionary and mystical attitude;<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> nor to
the cases (if such can ever be,) of painful doubt, perhaps
occasionally even of partial unbelief, which are produced
exclusively by intellectual causes, without admixture
of moral ones. This variety of form should create
caution in measuring the degree of sinfulness involved
in individual cases of doubt. Yet the inclination to
condemn in such instances contains the fundamental
truth that the moral causes are generally so intertwined
with the intellectual in the assumption of data, if not in
the process of inference, that there is a ground for fearing
that the fault may be one of will, not of intellect,
even though undetected by the sceptic himself. And a
conscientious mind will learn the practical lesson of
exercising the most careful self-examination in reference
to its doubts, and especially will use the utmost
caution not to communicate them needlessly to others.
The Hebrew Psalmist, instead of telling his painful
misgivings, harboured them in God's presence until he
found the solution.<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a>
The delicacy exhibited in forbearing
unnecessarily to shake the faith of others is a measure
of the disinterestedness of the doubter. <span class="tei tei-q">“If I say,
I will speak thus; behold I should offend against the
generation of thy children.”</span>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will enable us to estimate the manner
and degree in which the emotions may, consciously
or unconsciously, influence the operations of the intellect
in reference to religion; and will clear the way for
the statement of that which is to form the special subject
of study in these lectures, the nature and mode of
operation of the intellectual causes, and the forms of free
thought in religion to which they may give rise. This
branch is frequently neglected, because satisfying the
intellect rather than the heart, indicating tendencies
rather than affording means to pronounce judgment on
individuals; yet it admits of greater certainty, and will
perhaps in some respects be found to be not less full of
instruction, than the other.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We must distinctly apprehend what is here intended
by the term <span class="tei tei-q">“intellectual cause,”</span> when applied to a
series of phenomena like sceptical opinions. It does
not merely denote the antecedent ideas which form
previous links in the same chain of thought: these are
sufficiently revealed by the chronicle which records the
series. Nor does it mean the uniformity of method
according to which the mind is observed to act at successive
intervals: this is the law or formula, the existence
of which has been already indicated.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> But we
intend by <span class="tei tei-q">“cause”</span> two things; either the sources of
knowledge which have from age to age thrown their
materials into the stream of thought, and compelled
reason to re-investigate religion and try to harmonize
the new knowledge with the old beliefs; or else the
ultimate intellectual grounds or tests of truth on which
the decision in such cases has been based, the most general
types of thought into which the forms of doubt
can be analysed. The problem is this:—Given, these
two terms: on the one hand the series of opinions
known as the history of free thought in religion; on
the other the uniformity of mode in which reason has
operated. Interpolate two steps to connect them together,
which will show respectively the materials of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
knowledge which reason at successive moments brought
to bear on religion, and the ultimate standards of truth
which it adopted in applying this material to it. It is
the attempt to supply the answer to this problem that
will give organic unity to these lectures.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A few words will suffice in reference to the former
of these two subjects, inasmuch as it has already been
described to some extent,<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> and will be made clear in
the course of the history. The branches of knowledge
with which the movements of free thought in religion
are connected, are chiefly literary criticism and science.
The one addresses itself to the record of the revelation;
the other to the matter contained in the record. Criticism,
when it gains canons of evidence for examining
secular literature, applies them to the sacred books;
directing itself in its lower<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> form to the variations in
their text; in its higher<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a>
to their genuineness and authenticity.
Science, physical or metaphysical, addresses
itself to the question of the credibility of their contents.
In its physical form, when it has reduced the world to
its true position in the universe of space, human history
in the cycles of time, and the human race in the world
of organic life, it compares these discoveries with the
view of the universe and of the physical history of the
planet contained in the sacred literature; or it examines
the Christian doctrine of miraculous interposition
and special providence by the light of its gradually
increasing conviction of the uniformity of nature. In
its moral and metaphysical forms, science examines
such subjects as the moral history of the Hebrew theocracy;
or ponders reverently over the mystery of the
divine scheme of redemption, and the teaching which
scripture supplies on the deepest problems of speculation,
the relations of Deity to the universe, the act of
creation, the nature of evil, and the administration of
moral providence.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is another mode, however, in which speculative
philosophy has operated, which needs fuller explanation.
It has not merely, like the other sciences, suggested
results which have seemed to clash with Christianity,
but has supplied the ultimate grounds of proof
to which appeal has consciously been made, or which
have been unconsciously assumed:—the ultimate types
of thought which have manifested themselves in the
struggle.<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be useful, before exhibiting this kind of influence
in reference to religion, to illustrate its character
by selecting an instance from some region of thought
where its effects would be least suspected. The example
shall be taken from the history of literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If we compare three poets selected from the last
three centuries, the contrast will exhibit at once the
change which has taken place in the literary spirit and
standard of judgment, and the correspondence of the
change with fluctuations in the predominant philosophy
of the time.—If we commence with the author of the
Paradise Lost, we listen to the last echo of the poetry
which had belonged to the great outburst of mind of
the earlier part of the seventeenth century, and of the
faith in the supernatural which had characterized Puritanism.
His philosophy is Hebrew: he hesitates not
to interpret the divine counsels; but it is by the supposed
light of revelation. Doubt is unknown to him.
The anthropomorphic conception of Deity prevails.
Material nature is the instrument of God's personal
providence for the objects of His care.—But if we pass
to the author of the Essay on Man, the revolution which
has given artistic precision to the form is not more observable
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
than the indications of a philosophy which has
chilled the spiritual faculties. The supernatural is
gone. Nature is a vast machine which moves by fixed
laws impressed upon it by a Creator. The soul feels
chilled with the desolation of a universe wherein it
cannot reach forth by prayer to a loving Father.
Scripture is displaced by science. Doubt has passed
into unbelief. The universe is viewed by the cold materialism
which arraigns spiritual subjects at the bar of
sense.—If now we turn to the work consecrated by the
great living poet to the memory of his early friend, we
find ourselves in contact with a meditative soul, separated
from the age just named by a complete intellectual
chasm; whose spiritual perceptions reflect a
philosophy which expresses the sorrows and doubts of a
cultivated mind of the present day, <span class="tei tei-q">“perplext in faith
but not in deeds.”</span><a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> The material has become transfigured
into the spiritual. The objective has been replaced
by the subjective. Nature is studied, as in
Pope, without the assumption of a revelation; but it is
no longer regarded as a machine conducted by material
laws: it is a motive soul which embodies God's presence;
a mystery to be felt, not understood. God is not
afar off, so that we cannot reach Him: He is so nigh,
that His omnipresence seems to obscure His personality.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These instances will illustrate the difference which
philosophy produces in the classes of ideas in which the
mind of an age is formed. In Milton, the appeal is
made to the revelation of God in the Book; in Pope,
to the revelation in Nature; in the living poet, to the
revelation in man's soul, the type of the infinite Spirit
and interpreter of God's universe and God's book.<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is an analysis of a similar kind which we must
conduct in reference to sceptical opinions. The influence
of the first of the two classes of intellectual causes
above named,<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a>
viz. the various forms of knowledge
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
there described, could not exist unobserved, for they are
present from time to time as rival doctrines in contest
with Christianity; but the kind of influence of which
we now treat, which relates to the grounds of belief on
which a judgment is consciously or unconsciously
formed, is more subtle, and requires analysis for its detection.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We must briefly explain its nature, and illustrate its
influence on religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Metaphysical science is usually divided into two
branches; of which one examines the objects known,
the other the human mind, that is the organ of knowledge. (<a href="#Note_7" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>)
When Psychology has finished its study of
the structure and functions of the mind, it supplies the
means for drawing inferences in reply to a question
which admits of a twofold aspect, viz. which of the
mental faculties,—sense, reason, feeling, furnishes the
origin of knowledge; and which is the supreme test of
truth? These two questions form the subjective or
Psychological branch of Metaphysics. According to the
answer thus obtained we deduce a corollary in reference
to the objective side. We ask what information is
afforded by these mental faculties in respect to the nature
or attributes of the objects known,—matter, mind,
God, duty. The answer to this question is the branch
commonly called the Ontological. The one inquiry
treats of the tests of knowledge, the other of the nature
of being. The combination of the two furnishes the
answer on its two sides, internally and externally, to
the question, What is truth?
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The right application of them to the subject of religion
would give a philosophy of religion; either objectively
by the process of constructing a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">theodicée</span></span> or
theory to reconcile reason and faith; or subjectively,
by separating their provinces by means of such an inquiry
into the functions of the religious faculty, and the
nature of the truths apprehended by it, as might furnish
criteria to determine the amount that is to be appropriated
respectively from our own consciousness and
from external authority.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The influence of the Ontological branch of the inquiry
in producing a struggle with Christianity, has
been already included under the difficulties previously
named, which are created by the growth of the various
sciences.<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> It is the influence of the Psychological
branch that we are now illustrating, by showing that
the various theories in respect of it give their type to
various forms of belief and doubt.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The well-known threefold distribution of the faculties
that form the ultimate grounds of conviction will
suffice for our purpose: viz., sensational consciousness
revealing to us the world of matter; intuitive reason
that of mind; and feeling that of emotion.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> These
are the forms of consciousness which supply the material
from which the reflective powers draw inferences
and construct systems.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is easy to exhibit the mental character which each
would have a tendency to generate when applied to a
special subject like religion, natural or revealed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If the eye of sense be the sole guide in looking
around on nature, we discover only a universe of brute
matter, phenomena linked together in uniform succession
of antecedents and consequents. Mind becomes
only a higher form of matter. Sin loses its poignancy.
Immortality disappears. God exists not, except as a
personification of the Cosmos. Materialism, atheism,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
fatalism, are the ultimate results which are proved by
logic and history<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> to follow from this extreme
view. The idea of spirit cannot be reached by it. For if some
other form of experience than the sensitive be regarded
as the origin of knowledge; if a nobler view be forced
on us by the very inability even to express nature's
phenomena without superadding spiritual qualities; if
regularity of succession<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> suggest the idea of order and
purpose and mind; if adaptation suggest the idea of
morality; if movement suggest the idea of form and
will; if will suggest the idea of personality; if the idea
of the Cosmos suggest unity, and thus we mount up,
step by step, to the conception of a God, possessing
unity, intelligence, will, character, we really transfer
into the sphere of nature ideas taken from another region
of being, viz., from our consciousness of ourselves,
our consciousness of spirit. It is mental association
that links these ideas to those of sense, and gives to a
sensational philosophy properties not its own. If however
sensational experience can by any means arrive at
the notion of natural religion; yet it will find a difficulty,
created by its belief of the uniformity of nature,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in taking the further step of admitting the miraculous
interference which gives birth to revealed: and even if
this difficulty should be surmounted, the disinclination
to the supernatural would nevertheless have a tendency
to obliterate mystery by empirical rationalism, and to
reduce piety to morality, morality to expedience,<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> the
church to a political institution, religion to a ritual system,
and its evidence to external historic testimony.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The rival system of proof founded in intuitive consciousness
is however not free from danger. A difference
occurs, according as this endowment is regarded as
merely revealing the facts of our own inner experience,
or on the other hand as possessing a power to apprehend
God positively, and spirit to spirit.<a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> The result of the
former belief would be indeed an ethical religion, compared
with the political one just described. If it did
not rise from the law to the law-giver, it would at least
present morality as a law obligatory on man by his
mental structure, independently of the consideration of
reward and punishment. The ideas of God, duty,
immortality, would be established as a necessity of
thought, if not as matters of objective fact. Yet religion
would be rather rational than supernatural; obedience
to duty instead of communion with Deity; and
unless the mind can find ground for a belief in God and
the divine attributes through some other faculty, the
idealism must destroy the evidence of revealed religion.
Or at least, if the mind admit its truth, it must renounce
the right to criticise the material of that which
it confesses to be beyond the limits of its own consciousness;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and thus, by abdicating its natural powers, blindly
submit to external authority, and accept belief as the
refuge from its own Pyrrhonism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If, on the other hand, instead of regarding all attempts
to pass beyond logical forms of thought to be
mental impotence, the mind follows its own instincts,
and, relying upon the same natural realism which justifies
its belief in the immediate character of its sensitive
perceptions, ventures to depend with equal firmness on
the reality of its intuitional consciousness, religion,
natural or revealed, wears another aspect; and both the
advantages and the dangers of such a view are widely different.<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a>
The soul no longer regards the landscape to be
a scene painted on the windows of its prison-house, a
subjective limit to its perceptions, but not speculatively
true; but it wanders forth from its cell unfettered
into the universe around. God is no longer an inference
from final causes, nor a principle of thought. He
is the living God, a real personal spirit with whom the
soul is permitted to hold direct communion. Providence
becomes the act of a personal agent. Religion is
the worship in spirit. Sin is seen in its heinousness.
Prayer is justified as a reality, as the breathing of the
human soul for communion with its infinite Parent (<a href="#Note_8" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>).
And by the light of this intuition, God, nature, and
man, look changed. Nature is no longer a physical
engine; man no longer a moral machine. Material
nature becomes the regular expression of a personal
fixed will; Miracle the direct interposition of a personal
free will. Revelation is probable, as the voice of God's
mercy to the child of His love. Inspiration becomes
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
possible, for the intuitional consciousness seems adapted
to be used by divine Providence as its instrument.<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But the type of mind created by the use of intuition
as a test of truth is rarely alone. It is cognate to, if it
is not connected with, that produced by the third of
the above-named tests, feeling. The emotions, according
to a law of spiritual supply and demand, suggest
the reality of the objects toward which they are aspirations.
The longing for help, the feeling of dependence,
is the justification of prayer; the sense of remorse is
the witness to divine judgment; the consciousness of
penitence is the ground for hope in God's merciful interference;
the ineradicable sense of guilt is the eternal
witness to the need of atonement; the instinct for immortality
is the pledge of a future life.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Yet the use of these tests of intuition and feeling in
religion, though possessing these advantages, has dangers.
If the feelings, instead of being used to reinforce
or check the other faculties, be relied upon as sole
arbiters; especially if they be linked with the imagination
instead of the intuition; they may conduct to mysticism
and superstition by the very vividness of their
perception of the supernatural.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a>
Likewise the intuitive
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
faculty, if it be regarded as giving a noble grasp over
the fact of God as an infinite Spirit, may cause the
mind to relax its hold on the idea of the Divine Personality,
and fall into Pantheism, and identify God with
the universe, not by degrading spirit to matter, but by
elevating matter to spirit.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> Or, instead of allowing
experience and revelation to develop into conceptions
of the fundamental truth whose existence it perceives, it
may attempt to develop a religion wholly
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>,<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> and
assert its right to create as well as to verify. Also,
when applying itself to revealed religion, this type of
thought necessarily makes its last appeal to inward insight.
It cannot, like sensationalism, or subjective
idealism, admit its own impotence, and receive on authority
a revelation, the contents of which it ventures
not to criticise. It must always appropriate that which
it is to believe. Accordingly it will have a tendency to
render religion subjective in its character, uncertain in
its doctrines, individual in its constitution.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These general remarks, every one of which admits
of historic exemplification,<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> will suffice to illustrate the
kind of influence exercised by these respective tests of
truth in forming the judgment or moulding the character
in relation to the belief or disbelief of natural and
revealed religion. These effects are not adduced as the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
necessary results but as the ordinary tendencies of these
respective theories. The mind frequently stops short
of the conclusions logically deducible from its own principles.
To measure precisely the effect of each view
would be impossible. In mental science analysis must
be qualitative, not quantitative.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will hardly be expected that we should arbitrate
among these theories, inasmuch as our purpose is not to
test the comparative truthfulness of metaphysical opinions,
but to refer sceptical opinions in religion to their
true scientific and metaphysical parentage. Truth is
probably to be found in a selection from all; and historical
investigation is the chief means of discovering the
mode of conducting the process. It is at least certain,
that if history be the form which science necessarily
takes in the study of that which is subject to laws of
life and organic growth, it must be the preliminary inquiry
in any investigation in reference to mental phenomena.
The history of philosophy must be the approach
to philosophy.<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> The great problem of philosophy
is method; and if there be a hope that the true
method can ever be found it must be by uniting the
historical analysis of the development of the universal
mind with the psychological analysis of the individual.
The history of thought indicates not only fact but truth;
not only shows what has been, but, by exhibiting the
proportions which different faculties contribute toward
the construction of truth, and indicating tendencies as
well as results, prepares materials to be collated with
the decision previously made by mental and moral
science concerning the question of what ought to be (<a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>).
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A definite conviction on this metaphysical inquiry
seems perhaps to be involved in the very idea of criticism,
and necessary for drawing the moral from the history;
yet the independence of our historical inquiry
ought to be sacrificed as little as possible to illustrate a
foregone conclusion. It will be more satisfactory to
present the evidence for a verdict without undue advocacy
of a side in the metaphysical controversy.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The execution of this design of analysing the intellectual
causes of unbelief will necessarily involve to
some extent a biographical treatment of the subject,
both for theoretical and practical reasons, to discover
truth and to derive instruction. This is so evident in
the history of action, that there is a danger at the present
time lest history should lose the general in the individual,
and descend from the rank of science to mere
biography.<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> The deeper insight which is gradually
obtained into the complexity of nature, together with
the fuller conviction of human freedom, is causing
artistic portraiture and ethical analysis to be substituted
for historical generalization. The same method however
applies to the region of thought as well as will.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thought, as an intellectual product, can indeed be
studied apart from the mind that creates it, and can be
treated by history as a material fact subject to the fixed
succession of natural laws. But the exclusive use of such
a method, at least in any other subject of study than
that of the results of physical discovery, must be defective,
even independently of the question of the action of
free will, unless the thoughts which are the object of
study be also connected with the personality of the
thinker who produces them. His external biography is
generally unimportant, save when the individual character
may have impressed itself upon public events;
but the internal portraiture, the growth of soul as
known by psychological analysis, is the very instrument
for understanding the expression of it in life or in
literature.<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> It is requisite to know the mental bias of
a writer, whether it be practical, imaginative or reflective;
to see the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">idola specus</span></span> which influenced him, the
action of circumstances upon his character, and the reaction
of his character upon circumstances; before we
can gain the clue to the interpretation of his works.
But if we wish further to derive moral instruction from
him, the biographical mode of study becomes even more
necessary. For the notion of freedom as the ground of
responsibility is now superadded; and the story of his
life is the sole means for such an apprehension of the
causes of his heart-struggles as shall enable us to take
the gauge of his moral character, and appropriate the
lessons derivable from the study of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Indeed biographical notices, if they could be extended
compatibly with the compass of the subject,
would be the most instructive and vivid mode of presenting
alike the facts relating to scepticism and their
interpretation. Such memoirs are not wanting, and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
are among the most touching in literature. The sketch
which Strauss has given of his early friend and fellow
student Maerklin,<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a>
gradually surrendering one cherished
truth after another, until he doubted all but
the law of conscience; then devoting himself in the
strength of it with unflinching industry to education;
until at last he died in the dark, without belief in God
or hope, cheered only by the consciousness of having
tried to find truth and do his duty:—the sad tale, told
by two remarkable biographers, of Sterling,<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> doubting,
renouncing the ministry, yet thirsting for truth, and at
last solacing himself in death by the hopes offered by
the Bible, to the eternal truths of which his doubting
heart had always clung:—the memoir of the adopted
son of our own university, Blanco White,<a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> a mind in
which faith and doubt were perpetually waging war,
till the grave closed over his truth-searching and care-worn
spirit:—the confessions of one of our own sons of
the successive <span class="tei tei-q">“phases of faith”</span><a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> through which his
soul passed from evangelical Christianity to a spiritual
Deism, a record of heart-struggles which takes its place
among the pathetic works of autobiography, where individuals
have unveiled their inner life for the instruction
of their fellow-men:—all these are instances where
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the great moral and spiritual problems that belong to
the condition of our race may be seen embodied in the
sorrowful experience of individuals. They are instances
of rare value for psychological study in reference
to the history of doubt; sad beacons of warning
and of guidance. Accordingly, in the history of free
thought we must not altogether neglect the spiritual
biography of the doubter, though only able to indicate
it by a few touches; by an etching, not a photograph.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now added to the explanation before given
of the province of our inquiry, and of the law of the
action of free thought on religion, an account of the
moral and intellectual causes which operate in the history
of unbelief, and have sufficiently explained the
mode in which the subject will be treated.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The use of the inquiry will, it is hoped, be apparent
both in its theoretical and practical relations. It is
designed to have an intellectual value not only as instruction
but as argument. The tendency of it will be
in some degree polemical as well as didactic, refuting
error by analysing it into its causes, repelling present
attacks by studying the history of former ones.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is one peculiar advantage belonging to the philosophical
investigation of the history of thought, that
even the odious becomes valuable as an object of study,
the pathology of the soul as well as its normal action.
Philosophy takes cognisance of error as well as of truth,
inasmuch as it derives materials from both for discovering
a theory of the grounds of belief and disbelief.
Hence it follows that the study of the natural history
of doubt combined with the literary, if it be the means
of affording an explanation of a large class of facts relating
to the religious history of man and the sphere of
the remedial operations of Christ's church, will have a
practical value as well as speculative.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such an inquiry, if it be directed, as in the present
lectures, to the analysis of the intellectual rather than
the emotional element of unbelief, as being that which
has been less generally and less fully explored, will
require to be supplemented by a constant reference to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the intermixture of the other element, and the consequent
necessity of taking account of the latter in estimating
the whole phenomenon of doubt. But within
its own sphere it will have a practical and polemical
value, if the course of the investigation shall show that
the various forms of unbelief, when studied from the
intellectual side, are corollaries from certain metaphysical
or critical systems. The analysis itself will have
indirectly the force of an argument. The discovery of
the causes of a disease contains the germ of the cure.
Error is refuted when it is referred to the causes which
produce it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor will the practical value of the inquiry be restricted
to its use as a page in the spiritual history of
the human mind, but will belong to it also as a chapter
in the history of the church. For even if in the study
of the contest our attention be almost wholly restricted
to the movements of one of the two belligerents, and
only occasionally directed to the evidences on which the
faith of the church in various crises reposed, and by
which it tried to repel the invader, yet the knowledge
of the scheme of attack cannot fail to be a valuable
accompaniment to the study of the defence.<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thus the natural history of doubt, viewed as a chapter
of human history, like the chapter of physiology
which studies a disease, will point indirectly to the
cure, or at least to the mode of avoiding the causes
which induce the disease; while the literary history of
it, viewed as a chapter of church history, will contribute
the results of experience to train the Christian
combatant.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subject will however not only have an intellectual
value in being at once didactic and polemical,
offering an explanation of the causes of unbelief and
furnishing hints for their removal; but it cannot fail
also to possess a moral value in reference to the conscience
and heart of the disputant, in teaching the
lesson of mercy towards the unbeliever, and deep pity
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
for the heart wounded with doubts. An intelligent acquaintance
with the many phases of history operates like
foreign travel in widening the sympathies; and increase
of knowledge creates the moderation which gains the
victory through attracting an enemy instead of repelling
him. Bigotry is founded on ignorance and fear.
True learning is temperate, because discriminating;
forbearing, because courageous. If we place ourselves
in the position of an opponent, and try candidly to understand
the process by which he was led to form his
opinions, indignation will subside into pity, and enmity
into grief: the hatred will be reserved for the sin, not
for the sinner; and the servant of Jesus Christ will
thus catch in some humble measure the forbearing love
which his divine Master showed to the first doubting
disciple.<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a>
As the sight of suffering in an enemy
changes the feeling of anger into pity, so the study of a
series of spiritual struggles makes us see in an opponent,
not an enemy to be crushed, but a brother to be
won. The utility of a historic treatment of doubt is
suggested by moral as well as intellectual grounds.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I hope therefore that if I follow the example of some
of my predecessors,<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a>
in giving a course of lectures historical
rather than polemical, evincing the critic rather
than the advocate, seeking for truth rather than victory,
analysing processes of evidence rather than refuting
results, my humble contribution toward the
knowledge of the argument of the Christian evidences
will be considered to come fairly within the design
intended by the founder of the lecture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may well be believed that in the execution of so
large a scheme I have felt almost overwhelmed under a
painful sense of its difficulty. If even I may venture
to hope that a conscientious study in most cases of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
original sources of information may save me from literary
mistakes, yet there is a danger lest the size of the
subject should preclude the possibility of constant clearness;
or lest the very analysis of the errors of the systems
named, may produce a painful, if not an injurious,
impression. In an age too of controversy, those who
speak on difficult questions incur a new danger, of being
misunderstood from the sensitiveness with which earnest
men not unreasonably watch them. The attitude
of suspicion may cause impartiality to be regarded as
indifference to truth, fairness as sympathy with error.
I am not ashamed therefore to confess, that under the
oppressive sense of these various feelings I have been
wont to go for help to the only source where the burdened
heart can find consolation; and have sought, in
the communion with the Father of spirits which prayer
opens to the humblest, a temper of candour, of reverence,
and of the love of truth. In this spirit I have
made my studies; and what I have thus learned I shall
teach.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a>
<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a>
<a name="Lecture_II" id="Lecture_II" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture II. The Literary Opposition of Heathens Against Christianity
in the Early Ages.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
1 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Cor.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> i. 22-24.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The Greeks seek after wisdom; but we preach Christ crucified; unto
the Greeks foolishness; but unto them which are called, Christ the wisdom
of God.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been already stated<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a>, that in the first great
struggle of the human mind against the Christian
religion the action of reason in criticising its claims
assumed two forms, Gnosticism or rationalism within
the church, and unbelief without.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The origin and history of the former of these two
lines of thought were once discussed in an elaborate
course of Bampton Lectures;<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> and though subsequent
investigation has added new sources of information,<a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and it would be consonant to our general object to trace
briefly the speculations of the various schools of Gnostics,—Greek,
Oriental, or Egyptian,—the want of
space necessitates the omission of these topics. In the
present lecture we shall accordingly restrict ourselves to
the history of the other line of thought, and trace the
grounds alleged by the intelligent heathens who examined
Christianity, for declining to admit its claims,
from the time of its rise to the final downfall of heathenism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The truest modern resemblance to this struggle is
obviously to be found in the disbelief shown by educated
heathens in pagan countries to whom Christianity is
proclaimed in the present day. It was not until the
establishment of Christianity as the state religion by
Constantine had given it political and moral victory,
that it was possible for unbelief to assume its modern
aspect, of being the attempt of reason to break away
from a creed which is an acknowledged part of the
national life. The first opponents accordingly whose
views we shall study, Lucian, Celsus, Porphyry, Hierocles,
are heathen unbelievers. Julian is the earliest
that we encounter who rejected Christianity after having
been educated in it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The resemblance however to this struggle is not
wholly restricted to heathen lands. There have been
moments in the history of nations, or of individuals,
when a Christian standard of feeling or of thought has
been so far obliterated that a state of public disbelief
and philosophical attack similar to the ancient heathen
has reappeared, and the tone of the early unbelievers,
and sometimes even their specific doubts, have been
either borrowed or reproduced.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this portion of the history we encounter a difficulty
peculiar to it, in being compelled to form an
estimate of the opinions described, from indirect information.
The treatises of the more noted writers that
opposed Christianity have perished; some through
natural causes, but those of Porphyry and Julian
through the special order of a Christian emperor,
Theodosius II., in A.D. 435.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the absence accordingly of the original writings,
we must discover the grounds for the rejection of Christianity
by the aid of the particular treatises of evidence
written by Christian fathers expressly in refutation of
them, which occasionally contain quotations of the lost
works; and also by means of the general apologies
written on behalf of the Christian religion, together
with slight notices of it occurring in heathen literature.
The latter will inform us concerning the miscellaneous
objections current, the former concerning the definite
arguments of the writers who expressly gave reasons for
disbelieving Christianity.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We possess a large treatise of Origen against Celsus;
passages, directed against Porphyry, of Eusebius,
Jerome, and Augustin; a tract of Eusebius against
Hierocles; and a work of Cyril of Alexandria against
Julian. Yet it is never perfectly satisfactory to be
obliged to read an opinion through the statement of an
opponent of it. The history of philosophical controversy
shows that intellectual causes, such as the natural
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
tendency to answer an argument on principles that its
author would not concede, to reply to conclusions
instead of premises, or to impute the corollaries which
are supposed to be deducible from an opinion, may lead
to unintentional misrepresentation of a doctrine refuted,
even where no moral causes such as bias or sarcasm
contribute to the result. Aristotle's well-known criticism
of Plato's theory of archetypes is a pertinent illustration.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The slight difficulty thus encountered, in extracting
the real opinions of the early unbelievers out of the
replies of their Christian opponents, may for the most
part be avoided by first realising the state of belief
which existed in reference to the heathen religion,
which for our present purpose may be treated as homogeneous
throughout the whole Roman world. We shall
thus be enabled as it were to foresee the line of opinion
which would be likely to be adopted in reference to a
new religion coming with the claims and character of
Christianity. This prefatory inquiry will also coincide
with our general purpose of analysing the influence of
intellectual causes in the production of unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Four separate tendencies may be distinguished
among heathens in the early centuries in reference to
religion:<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> viz. the tendency, (1) to absolute unbelief,
(2) to a bigoted attachment to a national creed, (3) to a
philosophical, and (4) a mystical theory of religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The tendency to total disbelief of the supernatural
prevailed in the Epicurean school. A type of the more
earnest spirits of this class is seen at a period a little
earlier than the Christian era in Lucretius, living
mournfully in the moral desert which his doubts had
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
scorched into barrenness.<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a>
The world is to him a
scene unguided by a Providence: death is uncheered
by the hope of a future life. An example of the flippant
sceptic is found in Lucian in the second century,
A.D. The great knowledge of life which travel had
afforded him created a universal ridicule for religion;
but his unbelief evinced no seriousness, no sadness.
His humour itself is a type of the man. Lacking the
bitter earnestness which gave sting to the wit of
Aristophanes, and the courteous playfulness exhibited
in the many-sided genius of Plato, he was a caricaturist
rather than a painter: his dialogues are farces of life
rather than satires. It has been well remarked, that
human society has no worse foe than a universal scoffer.
Lacking aspirations sufficiently lofty to appreciate
religion, and wisdom to understand the great crises that
give birth to it, such a man destroys not superstition
only but the very faculty of belief.<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> It is easy to perceive
that to such minds Christianity would be a mark
for the same jests as other creeds.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A second tendency, most widely opposed in appearance
to the sceptical, but which was too often its natural
product, showed itself in a bigoted attachment to
the national religion.<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> Among the masses such faith
was real though unintelligent, but in educated men it
had become artificial. When an ethnic religion is
young, faith is fresh and gives inspiration to its art
and its poetry. In a more critical age, the historic
spirit rationalizes the legends, while the philosophic
allegorizes the myths; and thoughtful men attempt to
rise to a spiritual worship of which rites are symbols.<a id="noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a>
But in the decay of a religion, the supernatural loses its
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
hold of the class of educated minds, and is regarded as
imposture, and the support which they lend to worship
is political. They fall back on tradition to escape their
doubts, or they think it politically expedient to enforce
on the masses a creed which they contemn in heart.
Such a ground of attachment to paganism is described
in the dialogue of the Christian apologist, Minucius
Felix.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a>
It would not only coincide with the first-named
tendency in denying the importance of Christianity,
but would join in active opposition. In truth, it
marks the commencement of the strong reaction which
took place in favour of heathenism at the close of the
second century,—twofold in its nature; a popular reaction
of prejudice or of mysticism on the part of the
lower classes, and a political or philosophical one of
the educated.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> Both were in a great degree produced
by Eastern influences. The substitution which was
gradually taking place of naturalism for humanism,
the adoration of cosmical and mystical powers instead
of the human attributes of the deities of the older
creed, was the means of re-awakening popular superstition,
while at the same time the Alexandrian speculations
of Neo-Platonism gave a religious aspect to
philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Accordingly the third, or philosophical tendency in
reference to religion, distinct from the two already
named, of positive unbelief in the supernatural on the
one hand, and devotion sincere or artificial to heathen
worship on the other, comprises, in addition to the older
schools of Stoics and Platonists, the new eclectic school
just spoken of. The three schools agreed in extracting
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
a philosophy out of the popular religion, by searching
for historic or moral truth veiled in its symbols. The
Stoic, as being the least speculative, employed itself
less with religion than the others. Its doctrine, ethical
rather than metaphysical, concerned with the will
rather than the intellect, juridical and formal rather
than speculative, seemed especially to give expression
to the Roman character, as the Platonic to the Greek,
or as the eclectic to the hybrid, half Oriental half
European, which marked Alexandria. In the writings
of M. Aurelius, one of the emperors most noted for the
persecution of the church, it manifests itself rather as a
rule of life than a subject for belief, as morality rather
than religion.<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a>
The Stoic opposition to Christianity
was the contempt of the Gaul or Roman for what was
foreign, or of ethical philosophy for religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Platonic doctrine, so far as it is represented in
an impure form in the early centuries, sought, as of old,
to explore the connexion between the visible and invisible
worlds, and to rise above the phenomenon into
the spiritual. Hence in its view of heathen religion it
strove to rescue the ideal religion from the actual, and
to discover the one revelation of the Divine ideal amid
the great variety of religious traditions and modes
of worship. But its invincible dualism, separating by
an impassable chasm God from the world, and mind
from matter, identifying goodness with the one, evil
with the other, prevented belief in a religion like Christianity,
which was penetrated by the Hebrew conceptions
of the universe, so alien both to dualism and
pantheism.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The line is not very marked which separates this
philosophy from the professed revival of Plato's teaching,
which received the name of Neo-Platonism, which
was the philosophy with which Christianity came most
frequently into conflict or contact during the third and
two following centuries (<a href="#Note_10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>). Fastening on the more
mystical parts of Plato, to the neglect of the more practical,
it probably borrowed something also from Eastern
mysticism. The object of the school was to find an explanation
of the problem of existence, by tracing the
evolution of the absolute cause in the universe through a
trinal manifestation, as being, thought, and action.
The agency by which the human mind apprehended
this process lay in the attainment of a kind of insight
wherein the organ of knowledge is one with the object
known, a state of mind and feeling whereby the mind
gazes on a sphere of being which is closed to the ordinary
faculties. Schelling's theory of <span class="tei tei-q">“intellectual intuition”</span>
is the modern parallel to this Neo-Platonic
State of ἔκστασις or ἐνθουσιασμός. This philosophy,
though frequently described in modern times as bearing
a resemblance to Christianity in method, as being
the knowledge of the one absolute Being by means of
faith, is really most widely opposed in its interior spirit.
It is essentially pantheism. Its monotheistic aspect,
caught by contact with Semitic thought, is exterior
only. Its deity, which seems personal, is really only
the personification of an abstraction, a mere instance of
mental realism. Man's personality, which Christianity
states clearly, was lost in the universe; religious facts in
metaphysical ideas.<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> Religion accordingly would be
exclusive, confined to an aristocracy of education; and
the existing national cultus would be appropriated as a
sensuous religion suited for the masses, a visible type
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the invisible. The analogy which this philosophy
bore to Christianity in aim and office, as well as the
rivalry of other schools which is implied in its eclectic
aspect, caused it to take up an attitude of opposition
to the Christian system to which it claimed to bear
affinity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mystical element in this philosophy enabled
some minds to find a home for the theurgy which had
been increased by the importation of eastern ideas.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a>
They form as it were the connecting link with the
fourth religious tendency, which manifested itself in the
craving for a communication from the world invisible,
which found its satisfaction in magic and in a spirit of
fanaticism. Some of these fanatics were doubtless also
impostors;<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a>
but some were high-minded men struggling
after truth, of whom possibly an example is seen at an
early period in Apollonius of Tyana; deceived rather
than deceivers. This tendency operated in some minds
to cause them to reduce Christianity to ordinary magic
and prodigies; while among a few it created yearnings
for a nobler satisfaction, which drew them toward
Christianity, as in the case of the Clemens, whose autobiography
professes to be given in the well-known work
of the early ages, the Clementines. (<a href="#Note_11" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such seem to have been the chief forms of religious
thought existing among the heathen to whom Christianity
presented itself, on which were founded the
preparation of heart which led to the acceptance of its
message, or the prejudices which rejected its claims;—viz.
among the masses, a sensuous unintelligent belief
in polytheism;—among the educated, disorganization
of belief; either materialism, the total rejection of the
supernatural, and a political attachment on the principle
of expedience to existing creeds; or philosophy,
ethical, dualistic, pantheistic, despising religions as
mere organic products of national thought, and trying
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to seize the central truths of which they were the expression;
or a mystical craving after the supernatural,
degrading its victims into fanatics. The further analysis
of these tendencies would show their connexion with
the threefold classification before given of the tests of
truth into sense, reason, and feeling.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have thus prepared the way for interpreting
the lines of argument used in opposition to Christianity,
and shall now proceed to sketch in chronological succession
the history of the chief intellectual attacks made
by unbelievers.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is not until the middle of the second century that
we find Christianity becoming the subject of literary
investigation. Incidental expressions either of scorn
or of misapprehension form the sole allusions in the
heathen writers of earlier date (<a href="#Note_12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>); but in the reigns
of the Antonines, the Christians began to attract notice
and to meet with criticism. We read of a work written
against Christianity by a Cynic, Crescens, in the
reign of Antoninus Pius;<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> and of another by the tutor
of Marcus Aurelius, Fronto of Cirta,<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> in which probably
the imperial persecution was justified.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is at this time too that we meet with an attempt
to hold the Christians up to ridicule in a satire of
Lucian,<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> which well exemplifies the views belonging to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the sceptical of the four classes into which we have
divided the religious opinions of the heathens. His
tract, the Peregrinus Proteus, it can hardly be doubted,
is intended as a satire on Christian martyrdom (<a href="#Note_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>).
Peregrinus<a id="noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> is a Cynic philosopher, who after a life of
early villainy is made by Lucian to play the hypocrite
at Antioch and join himself to the Christians, <span class="tei tei-q">“miserable
men”</span> (as he calls them), <span class="tei tei-q">“who, hoping for immortality
in soul and body, had a foolish contempt of
death, and suffered themselves to be persuaded that
they were brethren, because, having abandoned the
Greek gods, they worshipped the crucified sophist, living
according to his laws.”</span><a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> Peregrinus, when a
Christian, soon rises to the dignity of bishop, and is
worshipped as a god; and when imprisoned for his
religion is visited by Christians from all quarters.
Afterwards, expelled the church, he travels over the
world; and at last for the sake of glory burns himself
publicly at Olympia about A.D. 165. His end is
described in a tragico-comic manner, and a legend is
recounted that at his death he was seen in white, and
that a hawk ascended from his pyre.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Lucian has here used a real name to describe a
class, not a person. He has given a caricature painting
from historic elements. There seems internal
evidence to show that he was slightly acquainted with
the books of the early Christians.<a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> It has even been
conjectured that he might have read and designed to
parody the epistles of Ignatius.<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> With more probability
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
we may believe that he had heard of and misunderstood
the heroic bearing of the Christian martyrs in
the moment of their last suffering. Pope Alexander
VII. in 1664 placed this tract in the index of prohibited
books: yet even beneath the satire we rather hail
Lucian as an unconscious witness to several beautiful
features in the character of the Christians of his time:<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a>
viz. their worship of <span class="tei tei-q">“the crucified sophist,”</span> who was
their adorable Lord; their guilelessness; their brotherly
love; their strict discipline; their common meals;
their union; their benevolence; their joy in death.
The points which he depicts in his satire are, their
credulity in giving way to Peregrinus; their unintelligent
belief in Christ and in immortality; their factiousness
in aiding Peregrinus when in prison; their pompous
vanity in martyrdom, and possibly their tendency
to believe legends respecting a martyr's death. His
satire is contempt, not anger, nor dread. It is the
humour of a thorough sceptic, which discharged itself
on all religions alike; and indicates one type of opposition
to Christianity; viz. the contempt of those who
thought it folly.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Very unlike to him was his well-known contemporary
Celsus. If the one represents the scoffer, the other
represents the philosopher. Not despising Christianity
with scorn like Tacitus, nor jeering at it with humour
like Lucian, Celsus had the wisdom to apprehend danger
to heathenism, measuring Christianity in its mental
and not its material relations; and about the reign of
Marcus Aurelius wrote against it a work entitled Λόγος
ἀληθής, which was considered of such importance, that
Origen towards the close of his own life<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> wrote a large
and elaborate reply to it.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We know nothing of Celsus's life.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> There is even
an uncertainty as to the school of philosophy to which
he belonged. External evidence seems to testify that
he was an Epicurean; but internal would lead us to
classify him with the Platonic. Unscrupulous in argument,
confounding canonical gospels with apocryphal,
and Christians with heretical sects, delighting in searching
for contradictions, incapable of understanding the
deeper aspects of Christianity, he has united in his
attack all known objections, making use of minute criticism,
philosophical theory, piquant sarcasm, and eloquent
invective, as the vehicle of his passionate assault.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is impossible to recover a continuous account of
the work of Celsus from the treatise of his respondent;
but a careful study of the fragments embedded in the
text of Origen will perhaps restore the framework of
the original sufficiently to enable us to perceive the
points of his opposition to Christianity, and the manner
in which his philosophy stood in the way of the reception
of it. (<a href="#Note_14" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Celsus commences by introducing a Jewish rabbi to
attack Christianity from the monotheistic stand-point
of the earlier faith.<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> The Jew is first made to direct
his criticism against the documents of Christianity, and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
then the facts narrated.<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a>
He points out inconsistencies
in the gospel narratives of the genealogy of Christ;<a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a>
utters the most blasphemous calumnies concerning the
incarnation;<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a>
turns the narrative of the infancy into
ridicule;<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a>
imputes our Saviour's miracles to magic;<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a>
attacks his divinity;<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> and concentrates the bitterest
raillery on the affecting narrative of our blessed Lord's
most holy passion. Each fact of deepening sorrow in
that divine tragedy, the betrayal,<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a>
the mental anguish, the sacred agony,<a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a>
is made the subject of remarks characterized
no less by coarseness of taste and unfairness,
than to the Christian mind by irreverence. Instead of
his heart being touched by the majesty of our Saviour's
sorrow, Celsus only finds an argument against the divine
character of the adorable sufferer.<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> The wonders
accompanying Christ's death are treated as legends;<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a>
the resurrection regarded as an invention or an optical
delusion.<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After Celsus has thus made the Jew the means of a
ruthless attack on Christianity, he himself directs a
similar one against the Jewish religion itself.<a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> He goes
to the origin of their history; describes the Jews as
having left Egypt in a sedition;<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> as being true types of the Christians
in their ancient factiousness;<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> considers
Moses to be only on a level with the early Greek
legislators;<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a>
regards Jewish rites like circumcision to
be borrowed from Egypt; charges anthropomorphism
on Jewish theology,<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a>
and declines allowing the allegorical
interpretation in explanation of it;<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> examines
Jewish prophecy, parallels it with heathen oracles,<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> and
claims that the goodness not the truth of a prophecy
ought to be considered;<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a>
points to the ancient idolatry
of the Jews as proof that they were not better than
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
other nations;<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a>
and to the destruction of Jerusalem as
proof that they were not special favourites of heaven.
At last he arrives at their idea of creation,<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> and here
reveals the real ground of his antipathy. While he
objects to details in the narrative, such as the mention
of days before the existence of the sun,<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> his real hatred
is against the idea of the unity of God, and the freedom
of Deity in the act of creation. It is the struggle of
pantheism against theism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When Celsus has thus made use of the Jew to refute
Christianity from the Jewish stand-point, and afterwards
refuted the Jew from his own, he proceeds to
make his own attack on Christianity; in doing which,
he first examines the lives of Christians,<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a>
and afterwards the Christian doctrine;<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> thus skilfully prejudicing the
mind of his readers against the persons before attacking
the doctrines. He alludes to the quarrelsomeness
shown in the various sects of Christians,<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> and repeats
the calumnious suspicion of disloyalty,<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href="#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> want of patriotism,<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a>
and political uselessness;<a id="noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> and hence defends
the public persecution of them.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href="#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a>
Filled with the esoteric
pride of ancient philosophy, he reproaches the
Christians with their carefulness to proselytize the
poor,<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> and
to convert the vicious;<a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> thus unconsciously
giving a noble testimony to one of the most divine features
in our religion, and testifying to the preaching of
the doctrine of a Saviour for sinners.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Having thus defamed the Christians, he passes to
the examination of the Christian doctrine, in its form,
its method, and its substance. His æsthetic sense,
ruined with the idolatry of form, and unable to appreciate
the thought, regards the Gospels as defective and
rude through simplicity.<a id="noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> The method of Christian
teaching also seems to him to be defective, as lacking
philosophy and dialectic, and as denouncing the use of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
reason.<a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> Lastly, he turns to the substance of the dogmas
themselves. He distinguishes two elements in
them, the one of which, as bearing resemblance to
philosophy or to heathen religion, he regards as incontestably
true, but denies its originality, and endeavours
to derive it from Persia or from Platonism;<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> resolving,
for example, the worship of a human being into the
ordinary phenomenon of apotheosis.<a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> The other class
of doctrines which he attacks as false, consists of those
which relate to creation,<a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> the incarnation,<a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> the fall,<a id="noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a>
redemption,<a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a>
man's place in creation,<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a>
moral conversions,<a id="noteref_188" name="noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a>
and the resurrection of the dead.<a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href="#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> His point of
view for criticising them is derived from the fundamental
dualism of the Platonic system; the eternal
severance of matter and mind, of God and the world;
and the reference of good to the region of mind, evil to
that of matter. Thus, not content with his former
attack on the idea of creation in discussion with the
Jew, he returns to the discussion from the philosophical
side. His Platonism will not allow him to admit that
the absolute God, the first Cause, can have any contact
with matter. It leads him also to give importance to
the idea of δαίμονες, or divine mediators, by which the
chasm is filled between the ideal god and the world;<a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a>
not being able otherwise to imagine the action of the
pure ἰδέα of God on a world of matter. Hence he
blames Christians for attributing an evil nature to
demons, and finds a reasonable interpretation of the
heathen worship.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href="#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a>
The same dualist theory extinguishes
the idea of the incarnation, as a degradation of
God; and also the doctrine of the fall, inasmuch as
psychological deterioration is impossible if the soul be pure, and
if evil be a necessary attribute of matter.<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href="#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a>
With the fall, redemption also disappears, because the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
perfect cannot admit of change; Christ's coming could
only be to correct what God already knew, or rectify
what ought to have been corrected before.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a>
Further, Celsus argues, if Divinity did descend, that it would
not assume so lowly a form as Jesus. The same rigorous
logic charges on Christianity the undue elevation of
man, as well as the abasement of God. Celsus can
neither admit man more than the brutes to be the final
cause of the universe; nor allow the possibility of man's
nearness to God.<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a>
His pantheism, destroying the barrier
which separates the material from the moral,
obliterates the perception of the fact that a single free
responsible being may be of more dignity than the universe.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such is the type of a philosophical objector against
Christianity, a little later than the middle of the second
century. We meet here for the first time a remarkable
effort of pagan thought, endeavouring to extinguish
the new religion; the definite statements of a mind that
investigated its claims and rejected it. Most of the
objections of Celsus are sophistical; a few are admitted
difficulties; but the philosophical class of them will be
seen to be the corollary from his general principle
before explained.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A century intervenes before we meet with the next
literary assailant, Porphyry. In the interval the new
reactionary philosophy has fully taken root, and the
fresh attack accordingly bears the impress of the new
system.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The chief objections made in the intervening period,
as we collect them from the apologies, were such as
belongs fitly to a transitional time, when Christianity
was exciting attention but was not understood;<a id="noteref_195" name="noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> and
are chiefly the result of the second of the tendencies
before named, viz., either of popular prejudice, or of
the political alarm in reference to the social disorganization
likely to arise out of a large defection from the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
religion of the empire, which expressed itself in overt
acts of persecution on the part of the state. (<a href="#Note_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>) Both
equally lie beyond our field of investigation; the one
because it does not belong to the examination of Christianity
made by intelligent thought; the other because
it is the struggle of deeds, not of ideas, which only have
an interest for us, if, as in Julian's case hereafter, the
acts were dictated by the deliberate advice of persons
who had attentively examined Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The apprehensions of prejudice gradually subsided,
and objections began to be based on grounds less absurd
in character. The political opposition also was
henceforth founded on a more subtle policy, and on an
appreciation of the nature of Christianity. Soon after
the middle of the third century we meet with the next
attack of a purely literary kind, viz., by Porphyry, the
most distinguished opponent that Christianity has yet
encountered.<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href="#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a>
The pupil of Longinus, perhaps of
Origen,<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> and the biographer and interpreter of Plotinus,
he is best known for his logical writings, and for
the development of the theory of predication in his
introduction to the Categories, which formed the text on
which hung the mediæval speculations of scholasticism.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href="#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a>
His Syrian origin and oriental culture perhaps prepared
him for a fusion of East and West, and for admitting a
deeper admixture of mysticism into the Neo-Platonic
philosophy, of which he was a disciple. The points of
his approximation to Christianity are the result of those
elements in which heathen philosophy most nearly
approached to Christian truth, the development of
which was stimulated in minds essentially anti-christian
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
by the effort to find a rival to it. Admirably prepared
by his serious and spiritual tone to embrace Christianity,
he nevertheless lived a disciple of paganism. His
feelings rather than his reason led him to defend national
creeds. His philosophy and the Christian, which
seemed to be aspirations after the same end, being
designed to elevate the spirit above the world of sense,
were really radically opposed. Understanding therefore
the power of the Christian religion, he felt the necessity
for supplanting it; and hoped to do so by spiritualizing
the old creeds, which he harmonized with
philosophy by means of regarding them as symbolic.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His opposition to Christianity was not however
based wholly on a prejudice of feeling. He was a man
cultivated in all the learning of his age, and of a more
generous temper than Celsus, and seems to have exercised
much critical sagacity in the investigation of the
claims of Christianity. About the year 270, while in
retirement in Sicily, he wrote a book against the Christians.<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a>
This work having been destroyed, we are left
to gather its contents and the opinions of its authors
from a few criticisms in Eusebius and Jerome. The
entire work consisted of fifteen books; and concerning
only five of these is information afforded by them.
Their remarks lead us to conjecture that it was an
assault on Christianity in many relations. The books
however of which we know the purpose, seem to have
been critical rather than philosophical, directed against
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the grounds of the religion rather than its character;
being in fact an assault on the Bible. The existence
of such a line of argument, of which a trace was already
observable in Celsus, is explained by the circumstance
that the faith of Christendom was already fixed on the
authority of the sacred books. The church had always
acknowledged the authority of the Jewish scriptures;
and by the middle or close of the second century at the
latest, it had come to acknowledge explicitly the co-ordinate
authority of a body of Christian literature, historic,
and epistolary.<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> Hence, when once the idea of a
rule of faith had grown common, the investigation of
the contents of the scriptures became necessary on the
part of heathen opponents. The growingly critical
character of Porphyry's statements, though partly
attributable to the literary culture of his mind, is a slight
undesigned evidence corroborative of the authoritative
nature already attributed to the scriptures in doctrine
and truthfulness. Porphyry seems accordingly to have
directed his critical powers to show such traces of mistakes
and incorrectness as might invalidate the idea of a
supernatural origin for the Jewish and Christian scriptures,
and shake confidence in their truth as an authority.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first book of his work<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a>
dragged to light some
of the discrepancies, real or supposed, in scripture; and
the examination of the dispute between St. Peter and
St. Paul was quoted as an instance of the admixture of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
human ingredients in the body of apostolic teaching.
His third book<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a>
was directed to the subject of scripture
interpretation, especially, with some inconsistency,
against the allegorical or mystical tendency which at
that time marked the whole church, and especially the
Alexandrian fathers. The allegorical method coincided
with, if it did not arise from, the oriental instinct of
symbolism, the natural poetry of the human mind.
But in the minds of Jews and Christians it had been
sanctified by its use in the Hebrew religion, and had
become associated with the apocryphal literature of the
Jewish church. It is traceable to a more limited extent
in the inspired writers of the New Testament, and in
most of the fathers; but in the school of Alexandria<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a>
it was adopted as a formal system of interpretation. It
is this allegorical system which Porphyry attacked.
He assaulted the writings of those who had fancifully
allegorised the Old Testament in the pious desire of
finding Christianity in every part of it, in spite of historic
conditions; and he hastily drew the inference,
with something like the feeling of doubt which rash
interpretations of prophecy are in danger of producing
at this day, that no consistent sense can be put
upon the Old Testament. His fourth book<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> was a
criticism on the Mosaic history, and on Jewish antiquities.
But the most important books in his work were
the twelfth<a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> and thirteenth,<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href="#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> which were devoted to an
examination of the prophecies of Daniel, in which he
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
detected some of those peculiarities on which modern
criticism has employed itself, and arrived at the conclusions
in reference to its date, revived by the English
deist Collins in the last century, and by many German
critics in the present.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is well known that half of the book of Daniel<a id="noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> is
historic, half prophetic. Each of these parts is distinguished
from similar portions of the Old Testament by
some peculiarities. Porphyry is not recorded as noticing
any of those which belong to the historic part,
unless we may conjecture, from his theory of the book
being originally written in Greek, that he detected the
presence of those Greek words in Nebuchadnezzar's
edicts, which many modern critics have contended
could not be introduced into Chaldæa antecedently to
the Macedonian conquest.<a id="noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> The peculiarity alleged to
belong to the prophetical part is its apocalyptic tone.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
It looks, it has been said, historical rather than prophetical.
Definite events, and a chain of definite events,
are predicted with the precision of historical narrative;<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a>
whereas most prophecy is a moral sermon, in which
general moral predictions are given, with specific historic
ones interspersed. Nor is this, which is shared in
a less degree by occasional prophecies elsewhere, the
only peculiarity alleged, but it is affirmed also that the
definite character ceases at a particular period of the
reign of Antiochus Epiphanes,<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> down to which the
very campaigns of the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties
are noted, but subsequently to which the prophetic
tone becomes more vague and indefinite. Hence the
conjecture has been hazarded that it was written in the
reign of Antiochus by a Palestinian Jew, who gathered
up the traditions of Daniel's life, and wrote the recent
history of his country in eloquent language, in an
apocalyptic form; which, after the literary fashion of
his age, he imputed to an ancient seer, Daniel; definite
up to the period at which he composed it, indefinite as
he gazed on the future. (<a href="#Note_16" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>) It was this peculiarity,
the supposed ceasing of the prophecies in the book of
Daniel at a definite date, which was noticed by Porphyry,
and led him to suggest the theory of its authorship
just named.<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> These remarks will give an idea of
the critical acuteness of Porphyry. His objections are
not, it will be observed, founded on quibbles like those
of Celsus, but on instructive literary characteristics,
many of which are greatly exaggerated or grossly misinterpreted,
but still are real, and suggest difficulties or
inquiries which the best modern theological critics have
honourably felt to demand candid examination and explanation.<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A period of about thirty years brings us to the date
of the Diocletian persecution, A.D. 303; during the
progress of which another noted attack was made. It
was by Hierocles, then president of Bithynia, and
afterwards præfect of Alexandria, himself one of the
instigators of the persecution and an agent in effecting
it.<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> His line of argument was more specific than those
previously named, being directed against the evidence
which was derived by Christians for the truth of their
religion from the character and miraculous works of
Christ; and his aim accordingly was to develope the
character of Apollonius of Tyana,<a id="noteref_215" name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> as a rival to our Saviour
in piety and miraculous power.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Apollonius was a Pythagorean philosopher, born in
Cappadocia about four years before the Christian era.
After being early educated in the circle of philosophy,
and in the practice of the ascetic discipline of his predecessor
Pythagoras, he imitated that philosopher in
spending the next portion of his life in travel. Attracted
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
by his mysticism to the farthest East as the
source of knowledge, he set out for Persia and India;
and in Nineveh on his route met Damis, the future
chronicler of his actions. Returning from the East instructed
in Brahminic lore, he travelled over the Roman
world. The remainder of his days was spent in Asia
Minor. Statues and temples were erected to his honour.
He obtained vast influence, and died with the
reputation of sanctity late in the century. Such is the
outline of his life, if we omit the numerous legends and
prodigies which attach themselves to his name. He
was partly a philosopher, partly a magician; half mystic,
half impostor.<a id="noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> At the distance of a century and a
quarter from his death, in the reign of Septimius Severus,
at the request of the wife of that emperor, the second
of the three Philostrati dressed up Damis's narrative
of his life, in a work still remaining, and paved a
way for the general reception of the story among the
cultivated classes of Rome and Greece.<a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> It has been
thought that Philostratus had a polemical aim against
the Christian faith,<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href="#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> as the memoir of Apollonius is in
so many points a parody on the life of Christ. The annunciation
of his birth to his mother, the chorus of
swans which sang for joy on occasion of it, the casting
out devils, the raising the dead, the healing the sick,
the sudden disappearance and reappearance of Apollonius,
the sacred voice which called him at his death,
and his claim to be a teacher with authority to reform
the world, form some of the points of similarity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If such was the intention of Philostratus, he was
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
really a controversialist under the form of a writer of
romance; employed by those who at that time were
labouring (as already named) to introduce an eclecticism
largely borrowed from the East into the region both of
philosophy and religion. Without settling this question,
it is at least certain that about the beginning of
the next century the heathen writers adopted this line
of argument, and sought to exhibit a rival ideal.<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> One
instance is the life of Pythagoras by Iamblichus; another
that which Hierocles wrote, in part of which he
used Philostratus's untrustworthy memoir for the purpose
of instituting a comparison between Apollonius
and Christ. The sceptic who referred religious phenomena
to fanaticism would hence avail himself of the
comparison as a satisfactory account of the origin of
Christianity; while others would adopt the same view
as Hierocles, and deprive the Christian miracles of the
force of evidence,—a line of argument which was reproduced
by an English deist<a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> who translated the work of
Philostratus at the end of the seventeenth century.
The work of Hierocles is lost, but an outline of its argument,
with extracts, remains in a reply which Eusebius
wrote to a portion of it (<a href="#Note_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>). Though couched in a
seeming spirit of fairness, the tone was such as would
be expected from one who ungenerously availed himself
of the very moment of a cruel persecution as the
occasion of this literary attack.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But the time of the church's sorrow was nearly past.
The hour of deliverance was at hand. The emperor
Constantine proclaimed toleration,<a id="noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> and subsequently
established Christianity as the state-religion. Only one
moment more of peril was permitted to befall it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After an interval in which Christian emperors
reigned, Julian ascended the throne, and employed his
short reign of two years<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a>
in trying to restore heathenism;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and during the last winter of his life, while halting
at Antioch in the course of his Eastern war, wrote
an elaborate work against Christianity.<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> The book
itself has been destroyed, but the reply remains which
Cyril of Alexandria thought it necessary to write more
than half a century afterwards; and by this means we
can gather Julian's opinions, just as from his own letters
and the contemporary history we can gather his plans.
The material struggle of deeds belongs in this instance
to our subject, inasmuch as it is the overt expression of
the struggle of ideas.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Julian, as already observed, differed from previous
opponents of Christianity, in having been educated a
Christian.<a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a>
Associating when a student at the schools
of Athens with Gregory of Nazianzum and Basil, he
had every opportunity for understanding the Christian
religion and measuring its claims. The first cause of
his apostasy from it remains uncertain. One tradition
states that the shock to his creed arose from some early
injury received through the fraud of a professing Christian.
Something is probably due to exasperation at the
severity endured from Constantius; and perhaps still
more is due to the natural peculiarity of his character.
He was swayed by the imagination rather than the reason,
and was kindled with an enthusiastic admiration of
the old heathen literature and the historic glories of the
heathen world. His very style exhibits traces of imitation
of the old models after which he formed himself.<a id="noteref_225" name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a>
With a spirit which the Italian writers of the Renaissance
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
enable us to understand, his sympathies clung
round heathens until they entwined in their embrace
heathenism itself. To a mind of this natural bias sufficient
grounds unhappily would easily be found to produce
aversion to Christianity, in the quarrels among
sections of the church, and in the ambition and inconsistency
of the numbers of nominal converts who embraced
the religion when its public establishment had
rendered it their interest to do so; and prejudice would
add arguments for rejecting it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Accordingly he devoted his short reign to restore
the ancient heathenism. Like Constantine, having arrived
at the throne through a troublous war, he found
the religion of the state opposed to his own convictions,
and determined to substitute that which he himself professed.
The difference however was great. The religion
of Constantine was young and progressive; that
of Julian was effete. It is in this respect that Julian
has been compared,<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> in his character and acts, to those
who in modern times, both in literature and in politics,
have devoted their lives to roll back the progress of
public opinion, and reproduce the spirit of the past by
giving new life to the relics of bygone ages. If Julian
had succeeded in his attempt, the victory could not have
been permanent.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The steps by which he strove to carry out his views
were not unlike those of Constantine.<a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> He first proclaimed
the establishment of the emperor's religion as
the religion of the state, permitting toleration for all
others. He next transferred the Christian endowments
to heathens, acting on the principle previously established
by Constantine. But beyond this point he proceeded
to measures which had the nature of persecution.
He declared the Christian laity disqualified for office in
the state,—a measure which could only be sophistically
maintained on the plea of self-defence; and, afraid of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the engine of education, forbade Christian professors to
lecture in the public schools of science and literature:
and probably he at last imposed a tax on those who did
not perform sacrifice. At the same time he saw the necessity
of a total reformation in paganism, if it was to
revive as the rival of Christianity; and planned, as
Pontifex Maximus, a scheme for effecting it, which involved
the concealment of the absurdity of its origin by
allegorical interpretation, together with the establishment
of a discipline and organisation similar to the
Christian, and special attention on the part of the
priesthood to morality and to public works of mercy.<a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a>
His bitter contempt for Christianity manifested itself in
a public edict, which commanded that Christians should
be denominated by the opprobrious epithet <span class="tei tei-q">“Galilæans;”</span>
and in some of his extant letters<a id="noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> he evinces a
bitterness against it which finds its parallel in Voltaire
and Shelley.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A work remains, the Philopatris, (<a href="#Note_18" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>) usually falsely
assigned to Lucian, but which internal evidence proves
to belong to the reign of Julian, in which the unknown
author, imitating the manner but wanting the power of
Lucian, holds up to ridicule the sermons and teaching
of some Christian preachers. This work probably conveys
the creed of the imperial party, which is simply
Deism. This however is not the only source for ascertaining
the creed of Julian, and the nature of his objections
to Christianity. In his letters, and in the reply
of Cyril to his now lost work, we possess more exact
means for determining his position and sentiments. (<a href="#Note_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He omitted, as we might expect, the grosser and
more frivolous charges against Christianity which had
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
been formerly expressed by those who were ignorant of
its real character. Indeed he seems to have been willing
to recognise it as one form of religion, but declined
to admit its monopoly of claim to be regarded as the
only true form. Though himself a Theist,<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a>—his view
of Deity being more simply monotheistic than that of
his predecessors, derived furtively from the Hebrew
idea transmitted through Christianity; he nevertheless
considered that discrepancy of national character required
corresponding differences in religion.<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> In his
work he seems to have repeated some of the objections
of the older assailants, Celsus and Porphyry; attacking
the credibility of scripture and of the Christian scheme
in its doctrines and evidences. He offered in it a criticism
on primæval and Hebrew history;<a id="noteref_232" name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> attacking the
probability of many portions of the book of Genesis;<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a>
objecting to the Hebrew view of Deity as too appropriating
in its character, and as making the divine
Being appear cruel.<a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a> He denied the originality of the
Hebrew moral law,<a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> and pointed out the supposed
defectiveness of the Hebrew polity; comparing unfavourably
the type of the Hebrew lawgiver as seen in Moses,
and of the king as seen in David, with the great heroes
of Greek history.<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> The Hebrew prophecy he tried to
weaken by putting it in comparison with oracles. In
estimating the character of Christ, he depreciated the
importance of his miracles;<a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> and noticing the different
tone of the fourth Gospel from those of the Synoptists,
he asserted that it was St. John who first taught Christ's
divinity.<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href="#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> He regarded Christianity as composed of
borrowed ingredients; considered it to have assumed
its shape gradually; and regarded its progress to have
been unforeseen by its founder and by St. Paul;<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a>
attacked its relation to Judaism in superseding it while
depending on it;<a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> regarded proselytism as absurd;
and directed some few charges, which may have been
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
more deserved, against practices of his day, such as
Staurolatry<a id="noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> and Martyrolatry.<a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href="#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
With the death of Julian the hopes of heathenism
departed; and two eloquent orations of Gregory Nazianzen<a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a>
still convey to us the Christian words of triumph.
Christianity progressed, protected by the favour
of the sovereigns. Heathenism no longer expressed
itself in free examination of Christianity, and lingered
only in the prejudices of the people. In the West it is
merely seen as it pleads for toleration,<a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> or makes itself
heard in the murmurs which attributed the woes of the
Teutonic invasions to the displeasure of the heathen
gods at the neglect of their worship.<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> In the East it
disappears altogether. Doubt there expires, because
speculation ceases and Christian thought becomes fixed;
nor will it be necessary in future to recur to the history
of the eastern church.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this survey we have tried to understand the objections
alleged by unbelievers during the first four centuries,
successively changing in character, from the calumnies
of ignorance in the second century, to the statements
of intelligent disbelief in the third and fourth,
until they finally subside in the fifth into the murmuring
of popular superstition; and have endeavoured to give
their natural as well as literary history, by exhibiting
them as corollaries from the various views concerning
religion enumerated at the commencement of the lecture.
The blind prejudices of the uneducated populace,
and the attachment, merely political, to heathen creeds,
manifested themselves in deeds rather than words; but
each of the other lines of thought there indicated gave
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
expression in literature to its opinion concerning Christianity;
the flippant impiety of Epicureanism in Lucian,
the debased form then prevalent of Platonism in Celsus,
the subtle and mystic philosophy of the neo-Platonists
in Porphyry, the oriental Theosophy in Hierocles, the
romantic attachment to the old pagan literature in
Julian.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If these causes be still further classified for comparison
with the enumeration of intellectual causes stated
in the previous lecture, we find only the adumbration
of some of the forms there named. The attack from
physical science, so prevalent since the era of modern
discovery, is barely discernible in the passing remarks
on the Mosaic cosmogony in Celsus and Julian.<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> The
attack from criticism is seen in a trifling form in Celsus;
in a superior manner in the perception which Porphyry
exhibits of the literary characteristics of the Old Testament,
and Julian of the New. The chief ground of the
attack was derived from metaphysical science, which
acted not so much in its modern form of a subjective
inquiry into the tests of truth, as in the shape of rival
doctrines concerning the highest problems of life and
being, which preoccupied the mind against Christianity.
If the eclectic attempts to adjust such speculations to
Christianity which marked the progress of Gnosticism
could have been embraced in our inquiry, the force of
this class of causes would have been made still more
apparent.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The obvious insufficiency however of this analysis to
afford an entire explanation of the prejudices of these
early unbelievers points to the close union before noticed<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a>of the emotional with the intellectual causes.
While asserting the possibility of the independent action
of the intellectual element under peculiar circumstances
as a cause of doubt, and while thus vindicating the importance
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of investigating the history of free thought from
the intellectual side, we admitted the necessity of taking
the probability of the action of the moral element into
account when we pass from the abstract study of tendencies
to form a judgment on concrete instances.
Here accordingly, in the mental history of these early
unbelievers, we already encounter cases where philosophy
as well as piety requires that a very large share in
the final product be referred to the influence of emotional
causes. Christianity addresses itself to the compound
human nature, to the intellect and heart conjoined.
Accordingly the excitement of certain forms of
moral sensibility is as much presupposed in religion as
the sense of colour in beholding a landscape. The
means fail for estimating with historic certainty the
particular emotional causes which operated in the instances
now under consideration. The moral chasm
which separates us from heathens is so great that we
can hardly realize their feelings.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If however we cannot pronounce on the positive
presence of moral causes which produced their disbelief,
we may conjecture negatively the nature of those, the
absence of which precluded the possibility of faith.
Christianity demands a belief in the supernatural, and
a serious spirit in the investigation of religion, both of
which were wholly lacking in Lucian. It requires a
deep consciousness of guilt and of the personality of
God, which were wanting in Celsus. It exacts a more
delicate moral taste to appreciate the divine ideal of
Christ's character than Hierocles manifested. Porphyry
and Julian are more difficult cases for moral analysis.
Porphyry is so earnest a character, so spiritual in his
tastes,<a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> that we wonder why he was not a Christian;
and except by the reference of his conduct to general
causes, such as philosophical pride, we cannot understand
his motives without a more intimate knowledge
than is now obtainable of his personal history. The
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
difficulty of understanding Julian's character arises
from its very complexity. Who can divine the many
motives which must have combined with intellectual
causes at successive moments of his life, to change the
Christian student, into the apostate, to convert disbelief
into hatred, and to degrade the philosopher into the
persecutor? History happily offers so few parallels
to enable us to form a conjecture on the answer, that
we may be content to leave the problem unsolved.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now summed up the causes which operated
in the first great intellectual struggle in which Christianity
was engaged. No means exist for estimating
the amount of harm done by the writings of unbelievers.
The retributive destruction of some of them and the indignant
alarm of the Christian apologists indicate the
probability that these works had excited attention.
But under a merciful Providence truth has in the end
gained rather than lost by this first conflict of reason
against Christianity. The church encountered the unbelievers
by apologetic treatises, and met the Gnostics
by dogmatic decisions. The truths brought out by the
action and reaction, and embodied in the literature
stimulated by Gnosticism, in the apologies created by
unbelief, and in the creeds suggested as a protest against
heresy, are the permanent result which the struggle has
contributed to the world.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The contest however is not quite obsolete, and has a
practical as well as antiquarian interest. Though the
analogy to the attacks of ancient unbelievers must be
sought in pagan countries in the objections of modern
heathens, yet some resemblance to them may be found
in the unbelief of Christian lands. Such parallels are
frequently hasty generalizations founded on a superficial
perception of agreement, without due recognition of the
differences which more exact observation would bring
to view; for identity of cause as well as result is
necessary in order to establish philosophical affinity.
In the present cases however the agreement is moral if
not intellectual, in spirit if not in form, generally also
in condition if not in cause. The flippant wit of Lucian,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which attributes religion to imposture and craft, is
repeated in the French criticism of the last century.
Some of the doubts of Celsus reappear in the English
deists. The delicate criticism of Porphyry is reproduced
in the modern exegesis. The disposition to explain
Christianity as a psychological phenomenon, as merely
one form of the religious consciousness, an organic product
of human thought, unsuited for men of superior
knowledge, who can attain to the philosophical truth
which underlies it, is the modern parallel to Julian.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Accordingly the conduct of the early church during
this struggle has a living lesson of instruction for the
church in Christian lands, as well as in its missionary
operations to the heathen. The victory of the early
church was not due wholly to intellectual remedies, such
as the answers of apologists, but mainly to moral; to
the inward perception generated of the adaptation of
Christianity to supply the spiritual wants of human nature.<a id="noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a>
As the heathen realized the sense of sin, they
felt intuitively the suitability of salvation through
Christ; as they witnessed the transforming power of
belief in Him, they felt the inward testimony to the
truth of Christianity. The external evidence of religion
had its office in the early church, though the belief<a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> in
magic and in oracles probably prevented the full perception
of the demonstrative force due to the two forms
of external evidence, miracles and prophecy. But the
internal evidences,—Christ, Christianity, Christendom,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
were the most potent proofs offered,—the doctrine of an
atoning Messiah filling the heart's deepest longings, and
the lives of Christians embodying heavenly virtues.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The modern church may therefore take comfort, and
may hope for victory. The weak things of the world
confounded the strong, not only because the Holy
Spirit granted the dew of his blessing, but because the
scheme and message of reconciliation which the church
was commissioned to announce, were of divine construction.
Each Christian who tries, however humbly, to
spread the knowledge of Christ by word or by example
is helping forward the Redeemer's kingdom. Let each
one in Christ's strength do his duty, and he will leave
the world better than he found it; and in the present
age, as in the times of old, Gnosticism and heathenism
will retire before Christianity; the false will be dissipated,
the good be absorbed, by the beams of the Sun
of righteousness.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a>
<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>
<a name="Lecture_III" id="Lecture_III" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture III. Free Thought During The Middle Ages, and At The Renaissance;
Together With Its Rise in Modern Times.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Luke</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> xxi. 33.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heaven and earth shall pass away; but my
words shall not pass away.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have studied the history of unbelief down to the
fall of heathenism. A period of more than seven
hundred years elapses before a second crisis of doubt
occurs in church history. The interval was a time of
social dissolution and reconstruction; and when the
traces of the free criticism of religion reappear, the
world in which they manifest themselves is new. Fresh
races have been introduced, institutions unknown to the
ancient civilization have been mingled with or have replaced
the old; and the ancient language of the Roman
empire has dissolved into the Romance tongues. But
Christianity has lived through the deluge, and been the
ark of refuge in the storm; and its claims are now tested
by the young world which emerged into being when
the waters of confusion had retired. The silence of
reason in this interval was not the result of the abundance
of piety, but of the prevalence of ignorance; a
sign of the absence of inquiry, not of the presence of
moral and mental satisfaction.<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> Even when speculation
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
revived, and reason re-examined religion, the literary
monuments in which expression is given to doubt are so
few, that it will be possible in the present lecture not
only to include the account of the second and third
crises which mark the course of free thought in church
history, but even to pass beyond them, and watch the
dawn of unbelieving criticism caused by the rise of the
modern philosophy which ushers in the fourth of the
great crises named in a previous lecture.<a id="noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The former of these periods which we shall now examine,
the second in the general scheme, may be considered
to extend from A.D. 1100 to 1400. Its commencement
is fixed by the date at which the scholastic
philosophy began to influence religion, its close by the
revival of classical learning. The history of free thought
in it is complicated, by being to some extent the struggle
of deeds as well as of ideas, a social as well as a religious
struggle. It was the period which witnessed
both the dissolution of feudalism and the theocratic centralization
in the popedom; and while reason struggled
on the one side against the dogmatic system, it struggled
on the other to assert the rights of the state against the
church, and to put restraints upon the privileges, dominion,
and wealth, of the pope and clergy. The social
struggle, to vindicate the liberty of the state against the
undue power of the church, so far as it is the effect of
free thought, appertains to our subject, in the same
manner as was the case with the early attempts of a
converse character of the Roman emperors to deny due
liberty to the church, whenever, as in the case of Julian,
they were the result of a deliberate examination of religion.
Free thought in the middle ages is at once
Protestantism, Scepticism, and Ghibellinism.<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The intellectual action in this crisis is marked by
four forms;—(1) the criticism created by the scholastic
philosophy, which has been thought to mark in Abélard
the commencement of doubt; (2) the introduction of
the idea of progress in religion, in the sense that Christianity
is to be replaced by a better religion; (3) the
idea of the comparison of Christianity with other religions,
so as to obliterate its exceptional character; (4)
the traces of disbelief in the doctrine of immortality.
The two former are free thought as doubt, the two latter
as disbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be necessary, for illustrating the first of those
forms, to explain the nature of the scholastic philosophy,
so far as to show how it might become the means
of producing heresy or scepticism, when applied to
theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Scholasticism is the vague name which describes the
system of inquiry common in the middle ages.<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href="#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> In
truth it marks a period rather than a system; a method
rather than a philosophy. In spite of difference of
form, it links itself with the speculations of other ages
in community of aim, in that it strove to gain a general
philosophy of the universe, to reach some few principles
which might offer an interpretation of all difficulties.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the present age the science which attempts this
grand problem is denominated Logic, or Metaphysics,
according to the different sphere which it covers.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> But
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in the middle ages these two fields were not clearly distinguished;
in the same manner as in the Διαλεκτικὴ
of Plato, method and the realities attained by method
were not separated.<a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a>
Yet it was mainly in reference
to the former that scholasticism wears the aspect of a
method, and to the latter the aspect of a philosophy.
Adopting deduction as the type of a perfect science, it
assumed its data partly on the ground of innate ideas,
partly from the truths of revelation, partly from the
metaphysical dicta of Aristotle; and from these principles
attempted to work out deductively a solution of
universal nature. It was the Σοφία of Aristotle executed
from a Christian point of view. In respect to the
logical method there was a general agreement of opinion,
but difference of system arose in the metaphysical.
The form that the problem of science then assumed was
peculiar. Instead of examining the data from which
deduction starts, with a view of finding their subjective
certainty as thoughts, the inquirers strove to settle the
problem of their objective nature as things. The question
asked was this: Are the genera and species which
the mind contemplates, in its attempts to classify and
interpret phenomena, real in nature, or produced only
by human thought and speech? A comparison with
the modern mode of investigation will explain the importance
which the question possessed, and the reason
why it monopolized the entire field of inquiry.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The progress of discovery has forced upon us a subdivision
of the sciences into two classes, unknown in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the middle ages; in one of which we discover causes;
in the other, in which we are unable to find causes, we
rest content with classification by species and genera.
In the former we discover antecedents, in the latter
types.<a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> But in mediæval
science, as in Greek, the latter
class was regarded as the sole form of all perfect
science. Hence the reason will appear why the question
as to the true nature of genera and species had a
monopoly of the field of inquiry; and also why the theory
of predication was exalted into the most important
part of logic.<a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> Those who thought that genera had a
real existence as essences apart from man's mind and
from nature, were denominated Realists: those who
denied to them any real existence, and considered them
to be a common quality labelled by a common name,
were Nominalists: those who held the intermediate
view, and assumed them to exist, not only as artificial
names but also as general classes in the human mind,
were Conceptualists. With the realist, classification was
not arbitrary, but true and determined for man. With
the nominalist and conceptualist it was created by man,
and amenable to correction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The question, though now relegated from metaphysical
to physical science, has still sufficient importance to
enable us to perceive likewise the reason why these different
theories could be the means of dividing men into
parties. The bitterness with which a zoological inquiry
of analogous character into the perpetuity of natural
species<a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> has been lately assailed may enable us to realize
the earnestness shown on this point in the middle
ages. The question, as viewed by the schoolmen, was
really the fundamental one as respects knowledge; and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the opinions on it are the counterpart to those which relate
to the tests of truth and the nature of being in modern
metaphysics. The spirit of realism was essentially
the spirit of dogmatism, the disposition to pronounce
that truth was already known.<a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> Nominalism was essentially
the spirit of progress, of inquiry, of criticism.
Realism was in spirit deductive, starting from accepted
dogmas: Nominalism was in spirit, though not in form,
inductive. It tested classifications, and admitted opportunities
for the existence of doubt. <span class="tei tei-q">“Believe that
you may know,”</span> was the expression of the former:
<span class="tei tei-q">“Know that you may believe,”</span> that of the latter.<a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The two theories were of universal application to
every subject of thought. An illustration will explain
their relation to theology. In the foolish and almost
irreverent attempts to explain by philosophy the nature
of the triune existence of the divine Being, the realist
assuming the reality of the one genus Deity, was prepared
to allow identity of essence in the three species,
the three members of the Divine Trinity. The nominalist,
allowing only concrete existence, was obliged either
to accept unity, only in a verbal sense, and be charged
with tritheism, as Roscelin; or diversity only in a verbal
sense, and incur the charge of Sabellianism, as Abélard.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was Scholasticism, and such its relation to
philosophy and theology.<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> Existing for several centuries
as an instinct, it became about the end of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
eleventh century an intelligent movement.<a id="noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> At this
period the problem was consciously proposed, and each
of the three centuries which are comprised in our present
period exhibits a different phase of the controversy.
At first the movement was in favour of the nominalism
in Roscelin and Abélard, and reason assumed an
attitude of alleged scepticism: in the thirteenth century
the victory was in the hands of intelligent realists like
Aquinas, who used reason in favour of orthodoxy. In
the fourteenth, nominalism revived in Occam; the provinces
of faith and philosophy were severed, and the
final victory on the metaphysical question remained in
the hands of the nominalists.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The scientific position of Abélard will thus be clear.
We must now study his intellectual character, as embodying
the sceptical aspect which belonged to nominalism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Abélard's character is in many respects one of the
most curious in history.<a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> The record of his trials, bodily
and mental,<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> enlists the romantic sympathy of the
sentimentalist, and commands the serious attention of
the philosopher. His wonderful reputation at Paris as
a public lecturer connects him with the university life
of the middle ages, and presents him as the type of the
class of great professors created by the absence of books
and consequent prevalence of oral instruction. It was
his vast influence which made his opinions of importance,
and aroused the opposition of St. Bernard. It
seems to have been the application of the nominalist
philosophy to the doctrine of the Trinity, contained in
Abélard's works on dogmatic theology,<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> which excited
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
alarm. The council called at Sens<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> was a theological
duel, wherein those two distinguished characters were
matched, the most eloquent theologian and preacher
against the most influential professor and philosopher;
the saint against the critic. Bernard was right in his
Theology; Abélard perhaps right in his philosophy.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href="#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a>
This event however presents the effects of scholasticism
in producing heresy rather than scepticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The great work which has laid Abélard open to the
latter charge merits a brief notice. It was entitled the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, and remained unpublished in the public
documents of France till recent years.<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href="#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> It is a collection
of alleged contradictions, which exist on a series of
topics, which range over the deepest problems of theology,
and descend to the confines of casuistry in ethics.<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href="#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a>
In the discussion of them Abélard collects passages
from the scriptures and from the fathers in favour of
two distinctly opposite solutions. He has however prefixed
a prologue to the work, which ought to be taken
as the explanation of his object.<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> He insists in it on
the difficulty of rightly understanding the scriptures or
the fathers, and refers it to eight different causes;<a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href="#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> advising
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
that when these considerations fail to explain the
apparent contradictions of scripture, we should abandon
the manuscripts as inaccurate, rather than believe in
the existence of real discrepancies. He draws also a
broad distinction between canonical scripture and
other literature, strongly affirming the authority of the
former.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Is this work sceptical? Is it designed under a fair
show to serve the purpose of unbelief? Or is it merely
an instance of the awakening of the spirit of inquiry,
the free criticism exercised by nominalism, the desire
to prove all dogmas by reason? In other words, was
the freethinking of Abélard rationalism, or was it merely
Protestantism and theological criticism?
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These questions have met with different answers.
The Benedictine editors, viewing his condemnation by
St. Bernard as parallel to that of the biblical critic R.
Simon<a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> by Bossuet, declined to publish the
manuscript of his work.<a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> More recent inquirers, especially the
philosophical critic Cousin, have regarded Abélard with
a favourable eye. They consider his treatises merely to
be a provisional scepticism, fortifying the mind against
premature solutions. Some would even claim him as
an early protestant, as the first of the line of men whose
spirits, while fretting under the dogmatic teaching or
the political centralization of the Western church, have
unhesitatingly bowed before the authority of scripture.<a id="noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Possibly these several views contain elements of truth.
Abélard's character was complex, and the purpose of
his book equally so. He embodied a movement, and
experience had not yet taught men to distinguish in it
the boundaries which separated the provinces of free
thought. The argument in favour of scepticism drawn
from the form of his work seems unfair. The statement
of a series of paradoxes is lawful, if a solution of them
be offered, or an explanation of the reason why a solution
is impossible. The disputative, dialectical tone
which assists in the work was the ordinary mode of instruction
in the mediæval universities, and finds a parallel
in the method of thought observable in other ages.
Abélard's statement of paradoxes, of an unsolved mass
of contradictions, recalls, for example, the early paradoxes
on motion which Zeno presented for the purpose
of compelling acquiescence in the Eleatic teaching,<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> or
the series of antinomies which Kant has given, as problems
insoluble theoretically, but capable of harmony
when viewed on the moral side.<a id="noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> In truth it is the
mark, either, as in one of these cases, of the first awakening
of the mind to curiosity; or, as in the other, of
the last limit at which curiosity is compelled to pause.
Abélard's method is like that which is observable in
Socrates, and in those early dialogues of his disciple
Plato, in which the pupil is working in his master's
manner, wherein difficulties are propounded without being
solved. The hearer is cross-questioned, with the
view of being made to feel the necessity of possessing
knowledge; and a method is offered to him by which
he is to find the solution of problems for himself.<a id="noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> In
this view Abélard's doubt is really the inquiry which
is the first step to faith; the criticism which precedes
the constructive process, the negation before affirmation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While its form may be regarded as an embodiment
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the scholastic method, the manner of handling marks
the commencement of modern biblical criticism. The
suggestions which he offers<a id="noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a>
in reference to false readings
of manuscripts, the spuriousness of books, and the
temporary character of the author's sentiments, as elements
in determining the reality of a contradiction, or
the necessary rejection of a passage on grounds of dogmatic
improbability, mark a sagacity which has been
perfected into a science by the growth of modern criticism.
Thus far we have only the elements of inquiry
and criticism which enter into doubt; yet it would
be unfair to deny that something of unbelief may have
been found in a restless care-worn spirit like that of
Abélard; and if any one thinks that he intended in
his work to leave the reader with the impression that
the solution is impossible, or that the doubter's side is
the stronger, then we may consider him to have been an
unbeliever, and regard his teaching as an example, often
witnessed in later times, of a concealed irony, which,
while pretending to accept revelation, has represented
its evidence as insufficient, and its doctrines as unprovable.
If however he be taken to be a sceptic, it is only
the infancy of doubt. It is unlike the bitter disbelief
shown by the early antichristian writers, or by the
doubters of modern times. Whatever was valuable in
the free thought of Abélard outlived his time. The
spirit of inquiry which spoke through him, continued
to operate in his successors.<a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> His method was even
adopted by his opponents. His follower, Arnold of
Brescia, carried free thought from ideas into acts, and
suffered martyrdom in a premature struggle against the
papal church.<a id="noteref_281" name="noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> Being dead, Abélard yet spoke, both
politically and philosophically; and his character remains
as a type of the spirit of mingled doubt and hope
and inquiry which is exhibited in the free thought of any
of those great epochs, when knowledge is increased, and
when earnest minds are standing in doubt whether the
new wine can be placed in the old bottles.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The movement, which was beginning to be felt in
every branch of life and thought in the twelfth century,
was still more manifest in the course of the thirteenth,
an age, which, whether viewed in its great men or great
deeds, its movements political, ecclesiastical, or intellectual,
is the most remarkable of the middle ages, and
one of the most memorable in history.<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" href="#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> The activity
of speculation is evidenced by the increasing alarm
which alleged heresy like the Albigensian was causing,
and by the establishment of the system of ecclesiastical
police<a id="noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> which developed into the inquisition. About
the middle of the century, the influence of free thought
in religion is supposed to have made its appearance, in
a work which originated with one of the newly created
mendicant orders. A book which had appeared at the
beginning of the century, entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the Everlasting
Gospel,”</span> was now edited with an introduction by some
person of influence in the Franciscan order.<a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href="#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> The idea
conveyed was, that, as there are three Persons in the
Godhead, so there must be three dispensations; that of
the Father which ended at the coming of Christ, that
of the Son which was then about to conclude, and that
of the Spirit, of which the religious ideal of the Franciscans
was the embodiment.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work caused immense alarm, and was condemned
by the council of Arles,<a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href="#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a>
on the ground that it
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
assumed that Christianity was imperfect, and was to be
replaced by a superior revelation developing from natural
causes. It is doubtful whether the book was really
intended to be sceptical. More probably it was mystical.
Claiming to be founded on an apocalyptic idea,<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href="#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> it was a
revival of the Chiliasm which haunted the Christians
of Asia Minor in the early centuries; perhaps also it
was the utterance of the spiritual yearning which marked
the rise of the Franciscan order, and a protest against
the worldliness of the times. It was connected too with
the longings for political deliverance from the temporal
dominion of the Popedom which were now beginning
to be felt. In these latter aspects the idea, so far from
being false, was an advance. Christianity from time to
time admits a progress, but from within rather than
from without; a deeper spiritual appreciation of old
truths rather than a reception of new ones. The demand
for progress becomes a ground for alarm only
when it implies that the world has bidden farewell to
Christianity, either through the mystical expectation of a
Millennial reign which is to supersede it, or through the
sceptical belief that our religion has only an historic
value, and needs remodelling to meet the requirements
of advancing civilization. If the latter was the meaning
of this utterance of the Franciscan book, the idea
was the germ of the modern conception of the function
of Christianity in <span class="tei tei-q">“the education of the race,”</span> the first
statement of which is usually attributed to Lessing.<a id="noteref_287" name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The same century which gave birth to this <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mot</span></span>,
expressive of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">progress in religion</span></span>, created also another
which embodied the idea of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">comparative study of
religions</span></span>. This phrase may have different meanings.
It may signify the comparison of Christianity with ethnic
creeds in its external and internal character, without
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
sacrificing the belief that a divinely revealed element
exists in it, which caused it to differ from them in kind as
well as degree. Or it may mean a comparison of Christianity
with other religions, as equally false with them,
equally a deliberate and conscious invention of priestcraft
which was the shocking view adopted by writers
like Volney in the last century,<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href="#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> or else a comparison of
it as equally true with them, as equally a psychological
development of the religious intelligence, which is the
view prevalent in many noted works on the philosophy
of history in the present.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href="#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> It was the second of these
ideas, expressive of actual incredulity, which existed
in the thirteenth century. It is traceable in the imputation
made by Gregory IX<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href="#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> against the celebrated
emperor Frederick II, that he had spoken of Moses,
Christ, and Mahomet, as the three great impostors who
had respectively deceived the Jews, the Christians, and
the Arabs.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The very possibility of the existence of such a comparison
presupposes intercourse with disciples of foreign
creeds. The Christians now no longer possessed a
merely vague knowledge of Jews and Mahometans.
The crusades were expiring, the danger which evoked
them had subsided, and the enmity which supported
them was decaying. Europe had entered into relations
of commerce, if not of amity, with Mahometan nations;
and through contact with them had come to measure
them by an altered standard, and to acquire the idea of
comparing religions. Frederick II, to whom this expression
is imputed, is stated to have manifested admiration
of Mahometan literature, and affection for his
Mahometan subjects who afforded him aid in carrying
out the plans of civilization which his powerful mind
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
had formed;<a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a>
and it was his indifference to a crusade,
induced probably by other causes, which led the Pope
to impute to him the blasphemy just quoted. The contact
with the East, half a century later, in like manner
afforded the pretext for fastening a charge of unbelief
on the Knights Templars.<a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> Contact with Mahometans
had thus, we have reason to believe, created a latitude
of thought in many parts of Christendom.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The same idea of the comparison of Christianity with other creeds reappears
in a tale of Boccaccio,<a id="noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> in
which the three great religions are represented under
the allegory of three rings which a father gave to his
children, so exactly alike that the judges could not
decide which was the genuine one of the three, and
which the copies. It is also illustrated by the tradition
of the existence of a book, entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“De Tribus Impostoribus,”</span>
which has been attributed almost to every
great name in the middle ages which was conspicuous
for opposition to the claims of the church, or for uneasiness
under the pressure of its dogmatic teaching.
The existence of the book is legendary: no one ever
saw it: and the two distinct works which now bear the
title can be shown to have been composed respectively
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: but the
legend is a witness to the fact of the existence of the
idea which the book was said to embody. (<a href="#Note_20" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is perhaps in some degree to the influence of the
doctrine of absorption in the Mahometan philosophy of
Averroes, a commentator on Aristotle, who was the
contemporary of Abélard, that we may attribute the
disbelief in immortality to which we find a tendency
toward the close of the thirteenth and during the fourteenth
century.<a id="noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a>
Though it is probable that the indirect
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
influence of the Arabic philosophy was felt earlier,
in stimulating a demand for inquiry, a disposition to
make dogmas submit to the test of reason, which has
been shown to be the earliest form of mediæval doubt;
yet it was not until the thirteenth century that the
works of Averroes definitely influenced scholasticism,
through the teaching of Michael Scot and Alexander
Hales, and by means of the rapidity of intellectual communication
which forms so singular a feature in mediæval
history, spread their influence in Italy as well as in
France. It was at this time that the doctrine of Averroes
was attacked by Aquinas; and though the amount
of its influence can hardly be estimated, we have the
means of tracing the growth of dislike to its author in
Christian lands, which is an incidental probability of
the increasing danger to Christianity arising from it.
In the middle of the thirteenth century the Franciscans
study him without evincing hatred. About the end of
it Dante describes him still without reproaches, though
he places him in the Inferno along with other heathen
philosophers:<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href="#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> but half a century later, in the pictures
of the last judgment which exist in several states of
Italy, each a little historic satire with its own peculiarities,
we find Averroes depicted as the type of incredulity
and blasphemy. In a fresco of the Campo Santo
of Pisa, executed about 1335, when perhaps the recent
canonization of Aquinas as an opponent of Averroes
had directed attention to the influence of the Arabic
philosopher, Orcagna has placed a separate <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">bolgia</span></span>, the
lowest in his hell, for three persons,—Mahomet, Anti-christ,
and Averroes.<a id="noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The disbelief of immortality was however too obvious
a temptation in a corrupt age, as well as too generally
spread, especially in the next century, to be wholly
attributable to the subtle influence of the doctrine of
absorption of the Arabic philosophy. A mediæval
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
English poet<a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href="#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> attributes incredulity to the higher
classes of his age; and Dante, in that poem which is a
romantic picture of his contemporaries or predecessors,
when devoting one circle of the Inferno to the habitation
of the <span class="tei tei-q">“more than a thousand”</span> of those <span class="tei tei-q">“who
make the soul die with the body,”</span> attributes the cause
of the sin to Epicureanism, a moral and not an intellectual
cause.<a id="noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> It is a sad and humiliating thought to
reflect also that a cause which must have increased
incredulity, if it did not create it, was to be found in
the vices of the clergy, especially near the papal court
of Avignon. Most of the distinguished laymen whom
history records as evincing unbelief belonged to the
political party, which strove to repress the political
centralization and temporal authority of the church;
and it is to be feared that the causes just named were
the means of repelling more deeply from religion the
hearts of such persons whose interests or whose vices
already led them to hate its promoters.<a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href="#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have thus collected the few traces which mark
the history of free thought in the second great crisis of
church history, and incidentally illustrated its connexion
with social movements as well as religious, and shown
its relation to intellectual or moral causes. On the
intellectual side we have witnessed the scholastic philosophy
giving activity to the spirit of change, and contact
with Mahometan life and opinion imparting the
latitude to Christian thought which passed into incredulity.
On the moral we have noticed that the effect of
social wants or of actual viciousness gave birth respectively
to religious restlessness, or to actual disbelief of
the supernatural. The church of the time was not
unaware of the movement. In part it tried to repress
it by persecution and by the Inquisition; but in part
also by the lawful weapon of spiritual contest. The
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
grand works of defence of the thirteenth century, which
adjusted scholastic philosophy to dogmatic theology,
and the spiritual activity of the mendicant orders, were
real and lawful means of victory, appealing respectively
to the intellect and heart.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The moral judgment formed on the movement seen
in the whole period must vary with the phase of it
viewed. The attack is not, like those of the early unbelievers,
a struggle with which the sympathies of Christians
cannot be enlisted. The darker aspects of it partake
indeed of the same character; but it embodies a
better element, a nobler form of movement, tainted perhaps
with doubt, but not with disbelief; viz. the attempt
of the human mind to assert its rights in philosophy,
theology, and politics; and as the epoch closes,
the great truth has made itself felt in the world as the
result of the contest, that Christianity is supreme only
within its own sphere, which it is the problem of religious
philosophy to discover; that freedom of inquiry
is to be used outside the boundary, but that speculation
must expire in adoration within it.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A new crisis may be considered to commence in the
fifteenth century, in consequence of the introduction of
fresh influences through the classical revival. Yet as
the two periods are connected in time, the transition is
not sudden: the old influences gradually vanish away;
the new ones had been slowly preparing before they
became distinctly evident. The intellectual and social
activity of the past period had been the means of educating
the mind of Europe for the reception of the new
forces which were now beginning to operate.<a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The fifteenth century was a remarkable period for
Europe, and preeminently for Italy. During several
ages Italy had grown great by means of commerce and
religion. The crusades, which had impoverished the
rest of Europe, had enriched her; and the subjugation
of the nations to the court of Rome had made her the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
treasury of Europe. Material wealth permitted the
encouragement of the study of literature, which relations
of commerce or of conquest with the Greek
empire had been the means of reviving. Manuscripts
were collected, and the remains of monuments of classic
art were studied. The love of antiquity gave perfection
to art, and influenced literature. The work which
centuries had slowly prepared now came to perfection.
The scholastic philosophy declined; the sources of
ecclesiastical education and of the existing religion were
weakened; and by the close of the fifteenth century
the tone of the age was in all respects changed. The
devotion which had expressed itself in the great Gothic
works of devotion of early ages was expiring, at least in
Italy, and art itself gradually became secular, and
expressed ideas more earthly.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When such a moment of material prosperity, combined
with intellectual and social change, ensues immediately
on the movement previously sketched, we should
expect to find religion subjected to re-examination, and
placed in temporary peril. The history confirms the
supposition. If we regard this crisis as embracing
about two centuries and a quarter,<a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> comprehending the
classical revival, the opening of a new geographical
world, and the great religious changes of the Reformation,—a
period commencing with the Renaissance, and
closed by the creation of modern philosophy;—we shall
find two principal movements of unbelief for investigation,
the one caused by literature, a return to a spirit of
heathenism analogous to that already described in
Julian; the second caused by philosophy, a revival of
pantheism. The first belonged especially to the close
of the fifteenth century, and had its seat for the most
part in Tuscany and Rome; the second to the sixteenth,
and was represented in the university of Padua.
In both these movements, especially in the former, the
open expression of unbelief in literature is rare, though
the incidental proofs of its existence are abundant. It
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
was a time of the dissolution of faith, not of overt
attack. Unbelief was Epicurean indifference, rather
than earnestness in destroying the old creed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two of the most obvious proofs that we can select
for proving the existence of a state of unbelief<a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a> are,
the ridicule of religion expressed in the burlesque
poetry of the time, and the antichristian sympathies of
several distinguished men.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It would be incorrect however to attribute the satirical
allusions in the poetry wholly to the influence of
the classical revival; for the romantic epic in which
they occur is the offshoot of the old prose romance of
mediæval chivalry, which had in earlier ages amused
the courts of princes by directing its banter against
ecclesiastical persons and institutions.<a id="noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> But the tone
of the poetry is now changed. The satire is directed
against religion itself, not merely against the abuse of
it, or the eccentricities of its adherents. Free thought
is not merely political dissatisfaction, but religious unbelief.
And with the alteration of the tone agrees also
the increasing disposition to carry satire into the domain
of the supernatural; which thus witnesses to the widespread
unbelief in the hearers for whom it was designed.
Italian critics have doubted indeed whether these epics
are designed to convey a caricature, or pass beyond
lawful satire:<a id="noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> yet even when allowance is made for
the fact that they are an historic reproduction, and for
the fund presented for humour by ecclesiastical peculiarities,
it seems impossible to overlook the covert
satire intended on church beliefs.<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" href="#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> The intermixture
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of a comic element would not alone prove this. The
miracle plays of the middle ages admitted comedy without
intending irreverence;<a id="noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a>
and a gentle humour pervades
many of the Autos of Calderon, which were acted
on solemn festivals.<a id="noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> But there exists in the manner in
which the supernatural element is managed by such
poets as Pulci, Bello, and Ariosto, such evident purpose
to bring into ridicule the existence of belief, that its
parallel can only be found in the banter used by their
imitator Byron, in his Vision of Judgment, and implies
indifference both in author and reader; the expression
of contempt, not of anger.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href="#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The unbelief which existed in the courts for which
this poetry was written, is a specimen of the general
incredulity, or indifference to Christianity, which prevailed
among the educated classes, and was fostered by
classical studies and tastes. It seems strange to us, who
have been long accustomed to regard classical culture
as the basis of general education, and who are impressed
with the conviction of the great assistance ministered
by it to theological study, to regard it as the producing
cause of unbelief. This result of it however was a
transitory one, originating in the shock which arose from
the novel thoughts and tastes which mingled themselves
with the ancient pursuits, and altered the previous
ideal of life. Ever since the earliest times, a chasm
had unavoidably separated heathen literature from
Christian; and a dislike to heathen studies existed,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which found its full expression in Gregory the Great.<a id="noteref_309" name="noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a>
The result was, that the Christian civilization did not
consciously admit the introduction of heathen thought;
and when the mind awoke suddenly to a perception of
its beauty and depth, though deeper spirits, like Erasmus,
regarded it with the enlightened Christian approbation
which Origen had formerly shown, others were
led, like Julian of old, from their admiration of it, to
look with indifference or hostility on Christianity.
Some of the brilliant and elevated minds that adorned
the court of the Medicis were suspected of unbelief, or
of preferring Platonism to Christianity;<a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href="#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> and after the
woes of the French invasion at the end of the century
had deepened the corruption of morals, and stamped
out political liberty, the last freshness of artistic creation,
which had linked the public mind to Christianity
through the deep instincts of the taste, disappeared.
The art and literature which succeeded are an index of
the tone which prevailed. Gaining perfection in form
by the imitation of classic models, they were cold, sensuous,
unspiritual.<a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href="#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> Classical mythology was intermixed
with gospel doctrines; and the early years of
the sixteenth century represent the semi-heathen tone
of thought which was the transition to the perfect
fusion which afterwards took place of the old learning
and the new. It was an age similar to those of modern
times in France and Germany, which have been called
periods of humanism, when hope suggests the inauguration
of a new moral and social era, and the pride of
knowledge produces a general belief in the power of
civilization to become the sole remedy for evil.<a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href="#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The social conditions of the age added moral causes
to the intellectual, which tended to increase the unbelief,
especially in the literary classes. One of them is
perhaps to be found in the fact that the church prizes
were the only reward for authorship. By the beginning
of the sixteenth century authors became largely appreciated
through the press, and received patronage at the
courts of the various Τύραννοι who had established
themselves on the ruins of the old republics. In the
absence of any law of copyright there was no protection
for them,<a id="noteref_313" name="noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> and consequently no reward except church
patronage, which was therefore conferred indiscriminately,
and tended to foster disbelief in the very recipients
of it. A merely professional hold of religion is the
surest road to absolute disbelief. It is inconceivable
that the ecclesiastical scandals which history blushes to
narrate, could have been perpetrated by believers; and
the unbelief imputed to persons in high station, such as
Leo X with other popes, and cardinals such as Bembo,
was doubtless, if true, partly the result of the degrading
effects of professional insincerity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a state of unbelief could not be permanent,
whether it was the result of a decaying system, or of
the introduction of new influences. Nor would we use
unnecessarily a polemical tone in speaking of a period
where there is so much cause for Christian humiliation;
yet it is worthy of notice that such facts are a refutation
of the attack which has frequently been made on
Protestantism, as the cause of eclecticism and unbelief.
The two great crises in church history, when faith
almost entirely died out, and free thought developed
into total disbelief of the supernatural, have been in
Romish countries; viz., in Italy in this period, and in
France during the eighteenth century. In both the
experiment of the authoritative system of the catholic
religion had a fair trial, and was found wanting.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Other causes besides the classical revival were
operating to stimulate activity of mind and freedom of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
inquiry. It was an age in which the great system
of the middle ages was finally dissolving. The discovery
of new worlds seemed at once to call to Europe
to break connexion with the old centre of ecclesiastical
centralization; and to invite to that study of nature
which should elevate, and as it were emancipate the
mind, by teaching physical truth and the true method
of discovery.<a id="noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a>
Political circumstances too, contributed
toward the creation of ecclesiastical autonomy. The
European nations had gradually grown into united
families, and were now ready for cooperation in a system
of balance of power.<a id="noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> The northern nations, long
galled under the power of Rome, were panting for freedom;
Germany first reforming her religion, and then
throwing off her subjection; England first throwing off
her subjection, and then compelled to reform herself.
The old systems of thought were at an end. The
change, like all social ones, was not abrupt, but it was
decisive and final. It was the earthquake which
shattered for ever the crust of error which had fettered
thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is a matter of wonder that the great revolutions
just named passed with so little development of scepticism.
In the nations north of the Alps there is hardly
a trace. The charge of deism, directed in the fifteenth
century against Pecock,<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href="#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> bishop of Chichester, appears
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to have been unfounded. The contest which Ulrich von
Hütten carried on against the monks and schools of
Cologne was literary rather than religious;<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href="#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a>
Hütten being the literary and political reformer rather than the
sceptic. Even the most advanced spirits of the reformers,<a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" href="#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a>
Servetus and the Sozini, came forth from Italy, as
from the centre of free thought. Nor were they unbelievers
in the reality of a revelation; and they met
with no support from the northern reformers. Servetus
was martyred at Geneva, and the Sozini were banished
into Poland. It was the spiritual earnestness which
mingled with the intellectual movement in the Reformation,
which prevented free thought from producing
rationalism or unbelief. Protestantism was a form of
free thought; but only in the sense of a return from
human authority to that of scripture. It was equally
a reliance on an historic religion, equally an appeal to
the immemorial doctrine of the church with Roman
Catholicism; but it conceived that the New Testament
itself contained a truer source than tradition for ascertaining
the apostolic declaration of it.<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319" href="#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But Italy was the witness of another sceptical tendency,
besides that which resulted from the classic
Renaissance, in the last remnant of the influence of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
mediæval philosophy. Throughout the sixteenth century,
pantheism manifested itself in connexion with the
philosophical studies of the university of Padua. The
form in which it made itself felt was the disbelief of the
immortality of the soul on speculative grounds. The
cause of the disbelief was the influence of the philosophy
of Averroes before noticed.<a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href="#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be necessary to explain this system with a
little detail. It has been already stated that Averroes
was a noted commentator on Aristotle in the twelfth
century. The two ground principles of his philosophy
were, the eternity of matter and the impersonality of
mind. On this high subject there can be only two
theories; the one theistic, which declares that God is
free, a personal first Cause, and the Creator of matter,
and that other minds are free and personal; the other
pantheistic, which asserts that matter is eternal, and
that individual minds are only the manifestation of the
impersonal mind, into which the individual is reabsorbed.
Averroes held the latter theory, claiming to
derive it from Aristotle. It must be confessed however
that Aristotle's views are uncertain on this point: he
distinguished between mind, immortal and relative, the
latter of which, being connected with body, ceased at
death; the former outlived it. But he hardly stated
the doctrine that all souls are part of the universal soul,
and is silent about their reabsorption into it. These
points were added by Averroes.<a id="noteref_321" name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The influence of the philosophy of Averroes is observable
in three classes of thinkers; viz., the Spanish
Jews of his own century, the scholastic philosophers of
the thirteenth, and the philosophers of the university
of Padua in the fourteenth and succeeding ages. The
second of these effects has been already traced: we
must now notice the third.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Padua was the great medical university of the fifteenth
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and sixteenth centuries, and was a type of the
tendency which at that time manifested itself in the
north-eastern part of Italy toward material and rational
studies, as in Tuscany to ideal and humanistic. It
was the medical philosophy of Averroes which had first
attracted attention to him. But the influence of his
teaching was innocuous there until the sixteenth century,
during the whole of which this university became
the home of free thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Strict accuracy would require the separation of two
tendencies in the Peripatetic school of Padua, each derived
from one of Aristotle's commentators.<a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href="#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> The one
was the Averroist just named, which consisted in the
disbelief of immortality on the ground of absorption.
Man's soul, being part of the great soul which animates
the universe, both emanates from it, and is again reabsorbed.
The other was the Alexandrist, so called from
following Alexander of Aphrodisias,<a id="noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> which consisted
in a tendency to pure materialism, an absolute denial
of immortality and of religion, which almost reaches
the incredulity earlier expressed in the legend of the
Three Impostors. Pomponatius is the declared representative
of the latter view soon after the beginning of
the century.<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" href="#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> Frequently however the unbelief was
secret, and a seeming show of orthodoxy was maintained
by drawing a broad distinction between philosophy
and theology; and by teaching that these views,
though seen to be true in the one, were to be accounted
false in obedience to the teaching of the other.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is customary to class along with the Averroists
some philosophers of a more original turn; some of
whom were only indirectly connected with Padua, but
rather were examples of an attempt to substitute a philosophy
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in place of that which was expiring. They are
said to have manifested the same kind of pantheism,
and to have been led by it to similar disbelief. Such
are Cesalpini, Cardan,<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href="#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a> Bruno, and Vanini. The
charge is perhaps unfair against the two former, as they
seem to have held the separate immortality of souls,
which is more compatible with theism. The two latter
represent the two schools just noticed, about the end of
the sixteenth century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Bruno<a id="noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> belonged mainly to the Averroist school,
though his views were probably formed independently,
and certainly extended farther. He not only held the
existence of a soul pervading the universe, which is the
form of Pantheism which has been already considered,
but followed the earlier philosophy of the Neo-Platonists
in identifying the soul with the matter which it animates;
regarding the one as an emanation from the
other, in the same manner as an effect is merely cause
or force transferred. It is this belief which occurs in
Spinoza, which is properly denominated Pantheism,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
where the Creator is forgotten in creation. The former
line of Pantheism noticed in Averroes approaches more
nearly to theism. Bruno's unbelief was not gay and
flippant, but sombre and earnest. With a fantastical
conceit which can hardly be explained, he travelled as
the missionary to propagate his own views like a knight
errant tilting at all opinions, with a soul especially embittered
against the Christian priesthood.<a id="noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> On his return
to Italy from his travels he fell into the hands of
the church, and suffered death for his opinions.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Vanini<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href="#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a>
similarly led a wandering life, but is a
character of less seriousness: occasionally he manifested
the inconsistency of indifference to his own opinions.
Reverencing the memory of Pomponatius, he expressed
the same disbelief of the spiritual and of immortality.
He was possibly an atheist. Certainly his views were
tinged with deep bitterness against religion; and after
leading a restless life, he suffered a cruel martyrdom for
his belief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Bruno and Vanini were the apostles of a doctrine
which the world would no longer hear. The dawn of
physical knowledge was turning men to a truer study
of the universe, and caused their labours to be in vain.
The age of indifference was gone. The alarm caused
by the Reformation had kindled a strong ecclesiastical
reaction, especially in Italy, and the religious earnestness
and intellectual activity of Germany had awoke an
intelligent reaction on the part of the Catholic church.<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href="#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a>
Hence these two writers incurred a danger unknown to
their predecessors. Martyrs are men who are before
their age or behind it. Their sad fate throws an interest
around their lives. Unbelief must always have its
confessors. It is to be hoped that the inhumanity of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Christendom will never again cause it to have its
martyrs.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The survey is now complete of the crisis which occurred
in the transition from the middle ages to modern
history, forming the third of those enumerated in a former
lecture, we have witnessed amidst its complexity
the manifestation of the same principles as in former
epochs; the restlessness of the human mind struggling
to be free, intellectually, politically, religiously; and we
have endeavoured to trace the operation of the influence
of classical literature and metaphysical philosophy
in inducing the decay of Christian feeling and belief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The means adopted for counteracting the movement
were similar to those used in former periods, viz. an intellectual
argument and a spiritual awakening. In
some instances, indeed, in accordance with the spirit of
the time, or more truly with the spirit of human nature,
material force and cruelty were employed, and the unbeliever
was silenced by martyrdom. But neither material
power nor the autocratic unity of the Roman
church was able to repress the growth of the human
mind. Conviction must be directed, not crushed. The
revival of books of evidences, as soon as printing became
common, about the close of the fifteenth century, which
were designed to confirm faith, was a more lawful form
of warfare.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" href="#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a>
They were constructed however on a
basis unsuited to an age when first principles were being
reconsidered, being an attempt to establish the authority
of the church and the duty of submission to an external
form of faith, and lacked the surer basis adopted in
Protestant works of evidence, which is found in the external
divine authority of the Bible rather than the
church. The creation of the order of the Jesuits,
though directed more against Protestantism than against
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
unbelief, was a witness, like the previous reactionary
movement of the scholastic writers in the thirteenth
century, to the wish to wrest the use of learning out of
the hands of the opponents of the church, and to employ
the weapons of reason in defence of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The judgment formed on this epoch of free thought,
when we have separated from it the Protestantism
which craves other satisfaction for the human mind
than that which is implied in submission to human authority,
and the scepticism which was merely transitional
doubt, must be condemnatory. The unbelief was
indeed a phase of the general improvement; but one
which is instructive as a warning rather than as an example,
illustrating the abuse not the use of free thought.
The evil nevertheless was temporary, and belongs to
the past; the good was eternal: and the elements of
real intellectual improvement contained in the struggle
have been taken up into the constitution of modern
thought and society.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now considered three great epochs in the
history of free thought, and watched Christianity in
contact or conflict with the old heathen philosophy,
with the thought Scholastic or Mahometan of the middle
ages, and with the revival of classical learning. It
remains to enter upon the consideration of the fourth,
and to observe it in relation to modern science.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The seventeenth century introduced as striking a
revolution in philosophy as the corresponding ones
which the two preceding ages had produced in literature
and religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two distinct thinkers, Bacon and Descartes, from
different points of view, perceived the necessity for constructing
a new method of inquiry. Their position was
similar to that of Socrates of old. They saw that if
knowledge was to be rendered sound, it must be based
on a new method.<a id="noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> They both alike sought it in experience;
Bacon in sensational, Descartes in intellectual,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the instinctive utterance of consciousness.<a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href="#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> The indirect
effects on religion produced by their teaching will
be seen more fully hereafter. Our present object is to
sketch the influence exercised by Descartes on the theological
speculations of Spinoza, before passing in succeeding
lectures to the detailed study of those peculiarities
which free thought has presented in the different
countries in which it has been manifested.<a id="noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Spinoza's memory has been branded with the stigma
which attached to his character during life.<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href="#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> Born in
Holland, of Jewish origin, his early repudiation of the
legends of the Talmud in which he was educated, caused
his excommunication by his own people. Finding himself
an outcast, he sought society among a few sceptical
friends, one of whom was a physician named Van den
Ende, whom a sense of injustice united to him by the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
bond of common sympathy. His life was passed in retirement,
in hard, griping poverty. Possessing a mind
of great originality, and a fondness for demonstrative
reasoning never surpassed, he lived a model of chaste
submissive virtue, searching for speculative truth;
branded as an atheist in philosophy while living, and
regarded since his death as the parent of many of the
worst forms of rationalism in religion. Yet his character
is one that cannot fail to excite a certain kind of
pity. Unlike the frivolous selfish atheism, the immoral
Epicureanism, of the French unbelief of the following
century, his investigations were grave, his tone dignified,
his temper gentle, his spirit serious. It is to be
feared that he did not worship God; but he at least
worshipped, at the cost of social martyrdom, what he
thought to be truth. If he did not believe in revealed
religion, he at least tried to embody what he believed
to be its moral precepts. Though we may shrink with
horror from his teaching, we cannot, when we compare
him with other unbelievers, withhold our pity from the
teacher.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His works are short, but weighty. Of his important
treatises, the one, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</span></span>,
shows him as the Biblical critic; the other, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethica</span></span>,
exhibits his philosophy. In the former, written in early
life, he derives his materials and mode of handling from
the Jewish mediæval theologian Maimonides; in the
latter, the product of his riper years, from Descartes.<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href="#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a>
But he had undoubtedly come under the influence of
Descartes before writing the former work, and it is
certain that the effects of it on his own philosophical
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
scheme are already discernible in it. We shall therefore
commence with the latter, and attempt to understand
his philosophy, and its application to religion,
before studying his special criticism of Revelation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Descartes had aimed, like the great thinkers of earlier
times, to gain a general view of the universe of
being; but had sought it by a different mode. Caring
rather for certitude of method, reality in the highest
principles, than for results attained, he had seen that a
knowledge of being must rest on a knowledge of the
consciousness which tells us of being. His principle,
<span class="tei tei-q">“Cogito, ergo sum,”</span> is the expression of this conviction.
Therefore, carrying analysis into the human mind, he
had grasped those ideas which appeal to us with irresistible
clearness, and commend themselves as axioms
requiring no proof; and from these ideas, or rather
from the idea of cause, the primitive of them, regarded
by him as innate, he had demonstrated <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> the
being and attributes of God, and the principles which
dominate in the great fields of knowledge.<a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href="#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Spinoza's object was similar; but he sought to attain
it in a different manner: rejecting, on the one hand,
the dualism by which Descartes had opposed mind and
matter, he regarded each as a different mode of the
same primitive substance, and, on the other, the limited
idea of the divine Being, he conceived that the mind of
man realizes the notion of Him as unlimited. There
are three different opinions in reference to our capacity
of knowing the infinity of God. Either our knowledge
of Him is only negative and relative; we know only
what He is not, and our positive notions of His nature
are drawn from the analogy of human personality; or,
secondly, we have an intuition of His infinity, but so
bare of attributes, that while it guarantees the reality
of our apprehensions of Him, we are dependent on experience
for its development into a conception; or,
thirdly, the human mind can apprehend His infinity
positively, antecedent to the application of limitations
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to it.<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href="#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> The last of these three views belonged to Spinoza,
along with the ancient Eleatics, the Neo-Platonists
of the early ages, and the principal schools of modern
German philosophy. Accordingly he tried to work out
with mathematical rigour in geometrical form a philosophy
of existence, conceiving that the mind grasps the
idea of God as infinite substance, and understands its
development under two modes; viz. extension and
thought: the former the objective act of Deity, the
latter the subjective.<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" href="#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> The universe therefore is nothing
but the manifestation of God: God is the sum total
of it; the unity in its variety; the infinite comprehending
its finity. Cause and effect are identical; the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">natura
naturans</span></span>, and <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">natura naturata</span></span>.
Causation is change; but it is nothing but substance assuming attributes,
and attributes assuming modes. Phenomena
are only the bubbles which arise on the bosom of the
ocean and disappear, absorbed in its vastness. The universe
is bound in one vast chain of fatalism, one grand
and perfect whole. Man's perfection is to know by contemplation
the universe in which he has his being.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a system has been called atheistic, because
it is silent about the presence of a personal first
Cause. It might be more truly denominated Pantheistic,
not in the vague sense in which that term is applied
to denote the belief in a Deity as an <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">anima
mundi</span></span>, like that explained in reference to the
Averroists,<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href="#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a>
but to imply that the sum total of all things, the
universe, is Deity. Its influence on the question of revealed
religion will be obvious. It admits that the
phenomena which we attribute to miracle in the process
of revelation are facts, but it denies their miraculous
character.<a id="noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> They are the mere manifestation of some
previously unknown law, turning up accidentally at the
particular moment, some previously unknown mode in
which the all-embracing substance manifests itself. In
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
this view all religions become various expressions of the
great moral and spiritual truths which they embody,
and true piety consists in rising beyond them to the
vision of the higher truths which they typify, and the
practice of the principles which they enjoin as rules.
<span class="tei tei-q">“Dico,”</span> wrote Spinoza, <span class="tei tei-q">“ad salutem non esse omnino
necesse, Christum secundum carnem noscere; sed de
æterno illo filio Dei, hoc est, Dei æternâ sapientiâ quæ
sese in omnibus rebus, et maxime in mente humana et
omnium maxime in Christo Jesu manifestavit, longe
aliter sentiendum.”</span><a id="noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Spinoza, though a Jew, had examined the claims of
Christianity. Indeed the discussions, half political, half
religious, of the Dutch theology, would have compelled
the investigation of it, independently of his own largeness
of sympathy with the philosophical history of human
religion.<a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href="#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> His philosophy of revealed religion is contained in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</span></span>.<a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" href="#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a> This
work was called forth by the disputes of the age, and
had the political object of defending liberty of thought
as necessary to the safety both of the state and of religion.
The question of predestination had rent the
Dutch church shortly before this time; and when the
victory remained with the Calvinistic party, the
opinions of the liberal Remonstrants were treated as
crimes. Spinoza proposed in this work a plan, perhaps
suggested by the perusal of Hobbes, for curing these
dissensions. The book is a critical essay, in which he
surveys the Jewish and Christian religions, and ends in
the conclusion that certainty on the subject of a revelation
is impossible; accordingly that the remedy for
theological acrimony must be sought in a return to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
what he regards to be the simple doctrine which Christ
taught, the love of God and one's neighbour; that philosophy
and theology ought to be severed; the one aiming
at truth and resting on universal ideas, the other at
obedience and piety and resting on historic authority
and special revelation. Hence, while uniformity of religious
worship and practice was to be prescribed, he
claimed that unlimited liberty of speculation ought to
be tolerated.<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href="#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is in the survey of Judaism and Christianity in
the earlier part of this work that he exhibits the views
in which he has anticipated many of the speculations of
rationalism. He examines first into the grounds which
Revelation puts forward for its claim to authority, viz.
prophecy, the Jewish polity, and miracles;<a id="noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> next the
principles of interpretation, and the canon of the two
Testaments;<a id="noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href="#note_346"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> lastly,
the nature of the divine teaching<a id="noteref_347" name="noteref_347" href="#note_347"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a>
endeavouring to show that the fundamental articles
of faith are given in natural religion. In this way
he exhibits his views on those branches which are now
denominated the evidences, exegesis, and doctrines. In
the discussion of prophecy he analyses the nature of
prophetic foresight into vividness of imagination; and
exhibits the human feeling and sentiment intertwined
with it.<a id="noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href="#note_348"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> He regards the Hebrew idea of election as
merely the theocratic mode of representing their own
good success in that region of circumstances which was
not in human power.<a id="noteref_349" name="noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a> His explanation of miracles has
been already stated: the course of nature seems to him
to be fixed and immutable; and he argues that interference
with its course is not a greater proof of Providence
than a perpetual unchanging administration.<a id="noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href="#note_350"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As his philosophy is seen in the treatment of the
evidences, so his criticism appears in the discussion of
the canon. He examines the several books of scripture,
and concludes from supposed marks of editorship that
the Pentateuch and historical books were all composed
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
by one historian, who was, he thinks, probably Ezra,
Deuteronomy being the first composed.<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" href="#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> The prophetic
books he resolves into a collection of fragments. His
opinions on this department would be rejected as immature
by modern rationalist critics; yet they have an
historic interest as marking the rise of the searching
investigations into the sources and construction of the
Hebrew sacred literature, which have been pursued in
an instructive manner in modern times. His view
respecting the nature of scriptural doctrines,<a id="noteref_352" name="noteref_352" href="#note_352"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a>
that they
can be reduced to the teaching of natural reason, is a
corollary from his philosophy, which cannot admit that
any religious truth is obligatory which is not self-evident,
and is analogous to the doctrine which a short
time previously had been stated by Lord Herbert of
Cherbury.<a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href="#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will suffice in explanation of the
criticism exhibited in this work. The book marks an
epoch, a new era in the critical and philosophical investigation
of religion. Spinoza's ideas are as it were the
head waters from which flows the current which is
afterwards parted into separate streams. If viewed
merely as a specimen of criticism, they are in many
respects very defective. For this branch was new in
Spinoza's time. Learning had been directed since the
Renaissance rather to the acquisition of stores of information
concerning ancient literature than reflective examination
of the authenticity and critical value of the
sources. Yet Spinoza's sagacity is so great, that the
book is suggestive of information, and fertile in hints of
instruction to readers who dissent most widely from his
inferences.<a id="noteref_354" name="noteref_354" href="#note_354"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a>
In Spinoza's own times the work met with
unbounded indignation. Indeed hardly any age could
have been less prepared for its reception. So rigorous
a theory of verbal inspiration was then held, that the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
question of the date of the introduction of the Hebrew
vowel points was discussed under the idea that inspiration
would be overthrown, if the admission was made
that they were introduced after the time of the closing
of the canon.<a id="noteref_355" name="noteref_355" href="#note_355"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> The tone of fairness in Spinoza's manner,
which compels most modern readers to believe in
his honesty, and which presents so striking a contrast
to the profaneness of subsequent scepticism, was then
regarded as latent irony. The work on its appearance
was suppressed by public authority; but it was frequently
reprinted; and probably no work of free
thought has ever had more influence, both on friends
and foes, except the memorable work of Strauss in the
present age. Not only have freethinkers been moulded
by it, but it has produced lasting effects on those who
have loved the faith of Christ. For Spinoza's work, if
it did not create, gave expression to the tendency of
which slight traces are perceptible elsewhere,<a id="noteref_356" name="noteref_356" href="#note_356"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> to recognize
a large class of facts relating to the personal peculiarities
of the inspired writers, and to the <span class="tei tei-q">“human element,”</span>
as it has been frequently called<a id="noteref_357" name="noteref_357" href="#note_357"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a>
in scripture, for
which orthodox criticism has always subsequently had
to find a place in a theory of inspiration; facts which
first shook the mechanical or verbal theory, which, however
piously intended, really had the effect of degrading
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the sacred writers almost into automatons, and regarded
them as the pens instead of the penmen of the inspiring
Spirit.<a id="noteref_358" name="noteref_358" href="#note_358"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a> Indirectly the effect of Spinoza's thought was
seen even in the English church. The difficulties
which, through means of the English deists, it brought
before the notice of the great apologetic writers of our
own country, created the free, but perhaps not irreverent
theory of revelation manifested in the churchmen
of the last century,<a id="noteref_359" name="noteref_359" href="#note_359"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a> which restricted the miraculous
assistance of inspiration to the specific subject of the
revealed communication, the religious element of scripture,
and did not regard it as comprehending also the
allusions, scientific or historic, extraneous to religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor is it merely in respect of criticism that Spinoza's
views have affected subsequent thought. The central
principle of his philosophy, the pantheistic disbelief of
miraculous interposition which has subsequently entered
into so many systems, was first clearly applied to
theology by him. Wherever the disbelief in the supernatural
has arisen from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> considerations, and expressed
itself, not with allegations of conscious fraud
against the devotees of religion, nor with attempts to
explain it away as merely mental realism, but with
assertions that miracles are impossible, and nature an
unchanging whole; this disbelief, whether insinuating
itself into the defence of Christianity, or marking the
attack on it, has been a reproduction of Spinoza.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In taking a retrospect of the long period over which
we have travelled in this lecture, embracing the twofold
crisis of free thought in the middle ages and the inauguration
of the modern era, we cannot fail to be impressed
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
with the grand idea of the permanent victory
of truth, and the exquisite order according to which the
fatherly providence of God makes all things conduce
together for good. When the course of history is
viewed in its true perspective, we perceive that Almighty
love ruleth. The period has comprised most of
the great movements, political or intellectual, which
have occurred in European history since the Christian
era. The fall of the Roman empire, the gradual reconstruction
of society, the revival of learning, the invention
of printing, the discovery of a new geographical
world, the creation of modern philosophy, embraced in
it, include the mention of almost every great event,
with the exception of the French revolution, which has
modified the character of the human mind, or affected
the destiny of Christianity. At times it seemed as if
Christianity was on the point of being extinguished by
unbelief; at other times, the church seemed to lend
itself to the extermination of all freedom of investigation.
Yet Christianity has lasted through all these dangers,
throwing off, like a healthy system, the errors which
from time to time insinuated themselves into it, and
diffusing its blessings of eternal truth into every region
of life and thought. The past is the pledge of hope for
the future.
</p>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 5.40em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Look forth!—that stream behold,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">That stream upon whose bosom we have passed</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Floating at ease, while nations have effaced</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Nations, and death has gathered to his fold</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Long lines of mighty kings:—look forth, my soul</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">(Nor in this vision be thou slow to trust)</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The living waters, less and less by guilt</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Stained and polluted, brighten as they roll,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Till they have reached the eternal city—built</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">For the perfected spirits of the just.</span><a id="noteref_360" name="noteref_360" href="#note_360"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a></div>
</div>
</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a>
<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>
<a name="Lecture_IV" id="Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture IV. Deism in England Previous to A.D. 1760.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Isaiah</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> lix. 19.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">When the enemy shall come in like a flood,
the Spirit of the Lord shall
lift up a standard against him.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The forms assumed by free thought in the fourth
great crisis of the Christian faith, which commenced
with the rise of modern philosophy, and has continued
with slight intervals to the present time, have been already
stated<a id="noteref_361" name="noteref_361" href="#note_361"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a>
to be chiefly three, corresponding with
the three nations in which they have been manifested.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this lecture we shall sketch the history of one of
these forms—English Deism—by which name the form
of unbelief is denominated which existed during the
close of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth
century. If the dates be marked by corresponding
political history, its rise may be placed as early as
the reign of Charles I; its maturity in the period from
the revolution of 1688 to the invasion of the Pretender
in 1745; its decay in the close of the reign of George
II, and the early part of that of George III.<a id="noteref_362" name="noteref_362" href="#note_362"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This long period was marked by those great events
in intellectual and social history which were calculated
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to awaken the spirit of free inquiry. It witnessed the
dethronement of constituted authorities—intellectual,
ecclesiastical, and political; the constant struggle of
religious factions; and on two occasions civil war and
revolution. It was affected by the rise of the philosophy
of Bacon, and the positive advances of natural
science under Newton and his coadjutors. It comprehended
moments marked by the outburst of native
genius, and others influenced by contact with the continental
literature, both with the speculative theology of
Holland and the dramatic and critical literature of
France.<a id="noteref_363" name="noteref_363" href="#note_363"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a> Above all it was illumined by the presence
of such an array of great minds in all departments of
intellectual activity as can rarely be matched in a single
period. If, when the human mind in the middle ages
was warmed into life after the winter of its long torpor,
under the genial influence of the revival of literature,
the renewal of its power was marked by a disposition to
throw off the trammels which had bound it in the night
of its darkness, how much more might such a result be
expected when it was basking under the sunshine of
meridian brightness, and exulting in the consciousness
of strength.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A special peculiarity of this period likely to produce
effects on religion has been already mentioned. The
philosophy of this age compared with former ones was
essentially a discussion of method. The two rival philosophies
which now arose are generally placed in opposition
to each other, as physical and mental respectively, that
of Bacon being conversant with nature, that of Descartes
with man.<a id="noteref_364" name="noteref_364" href="#note_364"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a>
But in truth in one respect both
were united. Each was analytical; each strove to lay
down a general method for investigating the sphere of
inquiry which it selected. Both were reactions against
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the dogmatic assumptions of former systems; both assumed
the indispensable necessity of an entire revolution
in the method of attaining knowledge. Accordingly,
though differing widely in appealing to the external
senses or the internal intuitions respectively, they
both built philosophy in the criticism of first principles.
Hence, independently of any particular corollaries from
special parts of their systems, the influence of their
spirit was to beget a critical, subjective, and analytical
study of any topic. When applied to religion, this is
the feature which subsequently characterizes alike the
unbelief and the discussion of the evidences. Difficulties
and the answers to difficulties are found in an appeal
to the functions and capacities of the interpreting
mind. This appeal to reason was denominated rationalism
in the seventeenth century, prior to the present
application of the term in a more limited and obnoxious
sense. The specific doctrine arrived at by this process,
which allows the existence of a Deity, and of the religion
of the moral conscience, but denies the specific
revelation which Christianity asserts, was called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">theism</span></em>
or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deism</span></em>. (<a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the period which we have mentioned as marking
the first stage of deism, extending from its commencement
to the close of the seventeenth century, the peculiarity
which characterized the inquiry was the political
aspect which it bore. The relation of religion to political
toleration<a id="noteref_365" name="noteref_365" href="#note_365"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a>
gave occasion for examining the sphere
of truth which may form the subject of political interference.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two writers of opposite schools are usually regarded
as marking the rise of deism, both of whom belonged to
this phase of it, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Hobbes.
Both formed their systems in the reign of Charles I.<a id="noteref_366" name="noteref_366" href="#note_366"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a>
The one rejected revelation by making religion a matter
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of individual intuition, the other by making it a matter
of political convenience.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Lord Herbert,<a id="noteref_367" name="noteref_367" href="#note_367"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a> the elder brother of the saintly poet,
if looked at as a philosopher, must be classed with Descartes
rather than with Bacon, though chronology forbids
the idea that he can have learned anything from
Descartes. It is probable that while on his early embassy
in France he came under the same intellectual influences
which suggested to Descartes his views. Fragments
of knowledge and partial solutions derived from
older philosophies exist before a great thinker like Descartes
embodies them in a system. Herbert may have
been led by the indirect effect of such influences to a
theory of innate ideas, independently of Descartes; or
he may have arrived at it by reaction against the Pyrrhonism
of some of the French writers of the preceding
age, such as Montaigne, with whose writings he was
familiar.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His works furnish his views on knowledge and on
religion, both natural, heathen, and Christian. They
include a treatise on truth, which suggested another on
the cause of errors. The views on religion therein
named, further suggested one on the religion which
could be expected in a layman, and this again a critique
on heathen creeds, written to show the universality of
the beliefs so described.<a id="noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href="#note_368"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In discussing truth<a id="noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href="#note_369"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a>
he surveys the powers of the
human mind, and places the ultimate test of it in the
natural instincts or axiomatic beliefs. These accordingly
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
become the test of a religion. The true religion
must therefore be a universal one; that is, one of which
the evidence commends itself to the universal mind of
man, and finds its attestation in truth intuitively perceived.
Of such truths he enumerates five:<a id="noteref_370" name="noteref_370" href="#note_370"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a>—the existence
of one supreme God; the duty of worship; piety
and virtue as the means thereof; the efficacy of repentance;
the existence of rewards and punishments both
here and hereafter. These he regards as the fundamental
pillars of universal religion; and distinguishes
from these realities the doctrines of what he calls particular
religions, one of which is Christianity, as being
uncertain, because not self-evident; and accordingly
considers that no assent can be expected in a layman,
save to the above-named self-evident truths. His view
however of revelation is not very clear. Sometimes
he seems to admit it, sometimes proscribes it as uncertain.
His object seems not to have been primarily destructive,
but merely the result of attempts to discover
truth amid the jarring opinions of the churches of his
day.<a id="noteref_371" name="noteref_371" href="#note_371"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The ideas which his writings contributed to deist
speculation are two; viz., the examination of the universal
principles of religion, and the appeal to an internal
illuminating influence superior to revelation, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
inward light,”</span> as the test of religious truth. This was
a phrase not uncommon in the seventeenth century. It
was used by the Puritans to mark the appeal to the
spiritual instincts, the heaven-taught feelings; and later
by mystics, like the founder of the Quakers, to imply
an appeal to an internal sense.<a id="noteref_372" name="noteref_372" href="#note_372"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a> But in Herbert it
differs from these in being universal, not restricted to a
few persons, and in being intellectual rather than emotional
or spiritual. It was not analysed so as to separate
intuitional from reflective elements, and seems to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
have been analogous to Descartes' ultimate appeal to
the natural reason, the self-evidencing force of the mental
axioms.<a id="noteref_373" name="noteref_373" href="#note_373"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If it was the anxiety to find certainty in controversies
concerning theological dogmas, which suggested
Herbert's inquiries, it was the struggle of ecclesiastical
parties in connexion with political movements which
excited those of Hobbes.<a id="noteref_374" name="noteref_374" href="#note_374"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In his philosophical views he belonged to an opposite
school to Herbert. A disciple of Bacon, he was
the first to apply his master's method to morals, and
to place the basis of ethical and political obligation
in experience; and in the application of these
philosophical principles to religion, he also represented
the contrary tendency to Herbert, state interference in
contradistinction from private liberty, political religion
as opposed to personal. The contest of individualism
against multitudinism is the parallel in politics to that
of private judgment against authority in religion.
While some of the Puritans were urging unlimited
license in the matter of religion, Hobbes wrote to prove
the necessity of state control, and the importance of a
fulcrum on which individual opinion might repose, external
to itself; and referring the development of society
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to the necessity for restraining the natural selfishness
of man, and resolving right into expedience as embodied
in the sovereign head, he ended with crushing the rights
of the individual spirit, and defending absolute government.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The effect of the application of such a sensational
and materialist theory to religion will be anticipated.
He traced<a id="noteref_375" name="noteref_375" href="#note_375"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a>
the genesis of it in the individual, and its
expression in society; finding the origin of it in selfish
fear of the supernatural. The same reason which led
him to assign supremacy to government in other departments
induced him to give it supreme control over religion.
Society being the check on man's selfishness,
and supreme, deciding all questions on grounds of general
expedience; the authority of the commonwealth
became the authority of the church.<a id="noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href="#note_376"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a>
Though he had occasion to discuss revelation and the
canon<a id="noteref_377" name="noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a> as a rule
of faith, yet it is hard to fix on any point that was actual
unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The amount of thought contributed by him to deism
was small; for his influence on his successors was unimportant.
The religious instincts of the heart were too
strong to be permanently influenced by the cold materialist
tone which reduced religion to state craft. With
the exception of Coward,<a id="noteref_378" name="noteref_378" href="#note_378"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a>
a materialist who doubted
immortality about the end of the century, the succeeding
deists more generally followed Herbert, in wishing
to elevate religion to a spiritual sphere, than Hobbes,
who degraded it to political expedience. A slight additional
interest however belongs to his speculations,
from the circumstance that his ideas, together with
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
those of Herbert, most probably suggested some parts
of the system of Spinoza.<a id="noteref_379" name="noteref_379" href="#note_379"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The two writers of whom we have now been treating,
lived prior to or during the Commonwealth. From
the date of the Restoration the existence of doubt may
be accepted as an established fact. During the reaction,
political and ecclesiastical, which ensued in the early
part of the reign of Charles II, it is not surprising that
doubt concealed itself in retirement; but the frequent
allusions to it under the name of atheism,<a id="noteref_380" name="noteref_380" href="#note_380"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a>
in contemporary sermons and theological books, proves its existence.
Indeed the reaction contained the very elements
which were likely to foster unbelief among undiscerning
minds. The court set a sad example of impurity; and
the excessive claims of the churchmen, alien to the spirit
of political and religious liberty, were calculated to generate
an antipathy to the clergy and to religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Toward the end of Charles's reign, a feeling of this
kind expresses itself in the writings of Charles Blount,<a id="noteref_381" name="noteref_381" href="#note_381"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a>
who availed himself of the temporary interval in which
the press became free, owing to the omission to renew
the act which submitted works to the censor,<a id="noteref_382" name="noteref_382" href="#note_382"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a> to publish
with notes a translation of Philostratus's Life of
Apollonius of Tyana, with the same purpose as Hierocles
in the fourth century, to disguise the peculiar character
of Christ's miracles, and draw an invidious parallel
between the Pythagorean philosopher and the
divine founder of Christianity. Subsequently to
Blount's death, his friend Gildon, who lived to retract
his opinions,<a id="noteref_383" name="noteref_383" href="#note_383"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a>
published a collection of treatises, entitled
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<span class="tei tei-q">“The Oracles of Reason;”</span> a work which may be considered
as expressing the opinions of a little band of
unbelievers, of whom Blount was one.<a id="noteref_384" name="noteref_384" href="#note_384"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a> The mention
of two of the papers in it will explain the views intended.
One is on natural religion,<a id="noteref_385" name="noteref_385" href="#note_385"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a> in which the ideas
of Herbert are reproduced, and exception is taken to
revelation as partial and not self-evident, and therefore
uncertain; and the objections to the sufficiency and
potency of natural religion are refuted. A second is
on the deist's religion,<a id="noteref_386" name="noteref_386" href="#note_386"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a>
in which the deist creed is explained
to be the belief in a God who is to be worshipped,
not by sacrifice, nor by mediation, but by piety.
Punishment in a future world is denied as incompatible
with Divine benevolence; and the safety of the deist
creed is supported by showing that a moral life is superior
to belief in mysteries. It will be seen from these
remarks that Blount hardly makes an advance on his
deist predecessor Herbert, save that his view is more
positive, and his antipathy to Christian worship less
concealed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
At the close of the seventeenth century two new
influences were in operation, the one political, the other
intellectual; viz., the civil and religious liberty which
ensued on the revolution, generating free speculation,
and compelling each man to form his political creed;
and the reconsideration of the first principles of knowledge<a id="noteref_387" name="noteref_387" href="#note_387"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a>
implied in the philosophy of Locke.<a id="noteref_388" name="noteref_388" href="#note_388"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The effect of these new influences on religion is very
marked. Controversies no longer turned upon questions
in which the appeal lay to the common ground of
scripture, as in the contest which Churchmen had conducted
against Puritans or Romanists, but extended to
the examination of the first principles of ethics or politics;
such as the foundation of government, whether it
depends on hereditary right or on compact, as in the
controversy against the nonjurors<a id="noteref_389" name="noteref_389" href="#note_389"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a>
before the close of the century; or the spiritual rights of the church, and
the right of every man to religious liberty and private
judgment in religion, as in the Convocation and Bangorian<a id="noteref_390" name="noteref_390" href="#note_390"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a>
controversy, which marked the early years of
the next century. The very diminution also of quotations
of authorities is a pertinent illustration that the
appeal was now being made to deeper standards.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The philosophy of Locke, which attempted to lay a
basis for knowledge in psychology, coincided with,
where it did not create, this general attempt to appeal
on every subject to ultimate principles of reason. This
tone in truth marked the age, and acting in every region
of thought, affected alike the orthodox and the
unbelieving. Accordingly, as we pass away from the
speculations which mark the early period of deism to
those which belong to its maturity, we find that the
attack on Christianity is less suggested by political considerations,
and more entirely depends on an appeal to
reason, intellectual or moral.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The principal phases belonging to this period of the
maturity of deism, which we shall now successively encounter,
are four:
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) An examination of the first principles of religion,
on its dogmatic or theological side, with a view of
asserting the supremacy of reason to interpret all mysteries,
and defending absolute toleration of free thought.
This tendency is seen in Toland and Collins,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(2) An examination of religion on the ethical side
occurs, with the object of asserting the supremacy of
natural ethics as a rule of conduct, and denying the
motive of reward or punishment implied in dependent
morality. This is seen in Lord Shaftesbury.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After the attack has thus been opened against revealed
religion, by creating prepossessions against mystery
in dogma and the existence of religious motives in
morals, there follows a direct approach against the outworks
of it by an attack on the evidences,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(3) In an examination, critical rather than philosophical,
of the prophecies of the Old Testament by
Collins, and of the miracles of the New by Woolston.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The deist next approaches as it were within the fortress,
and advances against the doctrines of revealed
religion; and we find accordingly,
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(4) A general view of natural religion, in which the
various differences,—speculative, moral, and critical,
are combined, as in Tindal; or with a more especial
reference to the Old Testament as in Morgan, and the
New as in Chubb; the aim of each being constructive
as well as destructive; to point out the absolute sufficiency
of natural religion and of the moral sense as religious
guides, and the impossibility of accepting as
obligatory that which adds to or contradicts them; and
accordingly they point out the elements in Christianity
which they consider can be retained as absolutely true.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first two of these attacks occur in the first two
decades of the century: the two latter in the period
from 1720 to 1740, when the public mind not being
diverted by foreign war or internal sedition, and other
controversies being closed, the deist controversy was at
its height. After examining these, other tendencies
will meet us, when we trace the decline of deism in Bolingbroke
and Hume.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first of these tendencies just noticed is seen in
Toland,<a id="noteref_391" name="noteref_391" href="#note_391"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a> who directed his speculations to the ground
principles of revealed theology,<a id="noteref_392" name="noteref_392" href="#note_392"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a> and slightly to the history
of the Canon.<a id="noteref_393" name="noteref_393" href="#note_393"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Possessing much originality and learning, at an
early age, in 1696, just a year after the censorship had
been finally removed and the press of England made
permanently free, he published his noted work, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity
not Mysterious,”</span> to show that <span class="tei tei-q">“there is nothing
in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it; and
that no Christian doctrine can properly be called a mystery.”</span>
The speculations of all doubters first originate
in some crisis of personal or mental history. In Toland's
case it was probably the change of religion from
catholic to protestant which first unsettled his religious
faith. The work just named, in which he expressed
the attempt to bring religious truth under the grasp of
the intellect, was one of some merit as a literary production,
and written with that clearness which the influence
of the French models studied by Dryden had introduced
into English literature. Yet it is difficult to understand
why a single work of an unknown student should attract
so much public notice. The grand jury of Middlesex
was induced at once to present it as a nuisance, and the
example was followed by the grand jury of Dublin.<a id="noteref_394" name="noteref_394" href="#note_394"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a>
Two years after its publication the Irish parliament
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
deliberated upon it, and, refusing to hear Toland in
defence, passed sentence that the book should be burnt,
and its author imprisoned—a fate which he escaped
only by flight.<a id="noteref_395" name="noteref_395" href="#note_395"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a> And in 1701, no less than five years
after the publication of his work, a vote for its prosecution
passed the lower house of the English convocation,
which the legal advisers however denied to be within
the power of that assembly.<a id="noteref_396" name="noteref_396" href="#note_396"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a>
Toland spent most of the
remainder of his life abroad, and showed in his subsequent
works a character growing gradually worse,
lashed into bitterer opposition by the censure which he
had received.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His views, developed in his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity not
Mysterious</span></span>, require fuller statement. He opens with
an explanation of the province of reason,<a id="noteref_397" name="noteref_397" href="#note_397"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a>
the means of information, external and internal, which man possesses;
a part of his work which is valuable to the philosopher,
who watches the influence exercised at that
time by psychological speculations; and he proposes to
show that the doctrines of the gospel are neither contrary
to reason nor above it. He exhibits the impossibility
of believing statements which positively contradict
reason;<a id="noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href="#note_398"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a>
and contends that if they do not really contradict
it, but are above it, we can form no intelligible idea
of them. He tries further to show that reason is neither
so weak nor so corrupt as to be an unsafe guide,<a id="noteref_399" name="noteref_399" href="#note_399"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a> and
that scripture itself only professes to teach what is
intelligible.<a id="noteref_400" name="noteref_400" href="#note_400"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a>
Having shown that the doctrines of the
gospel are not contrary to reason, he next proceeds to
show that they do not profess to be above it; that they
lay claim to no mystery,<a id="noteref_401" name="noteref_401" href="#note_401"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a>
for that mystery in heathen
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
writers and the New Testament does not mean something
inconceivable, but something intelligible in itself,
which nevertheless was so veiled <span class="tei tei-q">“that it needed
revealing;”</span><a id="noteref_402" name="noteref_402" href="#note_402"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a>
and that the introduction of the popular idea of
mystery was attributable to the analogy of pagan writers,
and did not occur till several centuries after the foundation
of Christianity.<a id="noteref_403" name="noteref_403" href="#note_403"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is possible that the book may have been a mere
paradox,<a id="noteref_404" name="noteref_404" href="#note_404"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a>
the effort of a young mind going through the
process through which all young men of thought pass,
and especially in an age like Toland's, of trying to understand
and explain what they believe. But students
who are thus forming their views ought to pause before
they scatter their half-formed opinions in the world.
In Toland's case public alarm judged the book to have
a most dangerous tendency; and he was an outcast from
the sympathy of pious men for ever. If he was misunderstood,
as he contended, his fate is a warning against
the premature publication of a paradox. The question
accordingly which Toland thus suggested for discussion
was the prerogative of reason to pronounce on the contents
of a revelation, the problem whether the mind
must comprehend as well as apprehend all that it believes.
The other question which he opened was the
validity of the canon.<a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" href="#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a>
Here too he claimed that his
views were misunderstood. It was supposed that the
mention made by him concerning spurious works attributed
to the apostles, referred to the canonical gospels.
Accordingly, if in his former work he has been
considered to have anticipated the older school of German
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
rationalists, in the present he has been thought to
have touched upon the questions discussed in the modern
critical school. The controversy which ensued was
the means of opening up the discussion of the great
question which relates to the New Testament canon,
viz., whether our present New Testament books are a
selection made in the second century from among early
Christian writings, or whether the church from the first
regarded them as distinct in kind and not merely in
degree from other literature; whether the early respect
shown for scripture was reverence directed to apostolic
men, or to their inspired teaching.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If Toland is the type of free speculation applied to
the theoretical side of religion, lord Shaftesbury<a id="noteref_406" name="noteref_406" href="#note_406"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a> is an
example of speculations on the practical side of it, and
on the questions which come under the province of
ethics.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The rise of an ethical school parallel with discussions
on the philosophy of religion is one of the most interesting
features of that age, whether it be regarded in a
scientific or a religious point of view. The age was one
in which the reflective reason or understanding was
busy in exploring the origin of all knowledge. The
department of moral and spiritual truth could not long
remain unexamined. In an earlier age the sources of
our knowledge concerning the divine attributes and
human duty had been supposed to depend upon revelation;
but now the disposition to criticise every subject
by the light of common sense claimed that philosophy
must investigate them. Reason was to work out the
system of natural theology, and ethics the problem of
the nature and ground of virtue. Hence it will be obvious
how close a relation existed between such speculations
and theology. The Christian apologist availed
himself of the new ethical inquiries as a corroboration
of revealed religion; the Deist, as a substitute for it.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Lord Shaftesbury is usually adduced as a deist of
this class. He has not indeed expressed it definitely in
his writings; and an ethical system which formed the
basis of Butler's sermons,<a id="noteref_407" name="noteref_407" href="#note_407"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a> cannot necessarily be charged
with deism. But the charge can be substantiated from
his memoirs; and his writings manifest that hatred
of clerical influence, the wish to subject the church to
the state, which will by some persons be regarded as
unbelief, but which was not perhaps altogether surprising
in an age when the clergy were almost universally
alien to the revolution, and the Convocation manifested
opposition to political and religious liberty. The
ground on which the charge is generally founded is,
that Shaftesbury has cast reflections on the doctrine of
future rewards and punishments.<a id="noteref_408" name="noteref_408" href="#note_408"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> It is to be feared
that sceptical insinuations were intended; yet his remarks
admit of some explanation as a result of his particular
point of view.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The ethical schools of his day were already two; the
one advocating dependent, the other independent morality;
the one grounding obligation on self-love, the
other on natural right. Shaftesbury, though a disciple
of Locke, belonged to the latter school. His works
mark the moment when this ethical school was passing
from the objective inquiry into the immutability of
right, as seen in Clarke, to the subjective inquiry into
the reflex sense which constitutes our obligation to do
what is right, as seen in Butler. The depreciation accordingly
of the motives of reward, as distinct from the
supreme motive of loving duty for duty's sake, was to
be expected in his system. The motives of reward and
punishment which form the sanctions of religious obligation,
would seem to him to be analogous to the employment
of expedience as the foundation of moral.
His statements however appear to be an exaggeration
even in an ethical view, as well as calculated to insinuate
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
erroneous ideas in a theological. It is possible that
his motive was not polemical; but the unchristian character
of his tone renders the hypothesis improbable, and
explains the reason why his essays called the <span class="tei tei-q">“Characteristics”</span>
have been ranked among deist writings.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have seen, in Toland and Shaftesbury respectively,
a discussion on the metaphysical and ethical basis
of religion, together with a few traces of the rise of
criticism in reference to the canon. In their successors
the inquiry becomes less psychological and more critical,
and therefore less elevated by the abstract nature
of the speculative above the struggle of theological polemic.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two branches of criticism were at this time commencing,
which were destined to suggest difficulties
alike to the deist and to the Christian; the one the discovery
of variety of readings in the sacred text, the
other the doubts thrown upon the genuineness and authenticity
of the books. It was the large collection of
various readings on the New Testament, first begun by
Mills,<a id="noteref_409" name="noteref_409" href="#note_409"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a>
which gave the impulse to the former, which
has been called the lower criticism, and which so distressed
the mind of Bengel, that he spent his life in
allaying the alarm of those who like himself felt alarmed
at its effect on the question of verbal inspiration. And
it was the disproof of the genuineness of the Epistles of
Phalaris by the learned Bentley,<a id="noteref_410" name="noteref_410" href="#note_410"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> which first threw
solid doubts on the value attaching to traditional titles
of books, and showed the irrefragable character belonging
to an appeal to internal evidence; a department
which has been called the higher criticism. This latter
branch, so abundantly developed in German speculation,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
is only hinted at by the English deists of the eighteenth
age, as by Hobbes and Spinoza earlier; but we
shall soon see the use which Collins and others made of
the former inquiry.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The form, though not the spirit, of Toland and
Shaftesbury, might by a latitude of interpretation be
made compatible with Christianity; but Collins and
Woolston, of whom we next treat, mark a much further
advance of free thought. They attack what has always
been justly considered to be an integral portion of
Christianity, the relation which it bore to Jewish
prophecy, and the miracles which were wrought for its
establishment.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Collins<a id="noteref_411" name="noteref_411" href="#note_411"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a>
must be studied under more than one
aspect. He not only wrote on the logic of religion, the
method of inquiry in theology, but also on the subject
of scripture interpretation, and the reality of prophecy.<a id="noteref_412" name="noteref_412" href="#note_412"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was in 1713 that he published <span class="tei tei-q">“A discourse of
free-thinking, occasioned by the rise and growth of a
sect called Free-thinkers.”</span> This is one of the first
times that we find this new name used for Deists; and
the object of his book is to defend the propriety of unlimited
liberty of inquiry, a proposition by which he
designed the unrestrained liberty of belief, not in a
political point of view merely, but in a moral. His
argument was not unlike more modern ones,<a id="noteref_413" name="noteref_413" href="#note_413"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> which
show that civilization and improvement have been
caused by free-thinking; and he adduces the growing
disbelief in the reality of witchcraft, in proof of the way
in which the rejection of dogma had ameliorated political
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
science, which until recently had visited the supposed
crime with the punishment of death.<a id="noteref_414" name="noteref_414" href="#note_414"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a> After
thus showing the duty of free-thinking,<a id="noteref_415" name="noteref_415" href="#note_415"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a> he argued
that the sphere of it ought to comprehend points on
which the right is usually denied; such as the divine
attributes, the truth of the scriptures, and their meaning;<a id="noteref_416" name="noteref_416" href="#note_416"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a>
establishing this by laying a number of charges
against priests, to show that their dogmatic teaching
cannot be trusted, unchallenged by free inquiry, on account
of their discrepant<a id="noteref_417" name="noteref_417" href="#note_417"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a> opinions, their rendering the
canon and text of scripture uncertain,<a id="noteref_418" name="noteref_418" href="#note_418"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> and their pious
frauds;<a id="noteref_419" name="noteref_419" href="#note_419"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a> concluding by refuting objections against
freethinking derived from its supposed want of safety.<a id="noteref_420" name="noteref_420" href="#note_420"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The book met with intelligent and able opponents;
the critical part, containing the allegations of uncertainty
in the text of scripture, and the charge of altering
it, being effectually refuted by Bentley. The work
is an exaggeration of a great truth. Undoubtedly free
inquiry is right in all departments, but it must be restrained
within the proper limits which the particular
subject-matter admits of;—limits which are determined
partly by the nature of the subject studied, partly by
the laws of the thinking mind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Eleven years afterwards, in 1724, Collins published
his <span class="tei tei-q">“Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the
Christian religion.”</span> This work is chiefly critical. It
does not merely contain the incipient doubts on the
variety of readings, and the uncertainty of books, but
spreads over several provinces of theological inquiry.
Under the pretence of establishing Christianity on a
more solid foundation, the author argues that our Saviour
and his apostles made the whole proof of Christianity
to rest solely on the prophecies of the Old Testament;<a id="noteref_421" name="noteref_421" href="#note_421"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a> that if these proofs are valid, Christianity is
established; if invalid, it is false.<a id="noteref_422" name="noteref_422" href="#note_422"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a>
Accordingly he examines
several of the prophecies cited from the Old
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Testament in the New in favour of the Messiahship of
Christ, with a view of showing that they are only allegorical
or fanciful proofs, accommodations of the meaning
of the prophecies; and anticipates the objections
which could be stated to his views.<a id="noteref_423" name="noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> He asserts that
the expectation of a Messiah among<a id="noteref_424" name="noteref_424" href="#note_424"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> the Jews arose
only a short time before Christ's coming;<a id="noteref_425" name="noteref_425" href="#note_425"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a> and that the
apostles put a new interpretation on the Hebrew books,
which was contrary to the sense accepted by the Jewish
nation; that Christianity is not revealed in the Old
Testament literally, but mystically and allegorically,
and may therefore be considered as mystical Judaism.
His inference is accordingly stated as an argument in
favour of the figurative or mystical interpretation of
scripture; but we can hardly doubt that his real object
was an ironical one, to exhibit Christianity as resting on
apostolic misinterpretations of Jewish prophecy, and
thus to create the impression that it was a mere Jewish
sect of men deceived by fanciful interpretations.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work produced considerable alarm; more from
the solemn interest and sacredness of the inquiries which
it opened, than from any danger arising from excellence
in its form, or ability in the mode of putting. It anticipated
subsequent speculations,<a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" href="#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a> by regarding Christianity
as true ideally, not historically, and by insinuating
the incorrectness of the apostolic adoption of the mystical
system of interpreting the ancient scripture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A writer came forward as moderator<a id="noteref_427" name="noteref_427" href="#note_427"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a> between Collins
and his opponents, who himself afterwards became
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
still more noted, by directing an attack on miracles,
similar to that of Collins on prophecy;—the unhappy
Woolston.<a id="noteref_428" name="noteref_428" href="#note_428"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a> A fellow of a college<a id="noteref_429" name="noteref_429" href="#note_429"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a> at Cambridge, in
holy orders, he was for many years a diligent student
of the fathers, and imbibed from them an extravagant
attachment to the allegorical sense of scripture. Finding
that his views met with no support in that reasoning
age, he broke out into unmeasured insult and contempt
against his brother clergy, as slaves to the letter
of scripture.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" href="#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> Deprived of his
fellowship,<a id="noteref_431" name="noteref_431" href="#note_431"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a> and distracted
by penury, he extended his hatred from the
ministers to the religion which they ministered. And
when, in reply to Collins's assertion, that Christianity
reposed solely on prophecy, the Christian apologists fell
back on miracles, he wrote in 1727 and the two following
years his celebrated <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourses on the Miracles</span></span>.
(<a href="#Note_22" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>) They were published as pamphlets; in each
one of which he examined a few of the miracles of
Christ, trying to show such inconsistencies as to make
it appear that they must be regarded as untrustworthy
if taken literally; and hence he advocated a figurative
interpretation of them; asserting that the history of the
life of Jesus is an emblematical representation of his
spiritual life in the soul of man.<a id="noteref_432" name="noteref_432" href="#note_432"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a>
The gospels thus become a system of mystical theology, instead of a literal
history. In defence of this method he claimed the
example of the ancient church,<a id="noteref_433" name="noteref_433" href="#note_433"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> ignoring the
fact that the fathers admitted a literal as well as a figurative
meaning. Whether he really retained towards the
close of his life the spiritual interpretation,<a id="noteref_434" name="noteref_434" href="#note_434"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a> or merely
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
used it as an excuse for a more secure advance to the
assault of the historic reality of scripture, is very uncertain.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The letters were written with a coarseness and irreverence
so singular, even in the attacks of that age, that
it were well if they could be attributed to insanity.
They contain the most undisguised abuse which had
been uttered against Christianity since the days of the
early heathens. Occasionally, when wishing to utter
grosser blasphemies than were permissible by law, or
compatible with his assumed Christian stand-point, he
introduced a Jewish rabbi, as Celsus had formerly done,
and put the coarser calumnies into his mouth,<a id="noteref_435" name="noteref_435" href="#note_435"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> as difficulties
to which no reply could be furnished except by
figurative interpretation. The humour which marked
these pamphlets was so great, that the sale of them was
immense. Voltaire, who was in England at the time,
and perhaps imbibed thence part of his own opinions,
states the immediate sale to have exceeded thirty thousand
copies;<a id="noteref_436" name="noteref_436" href="#note_436"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a> and Swift describes them as the food of
every politician.<a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" href="#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a> The excitement was so great, that
Gibson, then bishop of London, thought it necessary to
direct five pastorals to his diocese in reference to them,<a id="noteref_438" name="noteref_438" href="#note_438"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a>
and, not content with this, caused Woolston to be prosecuted;
and the unhappy man, not able to pay the fine
in which he was condemned, continued in prison till his
death.<a id="noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href="#note_439"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In classifying Woolston with later writers against
miracles, he may be compared in some cases, though
with striking differences of tone, with those German
rationalists like Paulus who have rationalized the miracles,
but in more cases with those who like Strauss have
idealized them. His method however is an appeal to
general probability rather than to literary criticism.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The next form that Deism assumed has reference
more to the internal than the external part of Christianity,
the doctrines rather than the evidences. Less
critical than the last-named tendency, it differs from the
earlier one of Toland in looking at religion less on the
speculative side as a revelation of dogma, and more on
the practical as a revelation of duties. While it combined
into a system the former objections, critical or
philosophical, the great weapon which it uses is the authority
of the moral reason, by which it both tests revelation
and suggests a substitute in natural religion, thus
using it both destructively and for construction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Dr. Tindal,<a id="noteref_440" name="noteref_440" href="#note_440"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a> the first writer of this class, had early
given offence to the church by his writings; but it was
not till 1730, in his extreme old age, that he published
his celebrated dialogue, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity as old as the
Creation, or, the Gospel a Republication of the Religion
of Nature.”</span> This was not only the most important
work that deism had yet produced, composed with
care, and bearing the marks of thoughtful study of the
chief contemporary arguments, Christian as well as Deist,
but derives an interest from the circumstance that
it was the book to which more than to any other single
work bishop Butler's Analogy was designed as the
reply.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Tindal's object is to show that natural religion is
absolutely perfect, and can admit of no increase so as to
carry obligation. For this purpose he tries to establish,
first, that revelation is unnecessary,<a id="noteref_441" name="noteref_441" href="#note_441"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a>
and secondly, that obligation to it is impossible. His argument in favour
of the first of these two positions is, that if man's perfection
be the living according to the constitution of
human nature,<a id="noteref_442" name="noteref_442" href="#note_442"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> and God's laws with the penalties
attached
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
be for man's good,<a id="noteref_443" name="noteref_443" href="#note_443"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a> nothing being required by
God for its own sake;<a id="noteref_444" name="noteref_444" href="#note_444"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> then true religion, whether
internally or externally revealed, having the one end,
human happiness, must be identical in its precepts.<a id="noteref_445" name="noteref_445" href="#note_445"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a>
Having denied the necessity, he then disputes the possibility,
of revelation, on the ground that the inculcation
of positive as distinct from moral duties, is inconsistent with
the good of man, as creating an independent rule.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href="#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a>
Assuming the moral faculty to be the foundation of all
obligation, he reduces all religious truth to moral. It
is in thus showing the impossibility of any revelation
save the republication of the law of nature that he notices
many of the difficulties in scripture which form the
mystery to the theologian, the ground of doubt to the
objector. Some of these are of a literary character,
such as the assertion of the failure of the fulfilment of
prophecies, and of marks of fallibility in the scripture
writers, like the mistake which he alleges in respect to
the belief in the immediate coming of Christ.<a id="noteref_447" name="noteref_447" href="#note_447"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a> Others
of them are moral difficulties, points where the revealed
system seems to him to contradict our instincts, such as
the destruction of the Canaanites.<a id="noteref_448" name="noteref_448" href="#note_448"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a> In reference to
this last example, which may be quoted as a type of his
assertions, he argues against the possibility of a divine
commission for the act, on the principle asserted by
Clarke,<a id="noteref_449" name="noteref_449" href="#note_449"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> that a miracle can never prove the divine truth
of a doctrine which contravenes the moral idea of justice;
or, in more modern phrase, that no supposed miracle
can be a real one, if it attest a doctrine which bears
this character. In the present work Tindal denied the
necessity and possibility of a new revelation distinct
from natural religion. He did not live to complete the
concluding part of his book, wherein he intended to
show that all the truths of Christianity were as old as
the creation; i.e. were a republication of the religion
of nature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Tindal is an instance of those who have unconsciously
kindled their torch at the light of revelation.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
The religion of nature of which he speaks is a logical
idea, not an historic fact. The creation of it is analogous
to the mention of the idea of compact as the basis
of society, a generalization from its present state, not a
fact of its original history. It is the residuum of Christianity
when the mysterious elements have been subtracted.
But in adopting the idea, the Deists were on
the same level as the Christians. Both alike travelled
together to the end of natural religion.<a id="noteref_450" name="noteref_450" href="#note_450"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a> Here the Deist
halted, willing to accept so much of Christianity as
was a republication of the moral law. The Christian,
on the other hand, found in reason the necessity for
revelation, and proceeded onward to revealed doctrines
and positive precepts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The works of the two writers Morgan and Chubb in
part supply the defect left in Tindal, the omission on
the part of deism to show that Christian truths were a
republication of natural religion; the former especially
attacking the claims of the Jewish religion to be divine,
the latter the claims of the Christian.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Morgan's chief work,<a id="noteref_451" name="noteref_451" href="#note_451"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Moral Philosopher,”</span>
was published in 1737. Starting from the moral point
of view, the sole supremacy and sufficiency of the
moral law, the writer exhibits the necessity of applying
the moral test as the only certain criterion on the questions
of religion, and declines admitting the authority
of miracles and prophecy to avail against it,<a id="noteref_452" name="noteref_452" href="#note_452"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> an investigation
suggested partly by the questions just named
of the ground of unbelief, and partly by the circumstance
that the Christian writers were beginning to
dwell more strongly on the external evidences when
unbelievers professed the internal to be unsatisfactory.
The adoption of this test of truth prevents the admission
of an historic revelation with positive duties. He
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
thinks with Tindal that natural religion is perfect in
itself, but seems to admit that it is so weak as to need
republication,<a id="noteref_453" name="noteref_453" href="#note_453"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a> which is a greater admission than
Tindal made in his extant volume. When however he
passes from the decision on the general possibility of
revelation to particular historic forms, the Mosaic and
Christian, he discredits both. The infallibility of the
moral sense is still the canon by which his judgment is
determined. On this ground he disbelieves the Jewish
religion,<a id="noteref_454" name="noteref_454" href="#note_454"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a> selecting successive passages of the national
history, such as the sacrifice of Isaac, the oracle of
Urim,<a id="noteref_455" name="noteref_455" href="#note_455"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a>
the ceremonial religious system,<a id="noteref_456" name="noteref_456" href="#note_456"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a> as the object
of his attack. A degree of interest attaches to his criticism
on these points, in that it was the means of calling
forth the celebrated work of Warburton on the Divine
Legation of Moses.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The same principles of criticism mislead him in his
examination of Christianity. The hallowed doctrine of
the atonement forms a stumblingblock to him, on the
ground of the transfer of merit by imputation.<a id="noteref_457" name="noteref_457" href="#note_457"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a> He
regards Christianity as a Jewish gospel, until it was
altered by the apostles, whose authority he discredits by
arguments not unlike the ancient ones of Celsus. The
method of Morgan is more constructive than that of his
predecessors. Not denying the historic element of
Christianity by idealizing it as Collins, he attempts a
natural explanation of the historic facts. The central
thought which guides him throughout is the supreme
authority of the moral reason. His works open up the
broad question whether the moral sense is to pronounce
on revelation or to submit to it, and thus form a fresh
illustration of the intimate dependence of particular
sceptical opinions and methods upon metaphysical and
ethical theories.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the period which we are now examining, deism
was almost entirely confined to the upper classes. It
was in the latter part of the century that it spread to
the lower, political antipathy against the church giving
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
point to religious unbelief. Chubb,<a id="noteref_458" name="noteref_458" href="#note_458"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a> whom we next
consider, is one of the few exceptions. He was a working
man, endowed with strong native sense; who manifested
the same inclination to meddle with the deep
subject of religion which afterwards marked the character
of Thomas Paine and others, who influenced the
lower orders later in the century. In his general view
of religion, Chubb denied all particular providence, and
by necessary consequence the utility of prayer, save for
its subjective value as having a reflex benefit on the
human heart.<a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" href="#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> He was undecided as to the fact of the
existence of a revelation, but seemed to allow its possibility.<a id="noteref_460" name="noteref_460" href="#note_460"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a> He examined the three great forms of religion
which professed to depend upon a positive revelation,
Judaism,<a id="noteref_461" name="noteref_461" href="#note_461"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a> Mahometanism, and Christianity. The
claims of the first he wholly rejected, on grounds similar to
those explained by Morgan, as incompatible with the
moral character of God. In reference to the second he
anticipated the modern opinions on Mahometanism, by
asserting that its victory was impossible, if it had not
contained truth which the human spirit needed. In
examining the third he attacked, like Morgan, the evidence
of miracles<a id="noteref_462" name="noteref_462" href="#note_462"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a> and prophecy,<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463" href="#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a>
and asserted the necessity
of moral right and wrong as the ground of the
interpretation of scripture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One of his most celebrated works was an explanation
of <span class="tei tei-q">“the true gospel of Jesus Christ,”</span> which is one
of the many instances which his works afford of the unfairness
produced by the want of moral insight into the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
woes for which Christianity supplies a remedy, and into
the deep adaptation of the scheme of redemption to
effect the object proposed by a merciful Providence in
its communication.<a id="noteref_464" name="noteref_464" href="#note_464"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> It will be perceived that the
three last writers whose systems have been explained, resemble
each other so much as to form a class by themselves.
They restrict their attack to the internal character of
revelation, employ the moral rather than the historical
investigation, embody the chief speculations of their
predecessors, and offer, as has been already stated, a
constructive as well as a destructive system; morality
or natural religion in place of revealed.<a id="noteref_465" name="noteref_465" href="#note_465"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An anonymous work was published in 1744, which
merits notice as indicating a slight alteration in the
mode of attack on the part of the deists. It was entitled,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Resurrection of Jesus considered</span></span>, and is attributed
to P. Annet, who died in the wretchedness of
poverty.<a id="noteref_466" name="noteref_466" href="#note_466"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a>
It was designed in reply to some of the defences
of this subject which the writings of Woolston
and others had provoked. Its object was to show that
the writings which record the statement of Christ's prediction
of his own death are a forgery; that the narrative
of the resurrection is incredible on internal grounds,
and the variety in the various accounts of it are evidences
of fraud. It indicates the commencement of the
open allegation of literary imposture as distinct from
philosophical error, which subsequently marked the criticism
of the French school of infidelity, and affected the
English unbelievers of the latter half of the century.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Deism had now reached its maximum. The attention
of the age was turned aside from religion to politics
by the political dangers incident to the attempts of the
Pretender; and when Hume's scepticism was promulgated
in 1749 it was received without interest, and Bolingbroke's
posthumous writings published in 1754 fell
comparatively dead. These two names mark the period
which we called the decline of deism. Bolingbroke's
views<a id="noteref_467" name="noteref_467" href="#note_467"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a> however depict deistical opinions of the period
when it was at its height, and are a transition into the
later form seen in Hume, and therefore require to be
stated first, though posterior in the date of publication.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Bolingbroke's writings command respect from their
mixture of clearness of exposition with power of argument.
They form also the transition to the literature
of the next age, in turning attention to history. Bolingbroke
had great powers of psychological analysis,
but he despised the study of it apart from experience.
His philosophy was a philosophy of history. In his attacks
on revelation we have the traces of the older philosophical
school of deists; but in the consciousness that
an historical, not a philosophical, solution must be
sought to explain the rise of an historical phenomenon
such as Christianity, he exemplifies the historic spirit
which was rising, and anticipates the theological inquiry
found in Gibbon; and, in his examination of the
external historic evidence, both the documents by which
the Christian religion is attested, and the effects of
tradition in weakening historic data, he evinces traces
of the influence of the historical criticism which had
arisen in France under his friend Pouilly.<a id="noteref_468" name="noteref_468" href="#note_468"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His theological writings<a id="noteref_469" name="noteref_469" href="#note_469"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a> are in the form of letters,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
or of essays, the common form of didactic writings in
that age. We shall briefly state his views on deity,
futurity, and revelation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He teaches the existence of a deity, but was led, by
the sensational philosophy which he adopted from
Locke, to deny the possibility of an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> proof of
the divine existence,<a id="noteref_470" name="noteref_470" href="#note_470"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> and contends strongly that the
divine attributes can only be known by observation of
nature, and not by the analogy of man's constitution.
He considers too that the deity whose existence he has
thus allowed, exercises a general but not a special providence;<a id="noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href="#note_471"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> the world being a machine moving by delegated
powers without the divine interference. The
philosophy expressed in Pope's didactic poetry gives
expression to Bolingbroke's opinions<a id="noteref_472" name="noteref_472" href="#note_472"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> on providence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In his views of human duty Bolingbroke refers conduct
to self-love as a cause, and to happiness as an end;
and doubts a future state,<a id="noteref_473" name="noteref_473" href="#note_473"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> either on the ground of materialism,
or possibly because his favourite principle,
that <span class="tei tei-q">“whatever is, is best,”</span> led him to disbelieve the
argument for a future life adduced from the inequality
of present rewards. Future punishment is rejected, on
the ground that it can offer no end compatible with the
moral object of punishment, which is correction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When he passes from natural religion to revealed,
he allows the possibility of divine inspiration, but
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
doubts the fact; rebuking those however who doubt
things merely because they cannot understand them.
In criticising the Jewish revelation,<a id="noteref_474" name="noteref_474" href="#note_474"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a> he puts no limits
to his words of severity. He dares to pronounce the
Jewish history to be repugnant to the attributes of a
supreme, all-perfect Being. His attack on the records
is partly on account of the materials contained in them,
such as the narrative of the fall, the numerical statistics,
the invasion of the Canaanites, the absence of eternal
rewards as sanctions of the Mosaic law; and partly on
the ground of the evidence being, as he alleges, not narrated
by contemporaries. In giving his opinion of
Christianity, he repeats the weak objection already used
by Chubb, of a distinction existing between the gospel
of Christ and of Paul;<a id="noteref_475" name="noteref_475" href="#note_475"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a> and tries to explain the
origin of Christianity and of its doctrines, suggesting the derivation
of the idea of a Trinity from the triadic notions
of other religions. But he is driven to concede some
things denied by former deists. He grants, for example,
that if the miracles really occurred, they attest the
revelation;<a id="noteref_476" name="noteref_476" href="#note_476"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a> and he therefore labours to show
that they did not occur, by attacking the New Testament canon<a id="noteref_477" name="noteref_477" href="#note_477"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a> as he had before attacked the Old; attempting to show
that the composition of the gospels was separated by an
interval from the alleged occurrence of the events; applying,
in fact, Pouilly's incipient criticism on history
which has been so freely used in theology by more
recent critics.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will exhibit Bolingbroke's views, both
in their cause and their relation to those of former deists.
It will be observed that they are for the most
part a direct result either of sensational metaphysics or
of the incipient science of historical criticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The inquiry was now becoming more historical on
the part both of deists and Christians. Philosophy was
still the cause of religious controversy, but it had
changed in character. It was now criticism weighing
the evidence of religion rather than ethics or metaphysics
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
testing the materials of it. The question formerly
debated had been, how much of the internal
characteristics of scripture can be supported by moral
philosophy; and when the conviction at length grew
up, that the mysteries could not be solved by any analogy,
but were unique, it became necessary to rest on
the miraculous evidence for the existence of a revelation,
and make the fact guarantee the contents of it.
Inasmuch however as the revelation is contained in a
book, it became necessary to substantiate the historical
evidence of its genuineness and authenticity. Bolingbroke's
attacks are directed against a portion of this
literary evidence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Historical criticism, in its appreciation of literary
evidence, may be of four kinds. It may (1) examine
the record from a dogmatic point of view, pronouncing
on it by reference to prepossessions directed against the
facts; or (2) make use of the same method, but direct
the attack against the evidence on which the record
rests; or (3) it may examine whether the record is contemporary
with the events narrated; or (4) consider its
internal agreement with itself or with fact.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have instances of each of these methods in the
examination of the literary evidence on which miracles
are believed. The first, the prepossession concerning
the philosophical impossibility of miracles, is seen in
Spinoza; the second, the impossibility of using testimony
as a proof of them, in Hume; the third, the question
whether they were attested by eyewitnesses, is the
ground which Bolingbroke touches; the fourth, the
cross-examination of the witnesses, is seen in Woolston.
Of these, the first most nearly resembles the great mass
of the deist objections to revelation, being philosophical
rather than critical. The second forms a transition to
the two latter, being philosophy applied to criticism,
and is the form which deism now took. The two latter
are those which it subsequently assumed.<a id="noteref_478" name="noteref_478" href="#note_478"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will explain Hume's position,<a id="noteref_479" name="noteref_479" href="#note_479"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">479</span></span></a> and
show how he forms the transition between two modes
of inquiry; his point of view being critical, the cause
of it philosophical. His speculations in reference to
religion are chiefly contained in his Essays on the Human
Understanding. A brief explanation is necessary
to show the dependence of his theology on his philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The speculations of Locke, as we have before had
occasion to notice, gave an impulse to psychological investigations.
He clearly saw that knowledge is limited
by the faculties which are its source, which he considered
to be reducible to sensation and reflection; but
while denying the existence of innate ideas, he admitted
the existence of innate faculties. Hartley carried the
analysis still farther, by introducing the potent instrument
offered by the doctrine of the association of ideas.
Hume, adopting this principle, applied it, in a manner
very like the independent contemporaneous speculations
of Condillac in France, to analyse the faculties themselves
into sensations, and to furnish a more complete
account of the nature of some of our most general ideas,
such, for example, as the notion of cause. The intellectual
element implied in Locke's account of the process
of reflection here drops out. Faculties are regarded
as transformed sensations; the nature of knowledge as
coextensive with sensation. According to such a theory
therefore, the idea of physical cause can mean nothing
more than the invariable connexion of antecedent and
consequent. The notion of force or power which we
attach to causation becomes an unreality; being an
idea not given in sensation, which can merely detect
sequence.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was Hume's psychology; an attempt to push
analysis to its ultimate limits; valuable in its method,
even if defective in its results; a striking example of
the acuteness and subtle penetration of its author.
There is another branch of his philosophy in which he
is regarded as a metaphysical sceptic, in reference to
the passage of the mind outwards, by means of its own
sensations and ideas, into the knowledge of real being,
wherein he takes part with Berkeley, extending to the
inner world of soul the scepticism which that philosopher
had applied to the outer world of matter. In the
psychological branch Hume is a sensationalist, in the
ontological a sceptic. The latter however has no relation
to our present subject. It is from the former that
his views on religion are deduced. In no writer is the
logical dependence of religious opinion on metaphysical
principles visible in a more instructive manner. For
we perceive that the influence adverse to religion in his
case was not merely the result of rival metaphysical
dogmas opposed to religion, such as were seen in the
Pantheists of Padua, or in Spinoza; nor even the opposition
caused by the adoption of a different standard of
truth for pronouncing on revelation, as in his fellow
English deists; but it sprung from the application of
the subjective psychological inquiry into the limits of
religious knowledge, as a means for criticising not only
the logical strength of the evidence of religion, but specially
the historic evidence of testimony. We consequently
see the influence exercised by the subjective
branch of metaphysical inquiries in the discussion not
only of the logic of religion, but also of the logic of the
historic aspect of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Hume's religious speculations<a id="noteref_480" name="noteref_480" href="#note_480"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">480</span></span></a> relate to three
points:—to the argument for the attributes of God,
drawn from final causes; to the doctrine of Providence,
and future rewards and punishments; and to the evidence
of testimony as the proof of miracles. Though
he does not conduct an open assault in reference to any
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of them, but only suggests doubts, yet in each case his
insinuations sap so completely the very proof, that it is
clear that they are intended as grounds not merely for
doubt, but for disbelief. His doctrine of sensation is
the clue to his remarks on the two former. He argues
that we can draw no sound inferences on the questions,
because the subjects lie beyond the range of sensational
experience. It is however in consequence of his remarks
on the last of the three subjects in his essay on
Miracles that his name has become famous in the history
of free thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The essay consists of two parts. In the first he
shows that miracles are incapable of proof by testimony.
Belief is in proportion to evidence. Evidence rests on
sensational experience. Accordingly the testimony to
the uniformity of nature being universal, and that which
exists in favour of the occurrence of a miracle, or violation
of the laws of nature, being partial, the former
must outweigh the latter. In the second he shows, that
if this is true, provided the testimony be of the highest
kind, much more will it be so in actual cases; inasmuch
as no miracle is recorded, the evidence for which reaches
to this high standard. He explains the elements of
weakness in the evidence; such as the predisposition of
mankind to believe prodigies, forged miracles, the decrease
of miracles with the progress of civilization, the
force of rival testimony in disproof of them, which he
illustrates by historic examples, such as the alleged miracles
of Vespasian, Apollonius, and the Jansenist Abbé
Paris.<a id="noteref_481" name="noteref_481" href="#note_481"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">481</span></span></a>
The conclusion is, that miracles cannot be so
shown to occur as to be used as the basis of proof for a
revelation; and that a revelation, if believed, must rest
on other evidence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The argument accordingly is briefly, that testimony
cannot establish a fact which contradicts a law of nature;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the narrower induction cannot disprove the
wider. The reasoning has been used in subsequent
controversy<a id="noteref_482" name="noteref_482" href="#note_482"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">482</span></span></a>
with only a slight increase of force, or
alteration of statement. The great and undeniable discoveries
of astronomy had convinced men in the age of
Hume of the existence of an order of nature; and modern
discovery has not increased the proof of this in
kind, though it has heightened it in degree, by showing
that as knowledge spreads the range of the operation of
fixed law is seen to extend more widely; and apparent
exceptions are found to be due to our ignorance of the
presence of a law, not to its absence. The statement
of the difficulty would accordingly now be altered by
the introduction of a slight modification. Instead of
urging that testimony cannot prove the historic reality
of the fact which we call a miracle, the assertion would
be made that it can only attest the existence of it as a
wonder, and is unable to prove that it is anything but
an accidental result of an unknown cause. A miracle
differs from a wonder, in that it is an effect wrought by
the direct interposition of the Creator and Governor of
nature, for the purpose of revealing a message or attesting
a revelation. That testimony can substantiate wonders,
but not distinguish the miracle from the wonder,
is the modern form of the difficulty.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The connexion of Hume's view with his metaphysical
principles will be evident. If nature be known
only through the senses, cause is only the material antecedent
visible to the senses. Nature is not seen to be
the sphere of the operation of God's regular will; and
the sole proof of interference with nature must be a balancing
of inductions. It will be clear also that the true
method of replying to Hume has been rightly perceived
by those who consider that the difficulty must be met
by philosophy, and not by history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Suppose the historic evidence sufficient to attest the
wonder, it does not prove that the wonder is a miracle.
The presumption in favour of this may be indefinitely
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
increased by the peculiarity of the circumstances, which
frequently forbid the idea of a mere marvel; but the
real proof must depend upon the previous conception,
which we bring to bear upon the question, in respect to
the being and attributes of God, and His relation to nature.
The antecedent probability converts the wonder
into a miracle. It acts in two ways. It obliterates the
cold materialistic view of the regularity of nature
which regards material laws to be unalterable, and the
world to be a machine; and it adds logical force to the
weaker induction, so as to allow it to outweigh the
stronger. No testimony can substantiate the interference
with a law of nature, unless we first believe on independent
grounds that there is a God who has the
power and will to interfere.<a id="noteref_483" name="noteref_483" href="#note_483"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">483</span></span></a>
Philosophy must accordingly establish the antecedent possibility of miracles;
the attribute of power in God to effect the interruption,
and of love in God to prompt him to do it. The condition
therefore of attaining this conception must be by
holding to a monotheistic conception of God as a being
possessing a personal will, and regarding mind and will
as the rule by which to interpret nature and law,<a id="noteref_484" name="noteref_484" href="#note_484"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">484</span></span></a> and
not conversely measuring the mental by the material.
In this manner law becomes the operation of God's personal
fixed will, and miracle the interposition of his
personal free will.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be perceived that in distinguishing miracle
from wonder, we also take into account the final cause
of the alleged interposition as a reason weighty enough
to call forth divine interposition. As soon as we introduce
the idea of a personal intelligent God, we regard
Him as acting with a motive, and measure His purposes,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
partly by analogy to ourselves, partly by the
moral circumstances which demand the interposition.<a id="noteref_485" name="noteref_485" href="#note_485"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">485</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks may furnish the solution of the puzzle
whether the miracle proves the doctrine, or the doctrine
the miracle.<a id="noteref_486" name="noteref_486" href="#note_486"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">486</span></span></a>
Undoubtedly the miracle proves the particular
doctrine which it claims to attest; but a doctrine
of some kind, though not the special one in point, some
moral conception of the Almighty's nature and character,
must precede, in order to give the criterion for distinguishing
miracle from mere wonder. Miracles prove
the doctrine which they are intended to attest; but
doctrines of a still more general character are required
to prove the miracle.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This examination of the doctrine of Hume will not
only illustrate our main position, of the influence of
intellectual and philosophical causes in generating
doubt, or at least in directing free thought into a sceptical
tendency, but will illustrate the application made
of that special department of metaphysics which relates
to the test of truth, to discredit the literary proof of revelation
as an historic system.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now sketched the natural history of deism,
by showing that in this as in former periods the forms
which free thought assumed were determined by the
philosophy, and, in a slighter degree, by the critical
knowledge of the age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The inquiry into method in the seventeenth century
had led men to break with authority, and rebuild from
its foundations the temple of truth. Locke, imbibing
this spirit, had gauged anew the human understanding,
and had sought a new origin for its knowledge, and
given expression to the appeal to the reasoning powers,
which marked the age. Political circumstances had
not only generated free inquiry, but had required each
man to form his political creed. In all departments
reason was appealed to. Even the province of the
imagination was invaded by it, and perfection of form
preferred to freshness of conception in art and poetry.
The doubt of the age reflected the same spirit.
Whether its advocates belonged to the school of Descartes
or of Locke, both alike examined religion by the
standard of psychology and ethics. That which was to be
believed was to be comprehended as well as apprehended.
Yet the appeal was not made to reason in its highest
form; and, with a show of depth, philosophy nevertheless
failed to exhibit the deepest analysis.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have watched the exhibition of the successive
phases of the attack, and have seen reason, first examining
the method of theology, protesting against mystery
in doctrine or morals; next criticising the historic reality
of the evidence offered for its doctrines; then denying
the moral utility of revelation, or attacking the doctrines
and internal truths; lastly denying the validity
of testimony for the supernatural.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the later steps the influence of the French school
of speculation is already observable, mingling itself with
English deism. Consequently the subsequent traces of
unbelief in England must be deferred till the nature of
this movement has been explained.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Deism stands contrasted with the unbelief of other
times by certain peculiarities. In its coarse spirit of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
bitter hostility, and want of real insight into the excellence
of the system which it opposed, it recalls in some
respects the attack of the ancient heathen Celsus; and
the difficulties propounded are frequently not dissimilar
to those stated by him, though resulting from a different
philosophical school. The tenacious grasp which it
maintained of the doctrine of the unity of God would
cause it to bear a closer resemblance to the system of
Julian, if the deists had not lacked the literary tastes
which strengthened his love for heathenism. The monotheism
constitutes also a line of demarcation between
deism and more modern forms of unbelief. It restrained
the deists from falling into the forms of subtle pantheism
previously noticed, and the atheism which will hereafter
meet us. The character of their doubts too, selected
from patent facts of mind and heart, which appealed to
common sense, and were not taken from a minute literary
criticism, which removes doubt from the sphere of
the ordinary understanding into the world of literature,
separates them from more modern critical unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Standing thus apart, characterised by intense attachment
to monotheism, and placing its foundation in the
great facts of nature, deism errs by defect rather than
excess; in that which it denies, not in that which it
asserts. It is a system of naturalism or rationalism; the
interpretation which reason, without attaining the deepest
analysis, offers of the scheme of the world, natural
and moral. Its only parallel is the particular species of
German thought derived from it which existed at the
close of the last century, and sought like it to reduce
revealed religion to natural.<a id="noteref_487" name="noteref_487" href="#note_487"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">487</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Whether emotional causes, personal moral faults
coincided with these intellectual causes, and were the
obstacle which prevented the attainment of a deeper
insight into the mysteries of revelation, and made them
to halt in the mysteries of nature, ought to be taken
into account in forming a judgment on the concrete
cases, but does not so properly belong to the general
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
consideration in which we are now engaged, of tracing
the types of deist thought. Some of the deists were
very moral men, a few immoral; but the truth or untruth
of opinions may be studied apart from the character
of the persons who maintain them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The movement, if viewed as a whole, is obsolete.
If the same doubts are now repeated, they do not recur
in the same form, but are connected with new forms
of philosophy, and altered by contact with more recent
criticism. In the present day sceptics would believe less
than the deists, or believe more, both in philosophy and
in criticism. In philosophy, the fact that the same difficulties
occur in natural religion as well as in revealed,
would now throw them back from monotheism into
atheism or pantheism; while the mysteries of revelation,
which by a rough criticism were then denied, would be
now conceded and explained away as psychological
peculiarities of races or individuals. In criticism, the
delicate examination of the sacred literature would now
prevent both the revival of the cold unimaginative want
of appreciation of its extreme literary beauty, and the
hasty imputation of the charge of literary forgery
against the authors of the documents. In the deist
controversy the whole question turned upon the differences
and respective degrees of obligation of natural
and revealed religion, moral and positive duties; the
deist conceding the one, denying the other.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The permanent contribution to thought made by
the controversy consisted in turning attention from abstract
theology to psychological, from metaphysical disquisitions
on the nature of God to ethical consideration
of the moral scheme of redemption for man. Theology
came forth from the conflict, reconsidered from the psychological
point of view, and readjusted to meet the
doubts which the new form of philosophy—psychology
and ethics—might suggest.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The attack of revealed religion by reason awoke
the defence; and no period in church history is so remarkable
for works on the Christian evidences,—grand
monuments of mind and industry. The works of defenders
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
are marked by the adoption of the same basis
of reason as their opponents; and hence the topics
which they illustrate have a permanent philosophical
value, though their special utility as arguments be lessened
by the alteration in the point of view now assumed
by free thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The one writer whose reputation stands out preeminently
above the other apologists is bishop Butler.<a id="noteref_488" name="noteref_488" href="#note_488"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">488</span></span></a>
His praise is in all the churches. Though the force of
a few illustrations in his great work may perhaps have
been slightly weakened by the modern progress of physical
science,<a id="noteref_489" name="noteref_489" href="#note_489"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">489</span></span></a>
and though objections have been taken on
the ground that the solutions are not ultimate,<a id="noteref_490" name="noteref_490" href="#note_490"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">490</span></span></a> mere
<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">media axiomata</span></span>;
yet the work, if regarded as adapted
to those who start from a monotheistic position, possesses
a permanent power of attractiveness which can
only be explained by its grandeur as a work of philosophy,
as well as its mere potency as an argument. The
width and fulness of knowledge displayed in the former
respect, together with the singular candour and dignified
forbearance of its tone, go far to explain the secret of its
mighty influence. When viewed in reference to the
deist writings against which it was designed, or the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
works of contemporary apologists, Butler's carefulness
in study is manifest. Though we conjectured that Tindal's
work<a id="noteref_491" name="noteref_491" href="#note_491"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">491</span></span></a>
was the one to which he intended chiefly to
reply, yet not one difficulty in the philosophy, hardly
one in the critical attacks made by the various deists, is
omitted; and the best arguments of the various apologists
are used. But both the one and the other are so
assimilated by his own mind, that the use of them only
proves his learning, without diminishing his originality.
They are so embodied into his system, that it is difficult
even for a student well acquainted with the deist and
apologetic literature to point precisely to the doubt or
parallel argument which may have suggested to him
material of thought. And thus, though his work as an
argument ought always to be viewed in relation to his
own times, yet the omission of all temporary means of
defence, and the restricting himself to the use of those
permanent facts which indelibly belong to human nature,
and to the scheme of the world, have caused his
work to possess an enduring interest, and to be a κτῆμα
ἐς ἀεί. The persuasive moderation of its tone also
proves that Butler had really weighed the evidence.
In its absence of arrogant denunciation, and its candid
admission that the evidence of religion is probable, not
demonstrative; and in the request that the whole evidence
may be weighed like a body of circumstantial
proofs, we can perceive that Butler had felt the doubts
as well as understood them, and evidently meant his
works for the doubter rather than for the Christian;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to convince foes, or support the hesitating, rather than
to win applause from friends.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The real secret of its power however lies not merely
in its force as an argument to refute objections against
revelation, but in its positive effect as a philosophy,<a id="noteref_492" name="noteref_492" href="#note_492"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">492</span></span></a>
opening up a grand view of the divine government, and
giving an explanation of revealed doctrines, by using
analogy as the instrument for adjusting them into the
scheme of the universe.<a id="noteref_493" name="noteref_493" href="#note_493"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">493</span></span></a> He seems himself to have
taken a broad view of God's dealings in the moral
world, analogous to that which the recent physical discoveries
of his time had exhibited in the natural. In
the same manner as Newton in his Principia had, by an
extension of terrestrial mechanics, explained the movements
of the celestial orbs, and united under one grand
generalization the facts of terrestrial and celestial motion;
so Butler aimed at exhibiting as instances of one
and the same set of moral laws the moral government
of God, which is visible to natural reason, and the spiritual
government, which is unveiled by revelation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Probably no book since the beginning of Christianity
has ever been so useful to the church as Butler's Analogy,
in solving the doubts of believers or causing them
to ignore exceptions, as well as in silencing unbelievers.
The office of apologetic is to defend the church, not to
build it up. Argument is not the life of the church.
It is therefore a proof of the philosophical power and
truth of Butler's work that it has ministered so extensively
to the latter purpose, by actually reinforcing
and promoting the faith of professing Christians. It
has acted not only as an argument to the deists, but as
a lesson of instruction to the church.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Few efforts of free thought seemed more unpromising
in yielding any useful results than deism; yet by
its agitation of deep questions, which are not the mere
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
phantoms of a morbid mind, but real and solid difficulties
and mysteries in revelation, it was the means of
creating Butler's noble work, and is a fresh illustration
of the beneficent arrangement of the Almighty, that
makes knowledge progress by antagonism, and overrules
evil for good.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But there is another weapon for repelling unbelief
besides the intellectual; just as there are two causes for
creating it, the one intellectual, the other emotional.
Thus, in the period that we are now considering, though
we may believe that many hearts were cheered and
many doubts hushed by the Christian apologies, yet the
revival of religion<a id="noteref_494" name="noteref_494" href="#note_494"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">494</span></span></a>
which marked the eighteenth century,
and which by spreading vital piety prepared an
effectual check against unbelief, when the lower orders
were afterwards invaded by it, was due to the spiritual
yearnings created by the ministrations of men, often rude
and unlettered, who told the wondrous story of Christ
crucified, heart speaking to heart, with intuitions kindled
from on high. The sinful began to feel that God
was not afar off, reposing in the solitude of his own
blessedness, and abandoning mankind to the government
of conscience and to the operation of general laws,
but nigh at hand, with a heart of fatherly love to pity
and an ear of mercy to listen. The narrative of Christ
the Son of God, coming down to seek and to save that
which was lost, awoke an echo in the heart which neutralized
the doubts infused by the deist. And it is a
comfort to every Christian labourer to know that if he
cannot wrangle out a controversy with the doubter, he
can speak to the doubter's heart.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Few would compare the irregular missionaries of
spiritual religion in the last century with the great
writers of evidence. The names of the latter are honoured;
those of the former are unknown or too often
despised. It might seem strange, for example, to institute
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
a comparison between the two contemporaries,
bishop Butler and John Wesley. Yet there are points
of contrast which are instructive. Each was one of the
most marked instruments of movement and influence in
the respective fields of the argumentative and the spiritual;
the one a philosopher writing for the educated,
the other a missionary preaching to the poor. Butler,
educated a nonconformist, turned to the church, and in
an age of unbelief consecrated his great mental gifts to
roll back the flood of infidelity; and died early, when
his unblemished example was so much needed in the
noble sphere of usefulness which Providence had given
him, leaving a name to be honoured in the church for
generations. Wesley, nursed in the most exclusive
church principles, kindled the flame of his piety by the
devout reading of mystic books;<a id="noteref_495" name="noteref_495" href="#note_495"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">495</span></span></a> when our university
was marked by the half-heartedness of the time; and
afterwards, when instructed by the Pietists of Germany,<a id="noteref_496" name="noteref_496" href="#note_496"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">496</span></span></a>
devoted a long life to wander over the country,
despised, ill-treated, but still untired; teaching with
indefatigable energy the faith which he loved, and introducing
those irregular agencies of usefulness which are
now so largely adopted even in the church. He too
was an accomplished scholar, and possessed great gifts
of administration; but whatever good he effected, in
kindling the spiritual Christianity which checked the
spread of infidelity, was not so much by argument as by
stating the omnipotent doctrine of the Cross, Christ set
forth as the propitiation for sin through faith in his
blood. The earnestness of the missionary may be imitated
by those who cannot imitate the philosopher's literary
labours. Gifts of intellect are not in our own
power. But industry to improve the talents that we
possess is our own; and the spiritual perception of
divine truth, and burning love for Christ which will
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
touch the heart, and before which all unhealthy doubts
will melt away as frost before the sun, will be given
from on high by the Holy Ghost freely to all that ask.
<span class="tei tei-q">“Not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit, saith
the Lord.”</span><a id="noteref_497" name="noteref_497" href="#note_497"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">497</span></span></a>
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a>
<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a>
<a name="Lecture_V" id="Lecture_V" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture V. Infidelity in France in the Eighteenth Century, and
Unbelief in England Subsequent to 1760.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Isaiah</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> xxvi. 20.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Come, my people, enter thou into thy chambers,
and shut thy doors about
thee: hide thyself as it were for a little moment, until the indignation
be overpast.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We now approach the study of a period remarkable
no less in the history of the world than in that of
religious thought, in which unbelief gained the victory
in the empire of mind, and obtained the opportunity
of reconstructing society and education according to
its own views. The history of infidelity in France in
the eighteenth century forms a real crisis in history, important
by its effects as well as its character. For
France has always been the prerogative nation of Europe.
When wants intellectual or political have been
felt there, the life of other nations has beat sympathetic
with it as with the heart of the European body. Ideas
have been thrown into form by it for transmission to
others. It will be necessary to depict the free religious
thought, both intellectually and in its political action;
to characterise its principal teachers; to show whence
it sprung, and to what result it tended; to point out
wherein lay the elements of its power and its wickedness;
to show what it has contributed to human woe,
or perchance indirectly to human improvement.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The source of its influence cannot be understood
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
without recalling some facts of the history of French
politics and philosophical speculation. What was the
cause why English deists wrote and taught their creed
in vain, were despised while living and consigned to
oblivion when dead, refrained almost entirely from
political intermeddling, and left the church in England
unhurt by the struggle; while on the other hand
deism in France became omnipotent, absorbed the intellect
of the country, swept away the church, and remodelled
the state? The answer to this question must be
sought in the antecedent history. It is a phenomenon
political rather than intellectual. It depended upon
the soil in which the seed was sown, not on the inherent
qualities of the seed itself.<a id="noteref_498" name="noteref_498" href="#note_498"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">498</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The church and state have hardly ever possessed
more despotic power in any country of modern times,
or seemed to all appearances to repose on a more secure
foundation, than in France at the time when they were
first assailed by the free criticism of the infidels of the
eighteenth century. Each had escaped the alterations
which had been effected in most other countries. The
clergy of France had in the sixteenth century successfully
resisted the Reformation, and gained strength by
the issue of the civil wars which supervened on it.
In the seventeenth century, though compelled to admit
toleration of their Protestant adversaries, they had contrived
before the end of it to obtain a revocation of the
edict, even though the act cost France the loss of a million
of her industrious population, and though the enforcing
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of it had to be effected by the means of the
dragonnades, in which a brutal soldiery was let loose
on an innocent population.<a id="noteref_499" name="noteref_499" href="#note_499"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">499</span></span></a>
Thus the church, united
with rather than subjected to the state, adorned by great
names, asserting its national independence in the pride
of conscious strength against the metropolitan see of
Christendom,<a id="noteref_500" name="noteref_500" href="#note_500"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">500</span></span></a>
possessed a power which, while it seemed
to promise perpetuity, stood as an impediment to progress
and a bar to intellectual development.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor was the cause of liberty more hopeful in relation
to the state than the church. The crown, in passing
through a similar struggle against the feudal nobility
to that of other countries, had succeeded in securing
its victory without yielding those concessions to the demands
of the people which in our own country were extorted
from it by the civil war. The strength gained
by the defeat of the nobility in the wars of the Fronde,
offered the opportunity for an able sovereign like Louis
XIV to dry up all sources of independent power, by
centralizing all authority in the monarchy. Proud
in the consciousness of internal power and foreign victory,
surrounded by wealth and talent, with a court
and literature which were the glory of the country, he
seemed likely to transmit his power to coming generations.
But the inherent weakness of despotism was
soon apparent. Unrestrained authority appertains only
to the Divine government, because power is there
synonymous with goodness; but it is always unsafe in
human. The wisdom which partially supplied the
place of goodness in Louis XIV being wanting in his
successor, unchecked selfishness produced the corruption
which brought inevitable ruin.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks on the political state of France will
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
sufficiently show why a free criticism directed against
either religion or tyranny should assume revolutionary
tendencies, and should manifest an antipathy to social
and ecclesiastical institutions, as well as to the principles
on which they were supposed to depend.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But the forces operating in the world of mind, as
well as in society, must also be understood, in order
to estimate the influence of unbelief in France. In a
previous lecture we have seen that in the middle of the
seventeenth century the philosophy of Descartes had
created a complete revolution in modes of thought.
It was only in the philosophy of Spinoza that it produced
theological unbelief; but by its indirect influence it
had led generally to an entire reconsideration of the first
data of reasoning, and the method of establishing truth;
and thus had stimulated the struggle of reason against
faith, of inquiry against credulity, of progress against
reaction, and of hopefulness in the future against reverence
for the past. The activity of mind displayed
in the literature of the reign of Louis XIV is its first
expression.<a id="noteref_501" name="noteref_501" href="#note_501"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">501</span></span></a> But thoughts ferment long in society before
they fully express themselves in form: they first
exist as suggestions; then they become doubts; lastly,
they pass into disbelief. It was not until the time of
the regency,<a id="noteref_502" name="noteref_502" href="#note_502"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">502</span></span></a> which ensued after the death of Louis,
that the literature became impressed with a thoroughly
new tone.<a id="noteref_503" name="noteref_503" href="#note_503"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">503</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Other causes of a more direct kind cooperated. The
English philosophy of Locke, which marked an epoch
in speculation, was introduced at that time. This philosophy
however could not have resulted in those speculations
which arose in France, if it had not been carried
farther by the analysis which Condillac employed
in that country, analogous to that of Hume in Scotland.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
In itself it expressed the reasoning type of mind and
thought which reigned throughout the English literature;
but the corollaries from it which produced harm
were no part of the original system.<a id="noteref_504" name="noteref_504" href="#note_504"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">504</span></span></a> Condillac, desiring
to carry out the analysis of the origin of knowledge,
lost sight of the intellectual element in Locke's account
of the process of reflection; denied the existence of innate
faculties as well as innate ideas; and attempted
to show that man's mind is so passive, so dependent on
the evidence of the senses for the material of its thoughts,
and on language for the power to combine them, that
its very faculties are transformed sensations.<a id="noteref_505" name="noteref_505" href="#note_505"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">505</span></span></a> From
these premises it was not hard for his followers to draw
the inferences of materialism<a id="noteref_506" name="noteref_506" href="#note_506"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">506</span></span></a> in philosophy, selfishness
in morals, and an entire denial of those religious truths
which cannot be proved by sensuous evidence. This
philosophy began to leaven the mind of France, and
was accepted by nearly the whole of French unbelievers.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was the intellectual state of France in reference
to the standard of appeal contemporaneously with
the political and ecclesiastical condition before described.
In the state and church all was authority; all was of
the past; in the world of literature and philosophy
all was criticism, activity, hope in the future. Into a
soil thus prepared the seeds of unbelief on the subject
of religion were introduced. We cannot deny that they
were imported mainly from England. Doubt had indeed
not been wholly wanting in France. In the preceding
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
centuries Montaigne<a id="noteref_507" name="noteref_507" href="#note_507"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">507</span></span></a>
and Charron,<a id="noteref_508" name="noteref_508" href="#note_508"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">508</span></span></a> and, at the
commencement of the one of which we speak, Bayle<a id="noteref_509" name="noteref_509" href="#note_509"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">509</span></span></a>
and Fontenelle,<a id="noteref_510" name="noteref_510" href="#note_510"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">510</span></span></a> were probably harassed with disbelief,
and their influence was certainly productive of
doubt. And free thought, in the form of literary criticism
of the scriptures, had brought down the denunciation
of the French church on Richard Simon.<a id="noteref_511" name="noteref_511" href="#note_511"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">511</span></span></a> But
undoubtedly the direct parent of the French unbelief
was English deism.<a id="noteref_512" name="noteref_512" href="#note_512"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">512</span></span></a>
In no age of French history has
English literature possessed so powerful an influence.<a id="noteref_513" name="noteref_513" href="#note_513"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">513</span></span></a>
England had recently achieved those liberties of which
France felt the need. It had safely outlived civil war
and revolution, and had established constitutional liberty
and religious toleration. In England the victims of
the French oppression found shelter. Being itself free,
it became the refuge for the exile, the shelter for the
oppressed. It thus became the object of study to the
politician, and of love to the philanthropist. Its literature
too, in two branches, viz. political inquiry,
and, towards the middle of the century, romance, offered
subjects for imitation. Montesquieu studied the
former; Rousseau and Diderot the latter. But England
furnished also a series of fearless inquirers on
the subject of religion, whose works became the subject
of study and of translation.<a id="noteref_514" name="noteref_514" href="#note_514"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">514</span></span></a> Voltaire spent three
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
years of exile in England,<a id="noteref_515" name="noteref_515" href="#note_515"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">515</span></span></a>
at the time when the ferment
existed concerning Woolston's attack on miracles,
and both knew Bolingbroke personally, and translated
his writings.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Having now explained the sources of doubt in
France; we must next direct our attention to the
course of its speculations, and to the chief authors.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If we estimate its course by literary works, or by
social and political movements, we may distribute the
history of it into two periods; one comprising the first
half of the century, wherein it attacks the French
church and Christianity; the other, the latter half,
wherein it mingles itself with the demand for political
change, and assaults the state,<a id="noteref_516" name="noteref_516" href="#note_516"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">516</span></span></a> until its effects are seen
in the anarchy of the French revolution. In the former
of these periods the unbelief is tentative and suggestive.
About the time of the transition to the second,
in the pride of supposed victory it becomes dogmatic.
Christianity is supposed to be exploded. Philosophy
seeks to occupy its place in the social and intellectual
world. The early doubters and Voltaire mark the former
of these epochs. Diderot and the French encyclopædists,
with the ramification of their school at the
court of Frederick II of Prussia, form the point of transition.
Rousseau marks the opening of the second period,
when unbelief was attempting to reconstruct society
and remodel education. The selfish philosophy of
Helvetius and his friends then carries on the course of
the history of unbelief, until in the storm of the revolution
it shows itself in the teaching of Volney, and the absurd
acts of the theophilanthropists.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The name of Voltaire, which the logical and chronological
order introduces first to our notice, is so preeminent,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
that his character and teaching may express
the history of the early movement in France.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The story of his life, so far as we require now to be
made acquainted with it, can be briefly told.<a id="noteref_517" name="noteref_517" href="#note_517"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">517</span></span></a> Born
toward the close of the seventeenth century, he manifested,
as a legend assures us, such a doubting spirit,
even in boyhood, that his priestly preceptor predicted
that he would prove a Coryphæus of deism. His rare
precocity of intellect early acquired for him a reputation
in the world of letters. Compelled to become
an exile in England,<a id="noteref_518" name="noteref_518" href="#note_518"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">518</span></span></a> he studied its politics, its
science, and its scepticism. On his return to France, he endeavoured
to introduce among his countrymen the
cosmical and mathematical doctrines of Newton; and
made himself conspicuous in history, in poetry, in fiction,
and above all, in theology, by his attacks on revealed
religion and the French church. About the middle
of the century, accepting an invitation to the court of
Frederick the Great of Prussia, he aided thence the introduction
of infidel doctrines in Germany. A few
years later he withdrew into retirement at Ferney, but
was able from his seclusion to wield an intellectual
power throughout Europe.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was from this retirement that he denounced the
acts of tyranny, or supposed injustice, inflicted by the
French church. His indignant denunciations in the
cases of the Sirven,<a id="noteref_519" name="noteref_519" href="#note_519"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">519</span></span></a> of La
Barre,<a id="noteref_520" name="noteref_520" href="#note_520"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">520</span></span></a> and above all of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Calas,<a id="noteref_521" name="noteref_521" href="#note_521"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">521</span></span></a> gained for him the commendation and sympathy
of Europe, and remain as monuments of the power
of the pen.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was his life. Let us search in it for the secret
of his power, and inquire what were his views in the department
which we are studying.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His character has been analysed by so many critics,
especially by one of our own countrymen in an essay
of rare power, now become classical, that the opportunity
of original investigation is impossible, and the attempt
undesirable.<a id="noteref_522" name="noteref_522" href="#note_522"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">522</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the opinion of this writer, the secret of Voltaire's
strength was the tact which he displayed in expressing
the wants of his time to his countrymen in the precise
mode most suited to them.<a id="noteref_523" name="noteref_523" href="#note_523"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">523</span></span></a>
He belonged to the class
of those who exercise their influence in their own lifetime—men
of the present, not men of the future; accordingly,
whether he be viewed as a man, in his own
personal qualities, in the moral and intellectual properties
which constituted his character, or as an artist, in
the manner in which he conveyed his thoughts to the
world, he will be found to be the loftiest exponent and
type of the spirit of his age. It was an age without
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
originality, without spiritual insight, careful of manners
rather than morals, corrupted by selfishness, led
by ambition, dissatisfied with the present, and anxious
for deliverance; but unable to espy the real causes of
the mischief, and to escape confusing principles with
men; fond of form rather than material; classical
rather than Gothic; critical rather than reverent;
proud of its own discoveries, without appreciation of
the efforts of the past.—Such are the qualities which
characterised the times of Voltaire,<a id="noteref_524" name="noteref_524" href="#note_524"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">524</span></span></a> and in their most
striking form marked his mind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
To qualities which were thus in some sense formed
in him by circumstances, he added remarkable ones
which were Nature's special gift to him. His extraordinary
tact and good sense, both in dealing personally
with individuals and in literary criticism; his fiery
ardour, and vehement spirit of proselytism; his singular
penetration of vision, and power to arrange in
the clearest mode the thoughts which he wished to
transmit; above all, his wit and wonderful power of
satire were qualities which, though in some degree
shared by his countrymen, cannot be explained by
mere circumstances, but are natural gifts. These three
intellectual endowments, acuteness, order, and satire,<a id="noteref_525" name="noteref_525" href="#note_525"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">525</span></span></a>
are regarded by the authority that we are taking for
our guide, as the qualities which formed the secret of
his power as a writer, and at the same time as the
sources of intellectual temptation which prevented him
from gaining a deeper insight into truth, and deprived
him of influence with posterity. For his quickness
prevented the exercise of the reflection, the patient
meditation, which is the only high road to solve the
mysteries of existence. It has been well said,<a id="noteref_526" name="noteref_526" href="#note_526"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">526</span></span></a> that
Voltaire saw so much more deeply at a glance than
other men, that no second glance was ever given by
him. His power of order assisting his quickness, was
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
a still further temptation. Though far inferior in erudition
to some of his contemporaries, such as Diderot,
and in depth of feeling to Rousseau, lacking originality,
and borrowing most of his philosophical thoughts
at second hand, he yet surpassed them all by a matchless
power of arrangement. The perfection of form
diverted attention from the subject matter. He possessed
method rather than genius, intellect rather than
imagination. But above all his other powers, his
most singular gift was his power of satire. When
stimulated by a sense of injustice, or of hatred against
men or systems, it made him omnipotent in destruction.
This satirical power contributed to preclude the
possession of depth of reflection. Ridicule has an office
in criticism. It is the true punishment of folly. But
it has been well observed,<a id="noteref_527" name="noteref_527" href="#note_527"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">527</span></span></a> that it is dangerous to
him who employs it, as being directly opposed to humility.
The satirist places himself above that which he ridicules,
and makes himself the judge: the humility of the listener
is laid aside; the selfish belief of his own infallibility
is fostered; forbearance and sympathy are laid aside.
The critic argues, the satirist only laughs. Pity may be
compatible with humour, but only contempt with satire.
Voltaire was by nature a satirist; and when his
mockery was applied to a subject like Christianity or
religion, his utter want of reverence not only caused
him to substitute a caricature for a picture, but prevented
him from exercising discrimination in distinguishing
Christianity from its counterfeit, religion
from the ministers of it. Hence his attacks on Christianity
partake of the tone of blasphemy; and he manifests
in reference to religion, which to most readers
was the most sacred of subjects, a tone of indescribable
scurrility, which was not only inexcusable and disgraceful
if viewed merely in a literary point of view,
but constituted politically a public outrage against the
dearest feelings of others which no citizen has a right
to perpetrate.<a id="noteref_528" name="noteref_528" href="#note_528"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">528</span></span></a> This tone too was mainly his own;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and is not to be found, except in rare instances, in the
English deists from whom he borrowed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have tried to comprehend the mind of Voltaire,
to notice his peculiarities and faults, before considering
his opinions; because his influence was due to
his mental and personal character rather than to the
matter of his writings. It remains to state his views
on religion, and the grounds of his attack on revelation.
The chief materials for ascertaining them are
the four volumes in the vast collection of his works,
which contain his philosophical and theological writings.<a id="noteref_529" name="noteref_529" href="#note_529"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">529</span></span></a>
They partake of every variety of form,—essays,
letters, treatises, pamphlets, translations, commentaries.
They include, besides smaller works, a commentary on
the Old Testament; translations of parts of Bolingbroke
and of Toland; an investigation concerning the
establishment of Christianity; deist sermons which he
pretends had been delivered; discourses written under
false names;<a id="noteref_530" name="noteref_530" href="#note_530"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">530</span></span></a> and doubts proposed and solved after the
manner of preceding philosophers. Yet in these numerous
treatises there is no claim to originality. His
doubts and his beliefs are taken mainly from the English
deists; and chiefly from Bolingbroke, the most
French in mind of any of the English school.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A few words therefore will suffice to characterise
his opinions. It appears that he believed in a God,<a id="noteref_531" name="noteref_531" href="#note_531"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">531</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
but firmly disbelieved the divine origin of the revealed
religion, Jewish and Christian. The main purpose of
his life however was not affirmation, but denial.<a id="noteref_532" name="noteref_532" href="#note_532"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">532</span></span></a> Accordingly
the sole object of all his efforts was to destroy
belief in the plenary inspiration of the scriptures,
and the divine origin of revelation which is attested
by them. There is hardly a book in scripture that he
did not attack. Successively surveying the narrative
of Jewish history, the Gospels, and statements of early
church history,<a id="noteref_533" name="noteref_533" href="#note_533"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">533</span></span></a> he tried to show
absurdities and contradictions in them all; not so much literary differences
in the authors as difficulties of belief in the material
revealed. In his views of Judaism and of Christianity
he seems to have fluctuated between attributing
them to the fraud or mistake of their propagators, and
denying their originality. The science of historical
criticism was beginning in his day, and was applied to
the legends of Roman history. Voltaire embodied the
spirit of this inquiry. In his histories he exemplified
the cold, worldly, modern mode of looking at events,
as opposed to the providential and theocratic view of
them which had found expression as recently as in the
works of Bossuet.<a id="noteref_534" name="noteref_534" href="#note_534"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">534</span></span></a> And he transferred this method
to the treatment of holy scripture. No new branch
of information was left unused by him for contributing
to his impious purpose. The numerous works of travels
which were affording an acquaintance with the mythology
of other nations, were made to furnish him with
the materials for hastily applying one solution to all
the early Jewish histories, which he failed to invalidate
by the application of the historic method just described.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
By an inversion of the argument of the early Christian
apologists, he pretended that the early history preserved
among the Hebrews was borrowed from the heathens,
instead of claiming that the heathen mythology was a
trace of Hebrew tradition; and, with a view to sustain
this opinion, he discredited the integrity of the Hebrew
literature. In nothing is his singular want of poetic
taste, and of the power to appreciate the beauties of
the literature of young nations, and the ethical value
of moral institutions, more visible, than in denying the
literary and monumental value of the Bible, and the
moral influence of Christianity.<a id="noteref_535" name="noteref_535" href="#note_535"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">535</span></span></a> Infidels who have
hated revealed religion as bitterly as Voltaire, have at
least not had the meanness or the want of taste to depreciate
the literary and moral interest which attaches
to it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was the character of the man, and of the
efforts which he directed to the injury of revelation.
It has been said<a id="noteref_536" name="noteref_536" href="#note_536"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">536</span></span></a> that to obliterate his influence from
the history of the eighteenth century would be to produce
a greater difference than the absence of any other
individual in it would occasion; and would be similar
to the omission of Luther from the sixteenth. The
analogy, though startling, is true in the particulars
which it is intended to illustrate. The influence of
each was European in his respective century; and the
doctrine acted not only on the world of thought, but of
action.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have described Voltaire alone; not because he
was isolated by any interval of time from a general
movement, but because his attack is more rudimentary,
being directed rather to disintegrate Christianity than
dogmatically to affirm unbelief. He was perhaps rather
logically prior to the others than chronologically; being
really connected with two bodies of men, which formed
the centres of two infidel movements, the one in Paris,
the other at the court of Frederick at Berlin.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Frederick the Great surrounded himself with
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
French literary men.<a id="noteref_537" name="noteref_537" href="#note_537"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">537</span></span></a>
They were mostly persons who
were exiles from France to escape persecution for their
opinions, who had first found a refuge in Holland, and
thence endeavoured by means of the Dutch booksellers
to introduce their writings into France. From about
1740-60 several such teachers of infidelity were invited
to the Prussian court, and dispersed their influence
in Germany; the effects of which we shall subsequently
find. One of them was the physician La
Mettrie,<a id="noteref_538" name="noteref_538" href="#note_538"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">538</span></span></a>
who wrote works on physiology marked by a
low materialism. Such also was De Prades,<a id="noteref_539" name="noteref_539" href="#note_539"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">539</span></span></a> and
more especially D'Argens.<a id="noteref_540" name="noteref_540" href="#note_540"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">540</span></span></a> The latter, struck with the
force of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Persian Letters”</span> of Montesquieu, threw
his doubts into an epistolary form, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Jewish Letters;”</span>
in which the traditional opinions and ruling systems of
the time were attacked with great freedom. He translated
also some ancient works to serve his purpose,
especially the fragments of the abusive work of the
emperor Julian against Christianity, written in favour
of the state religion of the Greeks and Romans.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While this was the character of some of the Frenchmen
at the court of Frederick, whom Voltaire subsequently
joined; men who, imbued with the most extravagant
form of the philosophy of sensation, verged
upon materialism; there were coteries of literary persons
in Paris, which were the rallying point of sceptical
minds, and centres of irreligious influence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The existence of them is due in part to the altered
position already named which literature assumed in reference
to the court during the regency. Instead of being
fostered, it was discouraged; and Fleury manifested
an almost puritan spirit, and has left on record the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
expression of his alarm at the growing sceptical tone of
literary works, and the imitation of the English spirit.
Owing accordingly to the absence of patronage, and to
the lavishment of those favours on extravagance which
the elder Louis had bestowed on the fostering of intellect,
literature became disjoined from court influences;
and hence there grew up small centres of literary influence,
analogous to those preceding the times of Louis
XIV,<a id="noteref_541" name="noteref_541" href="#note_541"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">541</span></span></a> and nuclei for intellectual movement, where of
old the various bodies had all moved round one central
sun.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It would be irrelevant to enter into the details of
these coteries. (<a href="#Note_23" class="tei tei-ref">23</a>) Some were simply of fashion and
taste; but others were undoubtedly gatherings of powerful
thinkers, imbued with infidel principles, whose
character belongs to French literature and the mental
and moral culture of the time. One of the most remarkable
of these coteries included names noted in
French literature, such as Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert,<a id="noteref_542" name="noteref_542" href="#note_542"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">542</span></span></a>
D'Holbach, Marmontel,<a id="noteref_543" name="noteref_543" href="#note_543"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">543</span></span></a> Helvetius, Grimm,<a id="noteref_544" name="noteref_544" href="#note_544"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">544</span></span></a>
St. Lambert,<a id="noteref_545" name="noteref_545" href="#note_545"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">545</span></span></a> and Raynal.<a id="noteref_546" name="noteref_546" href="#note_546"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">546</span></span></a> We must notice some of
them in detail, in order at once to appreciate the character
of their works, and to illustrate the relation of
their unbelief to the philosophy which they adopted.<a id="noteref_547" name="noteref_547" href="#note_547"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">547</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Diderot,<a id="noteref_548" name="noteref_548" href="#note_548"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">548</span></span></a> next to Voltaire, was the most able of the
infidel writers, and greatly superior to the other members
of the same class. His history is one of those narratives
of struggle and suffering which so often have
been the lot of men of letters. Those who have been
the teachers of the world have too often been also its
martyrs. The great peculiarity of Diderot, as of Johnson,
was his encyclopædic knowledge, and his versatility
in comprehending a variety of subjects. Less critical
than Voltaire, and less philosophical than Rousseau,
he exceeded both as the practical teacher. But in unbelief
he unhappily advanced farther than either; his
temper lacked moral earnestness; and in later life he
was an atheist. A growth of unbelief may be traced
in him: at first he was a doubter, next he became a
deist, lastly an atheist. In the first stage he only translated
English works, and even condemned some of the
English deists. His views seem gradually to have altered,
probably under the influence of Voltaire's writings,
and of the infidel books smuggled into France;
and he thenceforth assumed a tone bolder and marked
by positive disbelief. In 1746 he wrote his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pensées
Philosophiques</span></span>, intended to be placed in opposition to
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pensées</span></span> of Pascal. Pascal, by a series of sceptical
propositions, had hoped to establish the necessity of revelation.
Diderot tried by the same method to show
that this revelation must be untrue.<a id="noteref_549" name="noteref_549" href="#note_549"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">549</span></span></a> The first portion
of the propositions<a id="noteref_550" name="noteref_550" href="#note_550"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">550</span></span></a>
bore upon philosophy and natural
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
religion, but at length he came to weaken the proofs
for the truth of Christianity, and controverted miracles,
and the truth of any system which reposes on miracles;
yet even in this work he did not evince the atheism
which he subsequently avowed. It was soon after the
imprisonment in which he was involved by this book,
that he projected the plan of the magnificent work, the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopédie</span></span>, or universal dictionary of human knowledge.
Its object however was not only literary, but
also theological; for it was designed to circulate among
all classes new modes of thinking, which should be opposed
to all that was traditionary. Voltaire's unbelief
was merely destructive: this was reconstructive and
systematic. The religion of this great work was deism:
the philosophy of it was sensationalist and almost materialist;
seeming hardly to allow the existence of anything
but mechanical beings. Soul was absorbed in
body; the inner world in the outer;—a tendency fostered
by physics. It was the view of things taken by the scientific
mind, and lacks the poetical and feeling elements
of nature—a true type of the cold and mechanical age
which produced it. Diderot's atheism is a still further
development of his unbelief. It is expressed in few of his
writings, and presents no subject of interest to us; save
that it seeks to invalidate the arguments for the being
of a God, drawn from final causes. It has been well
observed, that the lesson to be derived from him<a id="noteref_551" name="noteref_551" href="#note_551"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">551</span></span></a> is,
that the mechanical view of the world is essentially
atheistic; that whosoever will admit no means of discovering
God but common logic, cannot find him.
Diderot's unbelief may be considered to embody that
which resulted from the abuse at once of erudition, physical
science, and the sensational theory in metaphysics.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among the band of friends who from connexion
with the Encyclopædia acquired the name of Encyclopædists,
was also Helvetius.<a id="noteref_552" name="noteref_552" href="#note_552"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">552</span></span></a> He was the moralist of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the sensational philosophy, one of those who applied the
philosophy of Condillac to morals. Each man's tastes
are so far affected by circumstances, that it is possible
that Helvetius's exclusive association with the selfish
circles of the French society, which never lived for the
good of others, together with the perception of the hollowness
of the respect which persons paid him for his
wealth and influence, led him to regard self-love as the
sole motive of conduct. His philosophy is expressed
in two works;<a id="noteref_553" name="noteref_553" href="#note_553"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">553</span></span></a>
the one on the spirit, the other on man:
the former a theoretical view of human nature, the latter
a practical view of education and society. His
primary position is, that man owes all his superiority
over animals to the superior organization of his body.
Starting from this point, he argues that all minds are
originally equal, and owe their variation to circumstances;<a id="noteref_554" name="noteref_554" href="#note_554"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">554</span></span></a> that all their faculties and emotions are derivable
from sensation; that pleasure is the only good,
and self-interest the true ground of morals and the
framework of individual and political right.<a id="noteref_555" name="noteref_555" href="#note_555"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">555</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If in Diderot we have met with atheism, and in Helvetius
with the selfish theory of morals; in the author of <span class="tei tei-q">“the
System of Nature”</span> we meet with utter materialism,
and the two former evils as corollaries from it. This
work, which was published about 1774, though bearing
a different author's name on the title, was probably the
work of D'Holbach,<a id="noteref_556" name="noteref_556" href="#note_556"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">556</span></span></a>
aided by Diderot and Helvetius,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and other members of the society which met at D'Holbach's
house. It is a work of unquestionable talent and
eloquence, in which materialism, fatalism, and atheism,
combine to form a view of human nature which even
Voltaire is said to have denounced.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The grand object of this work being to show that
there is no God, the first part is occupied by the most
rigorous materialism, and is designed to prove that
there is no such thing as mind, nothing beyond the
material fabric,<a id="noteref_557" name="noteref_557" href="#note_557"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">557</span></span></a> which is maintained by simple and
invariable laws; and that the soul is a mode of organism,<a id="noteref_558" name="noteref_558" href="#note_558"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">558</span></span></a> the mere action of the body under different functions.
The freedom of the will<a id="noteref_559" name="noteref_559" href="#note_559"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">559</span></span></a> and
immortality<a id="noteref_560" name="noteref_560" href="#note_560"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">560</span></span></a> are
accordingly denied. The first part having been directed
to disprove the existence of mind, the second part is
designed against religion. The author attributes the
idea which man has formed of a first Cause to fear,<a id="noteref_561" name="noteref_561" href="#note_561"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">561</span></span></a> generated through suffering; and attempts to show the
insufficiency of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> argument in favour of a
God,<a id="noteref_562" name="noteref_562" href="#note_562"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">562</span></span></a>
omitting the consideration of the arguments derived
from final causes. Nature becomes in his scheme
a machine; man an organism; morality self-interest;
deity a fiction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work we have just named formed the crowning
result of infidelity.<a id="noteref_563" name="noteref_563" href="#note_563"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">563</span></span></a> Voltaire showed philosophy
shrinking from the hard materialism, morality from
the fatalism, and religion from the atheism, to which
they afterwards attained. In these steps, as witnessed
in the circle of intellect just sketched, we see the ramification
of the French sensational philosophy pushed to
its farthest limits.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The writers lately described, though in some degree
eminent, do not, like Voltaire, stand in the first rank
of the French literary writers. Amid the circle of
unbelievers, however, another of the highest rank
was found, who, though he must be classed with the
others, stood so apart in taste, in sympathy, in purpose,
and in belief, that the study of his life and character
is an interruption to the series of the materialist writers
whom we are describing. Rousseau<a id="noteref_564" name="noteref_564" href="#note_564"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">564</span></span></a> was not an atheist
like Diderot, nor a materialist like D'Holbach, nor a
moralist of the selfish school like Helvetius, nor a scoffer
like Voltaire. We discover in him a spirit endowed
with deep feeling, and trained by much greater experience
of life and of internal sorrow. His writings also
mark the period when French philosophy ceased to attack
the church, and found itself strong enough to act
against the state. The greater portion of his works lies
out of the range of our inquiry. Even his political
writings, which indirectly injured religion in the world
of action by stimulating the revolutionary hatred to the
church, require notice only so far as they involved principles
fundamentally opposed to the teaching of revealed
religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was about the middle of the century<a id="noteref_565" name="noteref_565" href="#note_565"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">565</span></span></a> that Rousseau
commenced the <span class="tei tei-q">“Political Essays”</span> which made
his name famous, and unhappily afterwards formed as it
were the very bible of the French revolution. Retaining
through life the preference for the simple institutions
of the republic in which he had been born, he saw in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
French society the abuses which appertain to civilization;
and, with somewhat of the same feeling which
Tacitus exhibits in his portraiture of the Germans, was
led to study the comparative advantages of a primitive
and refined age, and to maintain the paradox that the
empire of corruption and inequality was to be regarded
as the artificial creation of civilization. Ignoring the
natural sinfulness and selfishness of the human race, he
sought deliverance for mankind in the return to a primeval
state, in which all should be free, equal, and independent.
The inartificial state of society was the beau-ideal.
And from this philosophical origin he traced
society in the historical formation of an actual polity,
describing how the social contract, while subordinating
individual liberty to the collective will of a society, recompensed
men by investing them with rights of civilization.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His doctrine was false theologically in its view of
human nature; false philosophically in attempting to
investigate an historical question by means of abstract
metaphysical analysis; and false politically in drawing
the attention of men away from practical and possible
schemes of reform to visionary ones. It typified the
movement of the French revolution in its extravagant
hopes and its errors, in its destructive, not its remedial
aspect.<a id="noteref_566" name="noteref_566" href="#note_566"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">566</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was a few years later than the publication of these
speculations that Rousseau wrote his celebrated treatise
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
on education, the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>,<a id="noteref_567" name="noteref_567" href="#note_567"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">567</span></span></a> which is the chief source for
ascertaining his religious opinions. It has been called
the Cyropædia of modern times, an attempt to show
the education which a philosopher would give his pupil,
in contradistinction to the religious and Jesuit training
common in Rousseau's time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In examining the religious education to be given
to the young, he introduces a Savoyard vicar, the original
of which his own early travels had suggested to him,
to narrate the history of his convictions, and explain the
nature of his creed. This creed is deism, and bears a
very striking resemblance to that taught by the English
deists. Rejecting tradition and philosophy,<a id="noteref_568" name="noteref_568" href="#note_568"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">568</span></span></a> the
vicar grounds his creed on reason, the interior light.
Commencing with sensation, he shows how step by step
we arrive at the doctrine of the being and attributes of
one God. Though he does not reject the argument
from final causes, he seems to lay more stress on the
metaphysical argument of the necessity of the divine
existence. He first proves the existence of personality
and will,<a id="noteref_569" name="noteref_569" href="#note_569"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">569</span></span></a>
and uses this idea for the purpose of exploring
the outer world; arguing that matter is inert and
not self-active, he regards matter in motion as indicating
force, and therefore volition; uniformity in its motion as proving a
law, and therefore an intelligent will,<a id="noteref_570" name="noteref_570" href="#note_570"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">570</span></span></a>
in which wisdom, power, and goodness combine.<a id="noteref_571" name="noteref_571" href="#note_571"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">571</span></span></a> This
being is God, to whom man is subject. The universe is
universal order. The physical evil therein originates in
our vices, the moral in our free will.<a id="noteref_572" name="noteref_572" href="#note_572"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">572</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Having established the being of a God, he next
proceeds to give reasons for believing in immortality.
He bases it on the fact of the goodness of God, which
leads Him to recompense with happiness the suffering
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
good; and he disbelieves the eternity of punishment
for the bad.<a id="noteref_573" name="noteref_573" href="#note_573"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">573</span></span></a>
Having fixed the objects of belief, he next
lays down the rule of duty in conscience, which he regards
as an innate and infallible guide.<a id="noteref_574" name="noteref_574" href="#note_574"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">574</span></span></a> After thus
establishing natural religion, he proceeds to criticise
revealed, arguing its want of irrefragable evidence,<a id="noteref_575" name="noteref_575" href="#note_575"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">575</span></span></a>
the discrepant<a id="noteref_576" name="noteref_576" href="#note_576"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">576</span></span></a> opinions in reference to it, the
improbability of portions of its history;<a id="noteref_577" name="noteref_577" href="#note_577"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">577</span></span></a>
attacking strongly the external evidence of prophecy and miracles; the
former on the alleged want of proof of agreement between
prophecy and its fulfilment; the latter on the
ground of the alleged circle, that miracles are made to
prove doctrine, and doctrine miracles.<a id="noteref_578" name="noteref_578" href="#note_578"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">578</span></span></a> He accordingly
rejects the idea of Christianity being necessary to salvation;
but renders a tribute of praise to its moral precepts,
and regards the gospels, though partly fictitious,
as containing indestructible moral truths; and concludes
with the well-known comparison of Socrates to
Christ, showing the stupendous superiority of the death
and example of the latter. <span class="tei tei-q">“If the death of Socrates,”</span>
he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“was that of a sage, that of Jesus was that of
a God.”</span><a id="noteref_579" name="noteref_579" href="#note_579"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">579</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It would have been thought that such teaching as
this would hardly have excited a legal prosecution, in
comparison with the more violent attacks that were
made on religion: but the wide reputation and fascinating
style of the author, the extraordinary ability
of the work, above all the fact that many of the previous
infidel doctrines had been published without the
writers' names, were the means of subjecting him to
persecution which they escaped. Voltaire and the infidel
party were indignant at Rousseau's partial acceptance
of Christianity. The French clergy were
angry at his rejection of the remainder. The parliament
ordered the book to be burned, and the author to
be imprisoned. Rousseau had to seek refuge in Switzerland,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and there defended his views of Christianity and
miracles in a series of celebrated letters, which in their
political effects have been compared with the letters of
Junius. Driven out from Switzerland, he found a
shelter in England, with Hume; and, until he could
safely return to France, employed his time in writing
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span>;<a id="noteref_580" name="noteref_580" href="#note_580"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">580</span></span></a>—the celebrated work, a mixture of
romance and fact, which takes its place in the first
rank of autobiographies,—a sad witness to the desperate
wickedness of the human heart, and to the impotence
of even a high moral creed, which we know
Rousseau elsewhere expressed,<a id="noteref_581" name="noteref_581" href="#note_581"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">581</span></span></a> in creating morality,
without Christian motives to give practical efficacy
to it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was Rousseau, an enemy of artificial society,
of Roman catholic education, and of supernatural revelation;
yet far removed from Voltaire and the other
infidels, both in tone and literary character.<a id="noteref_582" name="noteref_582" href="#note_582"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">582</span></span></a> While
Voltaire aimed only to destroy, Rousseau sought to
reconstruct. Voltaire was a flippant, hasty reviler of
Christianity, without originality in the material of his
works, without depth of soul: Rousseau was serious,
fresh, full of pathos. Voltaire either had no creed, or
thought one unimportant, and was actuated by malignant
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
hatred against Judaism and Christianity: Rousseau
had a firm creed, and spoke with decency of the
religion which he rejected. Voltaire was devoid of
taste for ancient literature, witty under a mask, a selfish
sycophant to the ancient political régime: Rousseau
never denied the authorship of his writings, was
democratic in tastes, and was the means of exciting a
love for antiquity. Finally rejecting to a great degree
the sensational philosophy; rising above it in heart, if
not in thought, Rousseau taught a spiritual philosophy,
destined to bear fruit when the dreams of the revolution
had passed. He stands alone however at present
in this respect, like Montesquieu in politics<a id="noteref_583" name="noteref_583" href="#note_583"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">583</span></span></a> and Buffon in science; and the course of our history again
brings before us men who must be classed with the
materialists that preceded him.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have stated that by the middle of the century
the infidel writers turned their attention from the attack
on the church to that on the state; and had already
made such impression on the government, that it
joined them in expelling the Jesuits.<a id="noteref_584" name="noteref_584" href="#note_584"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">584</span></span></a> For more than
a quarter of a century before the revolution the literary
writers were infidel. At length the evils of the state
grew incurable, and the storm of the revolution burst.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is possible in the present age to take a much
more dispassionate view of that vast event than was
taken by contemporaries.<a id="noteref_585" name="noteref_585" href="#note_585"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">585</span></span></a> It can now be adjusted to
its true historic perspective, and its function in the
scheme of history can be clearly perceived. The vastness
of the movement consisted in this, that it was at
once political, social, and religious.<a id="noteref_586" name="noteref_586" href="#note_586"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">586</span></span></a> It aimed at redressing
the grievances under which France had
suffered, and reconstructing society with guarantees
for future liberty. It sought not merely to destroy
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the feudalism which had outlived its time, and to
equalize the unfair distribution of the public burdens,
as means to accommodate society to modern wants;
but it tried to effect these changes among a people
whose minds were fully persuaded both that the privileges
of particular classes and the existence of an established
religion were the chief causes of the public
misfortune. When so many movements combined,
the catastrophe was intensified. It is indeed possible
now to see that in the end the solid advantages of the
revolution were reaped, while the mischief was temporary;
but the severity of the storm while it lasted was
increased by the infidel views with which society had
become impregnated. For the revolution attempted
to embody in its political aspect those poetical but
wild theories of society which sceptical students had
taught; and was founded on the false assumption of
the perfectibility of man, and the perfect goodness of
human nature, except as depraved by human government.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
At first, under the National Assembly,<a id="noteref_587" name="noteref_587" href="#note_587"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">587</span></span></a> the attack
was only made on the property of the church; but on
the establishment of the Convention, when the nation
had become frantic at the alarm of foreign invasion,
to which the king and clergy were supposed to be
instrumental, the monarchy was overthrown, and religion
also was declared obsolete. The municipality and
many of the bishops abjured Christianity; the churches
were stripped; the images of the Saviour trampled
under foot; and a fête was held in November 1793,<a id="noteref_588" name="noteref_588" href="#note_588"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">588</span></span></a> in
which an opera-dancer, impersonating Reason as a goddess,
was introduced into the Convention, and then led
in procession to the cathedral of Notre Dâme; and there,
elevated on the high altar, took the place of deity, and
received adoration from the audience. The services of
religion were abandoned; the churches were closed; the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
sabbath was abolished; and the calendar altered. On
all the public cemeteries the inscription was placed,
<span class="tei tei-q">“Death is an eternal sleep.”</span> Robespierre himself saw
the necessity for the public recognition of the being of
a God; and after the fall of the Girondists, obtained an
edict for that purpose shortly before his death, in 1794;
which event marks the return of society from atheism
and materialism back to deism.<a id="noteref_589" name="noteref_589" href="#note_589"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">589</span></span></a> When the horrors of
the dictatorship of Robespierre closed, and a regular government
was established under the Directory, the priests
obtained liberty to reopen the churches provided they
maintained them at their own expense.<a id="noteref_590" name="noteref_590" href="#note_590"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">590</span></span></a> But the
great majority of the people lived wholly without God
in the world; while some sought refuge in the extravagant
creed of a deist sect called the Theophilanthropists.<a id="noteref_591" name="noteref_591" href="#note_591"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">591</span></span></a>
Nor was it till the year 1802 that Napoleon
was able, and even then amid much opposition, to
reestablish the Sunday.<a id="noteref_592" name="noteref_592" href="#note_592"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">592</span></span></a> Christianity was then reinaugurated
by a public ceremony<a id="noteref_593" name="noteref_593" href="#note_593"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">593</span></span></a> in the cathedral,
polluted eight years before by the blasphemy of the
goddess of Reason. But the total cessation of religious
instruction snapped asunder a chain of faith which had
descended unbroken from the first ages; and to this
must be ascribed the irreligious mode of spending the
Sunday in French society.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The reign of atheism in religion was fortified by a
philosophy; and the works of one infidel writer preserve
the expression of the view which it took of Christianity
and religion. As soon as the excitement of the
revolution allowed leisure to return to the study of mental
facts, there arose the extreme form of sensationalism,
which was called (in a different meaning from the present
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
popular use of the term) Ideology, (<a href="#Note_24" class="tei tei-ref">24</a>). Cabanis
and Destutt de Tracy are the best exponents of its
physiological and psychological aspects; and the well-known
Volney of its moral and religious side. Starting
from the principles of Condillac and Helvetius,
that the very faculties as well as ideas are derived from
sensation, and moral rules from self-love, it almost
reaches the same point as D'Holbach. Mental science
was approached from the physiological side, and so
viewed that mind seemed to be made a property of
brain.<a id="noteref_594" name="noteref_594" href="#note_594"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">594</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The chief work in which Volney expresses his unbelief
is entitled the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ruins, or Meditations on the
Revolutions of Empires.”</span><a id="noteref_595" name="noteref_595" href="#note_595"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">595</span></span></a> It is a poem in prose. Volney
imagines himself falling into a meditation, amid
the ruins of Palmyra, on the fall of empires.<a id="noteref_596" name="noteref_596" href="#note_596"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">596</span></span></a> The
phantom of the ruins appears, and, entering into converse
with him, causes him to see the kingdoms of the
world, and guides him in the solution of the mysteries
which puzzle him.<a id="noteref_597" name="noteref_597" href="#note_597"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">597</span></span></a> It unveils to him the view of nature
as a system of laws, and of man as a being gifted with
self-love. It traces the origin of society in a manner
not unlike Rousseau,<a id="noteref_598" name="noteref_598" href="#note_598"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">598</span></span></a> and refers the source of evil to
self-love; states the cause of ancient prosperity and
decline, and draws the moral lesson from the past.<a id="noteref_599" name="noteref_599" href="#note_599"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">599</span></span></a>
While Volney is despondent at the prospect of the
future, a vision is unveiled to him of a new age. It is
of a nation ridding itself of privileged classes, and
arming itself when its young liberties were threatened
by foreign powers.<a id="noteref_600" name="noteref_600" href="#note_600"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">600</span></span></a> It is an apocalyptic vision of
France in his time. Then suddenly the vision changes,
and an assembly of the nations of the world is gathered
as in one common arena, to ascertain how they may
arrive at unity and peace.<a id="noteref_601" name="noteref_601" href="#note_601"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">601</span></span></a>
Their differences are illustrated
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
by the discrepant opinions which they utter on
religion; and the origin of each religion on the earth
is traced.<a id="noteref_602" name="noteref_602" href="#note_602"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">602</span></span></a> It is here that Volney makes his
speaker convey his own scepticism. He tracks the origin of the
religious ideas<a id="noteref_603" name="noteref_603" href="#note_603"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">603</span></span></a> through the worship prompted
by fear of the physical elements<a id="noteref_604" name="noteref_604" href="#note_604"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">604</span></span></a> and the
stars<a id="noteref_605" name="noteref_605" href="#note_605"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">605</span></span></a> to that of symbols
or idols,<a id="noteref_606" name="noteref_606" href="#note_606"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">606</span></span></a> with its accompanying mysteries and orders
of priests; and then onward through dualism<a id="noteref_607" name="noteref_607" href="#note_607"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">607</span></span></a> to the belief
of an unseen world;<a id="noteref_608" name="noteref_608" href="#note_608"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">608</span></span></a> then through
mythology<a id="noteref_609" name="noteref_609" href="#note_609"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">609</span></span></a> and pantheism<a id="noteref_610" name="noteref_610" href="#note_610"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">610</span></span></a> to the belief in a Creator;<a id="noteref_611" name="noteref_611" href="#note_611"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">611</span></span></a>
next, to Judaism<a id="noteref_612" name="noteref_612" href="#note_612"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">612</span></span></a>
as the worship of the soul of the world; and lastly, through
the Persian<a id="noteref_613" name="noteref_613" href="#note_613"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">613</span></span></a> and Hindu<a id="noteref_614" name="noteref_614" href="#note_614"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">614</span></span></a>
systems to Christianity,<a id="noteref_615" name="noteref_615" href="#note_615"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">615</span></span></a> which he attempts to show to be
the worship of the sun under the cabalistic names of Christ
and Jesus. Availing himself of some of the fragments
of mythology which such writers as Eusebius have preserved,
and with a faint perception of the nature of
mythology, he tries to resolve the narrative of the fall
of man into solar mythology; and, pointing to contact
with the Persians at the captivity as the source from
which the Jews borrowed their ideas of a symbolic
system, he regards the incarnation and life of Christ
as the mistaken literalization on the part of contemporaries
of their preconceived opinions. The conclusions
to which Volney makes his interlocutor come<a id="noteref_616" name="noteref_616" href="#note_616"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">616</span></span></a> is, that
nothing can be true, nothing be a ground of peace and
union, which is not visible to the senses. Truth is
conformity with sensations. The book is interesting as
a work of art; but its analysis of Christianity is so
shocking, that its absurdity alone prevents its becoming
dangerous. It is the most unblushing attempt to resolve
the noblest of effects into the most absurd of
origins; and embodies in the consideration of religion
the school of philosophy which he represented.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now completed the history of unbelief in
France during the eighteenth century. We have seen
how literature gradually emancipated itself from the
power of the court, and, under the influence of a sceptical
stimulus received from the importation of English
free thought, was changed into political and ecclesiastical
antipathy, and acquired a mastery over the public
mind, until it involved the state, the church, and Christianity,
in a common ruin. History offers no parallel
instance of the victory of unbelief, through the power of
the pen, nor of the union of the political with the theological
movement, and of the intimate connexion of
both with the current philosophy of the time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The theological movement has contributed nothing of
permanent literary value. The few apologies written
were unimportant; and the thoughts of those who attacked
Christianity were neither new nor characterised
by depth. Their criticism was shallow, and was marked
by the feature of which traces were observed in a few
English authors, the disposition to charge imposture on
the writers of the holy scriptures; so that they not
only failed to appreciate the literary excellence of the
works, but scarcely even allowed the possibility of unintentional
deception on the part of the writers. The
doubts were chiefly the reproduction of the English
point of view, with the addition of a few physical difficulties;<a id="noteref_617" name="noteref_617" href="#note_617"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">617</span></span></a>
protests of free thought against dogma in natural
science. The view entertained concerning deity was
eventually grovelling; the greatness of nature seemed
to inspire no reverence. Unbelief gradually lost hold
of monotheism; and in doing so never ascended in grandeur
to the idea of pantheism, but fell into blank atheism.
The theoretical morality of the English deists, even
when depending on expedience, was noble; but in
place of it the French school presented the lowest form
of theory which ethical science has ever stated, and
which finds its refutation with the philosophy that gave
it birth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
No age exhibits a body of sceptical writers whose
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
characters are so unattractive as the French unbelievers;
whose coarseness of mind in failing to appreciate that
which is beautiful in Christianity is so evident, that
charity could not forbid us to doubt, even if there were
not independent proof, that faults of character contributed
very largely to the formation of their unbelief.
Nevertheless, the political aspect of the movement carries
a solemn warning to the Christian church, not to endanger
the everlasting Gospel of the Son of God by making
it the buttress to support corrupt political and ecclesiastical
institutions. It is true that Christ will not abandon
his true church. Whatever is divine and eternally
true will always as in this case survive the catastrophe.
But this period of history shows that Providence
will not work a miracle to save religion from a temporary
eclipse, if the church forgets that Christ's kingdom
is not of this world; and that the mission which he has
given it is to convert souls to him; and that learning
and piety are intellectual and moral means for effecting
this object.<a id="noteref_618" name="noteref_618" href="#note_618"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">618</span></span></a>
The political faults or shortcomings of
the church are no apology for the infidelity of France;
but they must be taken into account in explaining its
intensity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A theological movement so vast could not fail to
exercise an influence in other lands. Incidental allusions
have already been made to its effects at the court
of Prussia,<a id="noteref_619" name="noteref_619" href="#note_619"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">619</span></span></a> and to the traces of its tone in some of the
later of the English deists.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The remainder of this lecture will be employed in
tracing the history of free thought in England, from the
date at which the narrative was interrupted to a little
later than the end of the century; especially noticing
the mode in which it was influenced by the movement
in France.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be remembered that we brought down the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
history of it as far as Hume.<a id="noteref_620" name="noteref_620" href="#note_620"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">620</span></span></a> We paused there, because
deism then ends as a literary movement. Politics
and new forms of literature absorbed the mind. Free
thought continued to exist; but it was less frequently
expressed in literature, and was considerably modified
by foreign influences. In Gibbon, about 1776, the
ancient spirit of deism, the spirit of Bolingbroke,
speaks, but the form is changed. Instead of denying
Christianity on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> moral considerations, he feels
bound to explain facts. The attack is not so much
moral as historic. The inquiry into historical <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">origines</span></span>
as well as logical causes has commenced. The
mode of attack too has changed, as well as the point
from which it is made. The French influence is visible
in the satire and irony prevalent. There is no longer
the bitter moral indignation of the early English deists,
but the sneer that marks the spirit of contempt. Fear
and hatred of Christianity have given way to philosophical
contempt. (<a href="#Note_25" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In Thomas Paine, who wrote in France in the midst
of the meeting of the French Convention, we meet a
nearer reproduction of the spirit of early English deism,
but he has even more than Gibbon caught the spirit of
the French movement. Gibbon's scepticism is that of
high life; Paine's of low. The one writer sneers, the
other hates. The one is a philosopher, the other a politician.
Paine represents the infidel movement of England
when it had spread itself among the lower orders,
and mingled itself with the political dissatisfaction for
which unhappily there was supposed to be some ground.
Paine's spirit is that of English deism animated by
the political exasperation which had characterised the
French. His doctrines come from English deism; his
bitterness from Voltaire; his politics from Rousseau.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Within the limits of the present century two other
traces are found of the influence of the French school of
infidelity, which therefore ought logically to be comprised
with it. The one is political, the other literary;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
viz. the socialist schemes of Owen, which in some respects
seem to be derived by direct lineage from Paine,
and the expression of unbelief in the poetry of Byron
and Shelley.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We must briefly notice these writers in succession.
The first in the series is Gibbon.<a id="noteref_621" name="noteref_621" href="#note_621"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">621</span></span></a> Though he has
left an autobiography, he has not fully unveiled the
causes which shook his faith, and made him turn deist.
We can however collect that the reaction from the
doubts suggested by the perusal of Middleton's work
on the subject of the cessation of miracles, then recently
brought into notoriety, (<a href="#Note_26" class="tei tei-ref">26</a>) turned him to the
church of Rome; and that his residence abroad and
familiarity with French literature caused him to drift
afterwards into the opposite extreme of scepticism. He
did not become an atheist, like some of the French writers
whom we have been studying: but he seems to
have given up the belief in the divine origin of Christianity;
and he manifested the spirit of dislike and insinuation
common in the unbelief of the time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He did not write expressly against Christianity;
but the subject came across his path in travelling over
the vast space of time which he embraced in his magnificent
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire. It is a subject of regret to be compelled to
direct hostile remarks against one who has deserved so
well of the world. That work, though in the pageantry
of its style<a id="noteref_622" name="noteref_622" href="#note_622"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">622</span></span></a> it in some sense reflects the art and taste
of the age in which it was written, yet in its love of
solid information and deep research is the noblest work
of history in the English tongue. Grand alike in its
subject, its composition, and its perspective, it has a
right to a place among the highest works of human
conception; and sustains the relation to history which
the works of Michael Angelo bear to art. In the fifteenth
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and sixteenth chapters of this work, Gibbon had
occasion to discuss the origin of Christianity, and assigned
five causes for its spread; viz. its internal doctrine,
and organization, miracles, Jewish zeal, and excellence
of Christian morals. The chapters were received
with denunciations. Yet those<a id="noteref_623" name="noteref_623" href="#note_623"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">623</span></span></a>
who in later times
have re-examined Gibbon's statements candidly admit
that they can find hardly any errors of fact or intentional
mis-statement of circumstances.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The great mistake which he commits is obvious, and
the cause hardly less so. The mistake is twofold: first,
he attributes to the earliest period of Christianity that
which was only true of a later; and secondly, he confounds
the circumstances of the spread of Christianity
with the cause which gave it force.<a id="noteref_624" name="noteref_624" href="#note_624"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">624</span></span></a> The powerful influence
of the causes which he specifies cannot be doubted;<a id="noteref_625" name="noteref_625" href="#note_625"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">625</span></span></a>
and we may hold it to be not derogatory to our
religion that it admits of union with every class of efficient
causes; and adapts itself so fully to man's wants,
as to accept the support of ordinary sources of influence.
But the causes which he alleges operated far less strongly,
and some of them not at all, in the primitive age of
Christianity. The discussion of this period lay beyond
Gibbon's purpose; and as he dwelt wholly on the aspects
of a later age, he has left the impression that the
earliest age partook of the same characteristics. Nor is
he correct in regarding the five causes as solely efficient.
There is a subtler force at work, of the operation of
which they exhibit only the conditions. They reveal
the mechanism, but do not explain the principle. Without
judging him as a theologian in omitting the theological
cause for an alleged supernatural power, he must
be censured as a historian in failing to appreciate the
spiritual movement at work in Christianity, the deep
excitement of the spiritual faculty, the yearning of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
mind after truth and holiness. The same fault is observable
in his appreciation of religion generally, and
not merely of Christianity. With the want of spiritual
perception common to his age, he had not the ethical
sensibility to appreciate the internal part of a religious
system; and hence he regards unworldly phenomena
in the tone of the political world of his time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In pointing out his errors, we have hinted at their
causes. The coldness which scepticism and sensational
philosophy<a id="noteref_626" name="noteref_626" href="#note_626"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">626</span></span></a> had induced in his mind, which could kindle
into warmth in describing the greatness either of
men or of events, but not in depicting the moral excellence
of Christianity, was but the reflection of the cold
hatred of religious enthusiasm common in his day.
Nor would the historic views of primitive Christianity
commonly entertained in his time tend to dissipate his
error. For it was usual in that age of evidences to regard
the early converts as cold and cautious inquirers,
accustomed to weigh evidences and suggest doubts. In
attempting to discover the doctrines and discipline of
the English church in apostolic times, there was a danger
of transferring the notions of modern decorum to
the marvellous outburst of enthusiastic piety and supernatural
mystery which attended the communication of
the heaven-sent message; and therefore it is some palliation
for Gibbon that he too failed to perceive that
those were times of excitement, when new ideas fell on
untried minds and yearning hearts. And it is a remarkable
proof of the improved general conception
which men now entertain of Christianity, that no apprehension
of danger is now felt from Gibbon's views.
The youngest student has imbibed a religious spirit so
much deeper, that he cannot fail instinctively to perceive
their insufficiency as an explanation of the phenomena.<a id="noteref_627" name="noteref_627" href="#note_627"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">627</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One of our great poets has celebrated the two literary
exiles of the Leman lake.<a id="noteref_628" name="noteref_628" href="#note_628"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">628</span></span></a> But how different are
our feelings in respect of them in relation to this subject!
Both were deists; but the one dedicated his life
to a crusade against Christianity, the other only insinuated
a few slight hints: the one derived his faults from
himself, the other from his age: the one, the type of
subtlety, acted by his pen on the world political; the
other, the type of industry, sought to instruct the student.
The writings of Voltaire remain as works of
power, but not of information: Gibbon's history will
endure as long as the English tongue.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Paine is a character of a very different kind from
the freethinker last named.<a id="noteref_629" name="noteref_629" href="#note_629"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">629</span></span></a> Instead of the polished
scholar, the polite man of letters, and the historian, like
Gibbon, we see in him an active man of the world,
educated by men rather than books, of low tastes and
vulgar tone, the apostle alike of political revolution
and infidelity. Though a native of England, his earliest
life was spent in America at the time of the war
of independence. Returning to England with the
strong feelings of liberty and freedom which had
marked the revolt of the colonies, he wrote at the time
of the outbreak of the French revolution a work called
the Rights of Man, in reply to Burke's criticism on that
event. Prosecuted for this work, he fled to France,
and was distinguished by being the only foreigner save
one<a id="noteref_630" name="noteref_630" href="#note_630"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">630</span></span></a> elected to the French Convention.
During its session he composed the infidel work called the Age of
Reason, by which his name has gained an unenviable
notoriety; and after the alteration of political circumstances
in France, he returned to America, and there
dragged out a miserable existence, indebted in his last
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
illness for acts of charity to disciples of the very religion
that he had opposed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The two works, the Rights of Man, and the Age of
Reason, being circulated widely in England by the
democratic societies of that period, contributed probably
more than any other books to stimulate revolutionary
feeling in politics and religion.<a id="noteref_631" name="noteref_631" href="#note_631"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">631</span></span></a> This popularity
is owing partly to the character of the language and
ideas, partly to the state of public feeling. Manifesting
much plebeian simplicity of speech and earnestness of
conviction, they gave expression in coarse Saxon words
to thoughts which were then passing through many
hearts. They were like the address of a mob-orator in
writing, and fell upon ground prepared. Political reforms
had been steadily resisted; and accordingly,
when the success of foreign revolution had raised men's
spirits to the highest point of impatience, the middle
classes, which wanted a moderate reform, were unfortunately
thrown on the side of the wild and anarchical
spirits that wished for utter revolution. The church,
by holding with the state, was partly involved in the
same obloquy. Paine's works, resembling Rousseau's
in purpose, though quite opposite in style, were as
much adapted to the lower classes of England as his to
the polished upper classes of France.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Age of Reason, was a pamphlet admitting of
quick perusal. It was afterwards followed by a second
part, in which a defence was offered against the replies
made to the former part. The object of the two is to
state reasons for rejecting the Bible,<a id="noteref_632" name="noteref_632" href="#note_632"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">632</span></span></a> and to explain
the nature of the religion of deism,<a id="noteref_633" name="noteref_633" href="#note_633"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">633</span></span></a> which was proposed
as a substitute. A portion is devoted to an attack
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
on the external evidence of revelation, or, as the
author blasphemously calls it,<a id="noteref_634" name="noteref_634" href="#note_634"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">634</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“the three principal
means of imposture,”</span> prophecy, miracles, and mystery;
the latter of which he asserts may exist in the physical,
but not by the nature of things in the moral world. A
larger portion is devoted to a collection of the various
internal difficulties of the books of the Old and New
Testament, and of the schemes of religion, Jewish and
Christian.<a id="noteref_635" name="noteref_635" href="#note_635"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">635</span></span></a> The great mass of these objections
are those which had been suggested by English or French
deists, but are stated with extreme bitterness. The
most novel part of this work is the use which Paine
makes of the discoveries of astronomy<a id="noteref_636" name="noteref_636" href="#note_636"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">636</span></span></a> in revealing the
vastness of the universe and a plurality of globes, to
discredit the idea of interference on behalf of this insignificant
planet,—an argument which he wields especially
against the doctrine of incarnation. But no part
of his work manifests such bitterness, and at the same
time such a specious mode of argument, as his attack
on the doctrine of redemption and substitutional atonement.<a id="noteref_637" name="noteref_637" href="#note_637"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">637</span></span></a> The work, in its satire and its blasphemous
ribaldry, is a fit parallel to those of Voltaire. Every
line is fresh from the writer's mind, and written with
an acrimony which accounts for much of its influence.
The religion which Paine substituted for Christianity
was the belief in one God as revealed by science, in immortality
as the continuance of conscious existence, in
the natural equality of man, and in the obligation of
justice and mercy to one's neighbour.<a id="noteref_638" name="noteref_638" href="#note_638"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">638</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The influence of the spirit of Paine lingered in some
strata of our population far into the present century:
by means of the views of Owen,<a id="noteref_639" name="noteref_639" href="#note_639"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">639</span></span></a> the founder of English
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
socialism, which essentially reproduce the visionary
political reforms which belonged to the philosophy and
to the doubt of the last century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Being desirous to improve the condition of the industrial
classes, Owen speculated on the causes of evil;
and, approaching the subject from the extreme sensational
point of view, regarded the power of circumstances
to be so great, that he was led to regard action
as the obedience to the strongest motive. He thus introduced
the idea of physical causation into the human
will; and made the rule of right to be each one's own
pleasures and pains. Founding political inferences
on this ethical theory of circumstantial fatalism, he proposed
the system called socialism, which aimed at modifying
temptations and removing two great classes of
temptations, by facilitating divorce, and proposing equality
of property. The system is now obsolete both in
idea and in history, yet it has an interest from the circumstance
that until recently it deceived the minds and
corrupted the religious faith of many of the manufacturing
population.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of the influence of French infidelity on
the course of English thought closes with names of
greater note.<a id="noteref_640" name="noteref_640" href="#note_640"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">640</span></span></a> If Owen, though belonging to the present
century, represents the political tone of the past,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
we must also refer to the same period, morally though
not chronologically, the spirit of unbelief which animated
literature in the poetry of Byron and Shelley.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Saddened by blighted hopes, political and personal,
Byron affords a type of the unbelief which is marked
by despair.<a id="noteref_641" name="noteref_641" href="#note_641"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">641</span></span></a> If compared with the two exiles of the
Leman lake, whom the sympathy of a common scepticism
and common exile commended to his meditation,
he stands in many respects widely contrasted with them
in tone and spirit. Allied rather to Gibbon in seriousness,
he nevertheless wholly lacked his moral purpose
and resolute spirit of perseverance. More nearly resembling
Voltaire in the nature of his unbelief, he
nevertheless differed in the features of gloom by which
his mind was characterized. His unbelief was a remnant
of the philosophic atheism of France; but it received
a tinge in passing through the wounded mind
of the poet.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His brother poet, of a still loftier genius, is more
widely contrasted with him in mental qualities, than
united by similarity in the character of his unbelief.
Both were weary of the world; but the one was drawn
down by unbelief to earth, the other soared into the
ideal: the one was driven to the gloom of despair, the
other was excited by the imagination to the madness
of enthusiasm: the one was made sad by disappointment,
the other was goaded by it into frenzy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Shelley merits more than a passing notice, both
because his poetry is a proof of our main position concerning
the influence of certain forms of philosophy in
producing unbelief, and because his mental history, as
learned by means of his works and memoirs, is a psychological
study of the highest value. The infidelity
which shows itself in him is an <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">idolum specûs</span></span>, as well
as an <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">idolum theatri</span></span>.<a id="noteref_642" name="noteref_642" href="#note_642"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">642</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His life, his natural character, and his philosophy,
all contributed to form his scepticism.<a id="noteref_643" name="noteref_643" href="#note_643"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">643</span></span></a> His life is a
tale of sorrow and ruined hopes, of genius without wisdom:
one of the sad stories which will ever excite the
sympathy of the heart. Early sent to this university,
he seems like Gibbon to have lived alone; and in the
solitude of that impulsive and recluse spirit which
formed his life-long peculiarity, to have nursed a spirit
of atheism and wild schemes of reform. Charged by
the authorities of his college with the authorship of an
atheistical pamphlet,<a id="noteref_644" name="noteref_644" href="#note_644"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">644</span></span></a> he was
expelled the university. An outcast from his family, he went forth to suffer
poverty, to gather his livelihood as he could by the
wonderful genius which nature had given him.
Wronged as he thought by his university and his country,
his wounded spirit imputed the supposed unkindness
which he received to the religion which his enemies
professed. In a foreign land, brooding over his wrongs,
he cherished the bitter antipathy to priestcraft and
to monarchy which finds such terrific expression in his
poems.<a id="noteref_645" name="noteref_645" href="#note_645"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">645</span></span></a>
His end was a fit close of a tragic life. A
friendly hand paid the last office of friendship to his
remains; and the urn which contains the ashes of his
pyre rests in the solemn and beautiful cemetery of the
eternal city, which he himself had described so strikingly
in his affecting memorial of his friend, the poet
Keats.<a id="noteref_646" name="noteref_646" href="#note_646"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">646</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His natural character contributed to produce his
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
scepticism not less than his life to increase it. He has
left us a clear delineation of himself in his writings.
If considered on the emotional side, he was a creature
of impulses. His predominant passion was an enthusiastic
desire to reform the world. Filled with the
wildest ideas of the French revolution, his impulsiveness
hurried him on to give expression to them. His
intellectual nature was analogous to the moral, and
itself received a stimulus from it. His mental peculiarity
was his power of sustained abstraction. His
poems are not lyrics of life, but of an ideal world. His
tendency was to insulate qualities or feelings, and hold
them up to the mental vision as personalities. The
words which he has addressed to his own skylark fitly
describe his mind as it soared in the solitude of its abstraction:
</p>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Higher still and higher</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">From the earth thou springest,</span></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest.</span></div>
</div>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been well observed, that this tendency of the
mind to personify isolated qualities or impulses, was
essentially the mythological tendency<a id="noteref_647" name="noteref_647" href="#note_647"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">647</span></span></a> which had
created the religion and expressed itself in the poetry
of the Greeks, and possibly contributed to foster Shelley's
sympathies with heathen religion. His mind was
peculiarly Greek, simple not complex, imaginative
rather than fanciful, abstract not concrete, intellectual
not emotional; wanting the many-sidedness of modern
taste, partaking of the unity of science rather than the
multiformity of nature, like sculpture rather than painting.
This mental peculiarity contributed to scepticism
by inclining his mind to the pantheistic philosophy,
which can never be held save by those whose minds can
give being to an abstraction, and is revolting to those
who are deeply touched with the Hebrew consciousness
of personality and of duty. His philosophy was at
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
first a form of naturalism, which identified God with
nature, and made body and spirit co-essential. In
this stage he oscillated between the belief of half personified
self-moved atoms, or a general pervading
spirit of nature. From this stage he passed into a new
one, by contact with the philosophy of Hume; and,
while admitting the diversity of matter and spirit, yet
denied the substantial reality of both. In this state
of mind he studied the philosophy of Plato, which was
originally designed for doubters somewhat analogous to
him; and he readily imbibed the theory that the passing
phenomena are types of eternal archetypes, embodiments
of eternal realities. But it was Plato's view of
the universe that he accepted, not his view of man; his
metaphysics, not his ethics. In none of these three
theories is the rule of the universe ascribed to a character,
but in each to animated abstractions. They are a
pantheistic or mythological view of things.<a id="noteref_648" name="noteref_648" href="#note_648"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">648</span></span></a> Nor was
the effect of this philosophy merely theoretical, for the
distorted view of the physical and moral cosmos led
him to believe that both should be regulated by the
same conditions; that men should have the unconstrained
liberty which he thought he saw in material
things. Like Rousseau, ascribing moral evil to the
artificial laws of society, Shelley proposed to substitute
a new order of things, in which man should be emancipated
from kings and priests. This philosophy also
increased his hatred against the moral order of the
world, and especially against Christianity; and led
him to regard it as the offshoot of superstition and the
impediment to progress. Yet even here, while echoing
the irreverent doctrines of the French revolution, he
bore an unconscious witness to the majesty of the
Christian virtues, in that he could find no nobler type
with which to invest his ideal race of men.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have dwelt long on Shelley, as a most instructive
example for observing the various influences, personal
and social, intellectual and moral, philosophical
and political, combining to form unbelief. His thoughts
are the last echo of the unbelief of the last century.
The great movement of Germany has completely
changed the scepticism of the present. The instances
that we have found of unbelief in England were indications
of a tendency rather than a movement. They
were however of sufficient importance to call forth the
voices of the church in reply or in protest.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been remarked, that in the former half of
the eighteenth century the attack was chiefly directed
against the internal doctrines and narratives of revelation,
on the assumption that they clashed with the
judgment of common sense, or of the moral faculty.
And therefore the writers on the evidences, adapting
their defence to the attack, employed themselves chiefly
in establishing the internal evidences, the moral need
of a revelation generally, and the suitability of the
Christian in particular, before producing the divine
testimony which authenticates it. But about the
middle of this century the historic spirit arose, and
the point of attack shifted to an assault on the historic
value of the literature which contains the revelation.
The question thenceforth became a literary one, whether
there was documentary proof that a revelation had
been given. The defence accordingly ceased to be
philosophical, and became historical.<a id="noteref_649" name="noteref_649" href="#note_649"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">649</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Opinions have changed with regard to the value
of evidences in general, and the historic form of them
in particular. When Boyle<a id="noteref_650" name="noteref_650" href="#note_650"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">650</span></span></a>
at the end of the seventeenth
century, and Bampton and Hulse in the latter
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
half of the eighteenth, established their respective lectures,
they looked forward to the probability of the occurrence
of new forms of doubt, and to the importance
of reasoning as the weapon for meeting them. In more
recent times evidences have been undervalued, through
the two opposite tendencies of the present age, the
churchly and corporate tendency on the one hand,
which rests on church authority, and the individualising
tendency on the other, which rests on intuitive consciousness.<a id="noteref_651" name="noteref_651" href="#note_651"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">651</span></span></a>
Evidences essentially belong to a theory,
which places the test of truth objectively in a revealed
book, and subjectively in the reason, as the organ for
discovering morality and interpreting the book.<a id="noteref_652" name="noteref_652" href="#note_652"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">652</span></span></a>
While evidences in general have been undervalued for
these reasons, the historic branch of them has been
regarded as obsolete, because having reference only to
an age which doubts the documents and charges the
authors with being deceivers or deceived, and unavailing,
like an old fortification, against a new mode of
assault. This latter statement is in substance correct.
It lessens the value of this argument as a practical
weapon against the doubts which now assail us, but
does not detract from the literary value of the works
in the special branch to which they apply. If the progress
of knowledge be the exciting cause of free thought,
a similar alteration in the evidences would be expected
to occur from causes similar to those which produce an
alteration in the attack, independently of the change
which occurs from the necessity of adjusting the one to
the other.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Abstract questions like this concerning the value
of evidences find their solution independently of the
human will. The human mind cannot be chained.
New knowledge will suggest new doubts; and if so,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
spirit must be combated by spirit. Defences of Christianity,
attempts to readjust it to new discoveries, must
therefore continue to the end of time. In reference to
the minor question of the value of the historic evidences,
it is important to remember that these grand works
are not simply refutative; they are indirectly instructive
and didactic. Just as miracles are a part of
Christianity, as well as evidences for its truth, so apologetic
is a lesson in Christianity, as well as a reply to
doubt.<a id="noteref_653" name="noteref_653" href="#note_653"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">653</span></span></a>
It happens also that the most modern doubt
of Germany has assumed the historic line, has become
critical instead of philosophical; and, though the criticism
is primarily of a different kind, it ultimately becomes
capable of refutation by the very line of argument
used in the eighteenth century.<a id="noteref_654" name="noteref_654" href="#note_654"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">654</span></span></a> We cherish
therefore with devout reverence the memory of those
writers who employed the power of the pen to defend
the religion that they loved. They joined their intellectual
labours to the spiritual earnestness which was
the other weapon for opposing unbelief. Providence
blessed their work. They sowed the seed of the intellectual
and spiritual harvest which this century is reaping.
<span class="tei tei-q">“And herein is that saying true, One soweth
and another reapeth. I sent you to reap that whereon
ye bestowed no labour: other men laboured, and ye
are entered into their labours. And he that reapeth
receiveth wages, and gathereth fruit unto life eternal;
that both he that soweth and he that reapeth may rejoice
together.”</span><a id="noteref_655" name="noteref_655" href="#note_655"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">655</span></span></a>
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a>
<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a>
<a name="Lecture_VI" id="Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VI. Free Thought In The Theology Of Germany From
1750-1835.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Phil.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> iv. 8.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever
things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are
lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any virtue,
and if there be any praise, think on these things.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We are about to study the history of the movement
in German theology, which is usually described
by the vague name of Rationalism,<a id="noteref_656" name="noteref_656" href="#note_656"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">656</span></span></a>—a movement
which, whether viewed specially in its relation to theology,
or to literature generally, must be regarded as
one of the most memorable efforts of human thought.
It was one aspect of the great outburst of mental activity
in Germany, which within the last hundred years
has created a literature, which not only vies with the
most renowned of those which have added to the stock
of human knowledge, but holds a foremost rank among
those which are characterised by originality and depth.
The permanent contribution made by it to the thought
of the world is the creation of a science of criticism,—a
method of analysis, in which philosophy and history
are jointly employed in the investigation of every
branch of knowledge. If however it be viewed apart
from the question of utility, the works produced during
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
this period, in poetry, speculation, criticism, and theology,
must ever make it memorable for monuments of
mental power, even when they shall have become obsolete
as sources of information.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The theological aspect of this great period of mental
activity, which we are about to sketch, has now probably
so far assumed its final shape, and given indications
of the tendencies permanently created by it for good or
for evil, that it admits of being viewed as a whole, and
its purpose and meaning observed.<a id="noteref_657" name="noteref_657" href="#note_657"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">657</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We shall deviate slightly from the plan hitherto
pursued, of selecting only the sceptical form of free
thought, and shall give an outline of German theology
generally; partly because the limits that sever orthodoxy
from heresy are a matter of dispute, partly in
order that the movement may be judged of as a whole.
The size of the subject will preclude the possibility of
entering so fully into biographical notices of the
writers, or into the analysis of their writings, as in
former lectures. We must select such typical minds
as will enable us to observe the chief tendencies of
thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As the stages of history are not arbitrarily severed,
but grow out of each other, we must briefly notice the
mental conditions of the period in Germany which preceded
the rise of rationalism; next indicate the new
forces, the introduction of which was the means of generating
the movement; and then explain the movement
itself in its chief phases and present results.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have previously had occasion to imply, that the
Protestant reformation of the sixteenth century contained
both an intellectual and a spiritual element.<a id="noteref_658" name="noteref_658" href="#note_658"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">658</span></span></a>
The attempt to reconcile these has been the problem
of protestant theology in Germany ever since. The
intellectual element, so far as it was literary, soon
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
passed into the hands of lay scholars:<a id="noteref_659" name="noteref_659" href="#note_659"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">659</span></span></a> the spiritual
became a life rather than a doctrine, and the polemic
or dogmatic aspect of the intellectual movement alone
was left. The time from the passing of the Formula of
Concord and the Synod of Dort<a id="noteref_660" name="noteref_660" href="#note_660"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">660</span></span></a> to the beginning of
the eighteenth century, a period nearly corresponding
with the seventeenth century, was in Germany an age
of dogmatic theology. It was scholasticism revived,
with the difference that the only source for the data of
argument was the Scripture, not philosophy. But
there was an equal absence of inquiry into first principles,
an equal appeal to authority for the grounds of
belief, and equal activity within these prescribed limits.
It was marked, as among the contemporary puritans in
England, by the most extreme view of biblical inspiration.<a id="noteref_661" name="noteref_661" href="#note_661"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">661</span></span></a>
Not only was the distinction of law and gospel
overlooked, and the historic and providential development
in revelation forgotten; but Scripture was supposed
to be in all respects a guide for the present, as
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
well as a record of the past. Infallible inspiration was
attributed to the authors of the sacred books, not
merely in reference to the religious instruction which
formed the appropriate matter of the supernatural
revelation, but in reference also to the allusions to collateral
subjects, such as natural science, or politics;
and not merely to the matter, but to the smallest details
of the language of the books.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Contemporary with this scholastic spirit was an
outburst of the living spiritual feeling which had
formed the other element in the Reformation. This
religious movement is denominated Pietism. (<a href="#Note_27" class="tei tei-ref">27</a>) Its
centre was at Halle; and the best known name among
the band of saints, of whom the world was not worthy,
was Spener. Soon after the time when the miseries of
the thirty years' war were closing, he established
schools for orphans, and a system of teaching and of
religious living which stirred up religious life in Germany.
These two tendencies—the dogmatic and the
pietistic—marked the religious life of Germany at the
opening of the eighteenth century. The inference has
been frequently drawn by the German writers, that
they ministered indirectly to the production of scepticism;
the dogmatic strictness stimulating a reaction
towards latitude of opinion, and the unchurchlike and
isolating character of pietism fostering individuality of
belief. This inference is however hardly correct. Dogmatic
truth in the corporate church, and piety in the
individual members, are ordinarily the safeguard of
Christian faith and life. The danger arose in this case
from the circumstance that the dogmas were emptied
of life, and so became unreal; and that the piety, being
separated from theological science, became insecure.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During the first half of the century, certain new
influences were introduced, which in the latter half
caused these tendencies to develope into rationalism.
They may be classed as three;<a id="noteref_662" name="noteref_662" href="#note_662"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">662</span></span></a>—the spread of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
speculative philosophy of Wolff; the introduction of
the works of the English deists; and the influence of
the colony of French infidels established by Frederick
the Great in Prussia. We shall explain these in detail.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The philosophy of Wolff was an offshoot directly
from Leibnitz, indirectly from the Cartesian school.
It is hardly necessary to reiterate the remark that
the revolution in thought wrought by Descartes was
nothing less than a protest of the human mind against
any external authority for the first principles of its
belief. Two great philosophers followed out his
method in an independent manner; Spinoza, who
attempted to exhibit with the rigour of deduction the
necessary development of the idea of substance into
the various modes which it assumes; and Leibnitz,<a id="noteref_663" name="noteref_663" href="#note_663"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">663</span></span></a> who, with less attempt at formal precision of method,
starting with the idea of power, endeavoured, by means
of the monadic theory, which it is unnecessary here to
explain, to exhibit the nature of the universe in itself,
and the connexion of the world of matter and of spirit.
Wolff was a disciple of Leibnitz; great as a teacher
rather than an inventor, who invested the system of
his master slightly modified, with the precision of form
which raised it to rivalry with the perfect symmetry
of Spinoza's system. Adopting his master's two great
canons of truth, the law of contradiction as regulative
of thoughts, and the law of the sufficient reason as
regulative of things,<a id="noteref_664" name="noteref_664" href="#note_664"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">664</span></span></a> he attempted in his theoretic
philosophy to work out a regular system on each of
the great branches of metaphysic,—nature, the mind,
and God; by deducing them from the abstract ideas
of the human mind.<a id="noteref_665" name="noteref_665" href="#note_665"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">665</span></span></a> The true method of conducting
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
this inquiry would be strictly an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à posteriori</span></span> one, an
analytical examination of our own consciousness, to
ascertain what data the facts of the thinking mind furnish
with respect to things thought of. But without
any such examination Wolff, assuming in reference to
these subjects the abstract ideas of the human mind as
his data, proceeded to reason from them with the same
confidence as the realists of the middle ages, or as
mathematicians when they commence with the real
intuitions of magnitude on which their science is founded.
Thus his whole philosophy was form without
matter; a magnificent idea, but not a fact. Yet
though really baseless, it was not necessarily harmful.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This philosophy at first met with much opposition
from the pietistic party of Halle.<a id="noteref_666" name="noteref_666" href="#note_666"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">666</span></span></a> The opposition
was not due to any theological incorrectness, for Wolff was
an orthodox Christian; but arose from the narrow and
unnecessary suspicions which religious men too often
have of philosophy, and the sensibility to any attempt
to suggest a reconsideration of the grounds of belief,
even if the conclusion adopted be the same. But the
system soon became universally dominant. Its orderly
method possessed the fascination which belongs to any
encyclopædic view of human knowledge. It coincided
too with the tone of the age. Really opposed, as Cartesianism
had been in France, to the scholasticism
which still reigned, its dogmatic form nevertheless
bore such external similarity to it, that it fell in with
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the old literary tastes. The evil effects which it subsequently
produced in reference to religion were due
only to the point of view which it ultimately induced.
Like Locke's work on the reasonableness of Christianity,
it stimulated intellectual speculation concerning
revelation. By suggesting attempts to deduce <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>
the necessary character of religious truths, it turned
men's attention more than ever away from spiritual
religion to theology. The attempt to demonstrate
everything caused dogmas to be viewed apart from
their practical aspect; and men being compelled to
discard the previous method of drawing philosophy out
of scripture, an independent philosophy was created,
and scripture compared with its discoveries.<a id="noteref_667" name="noteref_667" href="#note_667"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">667</span></span></a> Philosophy
no longer relied on scripture, but scripture rested
on philosophy. Dogmatic theology was made a part
of metaphysical philosophy. This was the mode in
which Wolff's philosophy ministered indirectly to the
creation of the disposition to make scriptural dogmas
submit to reason, which was denominated rationalism.
The empire of it was undisputed during the whole of
the middle part of the century, until it was expelled
towards the close by the partial introduction of Locke's
philosophy,<a id="noteref_668" name="noteref_668" href="#note_668"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">668</span></span></a>
and of the system of Kant, as well as by
the growth of classical erudition, and of a native literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The second cause which ministered to generate
rationalism was English deism. The connexion of England
with Hanover had caused several of the works of
the English deists to be translated in Germany,<a id="noteref_669" name="noteref_669" href="#note_669"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">669</span></span></a> and the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
general doctrines of natural religion, expressed by Herbert
and Toland, were soon reproduced, together with
the difficulties put forth by Tindal. But the direct
effect of this cause has probably been exaggerated by
the eagerness of those who, in the wish to identify German
rationalism with English deism, have ignorantly
overlooked the wide differences in premises, if not in
results, which separated them, and the regular internal
law of logical development which has presided over the
German movement.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A more direct cause was found about the middle of
the century in the influence of the French refugees and
others, whom Frederick the Great invited to his court.
Not only were Voltaire and Diderot visitors, but several
writers of worse fame, La Mettrie, D'Argens, Maupertuis,<a id="noteref_670" name="noteref_670" href="#note_670"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">670</span></span></a>
who possessed their faults without their mental
power, were constant residents. Their philosophy
and unbelief were the miniature of that which we have
detailed in France. They created an antichristian atmosphere
about the court, and in the upper classes of
Berlin; and even minds that were attempting to create
a native literature, and to improve the critical standard
of literary taste, were partially influenced by means
of it.<a id="noteref_671" name="noteref_671" href="#note_671"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">671</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now seen the state of the German mind in
reference to theology at the beginning of the eighteenth
century, and the three new influences which were introduced
into it in the interval between 1720 and 1760.
The dogmatic tendency became transformed by the
Wolffian philosophy; the pietistic retired from a public
movement into the privacy of life; while the minds of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
men were awakened to inquiry by the suggestions of
the English deists, or the restless and hopeful tone of
the French mind. It was a moment of transition; the
streaks of twilight before the dawn. Yet the signs of a
change were so slight, that few could as yet discern the
coming of a crisis, none predict its form.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We may now proceed to give the history of the
theological movement which sprang up, commonly
called Rationalism. It admits of natural division into
three parts. The first, a period destructive in its tendency,
extending to a little later than the end of the
century, exhibits the gradual growth of the system, and
its spread over every department of theology. The
second, reconstructive in character, the re-establishment
of harmony between faith and reason, extends till the
publication of Strauss's celebrated work on the Life of
Christ in 1835; the third, containing the divergent
tendencies which have created permanent schools,
reaches to the present time.<a id="noteref_672" name="noteref_672" href="#note_672"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">672</span></span></a> In all alike the harmony
of faith and reason was sought: but in the first it was
attained by sacrificing faith to reason; in the second
and third, by seeking for their unity, or by separating
their spheres. A distinguished name stands at the
commencement of each period, representing the mind
whose speculations were most influential in giving form
to the movements. Semler inaugurated the destructive
movement; Schleiermacher, the constructive; and
Strauss precipitated the final forms which theological
parties have assumed. In the present lecture we shall
treat only of the first two of these movements.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first of these periods, extending; from about
1750 to 1810,<a id="noteref_673" name="noteref_673" href="#note_673"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">673</span></span></a>
contains two sub-periods. Till about
1790<a id="noteref_674" name="noteref_674" href="#note_674"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">674</span></span></a> we find the growth of rationalism. In the last
decade of the century we shall meet with its full development;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
but at the same time the growth of new
causes will be perceived, which prepared the way for a
total alteration after the commencement of the present
century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The sub-period extending to 1790 is one of transition,
in which we can trace three broadly marked tendencies
in religion; one within the church, two outside
of it. Such classes indeed slide away into each other;
nature is more complex than man; but the use of them
may be excused as facilitating instruction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The movement within the church verged from a
literary and dogmatic orthodoxy, which existed chiefly
at the Saxon university of Leipsic, through the purely
literary tendency, of which Michaelis may be taken as
a type in the newly formed university of Göttingen, to
the freethinking method typified by Semler, orthodox
in doctrine, but in criticism adopting free views of inspiration,
which mingled itself with the old pietism of
the university of Halle.<a id="noteref_675" name="noteref_675" href="#note_675"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">675</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The two movements outside the church were, a literary
one, indicated by Lessing, which found its chief
utterance in the periodical literature, then in its infancy;<a id="noteref_676" name="noteref_676" href="#note_676"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">676</span></span></a>
and a thoroughly deist one, connected with
the court of Berlin, embodied in the educational institutions
of Basedow.<a id="noteref_677" name="noteref_677" href="#note_677"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">677</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The movement which we have just named as existing
within the church, differed from the older dogmatic
one, in being a tendency toward an historical and critical
study of the scriptures, instead of a philosophical
study of doctrines. It embraced those whose teaching
was not at variance with Christianity, and also those
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
who manifested incipient scepticism. Two names,
Ernesti<a id="noteref_678" name="noteref_678" href="#note_678"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">678</span></span></a> at Leipsic, and Michaelis<a id="noteref_679" name="noteref_679" href="#note_679"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">679</span></span></a> at Göttingen,
represent the first class; the former applying criticism
chiefly to the New Testament, the latter to the Old.
The endeavour of both, especially of Ernesti, was to
revive the grammatical and literary mode of interpreting
scripture, as opposed to the dogmatic previously
in use. Their spirit was not sceptical, but was that of
men who felt the sceptical opinions round them;
ethical and cold, like that of the Arminians of the
preceding century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Their system developed into rationalism in the
hands of two of their pupils. Eichhorn was the pupil
of Michaelis, Semler of Ernesti. The name of Eichhorn
will recur later; Semler<a id="noteref_680" name="noteref_680" href="#note_680"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">680</span></span></a>
must be considered now.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Semler was one of those minds which fall short of
the highest order of originality, but by their erudition
and appreciation of the wants of their time institute
a movement by giving form to the current feeling of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
their day. Nurtured in pietism, he always retained
signs of personal excellence; and his Christian earnestness
is said not to have been destroyed by his speculations.
His autobiography furnishes us with the
means for the full comprehension of his character, and
shows him to have been keenly alive to the difficulties
which the English literature had suggested. His labours
related to criticism, to exegesis, and to doctrine.
As a critic he did not restrict himself to the examination
of texts, but investigated the canonicity of the
books of Scripture.<a id="noteref_681" name="noteref_681" href="#note_681"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">681</span></span></a> It is probable that the criticism
commenced by R. Simon and Spinoza furnished hints
for his views. He was one of the first to undervalue external
evidence in the formation of the canon. The determination
of the canon, i.e. of the list of books which
are to be considered scripture, is a question of fact.
What did the early church pronounce to be such; and
does internal evidence bear out the idea? Semler
undervalued the historical evidence of the church's
judgment, and replaced it, not by careful study of internal
critical evidence, like later rationalism, but by
an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> subjective decision, that only such books
were to be received as conduced to a religious object.
But it is in exegesis that he enunciated the principles
which have left a permanent effect. He established
what is called the historical method of interpretation.<a id="noteref_682" name="noteref_682" href="#note_682"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">682</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the course of Christian history, three great
methods for the interpretation of scripture have been
used; the allegorical, the dogmatic, and the grammatical.<a id="noteref_683" name="noteref_683" href="#note_683"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">683</span></span></a>
In the early church the tendency in the main
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
was to the allegorical; in the middle-ages to the dogmatic;
at the Renaissance and Reformation to the
grammatical, which however in the seventeenth century
was displaced by the allegorical<a id="noteref_684" name="noteref_684" href="#note_684"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">684</span></span></a> and dogmatic;
and it was the work of Ernesti to restore it. Semler added
the historic; by which is meant the method, which,
after discovering the grammatical sense of the words,
rests content exactly with the meaning which the circumstances
of society could permit scripture to have at
that age. It declines to search for mystical senses, or to
use dogma as a clue to interpretation. This principle,
so valuable in itself, yet, when abused, so fruitful in producing
rationalism, was the discovery of Semler.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The application of this method of interpretation led
him to the theory generally known by the name of
<span class="tei tei-q">“accommodation.”</span><a id="noteref_685" name="noteref_685" href="#note_685"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">685</span></span></a> He felt a strong reaction against
the forgetfulness shown by the old dogmatic orthodoxy,
which had regarded the Bible as one book, instead of a
collection or historic series of books, and had confounded
together the Jewish and Christian dispensations,
and taken no cognizance of the development of religious
knowledge in scripture. Accordingly he desired to
remove the deist difficulty by separating the eternal
truth in scripture from what he considered to be local<a id="noteref_686" name="noteref_686" href="#note_686"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">686</span></span></a> that the
Mosaic law of divorce was an adaptation to the particular
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
needs of the age, seemed to establish the validity
of the principle that revelation was an accommodation
to be judged of by the historic circumstances of
the age for which it was intended. The principle had
been applied by English theologians:<a id="noteref_687" name="noteref_687" href="#note_687"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">687</span></span></a> but it needed a
delicate insight to apply it safely. Semler introduced
it indiscriminately into prophecy, miracle, and doctrine;
and stated his views in a form which, though well meant,
is certainly most repulsive. We may cite an instance
in the case of his view of the demoniacal possessions of
the New Testament.<a id="noteref_688" name="noteref_688" href="#note_688"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">688</span></span></a> Not denying them, Semler probably
considered them to be nothing but the diseases of
epilepsy and madness. But he did not ridicule the
narrative as a deist would, nor explain the facts away
as legends or myths, as is the plan of the later schools,
nor account for them by the supposition that the apostles
were left in ignorance about physical science, and
inspired only in religious knowledge; but he regarded
the narrative as an intentional accommodation on the
part of the teachers to their hearers, and consequently
stated his views in a form which is the more repulsive
as seeming to impute dishonesty.<a id="noteref_689" name="noteref_689" href="#note_689"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">689</span></span></a> He went so far as
to consider some of the doctrines of the New Testament
to be an accommodation on the part of our Lord
to the Jewish notions; and regarded Christ's work as
the compromise between the Mosaic and philosophical
parties in the Jewish church, which afterwards were
represented in the Christian by St. Peter and St. Paul
respectively.<a id="noteref_690" name="noteref_690" href="#note_690"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">690</span></span></a> Though he himself held the apostles'
creed, and was shocked at some later developments of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
unbelief,<a id="noteref_691" name="noteref_691" href="#note_691"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">691</span></span></a> yet he seems to have considered practical
morality to be at once the sole aim of Christianity, and
the supreme rule of doctrine.<a id="noteref_692" name="noteref_692" href="#note_692"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">692</span></span></a> He founded no school;
but his influence decidedly initiated the rationalist
movement within the church; one peculiarity of which
will be found to be, that it was professedly designed in
defence of the church, not as an attack upon it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The tendency which we have just studied was within
the church. The two now about to be named were
external to it. The one, earnest and scholarlike,
formed chiefly on the model of English deism, is represented
by Lessing. The other, modelled after Rousseau,
was practical rather than intellectual, and aimed
at remodelling education as well as altering belief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Lessing,<a id="noteref_693" name="noteref_693" href="#note_693"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">693</span></span></a> a name honoured in the history of literature,
is little known in England, save by his exquisite
comparison of art and poetry, called the Laocoon.<a id="noteref_694" name="noteref_694" href="#note_694"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">694</span></span></a> He was one of those whose labours remain for the
benefit of other ages, like that of the coral worms,
which die, but leave their work. That a native German
literature exists, is the work of Lessing as pioneer;
that it is worth studying, is the result of his criticism
and influence. Finding literature just arising, and the
dispute still raging between the Saxon and Swiss
schools, whether it should model itself after reason and
form like the French literature, or after nature and the
soul like the English, (<a href="#Note_28" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>) he showed the true mode of
uniting the two by turning attention to Greek models;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and, in conjunction with Nicholai and the Jewish philosopher
Mendelssohn, established a critical periodical,
which became the agency for a literary reformation.
But the point of interest, in relation to our present subject,
is his influence on religion. Availing himself of
the right which his position as librarian of Wolfenbüttel,
a small town near Brunswick, gave him to publish
manuscripts found in the library, he edited, in 1774
and the four following years, several fragments of a
larger work, which he professed to have found. They
are usually called the Wolfenbüttel fragments. (<a href="#Note_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>)
Till recently their authorship remained a secret. They
are now known to have been written by the learned
Hamburg philosopher, Reimarus.<a id="noteref_695" name="noteref_695" href="#note_695"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">695</span></span></a>
They treated very
nearly the same subjects, and in much the same tone,
but with consummate skill, as the English deists. Reimarus,
as is now known, in the introduction<a id="noteref_696" name="noteref_696" href="#note_696"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">696</span></span></a> to the
larger unprinted work from which they were extracted,
gave his own intellectual history, his early doubts on
the doctrines of the Trinity, and the destruction of the
heathen; and also on the history of the Old and New
Testaments; and ends, like the English deists, with
resting in natural religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first two<a id="noteref_697" name="noteref_697" href="#note_697"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">697</span></span></a> fragments, published by Lessing,
touched only upon the question of tolerating deists, and
on the custom of declaiming against human reason in
the pulpits. The third referred to the impossibility
that all men should be brought to believe revelation on
rational evidence. The fourth and fifth attacked the
Old Testament history, such as the passage of the Red
Sea. The sixth directed an assault against the New
Testament; pointing out with unsparing severity the
discrepancies in the accounts of the resurrection. The
concluding one was on the object of Christianity, in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which our blessed Lord's life and work were represented
as a defeated political reform.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These views however were not professedly sanctioned
by Lessing, for he added notes in refutation of
them, and stated his object to be merely to stimulate
free inquiry.<a id="noteref_698" name="noteref_698" href="#note_698"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">698</span></span></a> His wish was gratified in the tremendous
effect which the publication produced. In the
literary controversy which ensued, and which embittered
his few remaining days,<a id="noteref_699" name="noteref_699" href="#note_699"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">699</span></span></a> he explained himself
to be a doubter rather than a disbeliever; and defended
himself by urging the distinctness of the religious element
in scripture from the scientific; asserting that, as
Christianity existed before the New Testament, so it
could exist after it. The Christian religion is not
true, he said, merely because evangelists and apostles
taught it; but they taught it because it is true. And
in order to restore Christianity to its true place in the
estimation of thinking men, he composed or edited a well-known
work<a id="noteref_700" name="noteref_700" href="#note_700"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">700</span></span></a> on the
Education of the World,<a id="noteref_701" name="noteref_701" href="#note_701"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">701</span></span></a>
which became a fertile source of thought for the philosophy
of history, and was designed to explain the function
of the Jewish religion in reference to the Christian,
and to the world. The theology of Lessing's coadjutors
however, if not also that of Lessing himself, did not rise
higher than that of the more serious among the English
deists.<a id="noteref_702" name="noteref_702" href="#note_702"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">702</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other tendency, more decidedly sceptical even
than that of Lessing, gave definite form to the extreme
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
sceptical opinions excited by French philosophy, which
had been fermenting in German society, and had earlier
expressed themselves. It is best represented by Edelmann,<a id="noteref_703" name="noteref_703" href="#note_703"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">703</span></span></a>
and by the unhappy Bahrdt, who passed gradually
from Semler's school into this. Its religions tenets
were simple naturalism, moral as distinct from
positive religion; and it was connected with the
attempt by Basedow,<a id="noteref_704" name="noteref_704" href="#note_704"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">704</span></span></a> patronised by Frederick, to
establish educational institutions on the model proposed
in Rousseau's Emile. The name which it gave
to the movement was, the Period of Enlightenment
(Aufklärung-zeit),<a id="noteref_705" name="noteref_705" href="#note_705"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">705</span></span></a> which expressed the consciousness
of illumination, and the yearning for deliverance which
was finding its expression in France; and this name
therefore has been usually adopted among foreign
writers to describe this period of the history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such are the historical tendencies from about 1750
till about 1790—cold but learned orthodoxy; the commencement
of critical rationalism, and open deism.
About that time new influences came into operation,
the effects of which are at once evident. Without taking
account of the excitement caused by the political
events of the French revolution, we may name two such
new causes of movement—the literary influence of the
court of Weimar, and the philosophy of Kant.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The centres of intellectual activity in Germany now
changed. We are so apt to forget that Germany, especially
at the end of the last century, formed a set of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
independent principalities, which varied in taste, in
belief, and in literary tone, that we fail to realise the
individuality of the scenes of literary activity. At the
end of the last century there was one spot which became
the very focus of intellectual life. The court of
Karl August at Weimar, insignificant in political importance,
was great in the history of the human mind.<a id="noteref_706" name="noteref_706" href="#note_706"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">706</span></span></a>
There were gathered there most of the mighty spirits
of the golden ago of German literature,—Herder, Wieland,
Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul; a constellation of
intellect unequalled since the court of Ferrara in the
days of Alphonso.<a id="noteref_707" name="noteref_707" href="#note_707"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">707</span></span></a> The influence made itself felt in
the adjacent university of Jena; and this little seminary
became from that time for about twenty years,<a id="noteref_708" name="noteref_708" href="#note_708"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">708</span></span></a>
until the foundation of Berlin, the first university in
Germany. In it alone the philosophy of Kant became
naturalized.<a id="noteref_709" name="noteref_709" href="#note_709"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">709</span></span></a>
Some of the ablest men in Germany
were its Professors; and about this time Jena and Weimar
became the stronghold of free thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Except in the case of Herder,<a id="noteref_710" name="noteref_710" href="#note_710"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">710</span></span></a> the literary influence
was not directly influential on theology. But it gave
moral support to theological movement; though ultimately,
by introducing a truer and more subjective
appreciation of human nature, it was the means of generating
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the deep insight in the critical taste of thinking
men which furnished the death-blow to rationalism.
The same remark is true of the effects of the philosophy
of Kant.<a id="noteref_711" name="noteref_711" href="#note_711"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">711</span></span></a>
Its ultimate result was valuable in removing
the eudæmonism common in ethics, and turning
men's attention to the moral law within. But its immediate
effects were to reinforce the appeal to reason,
and to destroy revelation by leaving nothing to be
revealed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The nature of this system, so far as is necessary for
our purpose, may be soon told. Kant, dissatisfied with
the distrust in the human faculties induced by the scepticism
of Hume, and the one-sided sensationalism of
Condillac, carried a penetrating analysis into the human
faculties;<a id="noteref_712" name="noteref_712" href="#note_712"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">712</span></span></a> attempting to perform with more
exactness the work of Locke, to measure the human mind, which
is the sounding-line, before fathoming the ocean of
knowledge. Like Copernicus inverting astronomy, he
reversed metaphysics, by referring classes of ideas to
inward causes which before had been referred to outer.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He detected, as he supposed, innate forms of
thought<a id="noteref_713" name="noteref_713" href="#note_713"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">713</span></span></a> in the mental structure, which form the
conditions under which knowledge is possible. When
he applied his system to give a philosophy of ethics
and religion, he asserted nobly the law of duty written
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in the heart,<a id="noteref_714" name="noteref_714" href="#note_714"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">714</span></span></a>
but identified it with religion. Religious
ideas were regarded as true regulatively, not speculatively.
Revelation was reunited with reason, by being
resolved into the natural religion of the heart. Accordingly,
the moral effect of this philosophy was to
expel the French materialism and illuminism,<a id="noteref_715" name="noteref_715" href="#note_715"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">715</span></span></a> and to
give depth to the moral perceptions: its religious effect
was to strengthen the appeal to reason and the moral
judgment as the test of religious truth; to render
miraculous communication of moral instruction useless,
if not absurd; and to reawaken the attempt, which
had been laid aside since the Wolffian philosophy, of
endeavouring to find a philosophy of religion.<a id="noteref_716" name="noteref_716" href="#note_716"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">716</span></span></a> From this time in German theology we shall find the existence
of the twofold movement; the critical one, the
lawful descendant of Semler, examining the historic
revelation; and the philosophical one, the offshoot of
the system of Kant, seeking for a philosophy of religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During the next twenty years, from 1790 to 1810,
when so many influences were operating in common, it
is not easy to measure the effect of the speculative
philosophy upon particular minds with such exactness
as to ascertain which ought properly to be classed in
the destructive tendency, and which gave signs of the reaction.
We must however be careful to exclude those
younger minds<a id="noteref_717" name="noteref_717" href="#note_717"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">717</span></span></a> that were already
appearing on the field, to become the heroes of the subsequent history,
whose tone was so decidedly affected by new influences
as to belong to the age of reaction.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this sub-period we may name three tendencies:
(1) the continuation of the Exegesis inaugurated in the
last epoch by Semler, until about the end of the century
it found its utmost limit in Paulus,<a id="noteref_718" name="noteref_718" href="#note_718"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">718</span></span></a>—the result of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
age of illumination; (2) a dogmatic tendency, more or
less the growth of new influences introduced by the
new philosophy, which attempted to reconcile reason
with the supernatural, and may be represented in its
nearest approach to orthodoxy, at the end of this
period, by Bretschneider;<a id="noteref_719" name="noteref_719" href="#note_719"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">719</span></span></a> and
(3) the awakening of a distinct expression of the appeal to the supernatural
which had never quite died out in the church, in the
Arminianism of Reinhardt in the north, and of Storr in
the south.<a id="noteref_720" name="noteref_720" href="#note_720"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">720</span></span></a> The last needs no further investigation;
but we shall consider briefly the other two.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The exegetical method which formed the first was
that which is now usually called the old or common-sense
rationalism.<a id="noteref_721" name="noteref_721" href="#note_721"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">721</span></span></a> This form of rationalism differed
from the English deism and French naturalism, in not
regarding the Bible as fabulous in character, and the
device of priestcraft;<a id="noteref_722" name="noteref_722" href="#note_722"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">722</span></span></a> but only denied the supernatural.
By them the apostles had been regarded as
impostors; and scripture was not only not received as
divine, but not even respected as an ordinary historical
record; whereas rationalism was intended as a defence
against this view. It denied only the revealed character
of scripture, and treated it as an ordinary history;
and, distinguishing broadly between the fact related
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and the judgment on the fact, sought to separate the
two, and explained away the supernatural element, such
as miracles, as being orientalisms in the narrative,
adapted to an infant age, which an enlightened age
must translate into the language of ordinary events.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Eichhorn at Göttingen<a id="noteref_723" name="noteref_723" href="#note_723"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">723</span></span></a> applied this view to the
Old Testament. Deeming miracles impossible, he did
not regard them as fraud, but admitted on the contrary
that the agents or narrators honestly believed them.
The supernatural was not imparted to deceive, but was
the result of oriental modes of speech, such as hyperbole,
parable, or ellipsis, in which the steps by which
the process was performed were omitted. The smoke
of Sinai was considered a thunderstorm; the shining
of Moses's face a natural phenomenon.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The principles which Eichhorn applied to the Old
Testament, Paulus of Jena extended to the New.<a id="noteref_724" name="noteref_724" href="#note_724"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">724</span></span></a>
The miraculous cures were explained by an ellipsis in
the omission of the natural remedies; the casting out
of devils as the power of a wise man over the insane;
the transfiguration as the confused recollection of sleeping
men, who saw Jesus with two unknown friends, in
the beautiful light of the morning among the mountains:
nay, trespassing on still more holy ground, he
dared impiously to explain away the resurrection of our
blessed Lord by the hypothesis that his death was only
apparent. These are a specimen of the mode of exegesis
adopted in this school, which is usually specifically
called Rationalism. In this mode Jesus appeared to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
be merely a wise and virtuous man; and his miracles
were merely acts of skill or accident. Paulus presented
this as the original Christianity. The theory
did not last long, save in the mind of its author, who
lived until a recent period, to see the entire change of
critical belief. Attributing the supernatural to ignorance,
it did not even propose, like the later schools,
to explain the marvellousness of the phenomena,
objectively by so plausible a theory as legends, nor
subjectively by myths:<a id="noteref_725" name="noteref_725" href="#note_725"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">725</span></span></a> it was too clumsy, not
to say irreverent, an explanation of the facts to
satisfy a people of deep and poetical soul like the Germans.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While this is a specimen of the critical side of
rationalism, its dogmatic side varied from natural ethics
to a kind of Socinianism. But in all alike, as its name
would imply, it not only asserted that there is only one
universal revelation, which takes place through observation
of nature and man's reason; but that Christianity
was not designed to teach any mysterious truths,
but only to confirm the religious teaching of reason;
and that no one ought to recognise as true that which
cannot be proved to him rationally. The doctrine of
a Trinity was necessarily disbelieved; the death of
Christ regarded as an historic event, or a symbol that
sacrifices were abolished. Holiness was reduced to
morality. Extreme veneration for the Bible was called
Bibliolatry.<a id="noteref_726" name="noteref_726" href="#note_726"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">726</span></span></a>
Religion was represented as acting by
natural motives: the ethical superseded the historic.
The early theologians of this dogmatic branch of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
school are now little known; but we may name Bretschneider<a id="noteref_727" name="noteref_727" href="#note_727"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">727</span></span></a>
as the type of the least heretical portion of
it at the close of this period, who believed Christianity
to be a republication of natural religion, supernatural
but reasonable: and, as the literary tendency of this
school continued to exist in Röhr,<a id="noteref_728" name="noteref_728" href="#note_728"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">728</span></span></a>
after the movement
had become extinct in other minds, so Wegscheider,<a id="noteref_729" name="noteref_729" href="#note_729"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">729</span></span></a>
until a recent period, was the solitary instance of the
dogmatic position slightly modified.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This completes the history of the first of the three
movements, the destructive action of rationalism. The
most flourishing period of this form of it was about the
beginning of the present century. We have seen it
originating in the rational tone of Wolff's philosophy,
and the well-meant but ill-judged exegesis which Semler
exhibited under the pressure of sceptical difficulties.
Stimulated by critical investigations, and by the strong
wish which operated on our own theologians, to find
the cause of everything, its adherents were led into a
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
disbelief of the supernatural, and ended in explaining
away the miraculous, and reducing Christianity to
natural religion. The movement, it will be observed,
was professedly not intended to be destructive of Christianity.
Instead of being inimical, it originated with
the clergy, and aimed at harmonizing Christianity with
reason. But it contained its own death. The negative
criticism is essentially temporary.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The activity of thought was already producing
change. We have previously stated that even the
Kantian philosophy itself, though at first stimulating
the appeal to reason, fostered a deeper perception of
duty, and thus prepared the way for a moral reawakening.<a id="noteref_730" name="noteref_730" href="#note_730"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">730</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We shall accordingly now proceed to state the
causes which introduced new elements into the current
of public thought; and then describe the gradual
progress of the reactionary movement which ensued
from them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Four causes are usually assigned. The first of them
was the introduction of new systems of speculative
philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is not unusual, in those who have no taste for
speculation, and who understand only the prosaic,
though in some respects the truer, philosophy of Scotland,
to despise the great systems of German speculation.
Yet, if the series be measured as an example of
the power of the human mind, whatever may be the
opinion formed in respect to its correctness, it stands
among the most interesting efforts of thought. Though
the writers can be matched by isolated examples in
former ages, perhaps no series of writers exists, hardly
even the Greek, certainly not the Neo-Platonist nor the
Cartesian, which, in far-reaching penetration, in minuteness
of analysis, in brilliancy of imagination, in loftiness
of genius, in poetry of expression, in grasp of intellect,
in influence on every branch of thought or life,
approximates to the series of illustrious thinkers which
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
commenced with Kant and ended with Hegel.<a id="noteref_731" name="noteref_731" href="#note_731"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">731</span></span></a> The
two philosophers at this time whose teaching formed a
new influence, were Fichte<a id="noteref_732" name="noteref_732" href="#note_732"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">732</span></span></a> and Jacobi.<a id="noteref_733" name="noteref_733" href="#note_733"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">733</span></span></a> Details in
reference to their systems must be sought elsewhere.<a id="noteref_734" name="noteref_734" href="#note_734"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">734</span></span></a>
It is only possible here to indicate their central
thought, in order to notice their effects on theological
inquiry.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have seen that Kant had reconsidered the great
problem, commenced by Descartes and Locke, concerning
the ground of certitude, and the nature of knowledge;
and had revolutionised philosophy, by attributing
to the natural structure of the mind many of
those ideas which had usually been supposed to be
derived from experience. In his system he had left
two elements, a formal and a material; the formal, or
innate forms, through which the mind gains knowledge,
and the material, presented from external sources. It
was the former or ideal element which was examined
by Fichte; the latter by Jacobi.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Fichte began to teach at Jena soon after 1790.
Grasping firmly Descartes' principle, <span class="tei tei-q">“Cogito, ergo
sum,”</span> he conceived that, as we can only know ourselves,
there is no proof that the datum supposed to be
external is anything but a form of our own consciousness;
and thus he arrived at a subjective idealism not
unlike that of bishop Berkeley.<a id="noteref_735" name="noteref_735" href="#note_735"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">735</span></span></a> Under his view God
was only an idea or form of thought; a regulative principle
of human belief, the moral order of which the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
mind was conscious in the universe; and, as atheism
was suspected to follow as an inference from his views,
he became the subject of persecution. But the instincts
of the heart, as well as the arguments of the
understanding, were too potent for him; and when he
had thus as it were shut up man within the circle of
his own finite self, he strove to find a logical passage
into a knowledge of the infinite by a principle analogous
to that of Spinoza; viz. by regarding both self
and the outer world, the subjective and objective, to be
identified in some absolute self-existence, of which they
were respectively phases.<a id="noteref_736" name="noteref_736" href="#note_736"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">736</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This aim was only partially effected by Fichte, and
was completed by his distinguished successor, Schelling.<a id="noteref_737" name="noteref_737" href="#note_737"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">737</span></span></a>
Schelling saw that the subjective tendency had
been pushed too far; and, relying on the spiritual sense
through which men of all ages have conceived that they
saw the infinite, the reality of which accordingly seems
to be attested by a universal induction, he tried to grasp
the idea of the self-existent One, who is the one absolute
Reality, the one eternal Being, the eternal Source
from which all other light is derived, and from which
all things develope. <span class="tei tei-q">“Intellectual intuition”</span> he
thought to be the means by which we have this
knowledge of the infinite, and are able to trace the
development of it into its limitations in nature and
in the mind. The method is analogous to that
of Spinoza, save that the infinite is studied dynamically
instead of mechanically, as a movement not a
substance, in time not in space.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The roll of these great thinkers, whose speculations
were suggested by the formal side of Kant's philosophy,
is not yet full. But the two which have been named
wrote and affected thought, the one before, the other
soon after, the commencement of the present century.
Hegel followed in the same track, but influenced
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
thought at a later period.<a id="noteref_738" name="noteref_738" href="#note_738"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">738</span></span></a> He too aimed at solving
the same problem as Schelling: he too sought to transcend
the conditions of object and subject which limit
thought; but it was by assuming a representative or
mediate faculty that transcends consciousness, and not,
as Schelling, an intuitional or presentative.<a id="noteref_739" name="noteref_739" href="#note_739"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">739</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such were the philosophers who aimed at solving
the problem of knowledge and being from the intellectual
side. Jacobi on the other hand attempted it
from the emotional. Perceiving the necessity of finding
some justification for the material element which
Kant had assumed in his philosophy, he sought it in
faith, in intuition, in the direct inward revelation of
truth to the human mind. He thought that, as sensation
gives us an immediate knowledge of the world, so
there is an inward sense by which we have a direct and
immediate revelation of supernatural truth. It is this
inward revelation which gives us access to the material
of truth. His position was analogous to that of Schelling,
but he asserted the element of feeling as well as
intuition.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These philosophies, of Fichte, Schelling, and Jacobi,
formed one class of influences, which were operating
about the beginning of the century, and were the
means of redeeming alike German literature and theology.
Their first effect was to produce examination of
the primary principles of belief, to excite inquiry;
and, though at first only reinforcing the idea of morality,
they ultimately drew men out of themselves into
aspirations after the infinite spirit, and developed the
sense of dependence, of humility, of unselfishness, of
spirituality. They produced indeed evil effects in pantheism
and ideology;<a id="noteref_740" name="noteref_740" href="#note_740"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">740</span></span></a>
but the results were partial, the
good was general. The problem, What is truth?—was
through their means remitted to men for reconsideration;
and the answers to it elicited, from the one
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
school,—It is that which I can know:—from the other,—It
is that which I can intuitively feel:—threw men
upon those unalterable and infallible instincts which
God has set in the human breast as the everlasting
landmarks of truth, the study of which lifts men ultimately
out of error.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These systems had even a still more direct effect on
the public mind. They were the means of creating a
literature, which insinuated itself into public thought,
and familiarised society with spiritual apprehensions
long obliterated. The school of literature commonly
called the Romantic,<a id="noteref_741" name="noteref_741" href="#note_741"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">741</span></span></a> commencing with such writers
as Schlegel and Novalis, fanciful as it may in some
respects seem to be, created the same change in the
belief and tastes of the German mind as the contemporary
school of Lake Poets in England. The German
literature bore the marks either of the old scholasticism,
or of the materialism introduced from France, or of the
classic culture introduced by Lessing and his coadjutors.
The element now revived was the mediæval
element of chivalry, the high and lofty courage, the
delicate æsthetic taste, which had marked the middle
ages. Herder,<a id="noteref_742" name="noteref_742" href="#note_742"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">742</span></span></a> to whom Germany owes much, disgusted
with the stoical and analytic spirit of the Kantian
philosophy, had already attempted, and not in
vain, to throw the mind back to an appreciation of old
history, and especially had manifested an enthusiastic
admiration of Hebrew literature; but now, as if by one
general movement, the public taste was turned to an
appreciation of the freshness of feeling, and fine elements
of character, which existed in the Christianity
of the middle ages.<a id="noteref_743" name="noteref_743" href="#note_743"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">743</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This literary movement prepared the way for and
accompanied another, which, though occurring a little
later, may be reckoned as the third influence which
caused a religious reaction. Indeed it is the one to
which the Germans attribute the chief effect. It is
found in the outburst of national patriotism which took
place in the liberation wars of 1813;<a id="noteref_744" name="noteref_744" href="#note_744"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">744</span></span></a> the spontaneous
chivalry which made the heart of Germany beat as the
heart of one man, to endeavour to hurl back Napoleon
beyond the limits of the common fatherland. In that
moment of deep public suffering, the poetry and piety
of the human heart brought back the idea of God, and
a spirit of moral earnestness. The national patriotism,<a id="noteref_745" name="noteref_745" href="#note_745"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">745</span></span></a>
which still lives in the poetry of the time, expelled
selfishness: sorrow impressed men with a sense of the
vanity of material things, and made their hearts yearn
after the immaterial, the spiritual, the immortal: the
sense of terror threw them upon the God of battles. It
was the age of Marathon and Salamis revived; and the
effect was not less wonderful.<a id="noteref_746" name="noteref_746" href="#note_746"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">746</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A fourth influence remains to be noticed, which
was in its nature more strictly theological, and limited
to the church. When after the return of peace the
tercentenary of the Reformation was celebrated in
1817, an obscure theologian at Kiel, named Harms,<a id="noteref_747" name="noteref_747" href="#note_747"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">747</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
published a set of theses as supplements to the celebrated
theses of Luther, which, by the excitement and
controversy unexpectedly occasioned by them, turned
attention anew to the study of the reformational and
biblical theology, and created a revival of the spiritual
element which was too much forgotten.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such were the four influences—the philosophical,
the literary, the political, the spiritual,—which entered
into German life, and produced or increased the reaction
that took place in German theology in the period which
we are about to sketch.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We placed the limits of this second period from
about 1810 till the literary revolution caused by alarm
at Strauss's work in 1835.<a id="noteref_748" name="noteref_748" href="#note_748"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">748</span></span></a>
It was in 1810, in the
depth of Prussian humiliation, when Halle had passed
into one of the kingdoms dependent on France, that
the university of Berlin was founded. Schleiermacher,
Neander, and De Wette, were its teachers. The first
was the soul of its theological teaching; and through
his agency it became the great source of a religious
reaction. It is around these names that our studies
most centre. The signs indeed of some other movements
are traceable. The deistic rationalism is not
dead, but it is dying: it is a thing of the past: a return
to strict dogmatic orthodoxy is also visible in the Lutheran
clergy rather than in the university; but it is as
yet in its infancy: and a new form of gnosticism is
observable in the philosophy of Hegel, but the full
development of it belongs to the next period. The
field is now occupied by the partial reaction to orthodoxy,
which aimed at a reconciliation of science and
piety, of criticism and faith.<a id="noteref_749" name="noteref_749" href="#note_749"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">749</span></span></a> Schleiermacher, with
is follower Neander, will typify the philosophical and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
more orthodox side of it; perhaps De Wette, and at
the end of the period Ewald, the critical.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Schleiermacher<a id="noteref_750" name="noteref_750" href="#note_750"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">750</span></span></a> was by education and sympathy
eminently fitted to attempt the harmony of science and
faith, to which he devoted his life. Gifted with an
acute and penetrating intellect, capable of grappling
with the highest problems of philosophy and the
minutest details of criticism, he could sympathise with
the intellectual movement of the old rationalism;
while his fine moral sensibility, the depth and passionateness
of his sympathy, the exquisite delicacy of his
taste and brilliancy of imagination, were in perfect harmony
with the literary and æsthetic revival which was
commencing. German to the very soul, he possessed
an enthusiastic sympathy with the great literary movements
of his age, philosophical, classical, or romantic.
The diligent student and translator of Plato,<a id="noteref_751" name="noteref_751" href="#note_751"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">751</span></span></a> his soul
was enchanted with the mixture at once of genius,
poetry, feeling, and dialectic, which marks that prince
of thinkers, and he was prepared by it for understanding
the speculations of his time. The dialectical process
through which Plato's mind had passed (<a href="#Note_30" class="tei tei-ref">30</a>) represents
not improbably, in some degree, the history of Schleiermacher's
own mental development as traceable in his
works. The conviction derived from Plato's early dialogues,
that the mind, in travelling outward to study
the objective, could not prove the highest realities, but
must have faith in its own faculties, prepared him for
imbibing the philosophy of Jacobi. The looking inward
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to the deep utterances of the soul, the interpretation
of the objective world by means of the internal,
prepared him for Fichte. The mystical attempt to
understand the ideas themselves, to use the archetype
for creating an ontology from the objective side,
observable in Plato's latest works, found its parallel in
Schelling. Schleiermacher had large sympathies with
these three processes, but mainly with the first; which
was to be expected from his purpose. Aiming at gaining
spiritual certitude rather than speculating for intellectual
gratification, Jacobi's philosophy appeared to
combine the excellences of the other two systems, the
subjective character of the one, and the intuitional of
the other; with the additional advantage of seeming to
give expression to the instincts of the heart, as well as
the intuitions of the mind. Beyond all these qualities,
Schleiermacher inherited from his Moravian education
the spirit of pietism, which, almost extinguished by the
recent activity of mind, had retired to the quiet sphere
where a Stilling<a id="noteref_752" name="noteref_752" href="#note_752"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">752</span></span></a> or an Oberlin<a id="noteref_753" name="noteref_753" href="#note_753"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">753</span></span></a> communed with God
and laboured for man.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Possessing therefore the two great elements which
had been united in the Reformation,—endowed on the
one hand with the largest sympathy with every department
of the intellectual movement, and the mastery of
its ripest erudition, and at the same time with a soul
kindled with a hearty love for Christianity,—he was
fitted to become the Coryphæus of a new reformation,
to attempt again a final reconciliation of knowledge and
faith. Whether we view him in his own natural gifts
and susceptibilities; in the aim of his life; in his mixture
of reason and love, of philosophy and criticism, of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
enthusiasm and wisdom, of orthodoxy and heresy; or
regard the transitory character of his work, the permanence
of his influence; church history offers no parallel
to him since the days of Origen.<a id="noteref_754" name="noteref_754" href="#note_754"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">754</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His early education was received in the university
of Halle; an institution which had long been the home
of pietism, and has continued with but few intervals<a id="noteref_755" name="noteref_755" href="#note_755"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">755</span></span></a> to
evince much of the same Christian spirit. He became
professor there early in the century,<a id="noteref_756" name="noteref_756" href="#note_756"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">756</span></span></a> until the town
passed, as already stated, into the power of the French.
He removed to Berlin when that university was founded,<a id="noteref_757" name="noteref_757" href="#note_757"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">757</span></span></a>
and continued to exercise his influence there, from
the pulpit and the professor's chair, for a quarter of a
century, until his death.<a id="noteref_758" name="noteref_758" href="#note_758"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">758</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Before the conclusion of the last century, while still
the literary influence of Weimar was at its height, he
wrote Discourses on Religion,<a id="noteref_759" name="noteref_759" href="#note_759"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">759</span></span></a> to arouse the German
mind to self-consciousness; which produced as stirring
an effect in religion<a id="noteref_760" name="noteref_760" href="#note_760"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">760</span></span></a> as Fichte's patriotic addresses to
the German nation subsequently in politics; and from
them may be dated the first movement of spiritual
renovation, as from the latter the first of German
liberation from foreign control. In successive works
his views on ethics and religion were gradually developed,
until, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaubenslehre</span></span> (<a href="#Note_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>)
he produced one of the most important theological systems ever conceived.
We can give no idea of the compass exhibited in
that work, nor spare time to trace the growth in Schleiermacher's
own mind as new influences like that of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Harms, which he rejected, indirectly influenced him;
but we must be content to define his general position in
its destructive and constructive aspects.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The fundamental principles<a id="noteref_761" name="noteref_761" href="#note_761"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">761</span></span></a> were, that truth in
theology was not to be attained by reason, but by an
insight, which he called the Christian consciousness,<a id="noteref_762" name="noteref_762" href="#note_762"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">762</span></span></a>
which we should call Christian experience; and that
piety consists in spiritual feeling, not in morality.
Both were corollaries from his philosophical principles.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are two parts, both in the intellectual and
emotional branches of our nature;—in the emotional, a
feeling of dependence in the presence of the Infinite,
which is the seat of religion; and a consciousness of
power, which is the source of action and seat of morality;—and
in the intellectual, a faith or intuition which
apprehends God and truth; and critical faculties, which
act upon the matter presented and form science.<a id="noteref_763" name="noteref_763" href="#note_763"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">763</span></span></a> In
making these distinctions, Schleiermacher struck a
blow at the old rationalism, which had identified on
the one hand religion and morality, and on the other
intuition and reason. Hence from this point of view
he was led to explain Christianity, when contrasted
with other religions, subjectively on the emotional
side, as the most perfect state of the feeling of dependence;
and on the intellectual, as the intuition of
Christianity and Christ's work: and the organ for truth
in Christianity was regarded to be the special form of
insight which apprehends Christ, just as natural intuition
apprehends God; which insight was called the
Christian consciousness.<a id="noteref_764" name="noteref_764" href="#note_764"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">764</span></span></a>
Thus far many will agree
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
with him. Perhaps no nobler analysis of the religious
faculties has ever been given. Religion was placed on
a new basis: a home was found for it in the human
mind distinct from reason. The old rationalism was
shown to be untrue in its psychology. The distinctness
of religion was asserted; and the necessity of spiritual
insight and of sympathy with Christian life asserted
to be as necessary for appreciating Christianity, as
æsthetic insight for art.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In its reconstruction of Christian truth, however,
fewer will coincide. Following out the same principles;
in the same manner as he regarded the intuitions
of human nature to be the last appeal of truth in art or
morals, so he made the collective Christian consciousness
the last standard of appeal in Christianity. The
dependence therefore on apostolic teaching was not the
appeal to an external authority, but merely to that
which was the best exponent of the early religious consciousness
of Christendom in its purest age.<a id="noteref_765" name="noteref_765" href="#note_765"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">765</span></span></a> The
Christian church existed before the Christian scriptures.
The New Testament was written for believers,
appealing to their religious consciousness, not dictating
to it. Inspiration is not indeed thus reduced to genius,
but to the religious consciousness, and is different only
in degree, and not in kind, from the pious intuitions of
saintly men. The Bible becomes the record of religious
truth, not its vehicle; a witness to the Christian consciousness
of apostolic times, not an external standard
for all time. In this respect Schleiermacher was not
repeating the teaching of the reformation of the sixteenth
age, but was passing beyond it, and abandoning
its reverence for scripture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
From this point we may see how his views of doctrine
as well as his criticism of scripture were affected
by this theory. For in his view of fundamental doctrines,
such as sin, and the redeeming work of Christ,
inasmuch as his appeal was made to the collective consciousness,
those aspects of doctrine only were regarded
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
as important, or even real, which were appropriated by
the consciousness, or understood by it.<a id="noteref_766" name="noteref_766" href="#note_766"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">766</span></span></a> Sin was accordingly
presented rather as unholiness than as guilt
before God;<a id="noteref_767" name="noteref_767" href="#note_767"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">767</span></span></a> redemption, rather as sanctification than
as justification; Christ's death as a mere subordinate
act in his life of self-sacrifice, not the one oblation for
the world's sin;<a id="noteref_768" name="noteref_768" href="#note_768"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">768</span></span></a> atonement regarded to be the setting
forth of the union of God with man; and the mode of
arriving at a state of salvation,<a id="noteref_769" name="noteref_769" href="#note_769"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">769</span></span></a> to be a realisation of
the union of man with God, through a kind of mystical
conception of the brotherhood of Christ.<a id="noteref_770" name="noteref_770" href="#note_770"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">770</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Hence, as might be expected, the dogmatic reality
of such doctrines as the Trinity was weakened.<a id="noteref_771" name="noteref_771" href="#note_771"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">771</span></span></a> The
deity of the Son, as distinct from his superhuman character,
became unimportant, save as the historical embodiment
of the ideal union of God with humanity.<a id="noteref_772" name="noteref_772" href="#note_772"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">772</span></span></a>
The Spirit was viewed, not as a personal agent, but as
a living activity, having its seat in the Christian consciousness
of the church.<a id="noteref_773" name="noteref_773" href="#note_773"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">773</span></span></a> The objective in each case
was absorbed in the spiritual, as formerly in the old
rationalism it had been degraded into the natural. It
followed also that the Christian consciousness, thus
able to find as it were a philosophy of religion, and of
the material apprehended by the consciousness of
inspired men, possessed an instinct to distinguish the
unimportant from the important in scripture, and
valued more highly the eternal ideas intended than the
historic garb under which they were presented.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The ideological tendency, as it is now called,<a id="noteref_774" name="noteref_774" href="#note_774"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">774</span></span></a> the
natural longing of the philosophical mind that tries to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
rise beyond facts into their causes, to penetrate behind
phenomena into ideas, grows up in a country, as is seen
by the example of ancient Greece, when the popular
creed and the scientific have become discordant. Suggested
in Germany by the old rationalism, it had been
especially stimulated by the subjective philosophy of
Kant and Fichte. Historic facts were the expression
of subjective forms of thought. The Non-ego was a
form, in which the Ego was expressing itself. This
theory, suggested to Schleiermacher from without, fell
in with his own views as above developed, and affected
his critical inquiries. When he involved himself in the
great questions of the higher criticism, which have been
already treated in connexion with Semler, subjective
criticism<a id="noteref_775" name="noteref_775" href="#note_775"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">775</span></span></a>
was used in an exaggerated manner, not
merely to suggest hypotheses, or to check deductions
by Christian appreciation, but as a substitute <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>
for historic investigation. In the controversy as to the
composition of the Gospels, which will be hereafter
explained, he was led, by his ideological theory and his
instinctive perception of the relative importance of doctrines
in theological perspective, to abandon the historical
importance of miracles as compared with doctrine,
and also the verity of the early history of Christ's life,
considered to have been communicated by tradition;
while he held fast to the moral and historical reality of
the latter.<a id="noteref_776" name="noteref_776" href="#note_776"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">776</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks must suffice to point out the position
of Schleiermacher. We have seen how completely he
caught the influences of his time, absorbed them, and
transmitted them. If his teaching was defective in its
constructive side; if he did not attain the firm grasp
of objective verity which is implied in perfect doctrinal,
not to say critical, orthodoxy; he at least gave the
death-blow to the old rationalism, which, either from an
empirical or a rational point of view, proposed to gain
such a philosophy of religion as reduced it to morality.
He rekindled spiritual apprehensions; he above all
drew attention to the peculiar character of Christianity,
as something more than the republication of natural
religion, in the same manner that the Christian consciousness
offered something more than merely moral
experience. He set forth, however imperfectly, the
idea of redemption, and the personality of the Redeemer;
and awakened religious aspirations, which led his
successors to a deeper appreciation of the truth as it is
in Jesus. Much of his theology, and some part of his
philosophy, had only a temporary interest relatively to
his times; but his influence was perpetual. The faults
were those of his age; the excellencies were his own.
Men caught his deep love to a personal Christ, without
imbibing his doctrinal opinions. His own views became
more evangelical as his life went on, and the
views of his disciples more deeply scriptural than those
of their master. Thus the light kindled by him waxed
purer and purer. The mantle remained after the
prophet's spirit had ascended to the God that gave
it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In strict truth he did not found a school. Though
his mind was dialectical, he had too much poetry to do
this. Genius, as has been often observed, does not
create a school, but kindles an influence. The university
of Berlin, the very centre of intellectual greatness
in every department from its foundation, was the
first seat of Schleiermacher's influence; and the political
importance of the capital added impulse to the
movement. The reaction extended to other universities,<a id="noteref_777" name="noteref_777" href="#note_777"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">777</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and not only marked the chief theologians of an
orthodox tendency which are commonly known to us,<a id="noteref_778" name="noteref_778" href="#note_778"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">778</span></span></a>—Tholuck,
Twesten, Nitzch, Julius Müller, Olshausen,—but
even modified the extreme rationalist party, and
diffused its influence among theologians of the church
of Rome.<a id="noteref_779" name="noteref_779" href="#note_779"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">779</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is impossible to specify the views of those who
were the chief representatives of the effects of Schleiermacher's
teaching. One however, his friend and colleague,
deserves mention, the well-known church historian
Neander.<a id="noteref_780" name="noteref_780" href="#note_780"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">780</span></span></a>
Brought up a Jew, he passed into
Christianity, like some of the early fathers, through the
gate of Platonism; and, knowing by experience that
free inquiry had been the means of his own conversion,
he ever stood forth with a noble courage as the advocate
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of full and fair investigation, feeling confidence
that Christianity could endure the test. More meditative
and less dialectical than Schleiermacher, and too
original to be an imitator, he surpassed him in the
deeper appreciation of sin and of redemption; placing
sin rather in alienation of will than in the sense of discordance,
and holding more firmly the existence of
some objective reality in the anthropopathic expression
of the wrath of God removed by Christ's death.<a id="noteref_781" name="noteref_781" href="#note_781"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">781</span></span></a> His
great employment in life was history; not, like his
master, philosophy and criticism. Viewing human
nature from the subjective stand-point, the central
thought of his historical works was, that Christianity
is a life resting on a person, rather than a system resting
on a dogma. Hence he was able to find the harmony
of reason and faith from the human side instead
of the divine, by noticing the adaptation of the divine
work to human wants. The inspiration of the scriptural
writers was viewed as dynamical not mechanical,
spiritual not literal;<a id="noteref_782" name="noteref_782" href="#note_782"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">782</span></span></a> and Christianity as the great
element of human progress, being the divine life on
earth which God had kindled through the gift of his
Son.<a id="noteref_783" name="noteref_783" href="#note_783"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">783</span></span></a>
The great aim accordingly of Neander in his
historical sketches was to exhibit the Christian church
as the philosophy of history, and God's work in Christ,
realised in the piety of the faithful, as the philosophy
of the Christian church. The history of the church in
his view is the record of the Christian consciousness in
the world. The subjective and mystical spirit engendered
by such a conception, was in danger of converting
history into a series of biographies; but the deep influence
which it possessed in contributing to foster the
reaction against the old rationalism will be obvious.
It becomes us to speak with reverence of the writings
of a man whose labours have been the means of turning
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
many to Christ. Though lacking form as works
of art, yet, if they be compared with works of grander
type, where church history has been treated as an epic,
we cannot help feeling that the depth of spiritual perception
and of psychological analysis compensates for
the artistic defects. We are conducted by them from
the outside to the inside; from things to thoughts;
from institutions to doctrines; from the accidents of
Christianity to the essence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Neander's teaching, while an offshoot from Schleiermacher,
marks the highest point to which the principles
of the master could be carried. It advances farther in
the hearty love for Christ and for revelation, and bears
fewer traces of the ancient spirit of rationalism; being
allied to it in few respects, save in the wish constantly
exhibited to appropriate that which is believed; but
the wants of the heart, not the conceptions of the understanding,
are made the gauge of divine truth, and the
interpreter of the divine volume.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We pointed out that the great reaction in the present
century was marked not only by the philosophical
and doctrinal school just described, but by a contemporaneous
one, which employed itself on literary and
critical inquiries in reference to the Bible, and was the
continuation of the earlier rationalist criticism on improved
principles. The most important name representing
this critical movement in the beginning of the
period was De Wette. (<a href="#Note_32" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>) Perhaps too we may without
injustice mention, as a type of it at the close of the
period, a theologian who is almost too original to admit
of being classified—the learned Ewald.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
De Wette was nurtured amid the old rationalism
of Jena, at the time of its greatest power, about the
beginning of the present century; and imbibed the
peculiar modification of the doctrines of Kant and
Jacobi which was presented in the philosophy of
Fries.<a id="noteref_784" name="noteref_784" href="#note_784"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">784</span></span></a>
It was the appeal to subjective feeling thence
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
derived which preserved him from the coldness of older
critics, and caused his labours to contribute to the
reaction. His works were very various; but the
earlier of them were especially devoted to the examination
of the Old Testament, and the later to the New.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The peculiarity of this school generally may be said
to be, a disposition to investigate both Testaments for
their own sake as literature, not for the further purpose
of discovering doctrine. These writers are primarily
literary critics, not dogmatic theologians. Like the
older rationalists, they are occupied largely with biblical
interpretation; but, perceiving the hollowness of their
attempt to explain away moral and spiritual mysteries
by reference to material events, they transfer to the Bible
the theories used in the contemporary investigations in
classical history, and explain the Biblical wonders by
the hypothesis of legends or of myths. Though they
ignore the miraculous and supernatural equally with
the older rationalists, they allow the spiritual in addition
to the moral and natural, and thus take a more
scholarlike and elevated view of the Hebrew history
and literature. The system of interpretation adopted
is the transition from the previous one, which admitted
the facts but explained them away, to the succeeding
one of Strauss, which denies the facts, and accounts for
the belief in them by psychological causes.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The wish to give a possible basis for the existence
of legend, by interposing a chasm between the events
and the record of them, stimulated the pursuit of the
branch of criticism slightly touched on by their predecessors,
which investigates the origin and date of scripture
books. They transferred to the Hebrew literature
the critical method by which Wolf had destroyed the
unity of Homer, and Niebuhr the credibility of Livy.
Not a single book,—history, poetry, or prophecy,—was
left unexamined. The inquiries of this kind, instituted
with reference to the book of Daniel, were alluded to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in a former lecture;<a id="noteref_785" name="noteref_785" href="#note_785"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">785</span></span></a> and those which relate to the
Gospels will occur hereafter.<a id="noteref_786" name="noteref_786" href="#note_786"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">786</span></span></a> At present it will only
be possible to specify a single instance in illustration
of these inquiries—the celebrated one which relates to
the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch. It
is the one to which most labour has been devoted, and
is an excellent instance for exhibiting the slow but
progressive improvement and growing caution shown
in the mode of exercising them.<a id="noteref_787" name="noteref_787" href="#note_787"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">787</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As early as the time of Hobbes and Spinoza it was
perceived that the Pentateuch contains a few allusions
which seem to have been inserted after the time of
Moses; a circumstance which they, as well as R.
Simon, explained, by referring them to the sacred editor
Ezra, who is thought to have arranged the canon: but
about the middle of the last century a French physician,
Astruc,<a id="noteref_788" name="noteref_788" href="#note_788"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">788</span></span></a> pointed out a circumstance which has
introduced an entirely new element into the discussion
of the question; viz. the distinction in the use of the
two Hebrew names for God,—Elohim and Jehovah. It
will be necessary to offer a brief explanation of this distinction,
in order that we may be able to perceive the
line at which fact ends and hypothesis commences, and
understand the character of the criticism which we are
describing.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is now generally admitted that the word
<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Elohim</span></span>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
is the name for Deity, as worshipped by the Hebrew
patriarchs; <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span>,
the conception of Deity which is
at the root of the Mosaic theocracy.<a id="noteref_789" name="noteref_789" href="#note_789"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">789</span></span></a> El, or the plural
Elohim, means literally <span class="tei tei-q">“the powers,”</span> (the plural form
being either, as some unreasonably think, a trace of
early polytheism, or more probably merely emphatic,<a id="noteref_790" name="noteref_790" href="#note_790"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">790</span></span></a>)
and is connected with the name for God commonly
used in the Semitic nations. Jehovah<a id="noteref_791" name="noteref_791" href="#note_791"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">791</span></span></a>
means <span class="tei tei-q">“self-existent,”</span>
and is the name specially communicated to
the Israelites. The idea of power or superiority in the
object of worship was conveyed by Elohim; that of
self-existence, spirituality, by Jehovah. Elohim was
generic, and could be applied to the gods of the heathen;
Jehovah was specific, the covenant God of Moses.
(<a href="#Note_33" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this age, when words are separated from things, we
are apt to lose sight of the importance of the difference
of names in an early age of the world. The modern investigations
however of comparative mythology enable
us to realize the fact, that in the childhood of the world
words implied real differences in things; not merely in
our conceptions, but in the thing conceived.<a id="noteref_792" name="noteref_792" href="#note_792"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">792</span></span></a> But
the explanations above offered will show that, independently
of the general law of mind just noticed, a
really different moral conception was offered by Providence
to the Hebrew mind through the employment
of these two words.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor was the difference unknown or forgotten in
later ages of Jewish history. The fifty-third Psalm,
for example, is a repetition of the fourteenth with the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
name Elohim altered into Jehovah. In the two first
of the five books into which the Psalms are divided,
the arrangement has been thought to be not unconnected
with the distinction of these names.<a id="noteref_793" name="noteref_793" href="#note_793"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">793</span></span></a> In the
book of Job also the name Jehovah is used in the
headings of the speeches of the dialogues; but in the
speeches of Job's friends, as not being Israelites, the
name Elohim is used.<a id="noteref_794" name="noteref_794" href="#note_794"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">794</span></span></a> In the book of Nehemiah the
name Elohim is almost always used, and in Ezra, Jehovah;
and in the composition of proper names, which
in ancient times were not merely, as now, symbolical,
the names El and Jah respectively are employed in all
ages of the Hebrew nation: and, though no exact law
can be detected, it seems probable that in the great
regal and prophetic age the name Jehovah was especially
used. (<a href="#Note_34" class="tei tei-ref">34</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will both explain the difference of
conception existing in the Hebrew names of Deity, and
show that the Jews were aware of the distinction to a
late period. When we advance farther, we pass from
the region of fact into conjecture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The distinctness of conception implied in the two
names has been made the basis of an hypothesis, in
which they are used for discovering different elements
in the Pentateuch. Throughout the book of Genesis
especially, and slightly elsewhere,<a id="noteref_795" name="noteref_795" href="#note_795"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">795</span></span></a> the critics that we
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
are describing have supposed that they detect at least
two distinct narratives, with peculiarities of style, and
differences or repetitions of statement; which they have
therefore regarded as proofs of the existence of different
documents in the composition of the Pentateuch; an
Elohistic, in which the name Elohim, and a Jehovistic,
in which the name Jehovah was used; upon the respective
dates of which they have formed conjectures.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Though we may object to these hazardous speculations,
we shall perceive the alteration and increasing
caution displayed in the criticism, if we trace briefly
the successive opinions held on this particular subject.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Astruc, who first dwelt on the distinction, regarded
the separate works to be anterior to Moses, and to have
been used by him in the construction of the Pentateuch.<a id="noteref_796" name="noteref_796" href="#note_796"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">796</span></span></a> Eichhorn took the same view, but advanced
the inquiry by a careful discrimination of the peculiarities
which he thought to belong to each. Vater followed,
and allowed the possibility of one collector of
the narratives, but denied that it could be Moses. Thus
far was the work of the older critical school of rationalists.
It was purely anatomical and negative. It is
at this point that we perceive the alteration effected by
the school which we are now contemplating.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
De Wette strove to penetrate more deeply into the
question of the origin, and to attain a positive result.
His discussion was marked by minute study; and he
changed the test for distinguishing the documents from
the simple use of the names to more uncertain characteristics,
which depended upon internal peculiarities of
style and manner. The conclusion to which he came
was, that the mass of the Pentateuch is based on the
Elohistic document, with passages supplemented from
the Jehovistic; and he referred the age of both to a
rather late part of the regal period. Ewald, with great
learning and delicacy of handling, has reconsidered the
question<a id="noteref_797" name="noteref_797" href="#note_797"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">797</span></span></a> and, though arriving at a most extraordinary
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
theory as to the manifold documents which have supplied
the materials for the work, has thrown to a much
earlier period the authorship of the main portion; and
the views of later critics are gradually tending in the
same direction. Both study the Pentateuch as uninspired
literature; but De Wette absurdly regarded it
as an epic created by the priests, in the same manner
as the Homeric epic by the rhapsodes: Ewald on the
contrary considers it to be largely historic.<a id="noteref_798" name="noteref_798" href="#note_798"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">798</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This statement of mere results, too brief to exhibit
the critical acumen shown at different points of the inquiry
even where it is most full of peril, will show the
increasing learning displayed, and the appreciation of
valuable literary characteristics. It will be perceived
that prepossessions still predominate over this criticism;
but they are of a different kind from those which existed
earlier. They are not the result of moral objections
to the narratives, but of the contemporary critical
spirit in secular literature. The discrepancy of result
obtained by the process is a fair practical argument
which proves its uncertainty; but its adherents allow
that both in art and literature internal evidence admits
of few canons, and consequently that the result of criticism
could only admit of probability.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The general summary of the movement shows a
steady advance in criticism, as was before shown in
doctrine, toward a higher and more spiritual standard.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
It is not the recognition of the inspired authority of
scripture, but it is some approach to it. Instead of the
hasty denunciation of narratives or of books as imposture,
seen in the Wolfenbüttel Fragments, or the
merely rationalist view of Eichhorn and Paulus, we
perceive the recognition of spiritual and psychological
mysteries as subjects of examination; and even when
the result established is altogether unsatisfactory, valuable
materials have been collected for future students.
If we were to abandon our position of traditional orthodoxy,
and accept that of Schleiermacher in doctrine,
or of De Wette in criticism, it would be a retrogression;
but for the Germans of their time it was a progress
from doubt towards faith. It was not orthodoxy,
but it was the first approach to it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This double aspect, philosophical and critical, of the
reaction, brings us to the end of the second period in
the history of German theological thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has already been stated that the elements of other
movements existed, which were hereafter to develope;
and that one of these was an attempt, originating in
the philosophy of Hegel, to reconstruct the harmony
of reason and faith from the intellectual, as distinct
from the emotional side. It bore some analogy to the
gnosticism of the early church; and the critical side of
it gave birth to Strauss.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have traced the antecedent causes which produced
rationalism, and two out of the three periods
into which we divided the history of it. We are halting
before reaching the final act of the drama; but we
already begin to see the direction in which the plot is
developing.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is when a great movement of mind or of society
can be thus viewed as a whole, in its antecedents and
its consequents, that we can form a judgment on its
real nature, and estimate its purpose and use. As in
viewing works of art, so in order to observe correctly
the great works of God's natural providence, we must
reduce them to their true perspective. It is the peculiarity
of great movements of mind, that when so
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
viewed they do not appear to be all shadow and formless,
nor acts of meaningless impiety. They are products
of intellectual antecedents, and perform their
function in history. In nothing is the Divine image
stamped on humanity, or the moral providence of God
in the world, more visible, than in the circumstance,
of which we have already had frequent proofs, that
thought and honest inquiry, if allowed to act freely,
without being repressed by material or political interference,
but checked only by spiritual and moral influences,
gradually attain to truth, appropriating goodness,
and rejecting evil. Thought seems to run on unrestrained,
stimulated by human caprice, sometimes by
sinful wilfulness; yet it is seen really to be restrained
by limits that are not of its own creation. In the
world of conscious mind, as in unconscious matter, God
hath set a law that shall not be broken. Reason,
which creates the doubts, also allays them. It rebukes
the unbelief of impiety, making the wrath of man to
praise God; and guides the honest inquirer to truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A period of doubt is always sad; but it would be
an unmixed woe for an individual or a nation, if it were
not made, in the order of a merciful Providence, the
transition to a more deeply-seated faith. It is a means,
not an end.
</p>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">You tell me, doubt is devil-born.</span></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I know not; one indeed I knew</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">In many a subtle question versed,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">Who touch'd jarring lyre at first,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">But ever strove to make it true:</span></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Perplext in faith, but not in deeds,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">At last he beat his music out.</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">There lives more faith in honest doubt,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Believe me, than in half the creeds.</span></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">He fought his doubts, and gathered strength,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">He would not make his judgment blind,</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">He faced the spectres of the mind</span></div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">And laid them: thus he came at length</span></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To find a stronger faith his own.</span><a id="noteref_799" name="noteref_799" href="#note_799"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">799</span></span></a></div>
</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Religious truth is open to those who will seek it
with humility and prayer.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In addition to the natural action of reason, the
fatherly pity of God is nigh, to give help to all that ask
it, and that endeavour to sanctify their studies to His
honour. Even though the search be long, and a large
portion of life be spent in the agony of baffled effort,
the mind reaps improvement from its heart-sorrows,
and at last receives the reward of its patient faith.
<span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed are they which hunger and thirst after righteousness,
for they shall be filled.”</span><a id="noteref_800" name="noteref_800" href="#note_800"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">800</span></span></a> If we are thankful
to be spared the sorrows of the doubter, let us admire
the wisdom and mercy shown in the process by which
Providence rescues men or nations from the state of
doubt. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord God omnipotent reigneth;”</span><a id="noteref_801" name="noteref_801" href="#note_801"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">801</span></span></a> and
He shall reign for ever and ever.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a>
<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>
<a name="Lecture_VII" id="Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VII. Free Thought: In Germany Subsequently To 1835;
And In France During The Present Century.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Matt</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">. xiii. 52.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven is like
unto a man that is an householder, which bringeth forth out of his treasure
things new and old.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The last lecture was brought to a close before we
reached the final forms assumed by German theology.
In the present one we must complete the narrative;
and afterwards carry on the history of free thought
in France, as affected by the influence of German literature,
from the period at which the narrative was previously
interrupted to the present time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have noticed the traces of the reaction in favour
of orthodoxy, which was produced in Germany by the
influence of Schleiermacher. We treated the philosophical
side of the movement, the vindication of the distinctness
of religion and ethics; and also witnessed the
improved tone in the critical, tending, if not to the recognition
of a supernatural character in the holy scriptures,
yet to a more spiritual appreciation of their literary
characteristics, and of the psychological peculiarity of
the facts recorded. We adverted also, in conclusion, to
a rival philosophical influence, springing from the
teaching of Hegel, which assisted the reaction by seeking
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
a philosophical reconstruction of religion, though
from a different point of view from Schleiermacher.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was this school which gave origin to the subsequent
movements in Germany. The sudden alteration
in German thought induced by Strauss, which ushers in
the modern period, arose from the union of the philosophical
principles of this school with the criticism of
that of De Wette. We must therefore endeavour to
understand this movement, which forms the turning
point between the reaction before described, which is
the second of the three general divisions made of this
portion of history,<a id="noteref_802" name="noteref_802" href="#note_802"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">802</span></span></a> and the forms which succeed constituting
the third division. Hegel,<a id="noteref_803" name="noteref_803" href="#note_803"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">803</span></span></a> a name almost as
important in its influence on the German mind as that
of Goethe, has been already mentioned<a id="noteref_804" name="noteref_804" href="#note_804"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">804</span></span></a> as the last of
that band of philosophers which strove to develop the
mental as distinct from the material principle, presented
in Kant's philosophy. Kant had completed the process
of turning man's search inward, which Descartes
had begun. Philosophy became psychology; the discovery
of the limits of knowledge, rather than of the
nature of the thing known. We have seen that Fichte
and Schelling, not content with this result, had sought,
though by opposite processes, to escape from this limited
knowledge; to attain an ontology as well as a psychology.
All philosophy aims at attaining a knowledge
of reality, either <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à posteriori</span></span> by means of generalisation,
or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> from the data of mind. These two philosophers
strove to attain it by the latter mode; but their
method either lacked system, or failed in its results:
their philosophy was poetry rather than logic. Hegel
followed in their steps, but adopted a basis which admitted
of being developed in a formal system. The
logical rigour of his method, and the encyclopædic
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
grasp which it gave over knowledge, partly accounted,
as in the case of Spinoza or of Wolff, for its popularity.
The universe was to be interpreted from the mind; the
laws of thought were the laws of things. The microcosm
and the macrocosm were one; thought, and the
mind that thinks; or, more truly, both were phases of
the universal mind which was unfolding. The mind of
man could transcend the limits of the finite and phenomenal;
and, being able to apprehend the idea, the
νοούμενον, absolutely, without condition, thus possessed
the solution of any branch of universal knowledge by
an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> process. The problem of philosophy was,
to find the laws of this evolution in thought, to catch
the ideal when it strives to become immanent and to
manifest itself in the actual.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Without attempting here to explain the kind of
threefold process, (<a href="#Note_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>) according to which this evolution
takes place, it is better, as in the case of the former
philosophies named, to exhibit the influence of the general
method rather than the effects of particular theories
inculcated by it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The method had many advantages, in displacing a
low materialism, in stimulating loftiness of conception,
and generating an historic study of every subject, by its
view of the universe as a development; and also created
a largeness of sympathy with differing views, by
regarding all things as in transition, relative, true only
in reference to their contradictory; and by considering
all hypotheses to contain a germ of right, and to be the
result of partial views of truth; but it will also be obvious,
that the method had its evil effects. For, when
applied to any department, it produced a disposition to
seize the principle, the idea, of which the concrete is the
embodiment; to descend from the type upon the individual.
Its method was deductive and idealistic;
giving being to abstractions, like the realism of the middle
ages. It lost the fact in the principle; it personified
the genus. Philosophy became a vast mythology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When applied to Christianity, for example, it did
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
not attempt to find a philosophic ground for it psychologically
in the human aspirations, as Schleiermacher
had done,<a id="noteref_805" name="noteref_805" href="#note_805"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">805</span></span></a>
but objectively in the dogma. It discovered
the ideal truth in religion, and regarded Christianity
and Christ as being the manifestation of the effort of
the great Spirit of the universe to convert the idea
into act; the symbol which expressed the speculative
truth of the essential unity of the ideal and the real, of
the divine and the human. Like the ancient Gnosticism,
it believed in dogmatic Christianity, because it
descended upon it from an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">á priori</span></span> principle, in which
it found the explanation of it. Religion and philosophy
were reconciled, because religion was made a phase of
philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This system was taught by its founder at Berlin
from about 1820 to 1830, contemporary with that of
Schleiermacher; and the learned theologian Marheinecke<a id="noteref_806" name="noteref_806" href="#note_806"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">806</span></span></a>
is the name best known of those who applied it
to theology. It was regarded at that time as an instrument
of orthodoxy.<a id="noteref_807" name="noteref_807" href="#note_807"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">807</span></span></a> It had the advantage over
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the old rationalism, in that while using similarity of
method in seeking to explain mysteries, it did not
pare them down, but absorbed them in principles of
philosophy; and over the school of Schleiermacher, in
that it was less subjective, less a matter of feeling, supplying
a doctrine and not merely a spirit; and therefore
it satisfied the longing of the mind for dogmatic
truth, and at the same time more readily linked itself,
ecclesiastically with churchlike and corporate tendencies,
and politically with conservative and autocratic
ones. Yet it is easy to see that its spirit was really far
less Christian than Schleiermacher's. For it not only
confused again philosophy and religion, which his
system had severed, but it proudly claimed to explain
doctrines rationally where his had only sought to appropriate
them intuitionally. It verged towards pantheism.
It was in danger of losing the historic fact in
the idea; of encouraging, as it is now sometimes called,
the <span class="tei tei-q">“ideological tendency;”</span><a id="noteref_808" name="noteref_808" href="#note_808"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">808</span></span></a>
whereas with Schleiermacher,
the historic belief had only been regarded as
less important than the emotional apprehension. Its
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> spirit created also a depreciation of the investigations
which had been pursued by the critical school.
It gave encouragement to the study of history; but it
was to the history of philosophy, not to the investigations
conducted by historical criticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was the system which, along with those described
in the last lecture, was regarded as contributing
to favour orthodox reaction, and was disputing
theological preeminence with that of Schleiermacher,
when a work was published by one of its disciples,
which was the means, through the ferment produced,
of altering completely the whole tone and course of
German thought. It was the celebrated <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Jesus</span></span>
by Strauss,<a id="noteref_809" name="noteref_809" href="#note_809"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">809</span></span></a>
a criticism on the four biographies given in
the gospels; a work in which the whole destructive
movement was concentrated, with such singular ability
and clearness, that hardly any work of theology has
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
subsequently been written without some notice of the
propositions there maintained.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It presented a double aspect: it was both philosophical
and critical. Strauss added to a general admission
of the Hegelian point of view a love for the
critical studies so much neglected by that party.
Brought up in the moderate orthodoxy of Tübingen,
he had studied at Berlin under Schleiermacher, but
caught the critical rather than the philosophical side of
that master's teaching, and especially interested himself
in the solution of the question relating to the origin
and credibility of the Gospels, already partially considered
in the critical inquiries of the old rationalism, and
of the school of De Wette. It was an investigation
which in its nature, in the spirit in which it was decided,
and in its similarity to the contemporaneous discussions
of classical criticism, bore a close resemblance
to that before described in reference to the Pentateuch.
A few words of explanation concerning it are necessary,
previous to the statement of the nature of Strauss's
work.<a id="noteref_810" name="noteref_810" href="#note_810"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">810</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As early as the last century the resemblance between
the three <span class="tei tei-q">“synoptical”</span> Evangelists had excited attention;
and examination was directed to discover the
cause. Some, as Wetstein,<a id="noteref_811" name="noteref_811" href="#note_811"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">811</span></span></a> supposed that one or two
of the Gospels were borrowed from the third; others,
as Michaelis<a id="noteref_812" name="noteref_812" href="#note_812"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">812</span></span></a>
and Eichhorn, that the three were all derived
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
from one common original, now lost; others, as
Schleiermacher, that they were composed from many
detached written narratives; others, as Herder, and
subsequently Gieseler, that they were the committal to
writing of the oral tradition common in the church.
Thus, whether the Gospels were regarded as copies, or
as being composed from earlier documents, or from
primitive tradition, the effect was, that they were reduced
to the level of natural testimony, and instead of
being three witnesses they became one. The fourth
Gospel also was involved in uncertainty. Bretschneider
added the full examination of it, and provoked a
discussion concerning the alleged disagreement of its tone and statements
with those of the synoptists.<a id="noteref_813" name="noteref_813" href="#note_813"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">813</span></span></a>
Thus a chasm was introduced between the events and
the record of them; and the testimony was reduced to
traditional evidence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This alteration in the critical attempt to shake the
evidence of independent authorship had been accompanied
by a corresponding change in the interpretation,
as seen in the assaults made on the credibility of the
facts narrated. In the hands of the English deists and
of Reimarus this attack had been an allegation against
the moral character of the writer. In Eichhorn and
Paulus the imputation of collusion had been superseded
by the rationalistic interpretation, which, without denying
the historical recital, denied the supernatural,
and explained it away by reference to the peculiarities
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of time at which the events were described. The next
step was to transfer the doubt to the recital itself, and
to find, in the absence of contemporary evidence for the
events, the possibility for legend, and, in the antecedent
expectation of them, the possibility for myth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This was the state of the critical question with regard
to the Gospels when the work of Strauss appeared.
The Hegelian philosophy gave him the constructive
side of his work, and criticism the destructive. Setting
out with the preconception which had lain at the basis
of German philosophy and theology since Kant, that the
idea was more important than the fact,<a id="noteref_814" name="noteref_814" href="#note_814"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">814</span></span></a> the mythical
interpretation of history furnished to him the medium
for applying this conception as an engine of criticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mythical system of interpretation, though
slightly suggested by his predecessors in criticism, was
Strauss's great work. The difference between allegory,
legend, and myth, is well known. Our blessed Lord's
miracles would be allegories, if they were, as Woolston
claimed, parables intentionally invented for purposes
of moral instruction, or facts which had a mystical as
well as literal meaning: they would be legends if,
while containing a basis of fact, they were exaggerated
by tradition: they would be myths if, without really
occurring, they were the result of a general preconception
that the Messiah ought to do mighty works, which
thus gradually became translated into fact. A legend
is a group of ideas round a nucleus of fact: a myth is
an idea translated by mental realism into fact. A
legend proceeds upwards into the past; a myth downwards
into the future.<a id="noteref_815" name="noteref_815" href="#note_815"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">815</span></span></a>
Strauss's peculiarity consisted
in trying to show that if a small basis of fact, heightened
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
by legend, be allowed in the gospel history, the
influence of myth is a psychological cause sufficient to
explain the remainder. The idea is regarded as prior
to the fact: the need of a deliverer, he pretends, created
the idea of a saviour: the misinterpretation of old
prophecy presented conditions which in the popular
mind must be fulfilled by the Messiah. The gospel
history is regarded as the attempt of the idea to realise
itself in fact.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The fundamental fallacy of the inquiry is apparent
from one consideration. Legends are possible in any
age; myths, strictly so called, only in the earliest ages
of a nation. Comparative philology has lately shown
that mythology is connected with the formation of language,
and restricted to an early period of the world's
history.<a id="noteref_816" name="noteref_816" href="#note_816"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">816</span></span></a> But the encouragement offered to the mythic
interpretation by Hegel's philosophy will be apparent.
The mythus embodying itself in the facts of the gospel
was the miniature of the process of universal nature.
Everywhere the idea strives for realisation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The scheme of Strauss formed the link between
philosophy and criticism. Philosophy had explained
the doctrines of Christianity, but not the facts of Christian
history. Criticism had explained the facts by historical
examination, but not by philosophy. Strauss
attempted, for the first time, to present the philosophical
explanation of facts as well as doctrines. He explained
them, neither by charge of fraud, nor by historical
causes, but by reference to the operation of a
psychological law, the same which the Hegelian philosophy
regarded as exemplified universally. Early
Christian fiction was resolved into a psychological law,
regulated by a definite law of suggestion, of which
plausible instances were traced. The gospel history
was regarded to be partly a creation out of nothing,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
partly an adaptation of real facts to preconceived ideas.
This same philosophy, which thus contributed to the
critical or destructive side of the theory, also furnished
the reconstructive. The facts in Christianity were
temporary, the ideas eternal. Christ was the type of
humanity. (<a href="#Note_36" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>) His life and death and resurrection
were the symbol of the life, death, and resurrection, of
humanity. The former were unimportant, the latter
eternal. An exoteric religion for the people might exhibit
the one: the esoteric for the philosopher might retain
the other.<a id="noteref_817" name="noteref_817" href="#note_817"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">817</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This is Strauss's system and position. The book itself
comprises three parts;—first, an historic introduction,
in which the history of previous criticism and of
Hermeneutics, and of the formation of the mythical
theory is most ably presented:<a id="noteref_818" name="noteref_818" href="#note_818"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">818</span></span></a>—secondly, the main
body of the work, which consists of a critical examination
of the life of Christ,<a id="noteref_819" name="noteref_819" href="#note_819"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">819</span></span></a> subdivided into three parts;
viz. an examination of the birth and childhood of Jesus,<a id="noteref_820" name="noteref_820" href="#note_820"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">820</span></span></a>
of his public life,<a id="noteref_821" name="noteref_821" href="#note_821"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">821</span></span></a> and of his
death;<a id="noteref_822" name="noteref_822" href="#note_822"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">822</span></span></a> the object
of which is to point out in the narrative the historic or
mythic elements:—and thirdly, a philosophical conclusion,<a id="noteref_823" name="noteref_823" href="#note_823"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">823</span></span></a>
in which the doctrinal significance of the life
is given. As a specimen of didactic and critical writing
it is perhaps unrivalled in the German literature.
The second part is the embodiment of all the difficulties
which destructive criticism had presented. If the historic
sketches captivate by their clearness, the critical do
so by their surprising acuteness and dialectical power;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and the philosophical by the appreciation of the ideal
beauty of the very doctrines, the historic embodiment
of which is denied. It is the work of a mind endowed
with remarkable analytical power; in which the force
of reflective theory has overwhelmed the intuitional
perception of the personality and originality of the
sacred character which is the subject of his study.<a id="noteref_824" name="noteref_824" href="#note_824"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">824</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The effect of the publication of the work was astonishing.
It produced a religious panic unequalled since
the Wolfenbüttel fragments. The first impulse of the
Prussian government was to prevent the introduction
of the book into the Prussian kingdom; but Neander
stood up to resist the proposal, with a courage which
showed his firm confidence in the permanent victory of
truth; saying that it must be answered by argument,
not suppressed by force; and forthwith wrote his own
beautiful work on the life of Christ in reply to it. Yet
neither the peculiarity of Strauss's theory nor the nature
of the work gave ground for the panic. For the
book was in truth not a novelty, but merely a fuller
development of principles already existing in Germany;
and Schleiermacher, before his death, when
contemplating the tendency of religious criticism, had
predicted<a id="noteref_825" name="noteref_825" href="#note_825"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">825</span></span></a>
the probability of such an attempt being
made. Nor was the work irreligious and blasphemous
in its spirit, like the attacks of the last century. It
professed to be executed solely in the interests of science;
and, though subversive of historic religion, to be
conservative of ideal. The critical part was only a
means to an end; its real basis was speculative. But
the literary aspect of the question was lost sight of in
the religious. The heart spoke forth its terror at the
idea of losing its most sacred hope, the object of its
deepest trust, an historic Saviour. The alarm had not
been anticipated by the author of the attack. He is
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
described by a hostile critic<a id="noteref_826" name="noteref_826" href="#note_826"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">826</span></span></a> as a <span class="tei tei-q">“young man full of
candour, of sweetness, and modesty, of a spirit almost
mystical, and as it were saddened by the disturbance
which had been occasioned.”</span> But he became a martyr
for his act, and an outcast from the sympathy of religious
men. Unable to exercise his singular gifts of
teaching in any professorship, he has continued to write
from time to time literary monographs of more defiant
tone; proofs of his ability, but vehicles for the expression
of his opinions. (<a href="#Note_37" class="tei tei-ref">37</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The effect on the different theological critics throughout
Germany, both friendly and hostile, was so remarkable,
that the year 1835, in which the book was published,
is as memorable in theology as the year 1848 in
politics. The work carried criticism and philosophy to
its farthest limits, and demanded from theologians of all
classes a thorough reconsideration of the subject of the
<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">origines</span></span> of Christianity.<a id="noteref_827" name="noteref_827" href="#note_827"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">827</span></span></a> The ablest theologians either
wrote in refutation of it, or reconsidered their own
opinions by the light of its criticisms. (<a href="#Note_38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>) The alarm
at the loss of the historic basis of Christianity created a
strong reaction in favour of the Lutheran orthodoxy, the
commencement of which has already been named;<a id="noteref_828" name="noteref_828" href="#note_828"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">828</span></span></a>
and gave the death-blow, not only to the Hegelian
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
school, but almost to the passion for ontological speculation
in Germany. While some thus assumed a
churchly and conservative aspect, others outstripped
Strauss, and, uniting with French positivism, advanced
into utter pantheism and materialism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Hegelian party, to which Strauss belonged, and
which would fain have been excused from this <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">reductio
ad absurdum</span></span> of its principles,<a id="noteref_829" name="noteref_829" href="#note_829"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">829</span></span></a> became split into sections
through the various attempts made to parry the
blow, and reconstruct their system on the philosophical
side. The critical tendency had now too found a
home, by means of Strauss's work, among the Hegelians;
and this led to the creation of a new school of
historical criticism to be hereafter described, which
arose in Strauss's own university of Tübingen.<a id="noteref_830" name="noteref_830" href="#note_830"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">830</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now explained the circumstances attending
the change which closed the second and introduced the
third period in German theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this third period, which is that of contemporary
thought, we may distinguish four broadly marked tendencies;
three within the church, and one directly infidel
in character outside of it.<a id="noteref_831" name="noteref_831" href="#note_831"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">831</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The last named, which we shall describe first,
started from Strauss's position, and advanced still farther.
It sprang from the destructive side of the Hegelian
philosophy, and has sometimes been named the young
Hegelian school. From the first it lacked the air of respect
toward religion which Strauss did not throw aside
in his work; and it also extended itself from theology
to politics.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Bruno Bauer,<a id="noteref_832" name="noteref_832" href="#note_832"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">832</span></span></a> a Professor at Berlin, by turning
suddenly round from the most orthodox to the most
heterodox position in his school, may be classed with
Strauss in his method, though not in his spirit. He
carried out Strauss's critical examination of the Gospels
with a coarse ridicule; and extended it by denying the
historic basis of fact, and imputing the myth to the personal
creation of the individual writer. But his successors
advanced even farther. As Bauer developed the
critical side of Strauss, Feuerbach<a id="noteref_833" name="noteref_833" href="#note_833"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">833</span></span></a>
and Ruge<a id="noteref_834" name="noteref_834" href="#note_834"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">834</span></span></a> developed
the philosophical, and destroyed the very idea of
religion itself, by showing that the idea of God or of
religion is of human construction, the giving objective
existence to an idea. The aspiration, instead of guaranteeing
the existence of an object toward which it is
directed, is represented as creating it. This was the
final result of the subjective point of view of the Kantian
philosophy, and of the idealism of Hegel. Reason
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
must, it was pretended, be followed, to whatever extent
it contradicts the feelings. Theology becomes anthropology;
religion, mythology; pantheism, atheism; man,
collective humanity, becomes the sole object of the
belief and respect which had been previously given to
Deity; religion vanishes in morality. The love of man
becomes the substitute for the love of God. This was
a position analogous to that which positivism reached
in France, but from a mental instead of a physical point
of view. This form of thought found expression in literature
through the poetry of Heine,<a id="noteref_835" name="noteref_835" href="#note_835"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">835</span></span></a> and linked itself
with political theories of communism more extreme
than the contemporary ones in France.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Still the lowest point was not reached: religion was
treated as a psychological peculiarity, and the virtue of
benevolence recognised. But when religion was felt to
be only an idea, and the belief of the supernatural to
be the great obstacle to political reform, an intense feeling
of antipathy was aroused; and Schmidt,<a id="noteref_836" name="noteref_836" href="#note_836"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">836</span></span></a> under the
pseudonym of Stirner, reached the naturalistic point of
view held by Volney, the worship of self-love. This
new school, which had arisen in the few years subsequent
to Strauss's work, mingled itself with the revolutionary
movements of Germany in 1848, and was the
means of exciting the alarm which caused the suppression
of them. Since that date the school has been extinct
as a literary movement.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The tendency just described was entirely destructive.
The three others, which remain for consideration,
exist within the church, and are in their nature reconstructive,
and aim at repelling the attacks of Strauss and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of other previous critics. The one that we shall describe
first is that which is most rationalistic, and approaches
most nearly to Strauss's views; and is frequently
called, from the Swabian university which has
been its stronghold, the Tübingen school.<a id="noteref_837" name="noteref_837" href="#note_837"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">837</span></span></a> It is a
lineal offshoot in some slight degree from the school of
Hegel, and more decidedly from the critical school of
De Wette, before named. But it stands contrasted
with the latter by caution, as marked as that which
separates recent critics<a id="noteref_838" name="noteref_838" href="#note_838"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">838</span></span></a>
of Roman history from earlier
ones, like Niebuhr. Like Strauss, it restricts its attention
to the New Testament; but it is a direct reaction
against his inclination to undervalue the historical element.
The great problem presented to it is, to reconstruct
the history of early Christianity, to reinvestigate
the genesis of the gospel biographies and doctrine.
Declining to approach the books of the New Testament
with dogmatic preconceptions, it breaks with the past,
and interprets them by the historic method; proposing
for its fundamental principle to interpret scripture exactly
like any other literary work. Pretending that
after the ravages of criticism, the Gospels cannot be
regarded as true history, but only as miscellaneous materials
for true history, it takes its stand on four of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Epistles of St. Paul, the genuineness of which it cannot
doubt, and finds in the struggle of Jew and Gentile its
theory of Christianity.<a id="noteref_839" name="noteref_839" href="#note_839"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">839</span></span></a> Christianity is not regarded
as miraculous, but as an offshoot of Judaism, which received
its final form by the contest of the Petrine or
Judæo-Christian party, and the Pauline or Gentile;
which contest is considered by it not to have been decided
till late in the second century. By the aid of this
theory, constructed from the few books which it admits
to be of undoubted genuineness, it guides itself in the
examination of the remainder, tracing them to party
interests which determined their aim, pronouncing on
their object and date by reference to it.<a id="noteref_840" name="noteref_840" href="#note_840"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">840</span></span></a> In this way
it arrives at most extraordinary conclusions in reference
to some of them. Not one single book, except four of
St. Paul's Epistles, is regarded to be authentic. The
Gospel called that of St. John is considered as a treatise
of Alexandrian philosophy, written late in the second
century to support the theory of the Λόγος. It will
thus be perceived that the inquiry, though it professes
to be objective, yet has a subjective cast.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The leader of this school was Christian Baur, (<a href="#Note_39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>)
lately deceased; a man of large erudition; a wonder
of acuteness even in Germany; distinguished for the
extraordinary ability displayed in his reply to the attacks
made on Protestantism by the celebrated Roman
catholic theologian Moehler: and though the doctrinal
result of the school is ethics or pure Socinianism and
naturalism, and the critical opinions obviously are most
extravagant, the sagacity and learning shown in the
monographs published by it make them some of the
most instructive, as sources of information, in modern
theology, to those who know how to use them aright.
From an orthodox point of view the effect of the school
is most destructive; but, if viewed in reference to the
preceding schools, it manifests a tenacious hold over the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
historic side of Christianity, and has affected in a literary
way the schools formerly described, which claim
lineage from the older critics.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As the tendency just described is the modern representative
of the older critical schools; so the next holds
a similar position to the philosophical.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The school is frequently on this account described by the same name, of
<span class="tei tei-q">“Mediation
theology,”</span><a id="noteref_841" name="noteref_841" href="#note_841"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">841</span></span></a> originally
applied to Schleiermacher, because it attempts to
unite science with faith, a true use of reason with a
belief in scripture. It comprises the chief theological
names of Germany, some of whom were disciples of
Schleiermacher, others of the orthodox portion of the
Hegelian party. Their object is not simply, like the
revivers of Lutheran orthodoxy, to surrender the judgment
to an external authority in the church, nor to give
unbounded liberty to it like the critical school: not
going back like the one to the ancient faith of the
church, nor progressing like the other to new discoveries
in religion, they seek to understand that which
they believe, to find a philosophy for religion and
Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Two theologians stand out above the others, as
evincing vitality of thought, and boldly attempting to
grapple with the philosophical problems;—Dorner<a id="noteref_842" name="noteref_842" href="#note_842"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">842</span></span></a>
and Rothe,<a id="noteref_843" name="noteref_843" href="#note_843"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">843</span></span></a> both very original, but bearing traces of
the influence of their predecessors. The former, moulded
by the Hegelian school, investigates the Christological
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
problem which lies at the basis of Christianity; the
latter, moulded rather by the school of Schleiermacher,
has attempted the cosmological, which lies at the basis
of religion and providence.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Dorner on <span class="tei tei-q">“the Person of Christ”</span>
formed an epoch in German theology, by its fulness of
learning, its orthodoxy of tone, and its union of speculative
powers with historic erudition. The Christian
doctrine of the incarnation is, that God and man have
been united in an historic person as the essential condition
for effecting human salvation. If the doctrine
be viewed on the speculative side, the problem is to
show <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> that this historic union ought to exist; if
viewed on the historic, to prove that it has existed as a
fact. The great aim of the Christology of the Hegelian
system was to effect the former; the aim of Strauss was
to destroy the latter. Dorner strove to reconstruct the
doctrine, by making the historical study of its progress
the means of supplying the elements of information for
doing so. He commences by an examination of other
religions,<a id="noteref_844" name="noteref_844" href="#note_844"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">844</span></span></a>
in order at once to show the existence in
them of blind attempts to realise that truth which the
incarnation supplied, and to prove the impossibility
that the Christian doctrine can have been borrowed
from human sources, as the critical and mythical interpreters
would assume. He discovers in all religions
the desire to unite man to God; but shows<a id="noteref_845" name="noteref_845" href="#note_845"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">845</span></span></a> that the
Christian doctrine cannot have been derived from the
oriental, which humanised God; nor from the Greek,
which deified man; nor from the Hebrew in its Palestinian
form, which degraded the idea of the incarnate
God into a temporal Messiah; nor in its Alexandrian
form, which never reached, in its theory of the Λόγος,
the idea of the distinction of person of the Son from the
Father. Thus establishing the originality of the idea
in Christianity, and exhibiting it as the fulfilment of
the world's yearnings, he traces it in the teaching of
the apostles, and of the apostolic age,<a id="noteref_846" name="noteref_846" href="#note_846"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">846</span></span></a> next as marking
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the different heretical sects,<a id="noteref_847" name="noteref_847" href="#note_847"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">847</span></span></a> which respectively lost
sight of one of the two elements, till he finds the
church's explicit statement of the doctrine in its fulness;<a id="noteref_848" name="noteref_848" href="#note_848"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">848</span></span></a>
and then pursues it onwards through the course
of history to the present time.<a id="noteref_849" name="noteref_849" href="#note_849"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">849</span></span></a> Though the work is
to an English mind difficult, through the air of speculation
which pervades it, and perhaps open to exception
in some of its positions; yet, viewed as a whole, it is a
magnificent argument in favour of Christianity; exhibiting
the incarnation as the satisfaction for the world's
wants, as the original and independent treasure in
Christianity; and showing the process through which
Providence in history has caused the doctrine to be
evolved and preserved.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other great problem, the origin of things, and
the relation of God to the world, which is at the basis
of religion, as the incarnation is at the basis of Christianity,
has been less frequently handled. Originally
discussed, like the latter, in controversy with the early
unbelievers, it had been touched upon in the speculations
of Averroes and Spinoza, in the materialism of
French infidelity, and in the earlier systems of speculative
philosophy in Germany itself. It was this problem
which was attempted by Rothe. (<a href="#Note_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>) Advancing beyond
this first question, he has considered the scheme of
Providence in the development of religion, and the theory
of the Christian church in relation to political society.
It is unnecessary here to explain his system:
his mind is too original to admit of comparison without
injustice; yet the speculations of our own Coleridge,
who on philosophical principles makes the state to be
the realisation of the church, will perhaps give some
imperfect conception of the character of his attempts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This second school that we have been considering,
though approximating extremely nearly to orthodoxy,
and furnishing the works of most value in the modern
theology, yet seeks to approach religion from the psychological
or philosophical side. It speculates freely,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and believes revelation because it finds it to coincide
with the discoveries of free thought. But there is a
third tendency, which believes revelation without professing
to understand it; which rests on the revelation
in scripture as an objective verity, and believes the
Bible on the ground of evidence, without questioning
its material.<a id="noteref_850" name="noteref_850" href="#note_850"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">850</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first germ of this reaction in favour of rigid
orthodoxy was observable in the feeling aroused by
the theses of Harms, in 1817, already named, on occasion
of the celebration of the tricentenary of the Reformation;
but it was quickened by the attempts, initiated
by the Prussian king, between the years 1821 and 1830,
to unite the Lutheran and Calvinistic branches of the
Protestant church.<a id="noteref_851" name="noteref_851" href="#note_851"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">851</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The time seemed then to thoughtful men a fitting
one, when doctrines were either regarded as unimportant
or superseded by the religious consciousness, to
unite these two churches under the bond of a common
nationality, and the practice of a common liturgy. But
the old Lutheran spirit, which still survived in the retirement
of country parishes, was aroused, and some
pastors underwent deprivation and persecution rather
than submit to the union.<a id="noteref_852" name="noteref_852" href="#note_852"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">852</span></span></a> This new movement
at first caught the spirit of pietism, just as had been the
case with that of Schleiermacher; but gradually abandoned
it for a dogmatic and churchlike aspect, as he
for a scientific expression. Its aim was to return to
the Lutheranism of the sixteenth century, and to rally round the confessions
of faith of that period. Hengstenberg<a id="noteref_853" name="noteref_853" href="#note_853"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">853</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
at Berlin, and Hävernick,<a id="noteref_854" name="noteref_854" href="#note_854"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">854</span></span></a> are the names best
known as representing this party at the period of which
we speak. Their efforts were directed to criticism rather
than to doctrine, to reconstruct the basis for Christianity
in Judaism by defending the authenticity and credibility
of the ancient scriptures. In doctrine and the canon,
they reverted to the position of the Reformation. But
the alarm ensuing upon the work of Strauss, in 1835, invested
this movement with a more reactionary character;
and the journal<a id="noteref_855" name="noteref_855" href="#note_855"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">855</span></span></a> which gave expression to Hengstenberg's
views, gradually assumed the character of an
ecclesiastical censorship, frequently marked by defiance
and severity, like the tone of Luther of old.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The panic caused by the revolutions of 1848 gave
increased stimulus, by adding a political reaction to the
religious. The extreme rationalist party had favoured
the Revolution, and the school of Schleiermacher had
supported the schemes for constitutional government.
In the suppression of liberty which ensued for about
ten years, the orthodox movement in theology united
itself with the reaction in political. Absolute government
was not merely a fact, but a doctrine. The theological
reaction was no longer the spiritual aspiration
of Germany seeking repose after doubt, but a political
movement veiled under an ecclesiastical colour. The
result has been, the creation of a Lutheran party far
more extreme in its opinions than the one just described;—the
political leader of which in the Prussian
parliament was the jurist Stahl;<a id="noteref_856" name="noteref_856" href="#note_856"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">856</span></span></a>—intolerant
towards
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
other churches, suspicious of any independent associations
for religious usefulness in its own, disowning pietism
because of its unchurchlike character, and in its
principles going back beyond the Reformation, discarding
the subjective inward principle, and reposing on
the objective authority of the church. Taking a political
view of religion, it does not so much ask what is
truth, but what the church asserts to be true. Though
not offending popular prejudices by the introduction
of Romish doctrines or rites, it really reposes on the
Romish principle of a visible authoritative church with
mystical powers, upholding a rigid sacramental theory
and the doctrine of consubstantiation. Extending the
sacramental efficacy to the ministerial office, and denying
communion between God and the individual soul
independently of the church as the element of communication.<a id="noteref_857" name="noteref_857" href="#note_857"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">857</span></span></a>
Yet it contains many honoured names,
and has produced many instructive works. The movement
in English theology, which originated a generation
ago in the panic caused by the liberal acts of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
government which was introduced by the reform act,<a id="noteref_858" name="noteref_858" href="#note_858"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">858</span></span></a>
offers a parallel; with the exception that the ecclesiastical
principles then advocated had always had supporters
in the English church, whereas they were nearly
new in the Lutheran. The Lutheran movement too,
only proposes to go back to the Reformation, the English
ecclesiastical movement professed to go back to the
early fathers. (<a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While the church has thus attempted a renovation
of itself in doctrine, the value of which some will dispute,
all will allow thankfully that there has been a
deep increase of spiritual life throughout the German
churches. Religion indeed had never died out; but
in the retirement of country districts<a id="noteref_859" name="noteref_859" href="#note_859"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">859</span></span></a>
the flame of
divine love still burned with unextinguished glory.
This spiritual fire has now spread, and expressed itself
in acts of earnest life. Foreign missions have been
promoted;<a id="noteref_860" name="noteref_860" href="#note_860"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">860</span></span></a> an inner or home mission established for
schools, and other religious agency;<a id="noteref_861" name="noteref_861" href="#note_861"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">861</span></span></a> and an annual
ecclesiastical diet<a id="noteref_862" name="noteref_862" href="#note_862"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">862</span></span></a>
constituted, for promoting co-operation and ecclesiastical
improvement.<a id="noteref_863" name="noteref_863" href="#note_863"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">863</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These three separate movements of the present age,
even when incorrect, have contributed something to
form a perfect theology. In the orthodox school we
see the attempt to return to the Bible, as interpreted
by the Reformation; in the mediation school, as interpreted
by the religious consciousness; in the critical
school, as interpreted by historic and critical methods.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now completed the history of the great
movement in German theology, in its two elements,
doctrinal and critical. Commencing in the first period,—in
doctrine, with the disbelief of positive religion,
replacing dogma by ethics; and in criticism, supplying
a rationalistic interpretation: in the second, it was improved
on the doctrinal side by the separation of religion
and ethics; and on the critical by a spiritual
acknowledgment of the literary characteristics and
psychological peculiarities of revelation: in the third,
by a total reconstruction of both inquiries, in a more
historic and orthodox spirit; and by the creation of a
traditionalist position in reference to each. The solution
of the problem how to reconcile faith and reason,
was attempted in the first by obliterating faith; in the
second by uniting them; in the third by separating
them. The whole movement stands remarkable, not
only as being the most singular instance in history,
where the action of free thought can be watched in its
intellectual stages, disconnected in a great degree from
emotional causes, and where the effort was exercised
by the friends of religion, not by foes; but also in the
circumstance that though referable to the influence of
similar intellectual causes as former epochs of free
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
thought, it is characterised by wholly different forms
of them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have found, on nearer inspection, as might be
anticipated in any great movement of mind, that instead
of being without purpose, and a mere heap of ruins,
there was a plan and method in it. It is a history
which offers much cause for sorrow and much for joy.
Though, as has been before remarked, a period of harrowing
doubt in the life of an individual or a nation is
a melancholy subject for consideration, yet when it is
not induced by immorality, but produced, as in this
instance, by the operation of regular causes, and is the
result of the attractiveness of new modes of inquiry
which invited application to the criticism of old truths,
to be accepted or rejected after being fully tested; there
is something to relieve the dreariness of the prospect.
And when we look to the result, there is abundant cause
for thankfulness. The agitation of free thought has
produced permanent contributions to theology. Extravagant
and shocking as some of the inquiries have
been, and injurious in a pastoral point of view, being
the utterance of men who had made shipwreck of
faith; yet in a scientific, hardly one has been wholly
lost, and few could be spared in building up the temple
of truth. In criticism, in exegesis, in doctrine, in history
alike, how much more is known than before the
movement commenced: and what light has been thrown
on that which is the very foundation problem, the just
limits of inquiry in religion. Each earnest writer has
contributed some fragment of information. At each
point error was met by an apologetic literature, rivalling
it in learning and depth; reason was conquered
by reason; and though we cannot help rejoicing that
we are able to reap the results of the experience, without
undergoing the peril of acquiring it, yet we must
acknowledge that the free and full discussion has in
the end resulted in truth: the very error has stimulated
discovery. So far from being a warning against
having confidence in the exercise of inquiry, it is an
unanswerable ground for reposing confidence in it.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Christianity is not a religion that need shrink from
investigation. Christians need not tremble at every
onset. Our religion is vital, because true; and we
may place trust in the providence of God in history,
which overrules human errors and struggles for the
permanent good of men; and, extricating the human
race from the follies of particular individuals, makes
the antagonism of free discussion the means to conserve
or to promote intellectual truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In concluding this sketch however it is proper to
make a few remarks, as hints to theological students,
in reference to the study of works of German theology.
Many such works are translated, and many
more exist in the original, which are of the highest
value,<a id="noteref_864" name="noteref_864" href="#note_864"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">864</span></span></a>
and are likely to be read, and indeed may justly
be read, by all students of large cultivation. The works
of Schleiermacher or Dorner in doctrine, of De Wette
or Ewald in criticism, of Neander or Baur in history,
are works of power as well as erudition, and contain
a treasure-house of information and suggestion for those
who know how to use them wisely, and separate the
precious from the untrue. While I have endeavoured
to present a fair history of the whole movement, I should
feel inexpressible pain if these remarks were the means
of leading unwary students to plunge unguardedly into
the study of many parts of it. Its original connexion
with the deist and ethical points of view, and the constant
sense of living in an atmosphere of controversy,
have impressed even some of the more orthodox writers
with a few peculiarities, of which a student ought to
be made aware:—for example, with a slight tendency
to a kind of Christian pantheism; a disposition to reduce
miracle to a minimum; and in the department
of Christian doctrine to consider Christ's life as more
important than his death, and to regard the atonement
as an effect of the incarnation, instead of the incarnation
being the means to the atonement.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If then a young student would avoid a chaos of belief,
and pursue a healthy study of the German writers,
there are two conditions which he ought to observe.
First, care should be taken to understand the precise
school of thought which his author represents, in order
to be able to allow for the possibility of prepossession
in him;—a remark true in reference to all literature,
but especially important in that which marks a particular
phase of controversy. Secondly, a student's
duty to English society, and to the church of which he
is a member—as also, I humbly venture to think, to his
own soul—requires that he shall first listen thoughtfully
to the vernacular theology of England. Let him
learn the chief affirmative verities of the Christian faith
before meddling with the negative side. Let him master
the grand thoughts or solid erudition of Hooker and
Pearson; of Bull, and Bingham, and Waterland; of
Butler and Paley;—the seven most valuable writers
probably in the English church;—and then reconsider
his opinions by the light of foreign literature. Each
one of us is on his intellectual as well as moral trial.
None whom duty calls need be afraid to encounter it
in God's strength, and with prayer to Christ for light
and truth and love.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It remains to mark the influence produced by German
theology on free thought in other countries. (<a href="#Note_43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the remainder of this lecture we shall carry on
the history of free thought in France, from the point
at which we left it<a id="noteref_865" name="noteref_865" href="#note_865"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">865</span></span></a> down to the present time. We shall
find that the open attacks on Christianity of former
times have ceased. There, as elsewhere, the present
century has been constructive of belief in spiritual
realities, not destructive; but the reconstruction has
in some cases been so connected with an abnegation
of revelation, that it merits some notice in a history of
free thought.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The speculative thought in France during the present
century has manifested itself chiefly under four
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
forms:<a id="noteref_866" name="noteref_866" href="#note_866"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">866</span></span></a>
(1) a sensational school, called in the early
part of the century Ideology, in the latter Positivism:
(2) a theological school, which has attempted to re-establish
a ground for reposing on dogmatic authority: (3)
a social philosophy, which has directed itself to the
study of society and labour: and (4) the eclectic philosophy,
created by German thought, which has sought to
reconstruct truth on the basis of psychology. The
chronological sequence of these schools connects itself
with the political sequence of events, and has altered
with their change. We must trace them briefly in
succession, in order to understand their religious influence
and tendencies. The first has tended directly to
atheism, the second to superstition, the two last indirectly
to pantheism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When treating of Volney in a former lecture, we
noticed the philosophy which took its rise amid the
ruins caused by the revolution. Christianity was replaced
by materialism, theism by atheism, ethics by
selfishness. The philosophy of Cabanis, of Volney, and
of De Tracy,<a id="noteref_867" name="noteref_867" href="#note_867"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">867</span></span></a> was founded so entirely on a physical
view of human nature, that it could hardly aid in any
way in instilling nobler conceptions. Society grew up
without the belief of God or immortality; but in this
very poverty the system met its downfall. The deep
yearnings of the human heart craved satisfaction. The
inextinguishable poetry of the soul yearned for the
spiritual; the devotional instincts of human nature
caught the first notes of that heavenly melody to which
they were naturally fitted to be attuned.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Literature rather than religion was the source from
which the mind of France began to imbibe the deep
and spiritual conceptions which obliterated the materialism
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the revolution. The spiritual tone of such a
writer as Chateaubriand,<a id="noteref_868" name="noteref_868" href="#note_868"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">868</span></span></a> similar to that of the Romantic
literature of Germany, awakened in France early
in the century the conceptions of a world of spirit, of
chivalrous honour, of immortal hope, of divine Providence;
and led mankind to feel that there was something
in them nobler than mere material organism;
even a spirit that yearned for the world invisible.
Chateaubriand showed,<a id="noteref_869" name="noteref_869" href="#note_869"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">869</span></span></a> in answer to the school of
Voltaire, that Christianity was not merely suited to a
rude age, but was the friend of art, of intellect, of improvement.
The church as yet possessed only little
influence. Beginning to revive under the fostering
influence of Napoleon, who saw clearly the necessity
of cultivating religion, its moral usefulness was lessened
by falling under the suspicion of opposing the public
liberty, when patronised by the government after the
re-establishment of the monarchy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The nobler conceptions just described, whether they
arose from literature or from religion, gradually penetrated
into the minds of thoughtful men; and, the
ground being thus prepared, several rival systems of
thought gradually sprang up in the fifteen years (1815-1830)
of the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. Accordingly,
when the revolution of 1830 gave freedom
to France, there was a universal activity of mind, and
free thought assumed a bolder attitude; sceptical, if
compared with the Christian standard, but embodying
deep moral convictions, if compared with the unbelief of
the last century. Among the definite schemes of philosophy,
theoretical or practical, which were proposed
for acceptance, the first which we shall notice was
Socialism.<a id="noteref_870" name="noteref_870" href="#note_870"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">870</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It originated with St. Simon.<a id="noteref_871" name="noteref_871" href="#note_871"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">871</span></span></a> The stirring events
of the great revolutionary era, together with the social
philosophy of Rousseau which preceded it, had directed
attention to the philosophy of social life. St. Simon
had lived through this period, and early in the present
century devoted himself to the study of schemes of social
reform; and shortly before his death in 1825, announced
his ideas as a new religion, a new Christianity. In the
ferment which followed the revolution of 1830, the opinions
of this dreamer became suddenly popular, and,
enlisting around them some distinguished minds, forced
themselves on the attention of the public during the two
following years; and as the political schemes which
resulted from them have left their mark on the theological
literature of the time, they merit some attention.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
St. Simonism offered itself as a system of religion,
of philosophy, and of government, which should be the
perfect cure of all the evils which existed. The source
of these evils St. Simon conceived to be the want
of social unity; individualism, selfishness, to be the
cause of virtual anarchy. He considered that philosophy
and religion had striven in vain to remedy the
evil, because they had not made the spiritual to bear
upon the material interests of mankind. This, which
was the true remedy, he proposed to discover historically.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Borrowing the thought of the German philosophers,
he sought it in the elements which are to operate on human
nature in the progress of its development. The mode
of development by which society advances to perfection
he found in a supposed law, that society shows two
great epochs, which in long cycles alternate,—the organic
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and the critical; the former, where the individual
is obedient to the purpose of the society; the second,
where the individual rises against it. He found two
instances of them in the ancient and modern world
respectively, viz. in the ancient pagan period and its
disruption; and again in the Catholic centralization
of the middle ages, and the disorganization which succeeded
from the time of the Reformation to the French
revolution. He considered himself to be raised up to
announce the dawn of the third organic period, the
world's millennium, a new epoch, and a new religion.
It was to be the realisation of the fraternity, which the
great moral teachers of the world had promised and
prepared. This religion consisted in raising the industrial
classes, by a scheme which it is irrelevant to our
purpose to explain.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Contemporaneously with this socialist system was
that of Fourier,<a id="noteref_872" name="noteref_872" href="#note_872"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">872</span></span></a>
which, though presented more as a
scheme of social amelioration, and less as a religion,
implied the same abnegation of Christianity. Starting
from an avowedly pantheistic view of philosophy, the
author of it gradually passed through the sciences, until
he arrived at man, and reached the study of human
history and constitutions. Exaggerating the good elements
of human nature, and ignoring the necessity for
any other than a social power to amend the heart, he
traced the source of evil to social competition, and proposed
to rearrange society on the principle of substituting
co-partnership for competition.<a id="noteref_873" name="noteref_873" href="#note_873"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">873</span></span></a> The two ideas
accordingly which these speculations introduced were;—first,
that European society was approaching a crisis,
the peculiarity of which, as distinct from former ones,
would be, that it would be an industrial revolution;
and the industrial mind would obtain the mastery of
the administration; and, secondly, that the accompaniment
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
would be a new organization of industry on the
principle of co-operation. We cannot track these schools
into their ramifications<a id="noteref_874" name="noteref_874" href="#note_874"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">874</span></span></a> and their indirect expression
in lighter literature,<a id="noteref_875" name="noteref_875" href="#note_875"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">875</span></span></a> nor notice the levelling system
of communism or co-operative socialism which completed
the cycle;<a id="noteref_876" name="noteref_876" href="#note_876"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">876</span></span></a>
but it will be remembered, that
when the revolution of 1848 ensued, the schemes for
organization of labour were one of its peculiarities;
the social republic of those who regarded the democracy
as a means, mixed with the political republicans,
who thought it to be an end.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be noticed that the schemes of these socialist
philosophers, though analogous as political theories, in
proposing organization of labour and consequent monopoly,
to the English socialism of Owen before named,
are unlike it in philosophical origin and religious tendency.
In philosophical origin his system rests on
sensation, theirs on feeling; his degrades human nature,
theirs elevates it. His denounces priestcraft as imposture,
and religion as obsolete; theirs, though identifying
religion and industry, regards religion as the highest
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
expression of humanity, the great goal to which nature
is developing: his leads to deism or atheism, theirs to
pantheism. Yet theirs is not less hurtful, for they reject
with contempt the dogmatic teaching of revelation,
though they appropriate the Christian virtues; like
the German philosophy they resolve the Deity into a
law, according to which the universe evolves.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One of the minds however which was trained in the
school of St. Simon, viz. Comte,<a id="noteref_877" name="noteref_877" href="#note_877"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">877</span></span></a> has developed a system
known by the name of Positivism, which in its
effects is not merely thus negative, but amounts to positive
and dogmatic unbelief. He showed traces of the
school from which he sprang, both in considering politics
to be the highest science, in regarding humanity
as a progress, and in adducing individualism as the
sole cause of social evil and anarchy. He commenced
similarly by taking an estimate of the present state of
knowledge, and seizing the law which presides over the
progress of knowledge.<a id="noteref_878" name="noteref_878" href="#note_878"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">878</span></span></a> This law he stated as consisting
of three stages, through which each science passes
as it grows to perfection; the first, the theological or
imaginative stage, wherein the mind inquires into final
causes, and refers phenomena to special providence;
the second, the metaphysical, wherein the idea of supernatural
or personal causes being discarded, it seeks for
abstract essences; the third, the positive, wherein it
rests content with generalized facts, and does not ask
for causes.<a id="noteref_879" name="noteref_879" href="#note_879"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">879</span></span></a> The first in its religious phase is theistic;
the second pantheistic; the third atheistic. The perfection
of science consists in reaching the third stage,
wherein the knowledge is strictly generalized from
sensation. Having thus seized the law which presides
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
over intellectual development, and settled the limits of
the human reason to be confined to phenomena, agreeing
in this respect with the ideologists, and opposed to
Cousin, he next offered a classification of the sciences,
commencing with the simplest, and showing that, as
the mind passes from the simple to the complex, the
methods of investigation multiply; accompanying his
account by a delineation of the steps in each case by
which science attains perfection; and thus gradually
ascending to the science of man<a id="noteref_880" name="noteref_880" href="#note_880"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">880</span></span></a> and society, to which
the preliminary investigation had been the preface,
designed to prepare the way for showing how the science
of society may be similarly brought into the positive
stage.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such is the scheme of Comte. The very breadth
of it possesses an attraction; and if viewed merely as
a logic of the sciences, it may justly command attention.
Many of the analyses which he supplies of the
methods and history of science are masterly; and his
generalisations, even when hasty, are fertile in suggestion.
He was a most original and powerful thinker;
scientific rather than artistic. But his philosophy,
viewed as a whole, is a grand system of materialism
which is silent about God, spirit, personal immortality;
diametrically opposed to Christianity, in that it
makes man's social duty higher than his individual,
science the only revelation, demonstration the only
authority, nature's laws the only providence, and obedience
to them the only piety; and destroys Christianity
by destroying the possibility of its proof. In later life
this distinguished man, feeling the unutterable yearnings
of the religious sentiment, and the necessity that his
philosophy should afford satisfaction to them, invented
the system of religion developed in his catechism;<a id="noteref_881" name="noteref_881" href="#note_881"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">881</span></span></a> in
which, in a manner analogous to that employed by
Feuerbach or St. Simon, he regarded the collective
humanity as the true God, the proper object of worship
and reverence; and marked out a church and a cult,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the caricature of the Catholic church, in which the
world's heroes should receive canonization. The probability
of mental derangement palliates the absurdity
of this system in the originator, but throws the burden
of responsibility from the master upon those who are
insane enough to adopt it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have traced two of the schools which flourished
in the second quarter of this century. Another remains,
which has incurred from opponents the charge of pantheism,
viz. the idealist school, commonly called the
Eclectic; (<a href="#Note_44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>) which was especially dominant in France,
and in the university of Paris, during the rule of the
Orleans dynasty. Viewed as a philosophy it is a very
noble one. Implying, as its name denotes, an attempt
to reap the harvest of the industry of all preceding
schools of philosophy, it was the chief means of restoring
intellectual and spiritual belief to France, and of
creating the great movement of historical study which
marks that period of French literature. Commencing
with a reaction against the materialist and sensationalist
school, it sought, by imitating the mode by which
Reid had refuted the philosophical scepticism of Hume,
to find a method for restoring belief in spiritual realities;
and afterwards, when its chief leader Cousin<a id="noteref_882" name="noteref_882" href="#note_882"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">882</span></span></a>
had been exiled to Germany, he brought back an acquaintance
with the successive speculative schools which
existed there.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The results of the preceding efforts are expressed in
him. His system consisted in a psychological analysis
of the human consciousness, which led him to believe,
that spiritual truth is revealed to the reason, or intuitional
and impersonal power, apart from the limitations
of sense, or of the ordinary critical faculties; that the
true, the beautiful, and the good, are perceived by it
in their absolute, unlimited essence; and that the revelation
of the infinite is the basis of all intellectual truth,
of all moral obligation, and offers the clue to the criticism
of religion, the solution of the problems of history,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and the construction of a philosophy of the universe.
Its chief effect on literature, the permanent contribution
which it has made to human improvement, is to encourage
the historic study of every branch of phenomena,
and especially to exemplify it in the history of thought.
Asserting that human society is a gradual progress of
development and of improvement, it regards every age as
manifesting some phase of truth, or of error, and contributing
its portion of knowledge to the student. Humanity
is regarded as a divine revelation: its social and
intellectual changes as manifestations of the Eternal.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
From this account, brief though it be, the relation
will be evident which such a philosophy and the historic
method of eclectic discovery would have towards
religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As a system of psychology it is potent, as a means
of reasserting the dignity of human nature against the
material and selfish ethics of a preceding age, and of
reconstructing the basis of ethics and natural religion:
but as an ontology, it is in danger of unconscious pantheism;
of identifying God with the universe, and regarding
Him merely as a name to describe a process,
instead of a person. As a philosophy of humanity, it
identifies the natural revelation in history with the supernatural;
finds in the psychological faculty of intuition,
not merely the basis for, but the explanation of, the phenomenon
of inspiration;<a id="noteref_883" name="noteref_883" href="#note_883"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">883</span></span></a> and in its view of religion is
essentially antidogmatic, regarding religion as imperfect
and progressive; the idea universal, the symbol
transient; and allows the psychological truthfulness
of all creeds; and regards Christianity as only the most
refined species of them, as one of the transient forms
that the religious sentiment has adopted, and as destined
to give place to philosophy; beneficial to humanity,
but not constituting it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This philosophy therefore, though containing so
many noble elements, ended in the view which we
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
have already seen to exist in the Gnostic and German
rationalism, that Christianity was not to be final, the
one solitary and final religious utterance of God to
man.<a id="noteref_884" name="noteref_884" href="#note_884"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">884</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The three schools illustrate the principal tendencies
in which unbelief manifested itself in France previous
to the establishment of the empire;<a id="noteref_885" name="noteref_885" href="#note_885"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">885</span></span></a> and show clearly
the intimate relation of particular kinds of sceptical
views to particular systems of metaphysical philosophy.<a id="noteref_886" name="noteref_886" href="#note_886"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">886</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the latter years of Napoleon I. the struggle
first commenced between the Voltairian party and the
church; a middle course being taken by the eclectics.
The constitutional tendency of this last school gave
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
them the moral victory during the restoration, over
the democratic tendency of the one and the reactionist
of the other. After the revolution of 1830, the socialist
struggle was superadded; which, when mixed with the
old ideology, produced Positivism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The catholic church had sought to restore faith in
Christianity, partly by the establishment of
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conférences</span></span>,<a id="noteref_887" name="noteref_887" href="#note_887"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">887</span></span></a>
lectures to reply to the systems now described;
and partly by trying to satisfy the reason by establishing
a rival philosophy, and stating philosophically the
grounds of faith. (<a href="#Note_45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>) This philosophy, though noble
in its aim, and taught by many pious minds, is visionary.
It was based on the principle first evolved by
Huet; the weakness of human reason, and the supposed
necessity of submission to authority. In De
Maistre, its founder, who carried out in philosophy
what Chateaubriand did in literature, it was the suggestion
of an abject submission to the papacy, as the
living authority on earth; accompanied by a sceptical
disbelief of the value of inductive science. It has expressed
itself in different forms; but in all it has been
an attempt to find a solution for difficulties by means
of religion instead of philosophy; an attempt analogous
to that in other lands, not merely to restrain the human
reason in matters of religion, but to inculcate distrust
of it; falling into the very error which Plato made his
master describe, of those who, baffled in the search for
truth, blame not their own unskilfulness, but reason
itself; and pass the rest of their lives in contempt of
it; and thus are deprived of the knowledge that they
seek.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of thought in France, thus studied, exhibits
a general resemblance to that of Germany in its
forms and tendency. In both alike there has been a
contest, between the school which seeks to absorb
Christianity in philosophy, and that which extinguishes
philosophy by Christianity. There is an absence indeed
in France of the spiritual return to a living Christian
faith, the union of science and piety, which is observable
in the latter country. But within the sphere of
natural religion, in reference to the belief in a spiritual
world, an advance is perceptible, if the present condition
of France be measured against that which was observable
at the period when the philosophic unbelief
of the last century predominated.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Since the re-establishment of the empire, some of
the forms of philosophy which have been described
have almost disappeared. The socialist philosophy
has become extinct as a direct movement; the eclectic
school has gradually passed from philosophy to literature;
and the chief tendencies, so far as mere materialism
does not, as in most reactions, extinguish thought,
are toward a modification of eclecticism on the one
hand, and to ultramontism on the other.<a id="noteref_888" name="noteref_888" href="#note_888"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">888</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The difference of this new eclecticism from the
former kind seen in Cousin, lies in the fact that while
that was chiefly derived from Schelling's philosophy,
this is an offshoot from Hegel. The one considered
that the mind, by its intuitions, can find absolute truth,
and by the light of these absolute ideas can criticise
history, and prejudge the end toward which society is
moving. This denies the possibility of attaining absolute
truth. All being is a state of flux: all knowledge
is relative to its age. Philosophy expires in historical
criticism; in the history of the soul of man under its
various manifestations. It rests in what is; it judges
only from fact. The absolute is displaced by the relative;
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
being by becoming.<a id="noteref_889" name="noteref_889" href="#note_889"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">889</span></span></a>
Though not positivism in
its aspects, this system is so in its scientific results.<a id="noteref_890" name="noteref_890" href="#note_890"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">890</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The unbelief is critical, not aggressive. The grand
idea of an historical progress, of tracing especially the
historic growth of ideas, of culture, of the great unfolding
of humanity, presides over religious speculations,
and lends its fascinating power and its danger. The
necessity is recognised for solving the nature of the
religious consciousness, and satisfying its wants; but
the remedy is sought in other means than in Christianity.
While this is the condition of the philosophy
just described, positivism, so far as it prevails, is wholly
antichristian, and regards religion as the product of an
unscientific age, for which a belief in nature's laws and
science is a sufficient substitute. Christianity, though
the ripest of religious forms, is only symbolical of a
higher truth towards which humanity is tending.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We may select the name of a writer who stands
pre-eminent in critical investigations connected with
religion, as the best representative of the tone assumed
in reference to the Christian faith by the most highly
educated younger spirits of the French nation, of whose
literature he is one of the brightest living ornaments,—Ernest
Renan.<a id="noteref_891" name="noteref_891" href="#note_891"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">891</span></span></a>
Exhibiting a mind of the rarest delicacy,
and bearing traces of the collective cultivation
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which arises from detailed acquaintance with most
varied branches of human culture, he has brought his
vast acquaintance with the Semitic tongues to bear on
the historical criticism of portions of the Hebrew literature;
and has sketched with the hand of a master the
great passages in the history of religion,—the symbolism
of mythology; the monotheistic systems, Jewish,
Christian, and Mahometan; the four chief phases of
Christianity, the Catholic, the Protestant, the Socinian,
the rationalist;<a id="noteref_892" name="noteref_892" href="#note_892"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">892</span></span></a>
and has speculated on the future religious
tendencies of the age, in essays, which those
who feel most deeply pained with the views presented
must acknowledge to be marked by rare power and
freshness. Possessing a delicate appreciation of the
past, and a cheerful confidence in the future; loving
the advance of the knowledge of physical nature, yet
protesting against the tendency to materialism; dreading
the democracy of opinion, which threatens to suppress
independence of inquiry by a power analogous to
centralization in the state; the artist no less than the
critic, imaginative as well as reflective, he may be
studied as in all respects the contrast to the French
philosopher of the last century, and as the type of the
cultivated minds on whom Christianity has made its
impression. His view of philosophy is the one recently
explained: his view of religion and of Christianity, so
far as we can gather it indirectly from his criticisms,
seems to mark a belief in the religious sentiment as a
subjective feeling, rather than in the reality of its external
object of worship. Its objective side seems to
him to be a symbolism, and Christian dogma to be an
obsolete form of religious philosophy; inspiration a
form of natural consciousness; and even its highest
expression to be but the poetry, the art, of the imaginative
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
faculties. There is audible at times an undertone
of despondency, as the sigh of one who has searched
for truth and not found it;<a id="noteref_893" name="noteref_893" href="#note_893"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">893</span></span></a>
and who, in despair of
discovering it on the intellectual side, has taken refuge
in the moral. Religion, vain speculatively, is resolved
by him into ethics. Faith expires in conscience; dogma
in morality. And this interesting writer closes his speculations
with the regret, that he feels himself isolated
from those Christian saints whose characters he regards
as the purest in the world.<a id="noteref_894" name="noteref_894" href="#note_894"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">894</span></span></a> Such may probably be
regarded as the type of thought of the most educated
thinkers of France; a feeling of partial belief, partial
doubt; a keen appreciation of the beauty of the character
of the great Founder of Christianity, and of the
type of Christian morality, yet mixed with an entire
distrust in the reality of all doctrines respecting the
object of faith, from belief in which alone, as we contend,
this morality is the product.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Doubts always suggest replies; and there are not
wanting minds in the Protestant church of France (<a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>)
that fully appreciate the doubts of educated minds such
as these, and try to meet them by a more persuasive
method than that by which the Catholic school sought
to meet the doubters of the earlier part of the century.
By the improper concessions however which they have
made to save the vital part of religion, they have themselves
incurred the charge of sharing the rationalism of
the country with whose literature they are acquainted.
Assuming a position somewhat like Schleiermacher's,
they are careful to distinguish between critical theology
and doctrinal, and endeavour to propagate the latter
rather than the former. Yet in the branch of doctrinal
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
theology, it must be feared that they have either conceded
some of the mysteries of Christianity as obsolete,
or at least have improperly concealed them as likely
to repel doubters. Though we must indeed be careful
wisely to divide the word of life, and not to quench
the quivering flame of faith by creating an unnecessary
repugnance; yet, if Christianity be a supernatural revelation
from God, our plain course is to present the truth
as it is in Jesus, unmutilated in the mystery of its difficulties,
and leave the result with God.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is one feature however, in which these writers
are a pattern worthy of imitation by all Christian apologists.
They preach to doubters not Christian dogmas,
but Christ. If the doubters can be brought to appreciate
Christ; to meditate on his life; to think of him
as one who tasted of human suffering, and knew the
poignancy of human temptation; and whose heart of
tender pity was ever open to the petition of the needy;
they will first admire, then believe, then trust: and
when they have learned to love him as a Man of pity,
it is to be hoped that they may be brought, by the
drawings of the Holy Spirit, to worship and adore him
as a God of love. Beginning, not with history, but
with feeling; starting with a religion based on the intuitive
consciousness of needing Divine help; we may
hope to prepare them for receiving the historic testimony
which tells of the Divine plan for human redemption:
leading them from the sense of sin to Him who
saves from sin; from the inward to the outward; from
Christ to Christianity; from Christian doctrine to the
perfectness of Christian faith.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a>
<a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a>
<a name="Lecture_VIII" id="Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VIII. Free Thought in England in the Present Century;
Summary of the Course of Lectures;
Inferences in Reference to Present Dangers and Duties.</span></h1>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Eccles.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> xii, 13.
</span></p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep
his commandments; for this is the whole duty of man.</span></span>
</p>
</div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the last lecture we brought the history of unbelief
on the continent down to the present time. In this,
the concluding one of the series, we shall complete the
history of it in our own country or language during this
century; and afterwards deduce the moral of our whole
historical sketch, and suggest practical inferences.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the account of unbelief in England, given in a
previous lecture,<a id="noteref_895" name="noteref_895" href="#note_895"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">895</span></span></a>
we hardly entered upon the present
century, except so far as to observe the influence of the
philosophy of the last on works of literature, such as
those of Shelley; or on political speculations, such as
those of Owen. Yet even here we were already made
to feel the presence of the new influences, which have
completely altered the tone of unbelief. Even Shelley's
later works, though marked by the outbursts of bitter
passion against religion, contain more of the spiritual perception
which is the characteristic of present thought:<a id="noteref_896" name="noteref_896" href="#note_896"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">896</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and the oblivion into which Owen's system soon fell,
save as it has been resuscitated in moments of political
disaffection, together with its failure to leave a permanent
impression, like the socialist systems of France,
arose from the circumstance that the one-sided survey
of man's nature, on which it was based, could not deceive
an age which was characterised by an increasing
depth in its moral perceptions.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The unbelief of the present day differs from that
of the last century in tone and character; and in many
respects shares the traits already noticed in the modern
intellectualism of Germany, and the eclecticism of
France. It is not disgraced by ribaldry; hardly at
all by political agitation against the religion which it
disbelieves: it is marked by a show of fairness, and
professes a wish not to ignore facts, nor to leave them
unexplained. Conceding the existence of spiritual and
religious elements in human nature, it admits that their
subjective existence as facts of consciousness, no less
than their objective expression in the history of religion,
demands explanation, and cannot be hastily set
aside, as was thought in the last century in France, by
the vulgar theory that the one is factitious, and the
other the result of priestly contrivance. The writers
are men whose characters and lives forbid the idea that
their unbelief is intended as an excuse for licentiousness.
Denying revealed religion, they cling the more tenaciously
to the moral instincts: their tone is one of
earnestness; their inquiries are marked by a profound
conviction of the possibility of finding truth: not content
with destroying, their aim is to reconstruct. Their
opinions are variously manifested. Some of them appear
in treatises of philosophy; others insinuate themselves
indirectly in literature: some of them relate to
Christian doctrines; others to the criticism of scripture
documents: but in all cases their authors either leave
a residuum which they profess will satisfy the longings
of human nature, or confess with deep pain that their
conclusions are in direct conflict with human aspirations;
and, instead of revelling in the ruin which they
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
have made, deplore with a tone of sadness the impossibility
of solving the great enigma.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is clear that writers like these offer a wholly different
appearance from those of the last century. The
deeper appreciation manifested by them of the systems
which they disbelieve, and the more delicate learning
of which they are able to avail themselves, constitute
features formerly lacking in the works of even the most
serious-minded deists,<a id="noteref_897" name="noteref_897" href="#note_897"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">897</span></span></a>
and require a difference in the
spirit, if not in the mode, in which Christians must seek
to refute them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The solution of this remarkable phenomenon is to
be found in the universal change which has passed over
every department of mental activity in England in the
present century. The peculiar feature of it may be
described by the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">spirituality</span></span>, if that word be used
to imply, in contrast to the utilitarian and materialist
tendencies of the last century, the consciousness in ourselves,
and appreciation in others, of the operation of
the human spirit, its rights, its powers, and its effects.
This conviction stimulates in one the vivid consciousness
of duty and moral earnestness; in another it hallows
human labour, and throws a blessedness around
the struggles of industry; in another it kindles the inspiration
of art, breaking up conventionalities of style,
or expresses itself in poetry, in soliloquies on the inner
feelings or in meditations on life, as a set of problems
to be explained by the heart. Elsewhere it lifts the
man of science above the grovelling idea that discoveries
must be sought solely for the purpose of utility.
Again, transferring its perception of the operation of
spirit to the world of nature, it not unfrequently attributes
a soul thereto, and induces a subtle pantheism.
Sometimes too by a singular reaction it has a tendency,
by the moral earnestness which it stimulates, to depress
intellectual speculation, and to wear the appearance of
fostering the utilitarianism which it combats.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such is the central principle which characterises
our literature, and which, through the diffusion of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
reading, has moulded the public judgment, and, operating
in every department of educated thought, has
even altered the form in which unbelief expresses itself.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Probably the successive steps of the growth of this
subjective tendency in literature might admit of easy
statement. The meditative school of poetry, which
flourished early in the century<a id="noteref_898" name="noteref_898" href="#note_898"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">898</span></span></a> among a few refined
minds at the English lakes; which loved to ponder
mystically on nature or on the spiritual world, or to
catch the thought excited in the mind by nature, and
follow the series of thoughts which the law of mental
association suggested,<a id="noteref_899" name="noteref_899" href="#note_899"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">899</span></span></a>
was one means of creating a
subjective and spiritual taste among the youth of the
generation which succeeded.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Another cause was found in the philosophy which
arose. The years following the general declaration of
peace, while the public attention was directed to the
political reforms which were consummated in the Reform
act, were marked by the thorough investigation
of the first principles of every branch of knowledge.
Two minds of that period have, more than any other,
affected the succeeding generation; the one a utilitarian
philosopher, the other an intuitional.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Both alike carried out the system which Descartes
and Bacon had inaugurated, of finding the standard of
truth in the analysis of the powers of the human understanding.
But Bentham criticised to destroy the past;
Coleridge to rebuild it. The one asked, Is a doctrine
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
true? The other asked, what men had meant by it
who had thought it so?<a id="noteref_900" name="noteref_900" href="#note_900"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">900</span></span></a> The one overlooked the truth
previously known; the other too boldly strove to rebuild
it from his own consciousness, after surrendering
the old proofs of it. The one, with the practical spirit
of the Englishman, looked upon an opposing opinion
only as an object suited for attack; the other, with a
spirit caught from Germany, felt that there was some
truth everywhere latent. But both were reformers;
both stimulated the revolt against the cold spirit of the
last century; both contributed to create, the one indirectly,
the other intentionally, a subjective spirit by
their psychological analysis.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Even movements which at first sight seem most
alien to this spirit in character, have really been affected
unconsciously by it.<a id="noteref_901" name="noteref_901" href="#note_901"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">901</span></span></a>
The ecclesiastical reaction which
sprang up about a quarter of a century ago, though
seemingly most objective in its nature, witnessed not
less than the very opposite, or rationalistic tendency,
to the presence of this influence. For both alike were
founded on the idea that religion lacked a philosophical
groundwork: both sought a new ground of faith different
from that of the last century; the one in those utterances
of consciousness which created a reverence for
historic tradition; the other in those intuitions which
were supposed to rise above scripture and tradition,
and to form the basis and measure of both.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The causes just named in literature and philosophy
respectively, are some of those which have contributed
to create or to foster the change in the character of the
literature, and in the spirit of the age, which has produced
the alteration of tone which exists in the modern
sceptical literature.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In passing from these remarks on the peculiarly
subjective tone of modern unbelief, and the literary influences
which have produced the general change in
the public taste, of which it is only one example, to an
enumeration of the authors who have given expression
to doubt, and of the specific forms of doubt now existing,
we encounter a difficulty of classification.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The most obvious arrangement would be to place
the writers in groups, according as they manifest a
tendency toward atheism, pantheism, deism, or rationalism,<a id="noteref_902" name="noteref_902" href="#note_902"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">902</span></span></a>
respectively; but the mode which more nearly
accords with our general purpose would be to adopt a
philosophical rather than a theological classification,
and arrange them according to the variety in the tests
of truth employed by them, and the sources from which
their arguments start, rather than the conclusions at
which they arrive. Perhaps the advantage of both
plans will be in a great degree combined, if we classify
them according to the branch of science, physical,
mental, or critical, from which the doubts take their
rise.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We shall commence with those writers who make
sensation to be the last appeal in belief, or whose doubts
arise either from the methods or the results of physical
science. This class of opinions varies from positive disbelief
of the supernatural, generated by the fixed belief
in the stability of nature and disbelief of miraculous
interference, to merely isolated objections suggested by
the conflict between the discoveries of natural science
and the statements of holy scripture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The name which most fitly describes the extreme
form of unbelief is Positivism.<a id="noteref_903" name="noteref_903" href="#note_903"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">903</span></span></a> This system of philosophy,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
already stated to have been invented by Comte,
is silent about the existence of a Deity. It inculcates
the belief in general laws, and acknowledges the order
in Nature, which we are accustomed to regard as the
result of mind; but declines to argue to the existence
of a designing mind, where the evidence cannot be verified
by proof referable to sensation. Nature's laws are
in its view the only Providence; obedience to them the
only piety. A few minds may be found, which not
only accept the positive philosophy, but even receive
the religion taught in the positivist catechism.<a id="noteref_904" name="noteref_904" href="#note_904"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">904</span></span></a> Unable
to satisfy the longings of their heart by this system of
Cosmism, they receive the extravagant idea of the worship
of humanity, which Comte invented in his later
days.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a creed cannot hold the masses. But Positivism
in another shape, called Secularism,<a id="noteref_905" name="noteref_905" href="#note_905"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">905</span></span></a> is actively
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
propagated among the lower orders. Replacing the
sensuous philosophy and political antipathies of Owen,
it is taught, unconnected with the political agitation
which marked his views, as a philosophy of life, and
a substitute for religion. It asserts three great principles:—first,
that nature is the only subject of knowledge;
the existence of a personal God being regarded
as uncertain: secondly, that science is the only Providence:
and thirdly, that the great business of man is,
as the name, secularism, implies, to attend to the affairs
of the present world, which is certain, rather than of
a future, which is uncertain. Not content however
with this negative position, the writers of this class,
as was to be expected, have directed positive attacks
against the special doctrines of Christianity, and regard
the Bible to be the enemy of progress.<a id="noteref_906" name="noteref_906" href="#note_906"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">906</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is impossible to estimate the extent to which these
views are diffused. The statistics of the sale of secularist
tracts would doubtless give an exaggerated idea
of it. The high standard of morality advocated in them,
so likely to attract rather than repel, the clear writing,
and the agreement of the views with the experience
afforded by the daily life of working men, give them
power among the lower orders. The absorbing character
of labour has a tendency, especially in an advanced
state of civilization, to depress the sense of the supernatural
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in man, and fix his thoughts on the present
world: and it is generally the sense of trouble alone
which can lift men out of themselves, and recall to their
remembrance the presence of a God on whom the sorrowing
heart may lean for help.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Opinions derived from positivism, or at least from
physical science, enter into other spheres of thought
than those just named; and both affect writers who
hardly touch upon the subject of religion; and create
difficulties in the minds of Christians themselves, either
in reference to prime doctrines of religion, or the particular
teaching on physical questions implied in the
sacred books.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The diffusion of the fundamental conception of the
perpetuity of nature's laws, has a tendency to create
in literature a mode of viewing the world alien to the
providential view of the divine government implied in
religion. The application of statistics in social philosophy
for the discovery of the general laws which regulate
society and create civilization, not unfrequently
leaves an impression that man as well as matter depends
upon fixed laws; which is irreconcileable with
belief in human freedom or in divine interference, and
sometimes causes religion to be regarded as a conservative
force, which in its nature is alien to civilization.<a id="noteref_907" name="noteref_907" href="#note_907"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">907</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Nor is the danger confined to the various branches
of secular literature: the views of even religious men
are not unfrequently modified by it, or painful doubts
are created where the head contradicts the heart. In
proportion as phenomena are shown not to depend on
chance, the misgiving is felt as to the reality of special
providence and the value of prayer, in reference to temporal
affairs. The sphere for confiding petitions is felt
to be narrowed; and miracles, instead of becoming an
evidence for religion, become a difficulty. Even where
fundamental difficulties, such as these, do not sap the
religious life, the belief that the inspiration of the sacred
books guarantees the truth of the views of physical
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
science, the cosmogony, physiology, ethnology, and
chronology, contained therein, creates a further body
of difficulties,<a id="noteref_908" name="noteref_908" href="#note_908"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">908</span></span></a>
less fundamental but more painful, because
founded on the apparent want of harmony of
scripture with the progressive discoveries of natural
science.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While these are the species of temptations to unbelief
which appertain to one source of opinions, viz.
that which relies upon sensation as the ultimate test
of truth; doubts similar in character, though different
in cause, manifest themselves in that portion of our
literature which appeals for its proof to the faculty of
insight, and which believes in mental sources of information
which are independent of sensation. If the one
tends towards atheism, or to a deism in which the world
is viewed as a machine; the other tends towards pantheism
or to naturalism, wherein no opportunity for interposition
by miraculous revelation is retained, but the
inner consciousness of man is regarded as able to create
a religion. The former class of views belongs to minds
accustomed to experimental science; this to those which
are conversant with spiritual or æsthetic subjects: the
former expresses itself in the region of science, and
tempts men of thought; the latter expresses itself
rather in the region of literature, and tempts men of
sentiment.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One writer, a prince in the region of letters,<a id="noteref_909" name="noteref_909" href="#note_909"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">909</span></span></a> may
be adduced, many of whose works imply, directly or
indirectly, a mode of viewing the world and society
contrary to that which is taught in Christianity. He
is the highest type of the antagonist position which literature
now assumes in reference to the Christian faith,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and which finds some parallel in the contest which occurred
in Julian's time, and at the Renaissance.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Though possessing too much originality to borrow
consciously from the literature of Germany, yet it is
easy to discover that the fire of his imagination has been
kindled in contact with the marvellous insight of Goethe,
the pathos of Jean Paul, and the faith in eternal truth
which marked Jacobi. Their rival rather than disciple,
he hails the philosophy of his own country as a first approximation
to truth; but regards the German mind
as having seen more deeply than any other of modern
times into the mysteries of existence. Though not formal
enough to throw his philosophy into a system, he has
left an impress on the English literature of this century.
In every branch of literature which he has surveyed,
he has made it his mission to expose the hollow formalism,
the cold materialism, which he considers that utilitarian
philosophy had produced. <span class="tei tei-q">“Self in the sense
of selfishness, and God as the artificial property of a
party;”</span> these have been said to be the two faults which
he sees in politics, in science, in law, in literature, in
religion: and, to oppose this inrush of objective knowledge;
to call man to a recognition of his better self, to
the unaltering spiritual laws stamped in the structure
of the human consciousness, and to God as the eternal,
infinite Divinity, whose presence fills creation; this is
the mission which he has striven to effect.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Yet can there be no doubt that the victory of this
great truth is won at the sacrifice of others; and that
in the general tone of his writings, and above all in his
memoir of the doubter Sterling,<a id="noteref_910" name="noteref_910" href="#note_910"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">910</span></span></a> he occupies a position
opposed to the particular forms of religious truth
taught by Christianity, and one which a philosopher
of tastes cognate to his own, Coleridge, forming himself
under the psychological rather than the literary
influence of German thought, strove to retain. In elevating
the doctrine of the revelation in the soul, he regards
as unnecessary the revelation in the book:<a id="noteref_911" name="noteref_911" href="#note_911"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">911</span></span></a> his
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
teaching tends to inculcate a worship of earnestness,
and to ignore all consideration of the object toward
which the earnestness is directed. In asserting the
reality of spiritual laws in the soul, he has implied the
veracity of all religions, caring only for the subjective zeal of the
believer, not for the objects of his belief.<a id="noteref_912" name="noteref_912" href="#note_912"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">912</span></span></a>
In opposing the mechanical view of the universe, he is
so overwhelmed with the mystery which belongs to it,
that the soul recoils in the hopelessness of speculation,
to rest content with work rather than belief. And his
readers, attracted by his power of satire and depth of
insight, expressed in a style full of force by reason of
its peculiarity, return to their daily life after imbibing
his teaching, excited to greater earnestness and faithfulness,
but filled, it is to be feared, with a contempt
for objective systems, for dogmatic truth, and for the
Christian creed.<a id="noteref_913" name="noteref_913" href="#note_913"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">913</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the master the strong and deep sense of personality
and of freedom obliterates the tendency to absorb
human individuality in the overpowering mystery of
the universe; but this tendency is developed in the
early works of an American writer,<a id="noteref_914" name="noteref_914" href="#note_914"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">914</span></span></a> who has drawn
from some of the same sources as the author just described,
but who also owes much directly to him. In
him philosophy seems to degenerate into pantheism.
Nature is a vast whole, in which we are parts, vibrations
of a chord, radiations of the eternal light.<a id="noteref_915" name="noteref_915" href="#note_915"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">915</span></span></a> Starting
from a unitarian point of view, Christianity appears
to be resolved into natural religion; and the historic
view of Christianity, and the habit of considering the
revelation as something long ago given, are regarded
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
as being at the bottom of the decay of religion. In his
admiration of genius, he seems to imply an idolatry of
mere intellect; and developes that tendency which has
been always observable in pantheism to unite the worlds
of good and evil, and teach that evil is <span class="tei tei-q">“good in the
making.”</span> The universe is God; evil and good are
equally essential parts of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This peculiar tendency to narrow the barrier between
the two worlds is observable, not merely in
direct admissions of writers like the one just adduced,
but lurks as a peculiar danger in the modern literature
of fiction. The danger in fiction, as in all art, can arise
only from the character of the subject portrayed, or the
manner employed in producing the copy. In the present
day the evil arises specially from the latter cause.
The subjective spirit, causing a perception of the duty
of exactness, has contributed to foster a realistic taste
in art, which requires such minuteness of treatment,
that a work of fiction so constructed, while preserving
the freshness of nature, may violate moral perspective,
and leave the impression that good and evil are inseparably
intermixed in each character or in nature itself.
The very photographic exactness of the modern novel
copies the features without selection or discrimination,
and presents each moral character as a mixed one, and
makes evil pass into good, and good into evil. Though
it is quite true that no character is unmixed, yet it ought
not to be forgotten that the evil is present as a disease,
the good as the normal state. If approached from the
philosophical side, the presence of evil as well as its origin
is inexplicable, save by the pantheistic hypothesis;
if approached however from the moral, our own instincts
tell us that it is diametrically opposed to good; and it
is important to be on our guard against the influence
of modern literature, which in any way implies the contrary.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have hitherto exhibited the systems in the present
day, which by their influence, direct or indirect, assume
a position antagonistic to Christianity. Commencing
with positivism, we explained the doubts
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which, being built on a sensationalist basis, reject the
possibility of revelation; or, on an ideal, reject its necessity.
We now proceed to describe the works written
as direct attacks upon Christianity, founded indeed
on an idealist basis, but in which the philosophy is in
the main subordinate to the critical investigation.
Marked by the improved tone which was before described,
and enriched with the fruits of the researches
of German theologians, they form at once the books
which are likely to meet us in daily life; and equal
those of past generations in subtlety and danger. We
shall commence with those which are most openly infidel,
and gradually pass onward to those which shade
off almost into unitarianism, until we reach the critical
difficulties which in the writings of avowedly Christian
professors have given ground for the charge of rationalism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first writer to be named<a id="noteref_916" name="noteref_916" href="#note_916"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">916</span></span></a>
is one who in two
works, the one <span class="tei tei-q">“a Comparison of the Intellectual Progress
of Hebrews and Greeks in their religious development,”</span>
the other on <span class="tei tei-q">“the Origin of Christianity,”</span> has
made a daring attempt, not to refute Christianity
directly, but to grapple with the historic problem of the
origin of revealed religions; and endeavoured to explain
them by regular historic and psychical considerations.
In making this attempt he has availed himself
of the modern investigations into mythology, and the
relation which it bears at once to the soul, to philosophy,
and to religion. In the last century mythology
was either derided in a Lucian-like spirit, or else regarded
as the relic of primitive traditions. In the
present these views have mostly disappeared; and the
theories which exist in reference to it are chiefly two,
in the one of which myths are explained by nature-worship,
and sacred mysteries, and are regarded as parables
descriptive of natural processes; in the other they
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
are regarded as being connected with the origin of language,
and the transfer of names from one object to
another. (<a href="#Note_47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>) It is the former view which this writer
has employed. Commencing with the Hebrew
Cosmogony,<a id="noteref_917" name="noteref_917" href="#note_917"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">917</span></span></a>
he traces the origin of the metaphysical notion
of God<a id="noteref_918" name="noteref_918" href="#note_918"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">918</span></span></a> through personification and polytheism,
up to theism; and next the origin of the moral notion
of God,<a id="noteref_919" name="noteref_919" href="#note_919"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">919</span></span></a> regarding the notion of a fall to be a
hypothesis to account for sin; and explains away the idea of
mediation by the absurd theory of supposing it to be
made up of the two notions, of emanation, and of a
waning deity derived from the personification of natural
processes.<a id="noteref_920" name="noteref_920" href="#note_920"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">920</span></span></a> Having thus used mythology, in the manner
of Volney, to illustrate the rise of these conceptions
among the Greeks and Hebrews respectively, he enters<a id="noteref_921" name="noteref_921" href="#note_921"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">921</span></span></a>
upon the religious history of the Hebrew people, and
attempts to show that the idea of the theocracy with
temporary rewards suggested the two correlative ideas
of temporary reverse, and eventual restoration; and
thus, by the personification of the people's suffering,
led to the idea of a suffering Messiah.<a id="noteref_922" name="noteref_922" href="#note_922"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">922</span></span></a> Discussing the
complex Messianic conception, he tries to explain its
origin by natural causes, by resolving it<a id="noteref_923" name="noteref_923" href="#note_923"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">923</span></span></a> into a combination
of the different types of thought, presented in
the earlier history. Approaching the subject of Christianity,
he considers it to be one of the Jewish sects, a
lawful continuation of the prophetic reforms;<a id="noteref_924" name="noteref_924" href="#note_924"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">924</span></span></a>
therein anticipating the idea which he has developed in the
second work above named, concerning the rise and
progress of Christianity; in which he has adopted the
views of the historical criticism of the school of Tübingen.
Regarding Christianity to be a reform of Judaism
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
mixed with Greek dogmas,<a id="noteref_925" name="noteref_925" href="#note_925"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">925</span></span></a> he attributes to St.
Paul, in contrast to the Jewish apostles, the idea of
giving it universality; and to the early Roman church
the idea of giving it unity;<a id="noteref_926" name="noteref_926" href="#note_926"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">926</span></span></a> illustrating by natural
causes the gradual origin of the church,<a id="noteref_927" name="noteref_927" href="#note_927"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">927</span></span></a>
and the pretended
concretion of dogmas<a id="noteref_928" name="noteref_928" href="#note_928"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">928</span></span></a>
by mixture with Alexandrian philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These works, too recondite to be popular, and too
unsatisfactory to be dangerous, do not appear likely to
affect largely the English inquirer; but the case is
different with the work which next meets us by another
author, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Creed of Christendom,”</span><a id="noteref_929" name="noteref_929" href="#note_929"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">929</span></span></a> which, on
account of its clearness of statement and variety of material,
is the most dangerous work of unbelief of this
age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the first part of the work the writer attacks the
idea of inspiration,<a id="noteref_930" name="noteref_930" href="#note_930"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">930</span></span></a> with all modifications of the notion,
as a gratuitous assumption; and tries to disprove it by
recapitulating the controversy respecting the authorship
of the Pentateuch, and the authority of the Old Testament
canon,<a id="noteref_931" name="noteref_931" href="#note_931"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">931</span></span></a> as well as by the pretended non-fulfilment
of the prophetic writings,<a id="noteref_932" name="noteref_932" href="#note_932"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">932</span></span></a> and the gradually progressive
development of the Theism of the Jews.<a id="noteref_933" name="noteref_933" href="#note_933"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">933</span></span></a> Applying
a similar process to the Gospels, he states the difficulties
which attend the literary question of their origin<a id="noteref_934" name="noteref_934" href="#note_934"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">934</span></span></a>
and fidelity of the narrative;<a id="noteref_935" name="noteref_935" href="#note_935"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">935</span></span></a> trying to show that
the apostles differed from each other, and held views
differing from those taught by the Saviour, as recorded
in the first three Gospels.<a id="noteref_936" name="noteref_936" href="#note_936"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">936</span></span></a> Approaching the subject
of the use of miracles as an evidence, he contends that
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
they cannot prove a doctrine, and that their existence
cannot be proved by documents.<a id="noteref_937" name="noteref_937" href="#note_937"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">937</span></span></a> In the examination
of Christianity he holds only the humanity of Christ,<a id="noteref_938" name="noteref_938" href="#note_938"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">938</span></span></a>
and regards Christianity not to be superhuman, but an
eclecticism from the Jewish religion; a conception, not a
revelation.<a id="noteref_939" name="noteref_939" href="#note_939"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">939</span></span></a> Successively attacking<a id="noteref_940" name="noteref_940" href="#note_940"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">940</span></span></a> the most sacred
doctrines of our faith,—prayer, pardon, sin,—he is at
last landed in the doubt of a future life, save so far as
the intuitions seem to suggest it;<a id="noteref_941" name="noteref_941" href="#note_941"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">941</span></span></a> and in conclusion he
contents himself with the religion which consists in
obedience to the physical, moral, intellectual, and social
laws; confessing however that the heart dictates to
prayer and religion, but maintaining that the idea of
general laws forbids the possibility of their reality.<a id="noteref_942" name="noteref_942" href="#note_942"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">942</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The next writer whom we must name,<a id="noteref_943" name="noteref_943" href="#note_943"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">943</span></span></a> has not
rested content with a literary examination of existing
religious forms, but has shown the consummation to
which the modern criticism of religion leads. The
work, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thoughts in aid of Faith,”</span> that is, hints to advise
those who have given up all other faith, is too characteristic
of a certain type of thought to be omitted. It
is an instance where the final result, to which philosophical
investigation has conducted, bears a resemblance
to that reached by Feuerbach in Germany.<a id="noteref_944" name="noteref_944" href="#note_944"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">944</span></span></a> In
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the treatment of the subject, the tenderness of human
character has not disappeared; and belief in the teaching
of religion is surrendered with painful sadness.
Starting at first from the unitarian point of view, this
writer has gradually advanced, by the aid of the modern
philosophy, to the very pantheism at which philosophy
stood in the early ages of oriental speculation. In a
review of the historical and psychical<a id="noteref_945" name="noteref_945" href="#note_945"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">945</span></span></a> origin of religion
and Christianity, the idea of a divine Being is regarded
as merely the giving existence to an abstraction, the
objectifying of the subjective; and Christianity, as the
form in which the notion of a personal God necessarily
clothes itself: so that the idea of God becomes a fiction
created by the mind; Christianity a fiction created by
the heart. Though an appreciation is shown of ancient
forms of religion,<a id="noteref_946" name="noteref_946" href="#note_946"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">946</span></span></a> all are regarded as visionary;
and, in looking forward to the future, philosophy affords
no cheering hope: nothing remains, save the annihilation
taught by the ancient Buddhists.<a id="noteref_947" name="noteref_947" href="#note_947"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">947</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The course of the history now brings before us two
writers, who stand distinguished from the last group by
their firm theism, and strong protest against pantheism
in every form. One of them was an American;<a id="noteref_948" name="noteref_948" href="#note_948"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">948</span></span></a> the
other an alumnus of this university.<a id="noteref_949" name="noteref_949" href="#note_949"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">949</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The life and work of the former, so far as they relate
to our inquiries, may soon be told.<a id="noteref_950" name="noteref_950" href="#note_950"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">950</span></span></a> In early life a
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
unitarian minister, he caught the spirit of intellectual
inquiry and reconsideration which Channing had excited;
and devoted himself with indefatigable industry
to study the modern philosophy and criticism of Germany,
until he became one of the most learned men of
the American continent. In his own country his fearless
and uncompromising denunciation of slavery, as
well as of political and commercial hollowness, caused
him to be viewed as a social reformer rather than a
theological teacher. In ours he is viewed as a teacher
of deism. The cause of his power is obvious. Feeling
that his mission was not merely to pull down, but to
build up, he spoke with the vigour of a dogmatist, not
with the coldness of a critic. To a burning eloquence
and native wit he united the picturesque power of the
novelist or the artist. But his vigour of style was deformed
by a power of sarcasm which often invested the
most sacred subjects with caricature and vulgarity; a
boundless malignity against supposed errors. How
different is the tone of his satire from the delicate
touches of the modern French critic<a id="noteref_951" name="noteref_951" href="#note_951"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">951</span></span></a> who was named
in the last lecture! and yet, on the other hand, how
changed from that of the infidel writers of the last century.
Though he equals Paine in vulgarity, and Voltaire
in sarcasm, his spirit and moral tone are higher.
They wrote, actuated by a bitter spirit against the
Christian religion, without earnestness, without religious
aspirations, with the coldness of unbelievers: he,
with the earnestness of a preacher touched with the
deepest feelings; and though the Christian writer will
shudder at his remarks as much as at theirs, yet he sees
them modified by passages of pathetic sentiment, in
which, in words unrivalled in sceptical literature, admiration
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
is expressed of Christ, of Christianity, and of
scripture.<a id="noteref_952" name="noteref_952" href="#note_952"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">952</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such was the man as a teacher. What was his doctrine?
He sought and found in the human faculties
the test of truth, not dwelling, like Strauss, on their
tendency to deceive; but, like Schelling, on their certitude.
He placed the ground of religion on the emotional
side of the soul, in the feeling of
dependence;<a id="noteref_953" name="noteref_953" href="#note_953"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">953</span></span></a>
and correctively, on the intellectual side, in the intuitions
of God, the moral law, and immortal life.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Assuming, on the principle of spiritual supply and
demand, that capacity proves object, (the natural realism
which we attribute to the senses being thus applied
to the intellectual instincts,) he regarded the intuitions
to be real, and traced the mode in which reasoning and
experience develope them into conceptions.<a id="noteref_954" name="noteref_954" href="#note_954"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">954</span></span></a>
But, afraid of giving too anthropomorphic a form to his conception
of deity, he fell almost into the abstract conception of
the English deists; and in the notion of God's general
providence, lost the fatherlike conception of the divine
Being with which the human analogy invests Him.
Few nobler attacks however on atheism,<a id="noteref_955" name="noteref_955" href="#note_955"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">955</span></span></a> or defences
of the benevolent character of the divine Being,<a id="noteref_956" name="noteref_956" href="#note_956"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">956</span></span></a> exist,
than those which he has supplied. But at this point
the Christian must altogether part company with him;
for he next proceeded to argue against the possibility of miracle or special
providence; identifying inspiration<a id="noteref_957" name="noteref_957" href="#note_957"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">957</span></span></a>
with the utterance of human genius, and regarding
Christianity merely as the best exponent of man's
moral nature; as one form of religion, but not the final
one. The Bible, which as a collection of literary works,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the religious literature of a Semitic people, he appreciated
with enthusiastic admiration,<a id="noteref_958" name="noteref_958" href="#note_958"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">958</span></span></a> was degraded from
its position of a final authoritative utterance of religious
truth, and was regarded as the embodiment of the
thoughts of spiritual men of old time who were striving
after truth, and spoke according to the light which
they possessed. The religion which he taught was
called by him <span class="tei tei-q">“the absolute religion.”</span> It was merely
deism, built on a sounder basis, and spiritualized by
contact with a truer philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other writer<a id="noteref_959" name="noteref_959" href="#note_959"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">959</span></span></a>
to whom allusion has been made,
though superior to the one just described in refinement
and acuteness, resembles him in possessing deep aspirations
and serious research, and in standing apart from
the unbelief of the last century, which manifested no
loftiness of aim, nor earnest conviction. He stands
forth too in a more interesting position, from the circumstance
that his starting-point was not unitarianism,
but the creed of our own church; and that he has given
a psychological autobiography, a painful and thrilling
self-portraiture;<a id="noteref_960" name="noteref_960" href="#note_960"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">960</span></span></a> in which he traces step by step his
surrender of his early opinions, from the time of his
first doubts, when he was a student in this university,
to his fully developed deism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The destructive side of his teaching is conveyed in
the narrative of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Phases”</span> of his faith. Educated
in the tenets of the more spiritual section of the church,
he gradually began, as he has stated, to reconsider his
opinions as his mind was awakened by study. The
moral identity of Sabbath and Sunday; the practice of
infant baptism; the connexion of a spiritual effect with
what he considered to be a material cause implied in
baptismal regeneration; the reasons for the superior
efficacy of Christ's sacrifice over the Mosaic; the discovery
of gradual development in scripture; these were
the first thoughts that agitated him.<a id="noteref_961" name="noteref_961" href="#note_961"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">961</span></span></a> Unable to solve
them to his satisfaction, he hesitated not to abandon,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
with noble and manly self-sacrifice, the friends that he
held dear; and to wander forth from the established
church, to seek a primitive Christianity elsewhere.
Puzzled by the difficulty of the supposed mistake of the
apostolic church, in expecting the sudden return of
Christianity, he adopted the chiliastic hypothesis; and,
unable to join in ministerial work in England, went as
a missionary into the East.<a id="noteref_962" name="noteref_962" href="#note_962"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">962</span></span></a> On his return, alienated
from the friends of his youth and from the new instructors
with whom he had consorted, he sought truth in
the solitude of his own heart; and was led to throw
off Calvinism and adopt Unitarianism.<a id="noteref_963" name="noteref_963" href="#note_963"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">963</span></span></a> His fourth
phase of faith led him, while clinging to Christianity,
to renounce the religion of the Book. It consisted in
an examination of many of the difficulties which criticism
has discovered; from which he was unhappily led
to conclude that the Bible was not free from error, nor
above moral criticism;<a id="noteref_964" name="noteref_964" href="#note_964"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">964</span></span></a> believing nevertheless that the
Bible was made for man, though not man for the Bible.
The two concluding phases of his faith<a id="noteref_965" name="noteref_965" href="#note_965"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">965</span></span></a> consisted in
appreciating the great law of progress which he considers
to mark religion; and discovering that faith at second
hand is vain, and that the historical truthfulness
of Christianity is unimportant, the ideas embodied in it
constituting its truth.<a id="noteref_966" name="noteref_966" href="#note_966"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">966</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In reading this painful record, we feel ourselves in
contact with a mind cultivated in miscellaneous science
and in the Semitic languages, disciplined as well as informed;
which lays bare with transparent sincerity the
history of the stages through which he has successively
passed. Hitherto we have seen only the destructive
side of his teaching; but he also strove to attain a definite
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
dogma: his truth-searching spirit, touched by deep
longings for the presence of God, could not rest in the
blank of unbelief. The nature of this attempt is developed
in a work on <span class="tei tei-q">“the Soul,”</span><a id="noteref_967" name="noteref_967" href="#note_967"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">967</span></span></a> in which the author
lays bare at once his psychology, his ethics, and his
religion; which in substance are not unlike those of
the writer last named. He lays the foundation of religion
in the spiritual faculty, the sense of the infinite
personality; showing the generation of the various
complex feelings which make up religion—awe, wonder,
admiration, reverence—as the attributes of this
divine Personality successively discover themselves.<a id="noteref_968" name="noteref_968" href="#note_968"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">968</span></span></a>
Holding strongly the doctrine of human freedom and
the natural existence of a moral sense, he allows fully
the existence of the consciousness of sin,<a id="noteref_969" name="noteref_969" href="#note_969"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">969</span></span></a>
and the necessity
of spiritual regeneration; asserting the belief in
God's sympathy and communion with the soul, the efficacy
of prayer, and the duty of encouraging holy aspirations.<a id="noteref_970" name="noteref_970" href="#note_970"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">970</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Few more suggestive, and in many respects few
truer, specimens exist of the analysis of those facts of
human nature which concern the basis of natural religion
and of the spiritual life,<a id="noteref_971" name="noteref_971" href="#note_971"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">971</span></span></a> than that which he has
offered in order to find a psychological basis for religion.
The deep spiritual longing for communion with
God, the belief in prayer and in moral renewal, are
evidences of a creed which separate him utterly from
the naturalism and pantheism before described, and
place him almost on the frontier line between Christianity
and deism.<a id="noteref_972" name="noteref_972" href="#note_972"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">972</span></span></a>
And we may be permitted to express
the belief, that philosophy could not have raised
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
him to his present moral standard. His spirituality is
due to the fragments of Christianity which he has retained
in his system. It has been truly said, that the
defenders of natural religion furtively kindle their
torches by the light of revealed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the course of this sketch of contemporary unbelief,
we have gradually advanced from the forms most
alien to faith, till we have reached the threshold of the
Christian church. The necessity for making the narrative
complete compels us to pass within its limits, and
to indicate, though it be by a brief notice and with a
delicate hand, the forms of the movement of free
thought therein which have given rise to the charge of
rationalism. This movement of thought is separated
from those just described, in that it loyally holds that
God has revealed His will to man; but it varies from
the general view of the church of Christ in reference to
the extent and manner in which He has been pleased
to reveal Himself; and, under the pressure of the difficulties,
doctrinal or literary, which the progress of
knowledge or of speculation has suggested, proposes to
separate in the holy scripture, or in the immemorial
teaching of the church, that which it regards to be the
eternal element of revealed truth from that which it
ventures to conceive to be temporary; the heavenly
treasure from the earthen vessels in which it is contained.
The literary parallel to this tendency is not to
be found in the deism of the last century, but in some
of the schools of free thought in Germany and France
in the present. Like them it professes to be conservative
of revelation, desiring to surrender a part in order
to save the remainder.<a id="noteref_973" name="noteref_973" href="#note_973"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">973</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The movement is characterised by two forms; the
one philosophical, the other critical. We shall indicate
their general character, without specifying individual
writings.<a id="noteref_974" name="noteref_974" href="#note_974"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">974</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is perhaps to the influence of Coleridge, more
than to that of any other single person, that the origin
of this philosophical movement can be traced.<a id="noteref_975" name="noteref_975" href="#note_975"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">975</span></span></a> We
have already<a id="noteref_976" name="noteref_976" href="#note_976"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">976</span></span></a>
had occasion to mention the general design
of his philosophy. At a time when the world was
wishing to break with the past, in politics, in literature,
and in religion, his spirit was conservative of older
truth, while sympathetic with that which was new.
In looking backwards, he sought to discover what mankind
had meant by their beliefs; in looking around, he
asked what were the elements which the present generation
disapproved: and, wishing to eliminate the error
of the past and appropriate the truth of the present, he
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
looked inwards into the human heart, and thought that
he perceived a faculty there which unveiled to man the
eternal, absolute truth,—the true, the beautiful, and
the good; which had been the object of search in all
systems, the end for which all earnest spirits had ever
yearned. This faculty, <span class="tei tei-q">“the reason”</span> or intuition, thus
became the guide, by the light of which he was able to
thread his way through the manifold systems of thought
of past times.<a id="noteref_977" name="noteref_977" href="#note_977"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">977</span></span></a> Not content with applying it to other
subjects, he carried it also into the domain of revealed
religion. It was the engine by which he hoped to get
a view of the truth which the ancient writers of holy
scripture intended to convey. It would become the
means of interpreting their thoughts, by raising the student
to a perception of the same objects, similar in kind
to that which they possessed. Their inspiration was
regarded as only an elevated form of this faculty. When
accordingly this method was applied by him to the
study of Christianity, it did not lead him to pare down
the supernatural by the cold interpretation of the older
rationalism, but gave the explanation of the mysteries
by raising men to a state where mysteries ceased to be
such any longer. It did not pull down revelation to the
level of the mind, but strove vainly<a id="noteref_978" name="noteref_978" href="#note_978"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">978</span></span></a> to raise the mind to a level with revelation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If viewed in reference to cognate schools of Christian
philosophy, it bears similitude in many respects to
some of the schools of Germany. In the analysis offered
of the human faculties, it has much akin to Kant: in
the deep conviction that the highest truth is revealed to
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
a faculty of faith, and in the undoubting belief in our
own intuitions and the conviction of their reality, it resembles
Jacobi and Schelling: in regarding the human
reason to be the impersonal reason, the divinity in man,
it resembles Schelling or Cousin. But it also has an
element akin to the ancient Neo-Platonic philosophy of
Alexandria.<a id="noteref_979" name="noteref_979" href="#note_979"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">979</span></span></a> This is seen both in the view taken of
the organ of knowledge, and in the scheme of philosophy
evolved by it. The intuitive reason, the divine
faculty above described, which reveals eternal truth, is
viewed as the divine Λόγος in man, as was taught
by the Neo-Platonists.<a id="noteref_980" name="noteref_980" href="#note_980"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">980</span></span></a>
Inspiration is the action of the
same Λόγος. This branch of human intellect is absorbed
in divinity: a divine teacher is considered to
exist in the human mind.<a id="noteref_981" name="noteref_981" href="#note_981"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">981</span></span></a>
And as the view of the
faculty is parallel with the teaching of this ancient
school, so the explanations suggested of divine mysteries<a id="noteref_982" name="noteref_982" href="#note_982"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">982</span></span></a>
like the Trinity or Redemption are similar. These
explanations are the mystical expressions of the thoughts
apprehended by this faculty, when it strives to raise
itself to oneness with the infinite object which it contemplates.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks will explain the philosophical system
taught by Coleridge, and will furnish the clue to interpret
the form of theological thought which has originated
from him. The parallel between his system and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
those with which it has now been compared, will be no
less obvious in noticing the results of it. The system
of Schleiermacher was the theological corollary from
the theories of German philosophy above named; and
the school of the Alexandrian fathers was the corresponding
one which resulted from the Neo-Platonic.<a id="noteref_983" name="noteref_983" href="#note_983"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">983</span></span></a>
We should therefore expect that, if the philosophy of
Coleridge was a mixture of the two schools above described,
the teaching of his disciples would combine the
two theological schools which flowed from those systems.
Attentive consideration of the philosophical side
of the modern movement of free thought in English
theology will confirm this anticipation, and show that
its chief elements are a union of these two theological
schools. The tendency to require that the human soul
shall apprehend divine mysteries intellectually, as well
as feel their saving power emotionally; the reduction
of inspiration theologically, as well as psychologically,
to an elevated but natural state<a id="noteref_984" name="noteref_984" href="#note_984"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">984</span></span></a> of the human consciousness;
the inclination to regard the work of Christ
as the office of the divine teacher to humanity, and
human history as the longing for such a divine voice;
the description of the work of Christ as a divine manifestation
of a reconciliation which previously existed,
instead of being the mode of effecting it; the tendency
to view the death of Christ by the light of the incarnation,
instead of regarding the incarnation by the light
of the atonement, the death of Christ as the solution of
the enigma of God becoming flesh;—these seem all to
be corollaries from the philosophy of the Neo-Platonists,
and find their parallel in the school of the Alexandrian
fathers: they express too, though with some differences,
which will be apparent by recalling the remarks in a preceding
lecture,<a id="noteref_985" name="noteref_985" href="#note_985"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">985</span></span></a> the fundamental religious conceptions
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of Schleiermacher, to which we before had occasion to
object as inverting the gospel scheme, and falling short
of the dogmatic teaching of the revelation of God.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The causes and character of the philosophical movement
of free thought in the church will now be clear.
We stated that there had been also a critical tendency.
A stricter analysis would probably subdivide the critical
movement into two; viz. a philosophical form of it
which examines facts,<a id="noteref_986" name="noteref_986" href="#note_986"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">986</span></span></a> and a literary one which examines
documents.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This philosophical movement differs from the former,
in that it neither approaches the subject of inquiry
from a lofty speculative point of view, which is intended
to furnish a solution of the mysteries of nature and revelation;
nor seeks by means of the intuitive reason to
penetrate beneath the doctrines of ancient teachers, and
discover the absolute truth after which they were striving.
It rather disbelieves in the possibility of the attainment
of absolute truth by the human mind, and
regards all truth to be relative to the age in which it
was expressed.<a id="noteref_987" name="noteref_987" href="#note_987"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">987</span></span></a> Like the former movement it possesses
a method; but one which is tentative and critical,
not speculative; empirical, not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>; founding its
knowledge on history, not on philosophy. The mode
of investigation is probably indirectly a result of the
teaching of Hegel, as that which was before described
was the result of the rival schools contemporary with
him; but it is the adoption of Hegel's method, and not
of his philosophy. In this respect it may be regarded
as a critical tendency rather than a philosophical; but
one which is critical of the truths and religious facts of
revelation, and of its doctrinal teaching, and not merely
of the documents which record it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Hence, when applied to revealed religion, in examining
the teaching of the scripture writers, it does not
attempt, as the former school, to raise the mind to a
level with that of the writers, in order to apprehend the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
eternal truth which was revealed alike to their intuition
and to ours; but it throws itself into the circumstances
of their age, so as to understand their meaning; and
tests it by the altered conceptions which the progress
of ages has given to the world. Thus the inquirer not
only asks what the writers meant, but views the truth
which they taught as relative to their own age; and
regards the office of criticism to be, to discriminate in
it that which is conceived to have been temporary and
local, and that which applies to all time. This school
thus resembles the last, in asking what the scripture
writers meant in their own time, and what their meaning
is to us; but it seeks the answer, by using the same
methods for the investigation which would be applied
in ordinary literature; not by abstract speculation,
apart from literary study of actual documents. It
makes the conceptions which civilization and history
have created, to be the test for comparison, not the
eternal truths of reason which are supposed to exist
irrespective of civilization and history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We may select one illustration. In surveying the
doctrine of the atoning work of Christ, the former
school seeks to apprehend the absolute meaning of the
atonement as the manifestation of an act previously
wrought out; and, starting with the notion of the divine
teacher of humanity, the Λόγος of God in Christ teaching
the world, and the Λόγος in the soul of man apprehending
this teaching, it construes the atoning
work of Christ from its didactic side, as teaching man
concerning God's love by means of a majestic example
of self-sacrifice. The second school treats the doctrine
historically; and, when it has separated the apostolic
teaching from all subsequent additions, compares this
doctrine with the age in which it was expressed, in
order to separate what it conceives to be the permanent
from the temporary; and hence comes to view the
atonement, apart from all the hallowed associations of
propitiatory sacrifice which in the minds of the early
converts were inseparably united with it. These ideas,
which the doctrine of the church regards as integral
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
portions of revealed verity, it considers to be the peculiarity
of the age in which the revelation was communicated.
The revealed doctrines are handled in the
same manner as corresponding doctrines of philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The minuteness of this method, its disposition to
seek for truth in the investigation of details rather than
by approaching a subject from some general principle,
connects it with the other form of the critical tendency
above named, which employs itself in the literary criticism
of the sacred records. The main object of this
movement consists in examining the questions, first, of
the origin of the canon, its grounds and contents; next,
the authenticity and genuineness of the books; lastly,
the credibility of their contents. It is plain that, however
objectionable may be the conclusions arrived at on
questions such as these, they are too recondite and literary
in character to possess the same doctrinal and pastoral
importance as those of the former kind; though
the alarm which they may cause will often be greater,
because the variation from ordinary belief is more easily
apprehended by the mind, and, being a variation in
fact, and not only in idea, cannot be concealed by any
ambiguity in the use of theological terms, as may be
the case in the former instances. Yet in the third of
these three questions, this species of criticism may have
a very intimate relation to practice; for it may so affect
the rule of faith as to overthrow the standard on which
we repose for the proof of revealed doctrines. In truth,
in this branch it becomes identical with the critical
method before described, save so far as that examined
the credibility of doctrines, this of facts. But in spirit
they are identical. It proceeds upon the assumption,
that the same critical process is applicable in the investigation
of the sacred history, as the former assumed in
the investigation of the sacred philosophy. The attitude
of both is independent: both teach that the sacred
books are not to be approached with a preconceived
definition of their character or meaning: prepossessions
are not to bar the way to the exercise of criticism.
The difference from the first method above described
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
will be equally obvious. We may adopt the doctrine
of inspiration as an illustration. The first view would
approach the contents of scripture with a psychological
theory of inspiration, as being a form of the intuition,
which may furnish an instrument for eclecticism: the
second and third would investigate the question empirically,
and, declining on the one hand to accept the
psychological definition just described, and on the other
to approach Scripture with the preconceived notion of
the nature of inspiration, as held by the Church, would
seek to determine the notion of inspiration from the
contents of scripture.<a id="noteref_988" name="noteref_988" href="#note_988"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">988</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The relation to holy scripture of the critical modes
of inquiry will obviously be as intimate in reference to
the standard of faith, as that of the philosophical in
reference to doctrine. If the first of the three methods
which we enumerated<a id="noteref_989" name="noteref_989" href="#note_989"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">989</span></span></a> overlays doctrine with
philosophy; the second is in danger of subtracting
from it integral elements of its system; and the third
of disintegrating it by criticism, and introducing uncertainty
with regard to the sacred books, which are the
basis of doctrine. In questions relating to literary criticism,
like those which are made the subject of investigation
in the last-named method, it is impossible to lay
down, so absolutely as in the two former cases, the tests
to distinguish truth from error. The creeds are a practical
gauge in the former instances which is partly
wanting in the latter. The greater difficulty however
which thus appertains to the latter, of placing the
limits to which reverent criticism may extend without
endangering faith, ought to generate the more solemn
caution in its application.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have dwelt long upon the modern forms of free
thought which exist within the church of Christ, because
they have a living interest for us. They meet us
in life as well as in literature; and we must daily form
our judgment upon their truth and falsehood. They
are not indeed peculiar to one church, nor to one country;<a id="noteref_990" name="noteref_990" href="#note_990"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">990</span></span></a>
but form the theological question which is presented
to the Christian church in this age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The result of our inquiries in reference to the free
thought of the present time has been especially to exhibit
three main tendencies; one, arising from Positivism,
a tendency to deny the possibility of revelation;<a id="noteref_991" name="noteref_991" href="#note_991"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">991</span></span></a>
a second, from an opposite philosophy, to deny
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
its necessity;<a id="noteref_992" name="noteref_992" href="#note_992"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">992</span></span></a>
and a third, to accept it only in part.<a id="noteref_993" name="noteref_993" href="#note_993"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">993</span></span></a>
These are the three tendencies by which the world and
church of the coming generation are likely to be influenced.
Our path in life will be in a world where
they are operating; and we shall have need to be
armed with the whole armour of God. If we have in
our personal history so investigated the evidences of
our faith, as to feel that we have a well-grounded hope,
unassailable by these doubts, we may be thankful: if
we have gone safely through the perilous test of a careful
examination of them, sometimes staggering perhaps
in our faith, yet struggling after truth in prayerful trust
that the Lord would himself be our teacher, until we
now are able to feel that we have our faith grounded
on a Rock,—a faith which is the result of inquiry, not
of ignorance,—let us be still more thankful, and exemplify
our thankfulness by trying to assist the doubter
with our tender sympathy, and to aid him in finding
the truth and peace which Christ has given to us. Our
attitude in moments of peril must be that of solemn
reliance on God's help; and our behaviour towards
others ought to exhibit Christian firmness, mingled with
candour and tenderness; evincing the moderation of
true learning, joined to the uncompromising adherence
to the Christian faith.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history now given, of the doubt which is expressed
at present through the English language, completes
the account of the fourth great crisis of belief in
church history;<a id="noteref_994" name="noteref_994" href="#note_994"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">994</span></span></a>
and with it we bring to an end our
long survey of the history of free thought.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Since the commencement of the second lecture, we
have been so involved in the details of the investigation,
that, to those who have lost sight of the plan proposed
in the commencement, the lectures may have
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
appeared historical rather than controversial, and
hardly compatible with the purpose of the founder of
the Lecture. We have been like travellers moving in
a tangled plain, where the path at times seems lost.
Before entering upon it, we took our stand, as it were,
on an eminence; and indicated the plan of the route;
pointed to the kind of territory through which it would
conduct us, and the direction to which it would tend.
Now, that we have at last extricated ourselves from its
windings, and rest after our journey, let us cast a glance
backward over its course, and see how far the result
has verified our anticipations. Let us reconsider the
purpose designed by this course of inquiry; notice how
far the promises in respect to it have been fulfilled;
show its relation to controversial purpose; and collect
the moral lessons which are derivable.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be remembered that we stated<a id="noteref_995" name="noteref_995" href="#note_995"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">995</span></span></a> the topic to
be, a critical history of free thought in Europe in relation
to the Christian religion. Our criticism started
from a Christian point of view, and assumed alike the
miraculous character of Christianity, the exceptional
character of the religious inspiration of the first teachers
of it, and the reality of its chief doctrines. From
this point of view we proposed to consider the attempts
of the human mind to get free from the authority of
the Christian religion, either by rejecting it in whole
or in part.<a id="noteref_996" name="noteref_996" href="#note_996"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">996</span></span></a>
Four great crises of faith were enumerated
in church history;<a id="noteref_997" name="noteref_997" href="#note_997"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">997</span></span></a>
the first, the struggle, literary
and philosophical, of early heathenism against Christianity;<a id="noteref_998" name="noteref_998" href="#note_998"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">998</span></span></a>
the second, the reawakening of free thought
in the middle ages;<a id="noteref_999" name="noteref_999" href="#note_999"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">999</span></span></a> the third, that which appertained
to the revival of classical literature;<a id="noteref_1000" name="noteref_1000" href="#note_1000"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1000</span></span></a>
the fourth, to the growth of modern philosophy;<a id="noteref_1001" name="noteref_1001" href="#note_1001"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1001</span></span></a>—a series of epochs
which exhibit the struggle of Christianity in the great
centres of thought and civilization, ancient or modern;
and it was proposed that our investigation should not
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
only contain a chronicle of the facts, but explain the
causes, and teach the moral.<a id="noteref_1002" name="noteref_1002" href="#note_1002"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1002</span></span></a>
We considered that the
causes which make thought develope into unbelief are
chiefly two,—the emotional and the intellectual;<a id="noteref_1003" name="noteref_1003" href="#note_1003"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1003</span></span></a> and,
while vindicating distinctness of operation for the intellectual
under certain circumstances,<a id="noteref_1004" name="noteref_1004" href="#note_1004"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1004</span></span></a> yet we allowed
the union of them with the moral to be so intimate,<a id="noteref_1005" name="noteref_1005" href="#note_1005"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1005</span></span></a>
that not only must account always be taken of the latter
in estimating the unbelief of individuals, but the
exclusive study of the former, without allowing for the
existence of the latter, must be regarded as likely to
lead to an imperfect and injurious idea of unbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The intellectual causes were however selected as the
special subject of our study;<a id="noteref_1006" name="noteref_1006" href="#note_1006"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1006</span></span></a>
partly because they have
been much neglected by Christian writers, partly because
they are the forms which for the most part create
the doubts which Christians encounter in the present
age. The principal intellectual causes were considered<a id="noteref_1007" name="noteref_1007" href="#note_1007"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1007</span></span></a>
to be, either the new material of knowledge,
such as the physical or metaphysical sciences, which
may present truth antagonistic to the teaching of the
sacred literature; or new methods of criticism, the application
of which creates opinions differing from those
of the traditionary belief; and, above all, the effects of
the application of particular tests of truth,—sense, reason,
intuition, feeling,—to the doctrines of revealed religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This was our plan; and we have been employed in
tracing the influence of these causes in generating
doubt in the four great crises, with a minuteness which
may almost have been tedious; endeavouring to supply
the natural as well as the literary history; analysing
each successive step of thought into the causes which
produced it; searching for them when necessary in the
intellectual biography of individuals; and, if not refuting
results, at least laying bare by criticism the processes
through which they were attained. At the same
time we have attempted to show the grounds on which
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the faith of the church has reposed in the various ages
of history. A defence, itself also twofold in its character—emotional
and intellectual—has been generated by
the attack in each of the crises, and an example thus
furnished of the law which governs human society,—progress
by antagonism. Permanent gain to truth was
seen to be the result of the various controversies; quiet
and refreshment after the discharge of the storm had
cleared the atmosphere from the intellectual and moral
ills with which it was charged.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The utility of the inquiry will now, it is hoped, be
apparent. Though these lectures must be regarded as
instructive for the believer, rather than polemic against
the unbeliever, yet they are intended to serve also a
controversial purpose.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are times indeed when the mere instructiveness
of a history, independently of practical use, is a
sufficient justification for writing it;—times when it is
important to take the gauge of past knowledge as the
condition of a step forward in the future. Those who
are accustomed to meditate on the present age, on the
multifarious elements which in a time of great peace
are quietly laying the basis of great changes, and on
the unity of intellectual condition which the international
intercourse is creating in the world of letters, as
really as in that of industry, will perhaps think that
the present is such a period, when the knowledge of
the history of the former perils of the Christian faith,
the nature of the attack and of the defence, is itself of
value in regard to the prospects of the future.<a id="noteref_1008" name="noteref_1008" href="#note_1008"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1008</span></span></a> Those
again also, who are accustomed to look at the contemporary
works of evidence in our own country, will deplore
the fact that in many cases, however well meant
in spirit, they are essentially deficient in a due appreciation
of the precise origin and character of present
forms of doubt, and the natural and literary history of
doubt in general;<a id="noteref_1009" name="noteref_1009" href="#note_1009"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1009</span></span></a> reproducing arguments unanswerable
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
against older kinds of doubt, but unavailing
against the modern, like wooden walls against modern
weapons of war. We stand in the presence of forms
of doubt, which press us more nearly than those of former
times, because they do not supersede Christianity
by disbelief, but disintegrate it by eclecticism; which
come in the guise of erudition, unknown in former
times, appealing to new canons of truth, reposing on
new methods, invested with a new air. In such a moment
a reconsideration of the struggles of past ages
becomes indirectly a contribution to the evidences, by
supplying the knowledge of similarity and contrast,
which is necessary, as a preliminary, before entering
on a new conflict.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The dangers to faith in the present day are sometimes
exaggerated; but there cannot be a doubt that
we live in a time when old creeds are in peril; when
the doubt is the result not of ignorance, but of knowledge,
and acts in the minds that are pre-eminent for
intellectual influence, and advances with a firmness
that is not to be repelled by force but by argument.
It is not the duty of Christians to shut their eyes to the
danger, like the ostrich, which supposes by burying
her eyes in the sand to avoid the huntsman's arrow.
There seems accordingly special reason why in such an
age an acquaintance with the forms of doubt is requisite
on the part of those who have to minister the religion
which is the subject of attack.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If accordingly a clergy is to be trained up likely to
supply the intellectual cravings of the present day,
they must be placed on a level with its ripest knowledge,
and be acquainted with the nature and origin of
the forms of doubt which they will encounter. The
church has indeed a large field, where work and not
thought is to be the engine which the clergy must use
in their labours; truly a home mission, where men and
women for whom Christ died, require to be lifted out
of their mere animalism, and taught the simplest truths
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of Christ, and prayer, and immortality: and noble are
the efforts that Christians have made, and are making,
for an object so religious and philanthropic; but there
is a danger lest this very energy of work, which accords
so naturally with the utilitarianism of the English character,
should lead us to forget that there is an opposite
stratum of society, to which also Christianity has its
message, which is only to be reached by the delicate
gifts of intellect and by the ripest learning.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If Christianity is to be presented to this class,
adapted to the demands of the age so far as they are
reasonable, but unmutilated and unaltered in its body
of revealed doctrine, preserving in its integrity the faith
delivered to the saints; so that apostles might recognize
it as being that which they themselves taught, and
for which they laid down their lives; it is necessary
that Christian students should be trained specially for
the work, by a learned and intelligent appreciation of
truth, such as will create orthodoxy without bigotry,
and charity without latitude. If we have to dread
their going forth with hesitating opinions, teaching,
through their very silence concerning the mysterious
realities which constitute the very essence of Christianity,
another gospel than that which was once for all
miraculously revealed; there is almost equal ground
for alarm if they go forth, able only to repeat the shibboleths
of a professional creed, and unable to give a
reason of the glorious hope that is in them. In the
former case they will fail to teach historic and dogmatic
Christianity, because they do not believe it; in
the latter because they do not understand its meaning
and evidence. If they need piety as the first requisite,
they need knowledge as the second. In certain conditions
of the church, study is second only to prayer itself
as an instrument for the Christian evangelist.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is hoped, therefore, that a sketch of a department
not previously treated as a whole, may indirectly be an
aid to the Christian faith, if it shall perform the humble
office of supplying some elements of instruction to the
Christian student.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such a purpose however would hardly have justified
the introduction of the subject here. The motive which
dictated its consideration was much more practical. It
was hoped that the answer to many species of doubt
would be found by referring them to the forms of
thought or of philosophy from which they had sprung;
that it would be possible to perceive how they might
be refuted, by understanding why and how men have
come to believe them.<a id="noteref_1010" name="noteref_1010" href="#note_1010"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1010</span></span></a> This is a study of mental
pathology seldom undertaken. The practical aim of
Christian writers has generally suggested to them a
readier mode of treating the history of unbelief, by referring
its origin to intellectual pride; and, if any margin
remained unaccounted for by this explanation, to
refer it to an invisible agent, the direct operation of
Satan.<a id="noteref_1011" name="noteref_1011" href="#note_1011"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1011</span></span></a> Such a method, however true, commits the
error, against which Bacon utters a warning, of ascending
at once to the most general causes without interpolating
the intermediate. It ignores the intellectual
class of causes, and omits to trace the subtlety of their
mode of manifestation;—a problem equally interesting,
whether they be regarded as original causes of doubt,
or only as secondary instruments obeying the impulse
of the emotional causes. It would have been possible
to investigate the subject, by selecting a few leading
instances to illustrate the natural history of doubt; but
the most likely mode for exhausting the subject, as well
as for presenting it in a manner which would fall in
with the historic tastes of the age, seemed to be, to
treat it by means of a critical history, presenting the
antidote by a running criticism; and to ask, frankly
and fully, what have been the grounds on which Christianity
has been doubted; and what have been those
on which the faith of Christians in their hour of peril
has reposed; and then finally to gather up the lessons
which the history itself teaches.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The inquiry has been analogous to the study of the
history of a disease; and scientific rigour required that
it should be conducted with a similar spirit of fairness
towards those that manifest its symptoms. As the
physiologist, who wishes to learn the laws of a disease,
watches patiently the symptoms in the subject of it,
not reproaching the sufferer, even if the malady be
self-caused; so in moral diagnosis, the student of mental
and religious error must carry out his inquiries in
the spirit of cold analysis, if he would arrive at the real
character of the intricate facts which he studies. The
candour of our examination has not been prompted by
any spirit of indifference to truth, nor by sympathy
with error; but partly by the demands of historical
accuracy, partly by deep pity for those who are the
subject of spiritual doubts, even when the doubts are
of their own fault.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This view of the inquiry, as an analysis of the intellectual
causes of doubt, will also explain one or two
peculiarities in it, which, if left unnoticed, might leave
an impression of its inutility.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be seen, for example, that in the investigation
of the natural history of doubt, and in the explanation
of the antecedent metaphysical or critical questions
which have produced it, we have indicated the
schools of thought which have created it, but have abstained
from insisting on the inherent necessity of the
relation which subsists between the metaphysical tests
of truth and the religious conclusions discussed. The
reason is, that it seemed unfit to assume a side eagerly
in the metaphysical controversy; and therefore, while
showing that the use of certain grounds of belief and
methods of inquiry has produced, both as a matter of
history and logic, certain species of doubt or disbelief;
we have not attempted to condemn the particular
metaphysical theories on the ground of the logical consequences
which are supposed to flow from them, nor
to deny that they could be so amended, as either to
avoid the sceptical conclusions to which our objections
are taken, or be rendered innocuous by the co-existence
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of other causes. Science only shows the general tendency
or law of logical connection between intellectual
causes and effects. The production of the results in
particular cases is subject to exception from the introduction
of interfering causes.<a id="noteref_1012" name="noteref_1012" href="#note_1012"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1012</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Another peculiarity which appertains to the analysis
of the intellectual sources of doubt, besides the
seeming absence of invariable necessity in their operation,
might be thought to destroy the practical value
of the inquiry; viz. the feeling of disappointment excited
when it is perceived that they do not wholly
explain the phenomenon, and are merely antecedents
or elements, not causes. This arises from the very
nature of mental analysis. Being in nature like chemical,
it aims only at the detection of the elements that
make up the compound, and furnishes the material or
formal causes, not the efficient. This longing of the
mind to find causes, and to discover the original motive
power, is however a witness to the ineffaceable
connection of the idea of power with that of will.
And while it does not destroy the completeness of the
analysis, as the solution of the intellectual problem
proposed, it nevertheless points to the instinctive wish
of the heart to resolve the causes of doubt into some
ultimate source in the will; and is thus a witness to
the truth of the position which we have always asserted,<a id="noteref_1013" name="noteref_1013" href="#note_1013"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1013</span></span></a>
that the intellectual causes selected for our special
study are only one branch, and must be united to the
emotional in order to attain a full explanation of the
phenomenon of doubt.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thus the analysis offered will have, it is hoped, a
utility in the limited sphere which was claimed for it,
in supplying the account of the tangled and subtle processes
through which doubt has insinuated itself.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
What then are the lessons which the whole history
teaches? To discover these was part of our original
purpose,<a id="noteref_1014" name="noteref_1014" href="#note_1014"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1014</span></span></a>
as well as to learn the facts and find the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
causes; to satisfy the longings of the heart, no less than
the curiosity of the understanding.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
First, What has been the office of doubt in history?
Has it been wholly an injury, a chronic disease? or
simply a gain? or has it operated in both ways? Let
us find the answer, by testing each of these theories of
its office by means of the facts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first of the three is that which has generally
been held within the Christian church. It dates from
the first ages of the church, and witnesses to a valuable
truth. The sacred care with which the Christians
treasured the doctrine, and spurned the attempts of
heretics to explain it away, proves the strength of the
conviction that they possessed a definite treasure of
divine truth, introduced at a definite period. Their
very want of toleration,<a id="noteref_1015" name="noteref_1015" href="#note_1015"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1015</span></span></a> the tenacity of their attachment
to the faith, is a proof of their undoubting conviction
concerning the historic verity of the facts connected
with redemption, and the definite character of
the dogmas which interpreted the facts. In later ages
however, the same idea of sacredness has been extended
by the Romish church to the mass of error which Christianity
has taken up into itself in the progress of ages;
and in Protestant countries has led to the attempt to
restrain the thoughts of men even on the secular subjects
most remote from religion, where the ancient
sacred literature seemed to suggest any indirect information.
The doubt on the part of religious men, of
any progress being made by free thought, has often expressed
itself too in the affirmation, that the history of
unbelief shows an exact recurrence of the same doubts,
without progress from age to age, and an intimation
that new suggestions of doubt are only old foes under
new faces.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While Christians have thus generally regarded free
inquiry in religion as wholly a loss; freethinkers have
taken the very opposite view, and regarded it as an
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
unmixed gain. The distinguished writer<a id="noteref_1016" name="noteref_1016" href="#note_1016"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1016</span></span></a> of our own
time on the history of civilisation, whose premature
death will prevent the fulfilment of his large design,
has illustrated, with the clearness and grasp over facts
which constitute some of his excellences, the office of
scepticism, in securing for the human mind the political
liberty and toleration which he prized so dearly. His
central thought was, that civilisation depended upon
the progress of intellect,<a id="noteref_1017" name="noteref_1017" href="#note_1017"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1017</span></span></a> the emancipation of the human
mind from all authority save that of inductive
science: he pointed out with triumphant enthusiasm,
the services which he conceived that unbelief had performed,
in rescuing Europe from degrading beliefs like
witchcraft, and from the introduction of supernatural
causes for natural events, and in securing in France, in
the eighteenth century, the political rights of the lower
orders against the claims of the church. Accordingly
in his opinion scepticism was an almost unmixed
boon.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Those who recall the outline of the history will
probably think that each of these views, taken alone, is
one-sided, and contains a partial truth. The review of
facts shows that free thought has had an office in the
world; and, like most human agencies permitted under
the administration of a benevolent Providence, its influence
has neither been unmixed evil nor unmixed
good. It has been an evil, so far as in the conflict of
opinions it has invaded the body of essential truth
which forms the treasure given to the world, in the
miraculous revelation of our Lord Jesus Christ; but it
has been a good, so far as it has contributed, either
directly to further human progress intellectually and
socially, or indirectly to bring out into higher relief
these very truths by the progress of discussion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
When, for example, Christian doctrine has been
overlaid from age to age by concretions which had
gathered round it, as was the case previously to the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Reformation,<a id="noteref_1018" name="noteref_1018" href="#note_1018"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1018</span></span></a> it has been free thought which has attacked
the system, and, piercing the error, has removed
those elements which had been superadded. Or, when
the church has attempted to fetter human thought in
other departments than its own proper domain of religion,
as when the ecclesiastical authorities disgraced
themselves by vetoing the discoveries of Galileo,<a id="noteref_1019" name="noteref_1019" href="#note_1019"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1019</span></span></a> it has
been to free thought that we owe the emancipation of
the human mind. Or, when the church linked itself in
alliance with a decaying political system, as in the last
century in France, it was free thought that recalled to
it the lesson to render to Cæsar the things that were
Cæsar's, and to God the things that were God's. It is
instances like these, where free thought has been the
means of making undoubted contributions to human
improvement, or of asserting toleration, which have led
writers to describe it as almost innocuous, and hastily
to regard the ratio of the emancipation of the human
mind from the teaching of the priesthood to be the sole
measure of human improvement.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In many instances also, free thought has indirectly
contributed to intellectual good, in points where it has
ran a greater risk, than in those just cited, of trespassing
upon the sacred truths of religion; instances, in fact,
where the benefit resulting has been owing to the overruling
Providence which brings good out of evil, rather
than to any direct intention on the part of those who
have exercised it. Examples are to be found in those
epochs, when some sudden outburst of knowledge compelled
a reconsideration of old truths by the light of
new discoveries. The awakening of the mind in the
middle age, the Renaissance, the advance of modern
science, the birth of literary criticism, are instances of
such moments, wherein free inquiry has been a necessity
forced on the mind by outward circumstances, not
self-prompted. This attitude of inquiry, this exercise
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of a provisional doubt, was not, like that described,
called forth merely by the circumstance that religion
had received additions from error, but must have arisen
even if the faith once delivered had been preserved uncorrupted.
For religion being a fixed truth, while truth
in other departments is progressive, it would have been
impossible to avoid the necessity of comparison of it
with them from time to time, in those spheres where it
intersected the field occupied by them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such examples, indeed, are not restricted to Christian
history, but are general facts of the history of the
human mind. The fifth century B.C. was such an
epoch in Greece;<a id="noteref_1020" name="noteref_1020" href="#note_1020"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1020</span></span></a>
when various causes, social and intellectual,
created a sudden awakening of the human
mind to reconsider its old beliefs, and find a home for
the new views of nature and of the world which were
opening. The free thought of the Sophists was the
scepticism of doubt, of distrust; the proposal to surrender,
to destroy the old: the free thought of Socrates
was the scepticism of inquiry, the attempt to reconsider
first principles, to rebuild truth anew. In all such moments,
investigation is indirectly the means of stimulating
knowledge. The history of the progress of it, in
reference to the difficulties which have beset the Christian
church, shows us that the epochs of doubt have not
generally been produced by unbelief taking the initiative
in attacking old truths without some fresh stimulus,
and repeating old objections so as to exhibit perpetually
recurring cycles of unbelief. We have rather seen that
doubt is reawakened by the introduction of new forms
of knowledge; and though old doubts recur, yet that
they come arrayed in a new garb, suggested by different
motives, deduced from fresh premises, and accompanied
by doubts of a new kind before unknown. In a practical
point of view, frequently they may be thought not to
differ widely in appearance from old ones, and to present
similar effects as well as forms; but in a scientific
one, they ought not to be confounded, inasmuch as they
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
do not present identity of cause. There has been a slow
but real progress in knowledge, and a slow but real
change in the modes of applying it to Christian religion.
The effect of the defence offered for Christianity
is equally powerful in leaving its impress on subsequent
doubt, as the progress of knowledge is in suggesting
novelty of form. The sphere is narrowed, or the direction
changed. If thought seems to have come round in
its revolution to the same spot in its orbit, it will be
found to be moving not on a circle, but on a spiral;
slowly but surely approaching a little nearer to the
great central truth, toward which it is unconsciously
attracted.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The value of the free inquiry in this latter class of
cases is not in the process, but in the results; in producing
the branch of theology which sets forth the evidences
of revealed truth. We have previously had
occasion to imply that the Christian evidences are too
often regarded as mere weapons of defence; like the
battle-fields of history, monuments of the struggle of
evil. Being a form of truth which would never have
been called forth if the church had not been attacked,
the apologetic literature is usually regarded, either as
obsolete because controversial, or as useless for believers.
Yet truths brought to light by it, though dearly purchased,
are a real contribution to Christian knowledge.
As miracles are a part of Christianity as well as an evidence,
so apologetic literature, while useful in argument,
serves the purpose of instruction as well as of
defence.<a id="noteref_1021" name="noteref_1021" href="#note_1021"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1021</span></span></a> The controversy with heresy or unbelief has
caused truths to be perceived explicitly, which otherwise
would have been only implicit; and has illustrated
features of the Christian doctrine which might otherwise
have remained hidden. Though these good results
have not been designed by unbelievers, and cannot
therefore warrant the claim asserted for scepticism, that
it is always innocuous, nor be set down to the credit of
free thought as a spirit; yet they evidence the value
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of it as a method; the free thought, that is, which is
inquiry and consideration, not that which is disbelief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
While therefore fully appreciating the reverent wish
of Christian men to defend the truth with sacred tenacity,
which leads them to regard all doubt with alarm;
we can frankly allow the function and use of the phenomenon
of doubt in history, when viewed as an intellectual
fact. The use of it is to test all beliefs, with the
view of bringing out their truth and error. But the
good result has often, we perceive, been undesigned.
It has frequently too been dearly bought, attained at an
incalculable spiritual loss to the souls of those who have
doubted. The result accordingly leaves untouched the
responsibility of the doubter, and only shows the use
which an allwise Providence makes free thought subserve
in the general progress of the world.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But the heart asks a further moral. Though it derives
satisfaction from perceiving that even features of
history which seem the darkest, and moments the most
perilous, bear witness to the presence of a benevolent
Creator, who overrules all for the improvement of man
and the progress of the church; it still claims to know
what those limits are, where doubt must expire in awe,
and speculation in adoration. It longs to exercise
inquiry, and yet retain the Christian faith. It asks
earnestly what does the history teach us concerning the
doubts that are most likely to meet us in our lifetime,
and what lessons are supplied by it in reference to the
best mode at once of maintaining our own faith, and of
leading those who doubt to the faith which we receive.
The materials are supplied for an answer to these questions;
probably even the materials for the final answer
which the church can give to them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We venture not to utter predictions in reference to
the future; but the thought is interesting and solemn,
that there seems some reason to believe that the weapons
which doubt on the one hand, and religion on the
other, must use in the final adjudication of their claims,
at least in reference to all fundamental questions, are
already in men's hands. Though our express denial
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
that doubt perpetually recurs in cycles might cause it
to be supposed that we should be inclined to anticipate
the existence of future crises of faith; yet we have remarked
that such crises are always produced by the
opening of some unexplored field of knowledge, the introduction
of a collection of new ideas or of a new
spirit excited by new ideas, on subjects traversed either
by the Christian religion, or by the Christian inspired
books. A survey of the present state of knowledge
would probably lead us to think that no field lies unexamined
from which such new material can hereafter
come. The physical sciences which, by the discovery
of an order of nature and general laws of causation,
have heretofore suggested difficulties in reference to
miraculous interposition, and, by means of the discoveries
in astronomy and geology, have come into conflict
with the ancient Hebrew cosmogony, are not likely to
suggest fresh ones distinct in kind from the past. If
there be not ground for discouragement in science, nor
for doubting that the present state of it, which seems to
offer employment for originality of mind rather in tracking
old principles into details than in ascending to new
ones,<a id="noteref_1022" name="noteref_1022" href="#note_1022"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1022</span></span></a> is merely a temporary one, destined to pass away
when some happy guess shall reveal the highest laws
which now baffle inquiry; yet it is not probable that
such an advance will traverse the province of religion.
The survey of those regions where discovery seems
most hopeful, will explain the reason of this assumption.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If the present examination of some of the subtler
forms of matter or of force,<a id="noteref_1023" name="noteref_1023" href="#note_1023"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1023</span></span></a> and of their existence in
other globes of the solar system than our own, should
hereafter lead to a generalization which shall extend
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
natural philosophy as widely beyond its present limits
as the discovery made by Newton beyond those of his
predecessors, yet these discoveries can have no bearing,
favourable or unfavourable to religion, distinct in kind
from that of present ones. If even a still mightier
stride should be taken, and physiology be able to lay
bare the subtle processes through which mind acts on
body;<a id="noteref_1024" name="noteref_1024" href="#note_1024"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1024</span></span></a> yet the difficulty would only be an enhanced
form of that which is already used to discredit the spirituality
and immortality of the soul.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If we pass from the physical to the moral or metaphysical
sciences, there is still less ground for expecting
progress. True so far as they go, they offer no opportunity
for enlargement, unless perhaps a more careful analysis, by means of
the fertile principle of mental association,<a id="noteref_1025" name="noteref_1025" href="#note_1025"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1025</span></span></a>
should cast light on the sensational source
of ideas and the physiological side of mind; and even
this would leave the independent evidence of the mental
data, moral and intellectual, of religion, on the same
basis as at present. Critical science again has attained
such perfection, that there is no possibility of an entirely
new range of critical thought springing up in reference
to religion, such as arose when the German mind was
creating the science of historical criticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thus, though each branch of science,—physical,
metaphysical, and critical,—offers grounds of hope to
the labourer, there is no reason to fear that sceptical
difficulties will be generated by any of them, distinct in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
kind from those which now exist. And a similar line
of argument will suggest, that there is little reason to
hope, on the other hand, for enlargement of the grounds
of the evidence of natural and revealed religion. If
this be the case, the materials are accordingly supplied,
from which thoughtful students must make up
their minds finally on the questions at issue. Indeed
the survey of modern thought which we have already
made, will have shown that men are already taking
their place in hostile array; and will have revealed
differences so fundamental in reference to religion, on
subjects where no further evidence can be offered, that
there can be little reason to hope for the alteration of
the state of parties to the end of time. Never was
there an age wherein Christianity had so real, so potent
an effect as the present; yet never was there one which,
while so largely moulded by it, was so really hostile to
it.<a id="noteref_1026" name="noteref_1026" href="#note_1026"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1026</span></span></a> It is the hostility, not of opposition which regards
Christianity as false, but of the criticism which views it
as obsolete, and considers it to be one phase of the
world's religious thought, the eternal truths of which
may be assimilated without the historic and dogmatic
basis under which its originators conceived it. Though
the special forms of doubt that now exist derive their
lineage, philosophical and historical, from the modern
German and French sources, which we have studied in
the last two lectures; yet it is in an older age of European
history that the nearest general parallel to the
present state of feeling may perhaps be found; and
there is a deep truth in the analogy which the learned
and excellent critic,<a id="noteref_1027" name="noteref_1027" href="#note_1027"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1027</span></span></a>
who has recently made a special
study of the struggle of classical heathenism against
Christianity, has pointed out, between the feeling of
philosophers in the second and third centuries of the
Christian era and in the present time.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Amid very wide differences in tone and learning,
there is this fundamental agreement between the age
which was enriched with the accumulated learning of
the old civilization, and the present, enriched with that
of the new. There is the same spirit of naturalism; the
same indisposition to rise to the belief of the interference
of Deity; the same feeling of contempt for positive
religions; the same sensation of heart-weariness,—the
utterance as it were of the desponding feeling,
<span class="tei tei-q">“Who will show us any good?”</span> the same lofty theory
of stoic morality, and disposition to find perfection in
obedience to nature's laws, physical and moral; the
same approximation to the Christian ideal of perfection,
while destroying the very proof of the means by which
it is to be acquired. And if it be true that the state of
intellectual men presents so marked a parallel, so in like
manner the study of the arguments by which the early
fathers in their apologetic treatises met the doubts of
such minds, becomes a question of great practical as
well as literary interest.<a id="noteref_1028" name="noteref_1028" href="#note_1028"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1028</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
What then are the doubts which are most likely to
meet us, either insinuating themselves into our own
minds, or offering their difficulty to those who intend
to become ministers of Christ? and what are the means
by which they may be most effectually repelled?
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The main difficulties may be summed up as three:—
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1) The question of the relation of religion, and
more particularly of Christianity, to the human soul;
whether religion is anything but morality, and Christianity
its highest type.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(2) The question of the relation of the work of
Christ to the human race, whether it involves a secret
mystery of redemption known only to God, and hidden
from the ken of man, except so far as revealed; or
whether it is to be measured by the human mind, and
reduced to the proportions which can be appropriated
or understood by man.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(3) The question of the relation of the Bible to the
human mind, whether it is to be that of a friend or a
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
master; and its religious teaching to be a record or an
oracular authority.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of recent doubt has brought before us
some whose minds doubt wholly of the supernatural.
In the case of a few of these, but only of a few, the doubt
has passed into positive unbelief; their convictions
have become so fixed that they manifest a fierce spirit
of proselytism, and can dare to point the finger of scorn
at those who still believe in the unseen and supernatural
relations of God to the human soul. Between
these and religious men the struggle is internecine.
We can have no sympathy with them: we can rejoice
that they retain a moral standard, where they have rejected
many of the most potent motives which support
it; but must tremble lest their unbelief end in thorough
animalism; lest Epicureanism be their final philosophy.
But there are many more whose tone is that of sadness,
not of scorn; the temper of Heracleitus, not Democritus;
whose souls feel the longing want which nothing
but communion with a Father in heaven can supply,
but who are so clouded with doubt, and retain so faint
a hold on the thought of God's interference, and on the
reality of the supernatural, that they are unable to soar
on the wings of faith beyond the natural, either material
or spiritual, up to the throne of God.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of such men generally tells of some
mighty mental convulsion, which has driven them from
their anchor-ground of belief. Sometimes the study
of science, as it is seen gradually to absorb successive
ranges of phenomena into the regular operation of universal
law, until it removes God far away, and creation
seems to move on without His interference, has been
the cause:—in other cases philanthropic pity, musing
on the sad catastrophes which daily occur, when the
happiness and lives of innocent human beings are for
ever destroyed by the stem unyielding action of nature's
laws, leading the heart to doubt God's nearness,
and the fact of a special Providence:—in other cases
again, the study of the human mind in history, and the
perception of the manner in which the gradual growth
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of knowledge seems to lessen the region of the supernatural,
until the mind doubts whether the supernatural
itself is not the mere <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idolum tribûs</span></span>, a mere giving objective
being to a subjective idea, a truth relative merely
to a particular stage of civilization. Such causes as
these, producing a convulsion of feeling, may form the
sad occasion from which the soul dates its loss of the
grasp which it has heretofore had over the belief of
God's nearness, and of religion; and mark the moment
from which it has gradually doubted whether anything
exists save eternal law; or whether a personal Deity,
if he exist, really communes with man; whether, in
short, religion be anything but duty, and Christianity
anything but the noble type of it to which one branch
of the Semitic people was happy enough to attain.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Doubts like these, where they exist in a high-principled
and delicate mind, are the saddest sight in
nature. The spirit that feels them does not try to
proselytise; they are his sorrow: he wishes not others
to taste their bitterness. Any one of us who may have
ever felt chilled, as the thought insinuated itself, of the
remote possibility of the perception of the machine-like
sweep of universal law removing our belief of the guardian
care of Him to whom alone we can fly for refuge
when heart or flesh faileth, as to a Father as infinite in
tenderness as in condescension, the friend of the friendless:—whoever
has known the bitterness of the thought
of a universe unguided by a God of justice, and without
an eternity wherein the cry of an afflicted creation shall
no longer remain unavenged, has known the first taste
of the cup of sorrow which is mournfully drunk by
spirits such as we are describing. And who that has
known it would grudge the labour of a life, if by example,
by exhortation, by prayer, he might be the means
of rescuing one such soul?
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Yet no task is so hard; argument well nigh fails,
because the doubts refer to those very ultimate facts
which are usually required as data for argument. If
intellectual means are sought for remedy, it is philosophy
to which we must look to supply it;—the philosophy
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which recalls man to the natural realism of the
heart, to the simple unsophisticated trust in the reality
of the spiritual intuitions, not as derived from sense
only, nor merely as necessary forms of thought, but as
the vision of a personal God by the human soul.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If however there is any field which requires the
presence of moral means, it is this: and we who believe
in a God who careth so much for man that He spared
not His own Son for our sakes, may well look upwards
for help in such instances; in hope that the infinite
Father, whose love overlooks not one single solitary
case of sorrowing doubt, will condescend to reveal himself
to all such hearts which are groping after Him, if
haply they may find Him. The soul of such doubters
is like the clouded sky: the warming beams of the Sun
of righteousness can alone absorb the mist, and restore
the unclouded brightness of a believing heart.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The instances however are rare, where we meet with
a chaos of faith, half pantheism, half atheism, such as
that which we have just described. The great majority
of doubters are persons who not only retain a tenacious
grasp over monotheism, but even possess a love for
Christianity. Their love is however for a modified form
of it, different from that which the apostles taught.
They cordially believe that God cares for man, and that
He has spoken to man through His Son. They accept
the superhuman, perhaps the divine, character of Christ;
but they consider his life to be a mere example of unrivalled
teaching, and of marvellous self-sacrifice; his
death the mere martyrdom that formed the crowning
act of majestic self-devotion. God's gift of His son is
accordingly, in their view, to reconcile man to God; to
remove the obstacle of distrust which prevented man
from coming to God, by showing forth the love which
God already bore to the world; not to remove obstacles,
known or unknown, which prevented God from showing
mercy to man. Christ is accepted as a teacher, and as
a king, but not as a priest. His work is viewed as
having for its purpose, to inculcate and embody a
higher type of morality, not to work out a scheme of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
redemption. The ethical element of Christianity becomes
elevated above the dogmatic. The sermon on
the mount is regarded as the very soul of Christ's teaching.
And in looking forward to the future of Christianity,
the Christian religion is considered likely to
become the religion of the world, merely because it will
have ceased to be the religion of form and dogma, and
become the highest type of ethics.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Views like these are common, and their compatibility
with Christianity is defended in different ways:—sometimes
by the bold attempt, as in the speculations of
the Tübingen school, to prove that primitive Christianity
was such a religion as that just described; that the
dogmatic Christianity of the early fathers was the addition
made by philosophy to the first doctrine, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">idola
theatri</span></span>, which haunted the minds of the early teachers;
and that the books of the New Testament, to which we
appeal to prove the contrary, belong to a later date
than that usually assigned:—sometimes, with less consistency,
admitting the antiquity of the dogmas, by
representing that we can penetrate into the philosophy
of the apostolic doctrine, and express in modern phrase,
more clearly than in the ancient, the meaning which
was intended to be conveyed:—at other times, by regarding
all truth as relative to its age, and supposing
that Christ's work was seen by the light of the sacrificial
and Messianic ideas common in the apostolic times.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Connected with this fundamental disagreement with
the ordinary teaching of the Christian church, on the
central question of Christ's work and the nature of
Christianity, is the cognate question concerning the relation
of the Bible as a rule of faith. Its superiority to
ordinary books is admitted, as cordially as the superiority
of Christ's work to that of ordinary beings; but the
religious contents of it, not to speak of the literary, are
criticised, not indeed in a polemical, but in an independent
spirit; and are measured in the manner just described,
and approved or rejected in accordance with it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Thus these two questions,—the atoning work of
Christ, and the authority of the scriptures,—are the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
two forms of doubt which are most likely to meet us in
the present age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The expression of them in the clergy of any particular
church may of course, if it be deemed necessary, be
prevented by political means. A church, if regarded
merely in a worldly point of view, is a political as well
as a spiritual institution, where the members cede somewhat
of individual freedom for the good of the whole;
a compact where certain privileges and remunerations
are granted, in return for the communication of certain
kinds of instruction, and the performance of certain
offices: and no one can object that the terms of a treaty
be maintained; but the prevention of the expression of
doubt is not the extinction of the feeling. And such
acts of repression cannot reach the laity of the church,
even if they touch the clergy. The inquiry accordingly
here intended, as to the means for repressing such
doubts, does not descend to the political question, but is
a spiritual one; viz. if these doctrines are contrary to
Christ, how can such thinkers be directed by moral
means to the truth which we believe? or what reason
can we give for the hope that is in us, which leads us to
decline yielding up one iota of dogmatic Christianity to
them?
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of evidences offers a series of experiments,
in which we may find an answer to these questions,
by studying the different methods adopted in
various centuries for spreading Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the earliest age of the church, previous to the
establishment of Christianity as the state religion, we
observe the unaided appeal to argument, and especially
the abundant use made of the internal evidence, or
philosophical argument concerning the excellence of
Christianity, as a means for arresting attention, preparatory
to the presentation of the external and historic
proof.<a id="noteref_1029" name="noteref_1029" href="#note_1029"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1029</span></span></a> In the long interval of the middle ages, the
church was able to supplement or supersede argument
by force; yet it must be admitted that the political and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
intellectual condition of the European mind was then,
to a large extent, such as to receive benefit from the
imposition of an external rule of religious authority and
doctrine, in the same manner that individuals, when in
a state of childhood, need a rule, not a principle; a
law, not a reason.<a id="noteref_1030" name="noteref_1030" href="#note_1030"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1030</span></span></a> This method however was unsuited
when the mind of Europe awoke, and when free thought
could no longer be suppressed by force.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of evidences since the spread of modern
unbelief exhibits not only the return to the ancient
Christian weapon of argument instead of force; but not
unfrequently to the ancient mode of presenting the
philosophical proof prior to the historical.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An attempt of this kind was intermingled with the
English school of evidences of the last century; and the
argument of analogy used by Butler, if viewed as constructive,
and not refutative, may be considered to have
for its object to prepare the mind for accepting revealed
religion, by first showing the probability of it on the
ground of its similarity to nature. (<a href="#Note_48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>) And in the
German movement, where the doubt thrown by criticism
over the historical evidences even still more compelled
the resort to the philosophical argument on the
part of those who strove to defend the faith, we have
seen various attempts to reconstruct Christianity from
the philosophical side.<a id="noteref_1031" name="noteref_1031" href="#note_1031"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1031</span></span></a>
Both methods, the philosophical
and the historical, have had their place; but their
use has varied with the wants of the age. In proportion
as the pressure of doubt left less opportunity for
the constraining force of the latter, the persuasiveness
of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> moral argument has been used.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of the means which have been successful
in removing doubts lends little support to the opinion
which would save the faith by the sacrifice of the reason,
or would imperil the truth of religion by throwing
discredit on the immutability of moral distinctions,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
perceived by the conscience which Providence has
placed in the human mind; to which the great writers
on evidence have been wont to make their appeal; and
which they have justly perceived must lie at the basis
of the evidences themselves. <span class="tei tei-q">“If the light that is in
thee be darkness, how great is that darkness!”</span>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The two periods in church history among those here
named, which offer most instruction to us in consequence
of affording examples of the same class of difficulties
as those which we encounter, are, the struggle
in the early centuries, and that in Germany during the
present. The line of argument which was used in the
former of these crises is seen in the Alexandrian school
of the fathers in the third century, and that used in
the latter, in the school of Schleiermacher. The study
of the life and mental development of Schleiermacher's
disciple, Neander, would be in this view one of the most
valuable in history.<a id="noteref_1032" name="noteref_1032" href="#note_1032"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1032</span></span></a> He was himself led by the
mercy and providence of God to the knowledge of
Christ; his own spirit was rescued from doubts such as
we describe; his life was spent in trying to save
others from the like difficulties, and to plant their feet
upon the rock upon which he himself stood: and it
is only the secrets of the great day that will declare
the number of the souls that were led by his teaching
to find Christ and salvation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In both these periods the method adopted for recommending
Christianity was, to carry out the plan
used by St. Paul at Athens,<a id="noteref_1033" name="noteref_1033" href="#note_1033"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1033</span></span></a> to lay a basis for the
proof of it by developing the moral and philosophical
argument.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the Alexandrian period the method used was,
to show that all former religions, all former philosophies,
were not unmixed error, but contained the germ of
truth, which Christianity gathered into itself; to exhibit
Christianity as the fulfilment in the field of history
of the world's yearnings, and thus to awaken the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
response of the heart to the narrative of its message.<a id="noteref_1034" name="noteref_1034" href="#note_1034"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1034</span></span></a>
Reasons, to which allusion has before been made,<a id="noteref_1035" name="noteref_1035" href="#note_1035"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1035</span></span></a> may
have lessened the utility at that period of the positive
evidence, which proves the fact that a Redeemer had
been given; but we cannot doubt that, independently
of this circumstance, a deep philosophical reason suggested
the stress which was laid on the moral argument,
on account of its suitability for convincing the
opponent;—a reason indeed to which the history of
some of the fathers gave a personal force in the fact
that it was by this manner that they had themselves
been led to accept of Christianity.<a id="noteref_1036" name="noteref_1036" href="#note_1036"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1036</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the German period the same method has been
adopted, with the corresponding alterations suggested
by modern philosophy. Not to mention the instructive
attempts of the school of Kant to find a philosophy
from the subjective side of religion, in the denial of its
possibility if attempted on the objective, and to exhibit
the limitations of the human mind in speculating on
the subject of religious method; nor again to mention
the bold attempt of Hegel, to which we have previously
taken exception as opposing the simplicity that is in
Christ, to work out this forbidden problem, and find a
philosophy for Christianity on the objective side: we
allude to that which has marked the disciples of Schleiermacher
to find it on the subjective as a life, and fact,
and doctrine, which fulfils the yearnings of the individual
heart.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In pursuing a method of this kind, the appeal must
be made to the inextinguishable feeling of guilt; to
our personal consciousness of a personal judge; our
terror at the sense of justice; our penitence for our
own ill deserts; the deep consciousness of the load of
sin as an insupportable burden from which we cannot
rescue ourselves; and to the guilt of it which separates
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
between us and God, as a bitter memory that we are
powerless to wipe away.<a id="noteref_1037" name="noteref_1037" href="#note_1037"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1037</span></span></a>
When these facts are not
only established as psychological realities, but appropriated
as personal convictions, then the way is prepared
for the reception of Christianity. The heart, by
realising the personality of God, is at once elevated
above naturalism or pantheism. It feels that in Christ's
incarnation it finds God near, the infinite become finite,
God linked to the heart of a man; and in his atonement
it finds God merciful. Its deep instinct leads it
to reject the theories which would pare down the marvel
of that mystery. Its consciousness of guilt tells it
of an obstacle which it cannot believe to lie merely in
itself, but attributes to the mind of the infinite Spirit
which it wants a method for removing. No mere example
of majestic self-sacrifice proclaiming God's love
to man suffices to solace its sorrows. Some mighty
process, wrought out between the Son and the almighty
Father, is instinctively felt to be necessary, as the
means by which God can be just and yet the justifier of
the sinful. And when philosophy has thus prepared
the heart by its appeal to the yearnings of the soul, and
brought it to long for the very remedy which Christianity
supplies; then the historic argument can be
properly introduced, to afford the solid comforting assurance
that the remedy wanted has really been given;
that miracles and prophecy are divine evidences, attesting
the truth of the claim that certain teachers at a
particular period received superhuman aid to reveal
certain religious truths. (<a href="#Note_49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of persuasion however is not yet completed;
for, ere the heart can fully trust with adoring
thankfulness, there are no less than three questions
which must still be answered, if the object be to direct
doubt instead of suppressing it, and to lead a sinner to
Christ by the bands of love.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first will be the literary one, as to the trustworthiness
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the books of the New Testament, which
are the record of this teaching.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The second, the inquiry into the fact whether the
books teach, and whether the early church taught, dogmatic
Christianity as the church now presents it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The third, though of such a nature as in a great
degree to be suppressed by the claim of authority already
conceded to the apostolic teachers, may still
rise up to harass the mind if a further answer be not
supplied: it refers to the reason that we possess for
believing, that if these teachers asserted such truths
as dogmatic Christianity, and especially vicarious atonement,
these doctrines were a real verity, and not merely
a passing form under which the truth presented
itself to their minds, to be explained away by after
ages into less mysterious and more self-evident truths.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first of these questions, which concerns the
trustworthiness of the books, has been most thoroughly
tested by the historical criticism of Germany. The
data are thus presented for forming a final decision,
which in the opinion of most persons will probably be
widely different from that which has been arrived at
by critics in that country. Yet, supposing we should
meet with a doubter who accepted all the views of the
Tübingen school,<a id="noteref_1038" name="noteref_1038" href="#note_1038"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1038</span></span></a> there are nevertheless four books of
the New Testament, the genuineness of which the most
extravagant criticism fully admits; viz. the Epistles of
St. Paul to the Romans, to the Galatians, and the two
to the Corinthians. These four would be sufficient to
establish the main articles of dogmatic teaching as presented
in the creeds of the Christian church, and the
main outline of Gospel and Jewish history as facts on
the reality of which St. Paul and his converts relied,
and for which he was staking his life. Suppose the
Gospels and the Acts<a id="noteref_1039" name="noteref_1039" href="#note_1039"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1039</span></span></a>
involved in the historic uncertainty
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which these critics have attributed to them; yet
we possess in the Galatians the outline of the life of
Paul, the statement of the reason why Paul accepted a
religion which he detested. The incomparable argument
of Lyttleton<a id="noteref_1040" name="noteref_1040" href="#note_1040"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1040</span></span></a> irrefragably proves his honesty.
He cannot have been a deceiver. Let the reader of the
Galatians say if he was deceived. The two Epistles to
Corinth attest the history of the early church; the Epistle
to the Romans its dogmatic beliefs. If there is a doubting
heart, thoroughly imbued with the most destructive
criticism, unable to find historical standing-ground in
scripture, he may surely find it in the study of these
four works of St. Paul.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The second question, whether the great features of
the dogmatic teaching which we receive, and especially
the doctrine of vicarious atonement, are taught in the
New Testament, admits of satisfactory settlement. The
negative of this position has been asserted, in consequence
of the alleged fact that this particular doctrine
is rather expressed implicitly than explicitly in the
earliest fathers; which is to be accounted for by the
tendency, while contending against Jewish monotheism,
or heathen theism, to put forward the messiahship and
incarnation of Christ, in comparison with other religions,
rather than his atoning work.<a id="noteref_1041" name="noteref_1041" href="#note_1041"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1041</span></span></a> Careful study
will soon decide a question of this kind, if directed first
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to the text of scripture; and secondly, as is most important
in all questions of the history of doctrine, to the
fathers, as the historic witnesses at once to the teaching
of their day, and to the traditions of the teaching of an
older age than their own.<a id="noteref_1042" name="noteref_1042" href="#note_1042"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1042</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Supposing however that the authenticity of the
books be granted, and the existence in them of dogmatic
teaching, as we now hold it, be conceded; how
are we to answer the final misgiving which might arise,
that a doctrine like the atonement was not merely truth
relatively to the age in which it was taught, to be surrendered
if it conflict with the moral sense? If indeed
miraculous attestation, the authority of supernatural
assistance, be conceded, this doubt will be extinguished
in most minds by such an admission; but how is it to
be fully met, consistently with our object to point out
how a doubter may be directed, who desires not to have
the natural revelation in his heart crushed, and yet who
does not claim, like the deists, that he must comprehend
that which he believes, but only that at least he must
apprehend it?<a id="noteref_1043" name="noteref_1043" href="#note_1043"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1043</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We concede the authority of the moral sense to
check all dogmas that are not shown to be part of the
teaching of men supernaturally inspired; and we should
feel surprised if there were a direct conflict between
God's voice through the apostles and God's voice
through the human conscience. Probably it could be
shown that no such conflict exists; but if it did, we
should be inclined to ask whether the moral sense,
infallible in what it forbids, is equally so in what it
asserts:<a id="noteref_1044" name="noteref_1044" href="#note_1044"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1044</span></span></a>
whether it cannot possibly admit of such
improvement as would cause the difficulty not to be
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
felt; or, if felt, to be cancelled by one of those mental
antinomies,<a id="noteref_1045" name="noteref_1045" href="#note_1045"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1045</span></span></a> the existence of which is undeniable: or
whether there is not still independent and contemporary
evidence, to which appeal can be made, to corroborate
the apostles' teaching.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Let us, for example, suppose that we have come to
the conclusion, that the apostles taught the doctrine of
the atonement; and that our moral sense is puzzled
with the justice of the system, of the transfer of merit
implied in those analogies under which the mysterious
verity is unveiled to us, and with its apparent incompatibility
with a corrective theory of punishment: the
thought of error, or of merely relative truth, in the
apostles' teaching in such a matter, is forbidden to the
mind of any one who admits the least divine inspiration
in them, from the fact that this is the innermost and
most sacred truth of their creed. We could imagine
the early teachers left unaided in all matters irrelevant
to religion; nay, by a stretch of supposition, possibly
even in some unimportant things appertaining to religion
itself: but a mistake on the work and office of
Christ,—the very point which, of all others, they were
commissioned to teach;—an ingredient of error insinuating
itself here, is utterly improbable. If even the
inspired authority were denied, the improbability would
be hardly less apparent. For this was not a doctrine
of the head, but of the feelings; not a fact coldly believed,
but appropriated; the voice of the inmost consciousness.
If the story of the apostles be true, that
the belief of this doctrine, and the prayers founded
upon it, had made them changed men; if too their history
testifies to the reality of their professions of extraordinary
holiness; we could not, even if we did not
know from their writings that they were men who were
accustomed to the careful analysis of their own feelings,
conceive a fatal falsehood to lurk here, in a point where
the mixture of inference with consciousness must have
been reduced to a minimum.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In this particular case of the atonement, there is
however an independent proof of the correctness of the
apostles' teaching, through the corroboration of it which
is offered by the Christian consciousness of the church.
We have before had occasion<a id="noteref_1046" name="noteref_1046" href="#note_1046"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1046</span></span></a> to explain the introduction
of this idea in the teaching of Schleiermacher, and
to protest against the use which he proposed to make of
it as a source of truth, independently of the Christian
consciousness of the apostles and first teachers; as the
gradual source of doctrinal progress, the oracular utterance
to this age, as the apostolic consciousness was to
the first age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
But there is a deep truth in it, if we use the Christian
consciousness, not to supersede scripture, but as
the living corroboration and interpreter of it. The
Spirit of God still works on the hearts of men morally,
as upon the apostles of old; not by conferring the intellectual
gift of inspiration, but in the moral gifts of penitence,
of conversion, of pardon, of holiness. Holy men
now feel the Spirit of God striving with them as the
apostles did, and appropriate the excellence of Christianity,
and feel its renovating power now as then.
Therefore the attestation of these men, such as is collected
by an induction founded on their biographies,
to the fact that when they analyse their secret feelings
with the most exact care, they recognise that the pardon
which they receive is through the mercy of Christ;
that their moments of most hallowed communion with
the Father-spirit are when they approach the throne of
mercy through the mediation and intercession of another,
Christ Jesus; that the victory vouchsafed to them
over temptation, is by His merits; that their heart finds
no Father for one moment except through him;—this
evidence, if it can be accepted, is an independent corroboration
of dogmatic truth. It may be explained
away, by denying the truth of their analysis, or by
referring their feeling to mental association; but it
cannot fail to have a persuasive force for those who
have faith in the instinctive utterances of the human
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
soul: and the reliance upon it is not more extraordinary
than that on which we depend in cognate subjects like
æsthetics, where the taste of practical skill is trusted.
Christian consciousness thus becomes a new source of
facts in theological study; the living voice of the
church for illustrating and confirming in some degree
the utterance of men of old, who spake that which was
revealed to their souls by the inspiring Spirit.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such are the chief steps which the history of evidences,
in the contest with early heathenism, as well as
in the recent struggle in Germany, seems to point out
as the most likely to lead a doubter to Christ; and
such the order in which the philosophical and historical
evidences ought to be respectively presented, if our
object be to give due heed to the desire which an inquirer
evinces to appropriate the truth which he believes.
Such too, if the opinion already advanced concerning
the future of modern doubt be correct, seems
to be the final answer which the church can give.
Without undue compromise, commencing with the internal
evidence, we thus lead men to the external, and
make philosophy as it were the schoolmaster to lead to
Christ.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The third question of those which we enumerated as
likely to press upon us, viz. that which refers to the
inspiration of the scriptures, requires only a few words;
inasmuch as the treatment of it has already, to some
extent, been implied.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This question has been elevated, since the Reformation,
to an importance which it hardly possessed before.
Since the authority of the Bible has been substituted
for the authority of the church, it has been
usual to regard the scriptures as the mode of leading
men to Christ, instead of considering the knowledge of
Christ received through the ministrations of the church
as the clue to interpret scripture. Logically, the scripture
is the rule of faith, the ground of the church's
teaching; but chronologically, the teaching of the church
is the means of our knowing the scripture.<a id="noteref_1047" name="noteref_1047" href="#note_1047"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1047</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A caution hence arises, that we should not be willing
to allow preliminary difficulties, which a doubter
may have in reference to the scriptures, to deter us
from leading him straight to Christ, and then allowing
him by the light of this teaching to reconsider the question
of the scripture. The difficulties will generally be
found to have reference to the historical and literary
portions, rather than the doctrinal, or those portions of
the literature which contain the doctrinal. If indeed
they refer to the doctrinal, they must be answered at
the outset in the manner already shown. If however
to the literary, they will be viewed in a different light,
if the doubter has been brought to appreciate the central
truths of Christianity, from that which they will
bear if wrangled out on the threshold of his approach.
In the last century indeed, the comparative importance
of the doctrinal parts of scripture over the literary was
so perceived, when doubts were pressed on the attention
of the clergy by the pertinacity of the deist controversialists,
that many of the eminent writers restricted the
plenary inspiration of the scripture writers to the appropriate
matter of the revelation, the supernatural
communication of the miraculous system of redemption;
and conceived that it was no derogation from the
supreme religious authority of the sacred writers, but
rather compatible with the loftiest idea of the providential
adaptation of means to ends, to suppose them
unassisted in literary matters, such as the transcription
of genealogies, the reference to natural phenomena, or
the literal exactitude of quotations. The jewel of divine
truth did not, in their opinion, sparkle less brilliantly
because it was handed down in a frame of
antique setting. (<a href="#Note_50" class="tei tei-ref">50</a>) In the present day there is a
strong reaction in religious minds in favour of the opposite
view, identical with the one held in the seventeenth
century by the Puritans. The reaction is only a
special instance of the general movement in favour of
authority, political and ecclesiastical, which has taken
a sudden advance throughout the religious part of
Europe, in opposition to the subjective tendency already
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
noticed in secular literature.<a id="noteref_1048" name="noteref_1048" href="#note_1048"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1048</span></span></a> This special view however
is dictated by a noble motive, a watchful fear lest
the loss of a single atom may weaken the whole structure.
Whether it be true or not is not at present under
consideration, but merely the caution which ought to
be used in pressing it upon doubters at the outset of an
approach to the subject of religion. If the object be
really to draw them to Christ, we must become all
things to all men; and, while not mutilating the heavenly
message, take heed not to repel the weak believer
from coming to the Saviour, by interposing unnecessary
literary obstacles.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is very common to hear or to read the dilemma
put before the doubter, that he must accept everything
or nothing in Christianity and the Bible.<a id="noteref_1049" name="noteref_1049" href="#note_1049"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1049</span></span></a> Such an
alternative, though dictated by a commendable motive,
is likely to prove ineffectual. The Dilemma is a form of
reasoning which rarely persuades. Its object is rather
to silence than to convince. It is more a trick of rhetoric
than an argument of logic. It may make a person
pause by showing him his apparent position; but the
heart, if not the head, can always find means to escape
from an alternative which it dislikes. And in this particular
case the use of it involves the risk of overlooking
the different degrees of importance which belong to different
portions of religion, and the very different degrees
or evidence on which different portions of it rest.
Though the smallest circumstances in reference to it are
of importance, yet it were less vital to doubt the miraculous
inspiration of a genealogy than the authoritative
teaching of an epistle; or to doubt the date of a book
than its contents. No doubt is unimportant; but it
were merely repeating the sophistry of the Stoics, in
making all sins equal, to deny gradations of importance
in doubts; gradations which however are not here put
forward to defend eclecticism, but to enforce the lesson,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
that, in dealing with a doubter, the consideration of this
fact must guide us in the order in which we present the
evidence of different parts to his mind. It not unfrequently
happens that the perusal of the holy scripture
is the means of drawing a soul to Christ; the
volume in its solitary majesty telling its own tale: or,
to speak more reverently, applied to the heart by the
Spirit of God: but generally, if a doubter's heart be
filled with historical and critical doubts, he must be
led through Christ to the Bible, rather than conversely,
and through the New Testament to the Old. If once
he can be brought to the perception of a Saviour for
sinful man, his doubts will assume a new aspect, and
will adjust themselves into their true place, or perhaps
find their own solution.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Yet, when we have used all methods of argument
which the survey of the history has given us reason to
believe may prove useful, it were affectation to conceal
our belief in the perpetual operation, secret and unobserved,
of an invisible monitor and persuader, the blessed
Spirit of God. Though we may look to philosophy to
prepare the way, by exciting an appreciation of the
wants which Christianity supplies, and an apprehension
of the suitability of Christianity as the perfection
of our spiritual nature; we must confess that it is to
the unseen leadings of the Spirit of God that we trust,
to make the heart feel the truth as well as perceive it,
and love as well as appreciate it. If we accept the fact
of God's interference to effect man's salvation, and regard
it as His special will to bring men to the knowledge
of Christ, and trust His promise of assistance to
the church,<a id="noteref_1050" name="noteref_1050" href="#note_1050"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1050</span></span></a>
it is not enthusiasm, but the most rational
faith, to expect divine assistance to attend constantly
on the efforts made to spread the truth which He has
been pleased to reveal; not to interfere indeed with
the fixed laws of the rational faculties, but to remove
prejudices of the heart which might blind the apprehension,
and to hallow the soul into a temple for the
enshrinement of His truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
More especially if it be true, as we have perpetually
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
insisted, that there is a large region for the influence
of emotional causes of doubt, in addition to the intellectual,
which have been the subject of our special
study, we may well believe that here is a field where
the Holy Spirit alone can enter, and in which He only
has the power to operate. Evidence, as evidence, is
apprehended and tested by the intellectual faculties;
but whatever is the subtle influence, consciously or
unconsciously exercised by the emotions, in a matter
where the evidence is probable, not demonstrative, this
offers a sphere where the help of an all-loving God may
be hoped for to dissipate the alienation of prejudice or
indifference. Paul may plant, and Apollos may water;
but it is God that giveth the increase.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have now considered the lessons taught by the
history, both as to the moral function of free thought,
the forms of it which are most likely to meet Christians
in the present day, and the means which seem most
useful for guiding a doubter into truth.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history may teach a final lesson to us as Christian
students, not so much in reference to leading others
to truth, as in relation to the means by which we can
attain it ourselves.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In all the days of peril through which the church
has passed, the means used by those who have striven
to find the truth, and become a blessing to the world,
have been,—study and prayer. In the solitude of their
own hearts, by quiet meditation, they have sought to
understand the utterance of the inspired volume; and
to secure by prayer the illuminating influence of the
divine Spirit, to cause them to behold wondrous things
in God's law.<a id="noteref_1051" name="noteref_1051" href="#note_1051"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1051</span></span></a> And thus in an age of coldness they
have kept the flame of divine love burning with unextinguished
glory on the altar of their hearts; and
in an age of questioning have been able to burst forth
from their prison-house of doubt, and gaze with the
clearness of unclouded faith on the truth once for all
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
delivered to the saints. If, in the dark night of doubt
or sin which has spread its veil over the world, there
have been stars that have shown to the pilgrim steadier
and clearer light than the other luminaries of the heavens,
the cause has been that they have reflected some
rays of the Divine glory, which had been concentrated
in the sunlike brightness of the apostolic inspiration.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If we have found that the present age offers its
peculiar intellectual trials; and if we feel ourselves
set in the midst of so many and great dangers; let us
not be paralysed by the consciousness of them, so as to
deem the search for truth unimportant, or anticipate
that it will be unsuccessful; but rather be led to increased
energy in striving to follow the example of
those who have overcome by the blood of the Lamb,
and by the word of their testimony.<a id="noteref_1052" name="noteref_1052" href="#note_1052"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1052</span></span></a> Let us realise
the solemnity of our position as responsible and immortal
beings. We are creatures of a day, soon to pass
into eternity; placed here to prepare ourselves for that
unknown world into which we shall carry the moral
character that has been stamped upon us here; and
capable, whilst we are here, of doing untold good by
a godly example, or of contributing to the ruin of the
souls of our fellow men. How important, both for ourselves
and others, that we should learn and appropriate
that truth which is to be the means of our salvation!
how important for ourselves, lest we be castaway!
how important for others, lest we help them to build a
structure of wood, hay, stubble,<a id="noteref_1053" name="noteref_1053" href="#note_1053"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1053</span></span></a>
which shall be consumed
in the day of the Lord!
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Let us strive to use the two methods of finding
truth,—study and prayer. Let us gain more knowledge,
and consecrate it to the investigation of the highest
problems of life and of religion; especially applying
ourselves, by the help of the ripest aid which miscellaneous
literature or church history can afford us, to the
study of the sacred scriptures. But above all these intellectual
instruments, let us add the further one of
prayer. For prayer not only has a reflex value on ourselves,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
purifying our hearts, dispersing our prejudices,
hushing our troubled spirits into peace; but it acts
really, though mysteriously, on God. It ascends far
away from earth to the spot where He has His dwelling-place.
The infinite God condescends to enter into
communion with our spirits, as really as a man that
talketh with a friend. The Saviour of pity will Himself
look down upon us, and condescend to become our
teacher, and give us the purity of heart which will lead
us into truth. Our own trials, our own struggles for
truth and holiness, the desire to know Christ and to
be known by Him, will excite our deep pity for those
who endure the like temptations, and prepare us for
effectually ministering to the good of others. And if
the struggle in our own hearts be long, and there be
moments when we seem to have our Gethsemane; let
us cleave the closer, with the more simple trust, to our
heavenly Father; still imploring Him to grant us in
this world knowledge of his truth, and in the world to
come life everlasting; assured that the clouds shall one
day disperse, and the vision of truth be unveiled to us
in the bright light of the eternal morning.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I shall be well content that all that I have said to you
be forgotten; and when these lectures take their humble
place in the series of which they form a part, deriving
an honour, not their own, from the great names
with which they are associated, I shall be willing that
they be consigned to neglect; if I can only hope that
this final exhortation to prayerful study may remain fixed
in the memory of any one of those that now hear these
words, or may impress the mind of any chance student
who, in traversing the same ground, may hereafter have
occasion to peruse them, at a time perhaps when the
voice that now speaks shall be hushed in the tomb, and
the spirit shall have gone to its account.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The lectures are now ended. May God forgive the
errors, and sanctify any truth that has been uttered to
His honour! The faults are mine: the truth is His, not
mine. To Him be the glory.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a>
<a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Notes.</span></h1>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture I.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_1" id="Note_1" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 1. p. </span><a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">3</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Subdivisions Of Historical Inquiry.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A few words may explain the distinctions intended in the
text.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
History has been properly distinguished by Macaulay into two
branches, the artistic or descriptive, and the scientific or analytic.
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, vol. i. 2, on Hallam.) If viewed in the former aspect,
history aims as far as possible to reproduce what has been, to recover
a picture of the past. Hence it is obedient to the two conditions
which rule all art,—precise outline in details, and preservation
of perspective in the combination. In the latter, theory in
some slight degree steps in, but theory dictated by the instinct of
taste rather than by reflection. It is in this branch, in which the
historian is the critic, that the border line lies between art and
science. For it is hard to measure the precise amount which is
due in the appreciation of facts respectively to artistic intuition
and to reflective analysis.<a id="noteref_1054" name="noteref_1054" href="#note_1054"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1054</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Supposing the facts to be thus given, it is the province of the
science of history to ascertain their causes. Two living writers,
Mr. Mill (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">System of Logic</span></span>),
and Dr. Whewell (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Inductive
Sciences</span></span>), have given an account of the logic of science.
That of the latter is more suitable to the conception which we are
here forming of history; for history is exactly one of the class of
sciences which he calls <span class="tei tei-q">“Palætiological.”</span> (vol. i. b. x.) It requires
first, that we recover the record of the successive stages of
facts, the narrative of the past, before searching for the causes.
The causes are then to be sought by transferring backward for the
explanation of the past those which are at present operating. The
search will probably exhibit three successive stages in the process
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of examination. First, causes will be found which are the mere
antecedents of the events, the mere links which connect the
phenomena. Next, a cyclical law of the recurrence of the facts is
perceived, such e.g. as Vico's well-known law concerning the
development of political society. Such a law as this, supposing it
to hold good without exception within the limits of experience, is
what Mr. Mill calls an <span class="tei tei-q">“empirical law.”</span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. ii. b. iii. ch.
xvi.) Next, this law must be analysed into its causes. Mr. Mill
gives three forms which this third stage of analysis may assume in
science. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> vol. i. b. iii. ch. xii.) Probably in history it will
generally assume the one of the three in which the complex result
is analysed into its simpler component elements. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> § 2.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This inquiry would complete the study of history as a science.
But when we deal with moral as distinct from material relations,
we feel that there is a question of philosophy as well as science,
one of ethics and metaphysics, which rises above all lower ones.
We instinctively wish to measure the responsibility of the moral
agents who have contributed to work out the results which have
been studied. We turn to the personal and biographical question
for the purpose of the ethical lesson. The theist also asks another
question. Believing that nature and man are the work, direct or
indirect, of a personal Creator and Governor, of infinite power and
goodness, he strives to search out the purposes of Providence,
hoping to find in the drama of universal history the solution of the
plot which he could not expect to attain by the study of a portion
of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Such are the ideas which are intended in the text.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_2" id="Note_2" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 2. p. </span><a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">4</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Comparative Study Of Religions.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The comparison of Christianity with other religions was necessarily
forced upon the Christian church by contact with the
heathen world.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We meet in the early fathers with two distinct opinions; the
one held in the Alexandrian school, that the heathen religions
were imperfect but had a germ of truth, and that philosophy was
a schoolmaster to bring men to Christ; the other chiefly in the
African school, that they were entire errors, and an obstacle to
the conversion of mankind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the middle ages, contact with Mahometan life (see Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. p. <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref">88</a>)
created a sceptical mode of comparing Christianity
with other creeds; circumstances compelling toleration, and toleration
passing into indifference. A similar spirit is also seen in the
hasty attempt of the French philosophers of the last century to
resolve all religion into priestcraft.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is only in still more recent times that the first scientific conception
of a comparative study of religion arose. Even in Herder
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the comparison is æsthetical more than scientific, and relates to
the comparison of literatures more than of religious ideas. Benjamin
Constant (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De la Religion Considérée dans sa source, ses
formes et ses développements</span></span>, 1824) seems to have been the first
who really suggested a serious psychological examination; and
hence there soon arose the idea of comparative theology analogous
to comparative anatomy. His spirit has pervaded French literature
subsequently. The religious speculations of the eclectic school
give expression to it; e.g. Quinet
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Génie des Religions</span></span>, vol. i.);
and the mode of contemplating religion in Renan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Histoire
Religieuse</span></span>) is based upon it. Caution in using the method is
necessary on the part of those who believe in the unique and
miraculous character of the Jewish and Christian revelations. In
Lect. <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. (p.
<a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>) we have given an enumeration of three modes;
the one true, the others false; in which Christianity may be put
into comparison with other creeds.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Mr. Maurice's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lectures on the Religions of the World</span></span>
refer to this subject; and some useful remarks exist in Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span>,(c. iii. and iv.) But the book most full of
information is the interesting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Advocate's Publication</span></span>, of
the late archdeacon Hardwick, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ and other Masters</span></span>; a work
full of learning and piety, unfortunately left unfinished by the
tragedy of his premature death in August 1859. In the parts published
he has compared Christianity with the Egyptian and Persian
religions (part iv.), with the Hindoo (part ii.), and the Chinese
(part iii.); and he was preparing materials for its comparison with
the Teutonic, and with those of the classic nations.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_3" id="Note_3" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 3. p. </span><a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">4</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Zend And Sanskrit Literature.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The purpose of this note is to indicate the sources of information
in reference to (1) the Zend and (2) the Sanskrit literature,
for illustrating the comparative history of religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. It was about the middle of the last century (1762) that
Anquetil du Perron brought manuscripts to Europe from Guzerat,
written in the Zend or ancient Persian tongue. For some time
the relation of the language to the Sanskrit was not understood.
The great scholar to whom are due both the study of the tongue
and the editing of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yaçna</span></span>, was Eugene Burnouf. The work
just named is the first of the three works which make up the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vendidad
Sadé</span></span>; parts of which possibly go back to a period almost
coeval with Zoroaster, i.e. perhaps the sixth century B.C. Two
other works exist for the study of the Persian theology, though
much more modern in date,—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Desatir</span></span> of the ninth century
A.D., and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dabistan</span></span> of the seventeenth,—which both contain
fragments of ancient traditions embedded in their texts. The
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Avesta</span></span>, of which the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vendidad</span></span> is one of the oldest parts, has been
edited by Spiegel. References to the older literature concerning
it may be found in Heeren's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Asiatic Nations</span></span>,
vol. i. ch. ii.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An account of the present results of comparative philology in
reference to Persian is given by professor Max Müller in Bunsen's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of History</span></span>, vol. i. p. 110. E. T. The Persian theology
brought to light by these investigations is discussed by A. Franck, in a paper,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Doctrines Religieuses et Philosophiques de la Perse</span></span>,
in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Orientales</span></span>, 1861; also in Dr. John Wilson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Parsi Religion</span></span>, 1843; Martin Haug's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays on the Parsis</span></span>, 1861, founded
on Burnouf's researches; and in archdeacon Hardwick's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ and
other Masters</span></span>, part iv. ch. iii. (Hyde's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Relig.
Vet. Pers.</span></span> 1700, is obsolete.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The Sanskrit literature has been the subject of still more
careful study by a series of learned men. See Donaldson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cratylus</span></span>,
b. i. ch. ii. § 36. 3d ed. Nearly the whole of the literature
indirectly offers materials for a history of the alteration and deterioration
of religious and ethical ideas, and of the relation of schools
of philosophy to a national creed preserved by the priesthood and
deposited in books esteemed sacred. The literary works can be
placed in their relative order, though the absence of all chronological
dates from the time of the contact of the Indians with the
Greeks (third century B.C.), down to the visits of the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims in the fourth and seventh centuries A.D.,
whose works have been translated into French by A. Remusat and
Stanislas Julien,<a id="noteref_1055" name="noteref_1055" href="#note_1055"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1055</span></span></a> and the Mahometan histories, renders the determination
of absolute dates impossible. The following are the
dates approximately given for the chief works of Sanskrit literature.
The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedas</span></span>, especially the oldest, date from B.C. 1200 to
600. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epic Poems</span></span>, the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rámáyana</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mahábhárata</span></span>, are perhaps
of the third century B.C.; the laws of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manu</span></span>, or more truly
of the family which claimed descent from the mythical <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manu</span></span>, contain
materials dating from several centuries B.C., but were put
into their present form probably several centuries A.D.; the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bhagavat Gitá</span></span>, an episode in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mahábhárata</span></span> bearing traces of
a Christian influence, dates some centuries A.D. The Hindu
drama is perhaps subsequent to 500 A.D. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Puránas</span></span> carry on
the literature to mediæval times. Several of the systems of
philosophy were probably constructed anterior to the Christian
era; but the date at which they were put into their present form
is undetermined.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The earlier literature is regarded as the most valuable for the
study of the growth of religious ideas and institutions. The development
or deterioration may be traced from the simple nature-worship
of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedas</span></span>, to the accumulation of legends which disgrace
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the modern creed. The causes which gave birth to mythology
are no longer a matter of conjecture; the study of the Sanskrit
language and literature having exhibited an historical instance of
it. In this way the early Sanskrit literature becomes one of the
most precious treasures to the mental philosopher who approaches
his subject from the historical side.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The earliest <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Veda</span></span> is in course of publication by professor Max
Müller. It has been partly translated by the late professor H. H.
Wilson, and wholly by Langlois. Mr. M. Müller has given the
results of his studies of this early literature in his admirable work,
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</span></span>, 1859; which is full of
instruction for the philosopher who is inquiring concerning intellectual
and religious history. Most of the other works named
above have also been translated into European languages, viz. the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epic Poems</span></span>,—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rámáyana</span></span>, in
Italian by Gorresio, and in French by H. Fauche, 1854; and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Episodes</span></span> from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mahábhárata</span></span> by P. E.
Foucaux, 1862;—also the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Laws of Manu</span></span>,<a id="noteref_1056" name="noteref_1056" href="#note_1056"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1056</span></span></a> in English by Sir W.
Jones, and in French by A. Loiseleur Des-Lonchamps; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bhagavat
Gitá</span></span> by Wilkins, 1809, the text of which was edited by
Schlegel, 1823; the 2d ed. by C. Lassen, 1846. One of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Puránas</span></span>
(the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vishnu</span></span>) has been translated by Wilson; and part of the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bhagavat</span></span> by Burnouf, who has also edited the text.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concerning the systems of Hindu philosophy; see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Philosophy</span></span>, E. T. vol. iv. b. xii. ch. v; Archer Butler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Philosophy</span></span>, vol. i. p. 243 seq.; Colebrooke's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays on the Philosophy of the Hindus</span></span>, 1837;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aphorisms of Hindu Philosophy</span></span>,
printed under the care of Dr. Ballantyne for the Benares
government college; and Dr. R. Williams's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity and Hinduism</span></span>,
1856. The work of the late archdeacon Hardwick, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ
and other Masters</span></span>, also contains a brief account of three of the
systems of philosophy, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedánta</span></span>, founded on the sacred books,
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sánkhya</span></span> or atheistic, and
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yoga</span></span> or mystic, together with a
comparison of them with Christianity (part ii.). An explanation
of a part of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nyáya</span></span> or Logical Philosophy, is given by Max
Müller in the Appendix to Dr. Thomson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Outlines of the Laws of
Thought</span></span>, 3d ed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On the system of thought in Buddhism, on which the study
of the Páli has thrown light, consult E. Burnouf's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction à
l'Histoire du Buddhisme Indien</span></span>; and Spence Hardy's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual of
Budhism</span></span>, 1853. Also archdeacon Hardwick's work above named.
The Hindu history, exhibiting its double movement, of philosophy
on the one hand and of the Buddhist reformation on the other,
has been thought to offer a distant analogy to the mental history
of Europe in the double movement of the scholastic philosophy
and the reformation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The celebrated works of C. Lassen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indische Alterthumskunde</span></span>,
1844-47, and A. Weber, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indische Studien</span></span>, 1850, are well known
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
as sources of information in reference to the general subject. Also
Dr. J. Muir has lately published (1858) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sanskrit Texts on the Origin
and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India</span></span>. Several
articles in reviews have appeared which contain much popular
information; e.g. in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, Nov. 1858;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster
Review</span></span>, April 1860; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>, Oct. 1860. On
the general subject of this note compare also Quinet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, t. i.
1. 2, 3.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_4" id="Note_4" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 4. p. </span><a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">12</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Controversy Between Christians And Jews.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of the controversy of Christianity with Judaism is
so connected in the writings of the early apologists with the contemporaneous
one directed against Paganism, and in recent times
so related in one of its aspects to rationalism, that these reasons
seem sufficient, independently of the literary interest, to justify the
insertion of a brief notice of it, and of the sources of information
with respect to it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The controversy with the Jew varies in different ages. We
can distinguish three separate phases; (1) that which is seen in
the early centuries, (2) in the middle ages, and early modern times,
(3) the position which is taken up by the educated Jew at the
present day. The sources for understanding the contest are,
partly the Jewish writings, and partly those of Christians who
have written against them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. In the early ages the controversy merely turned upon the
question whether Jesus was the Christ. The Jews did not deny
the fact of the Christian miracles, but explained them away; and
the controversy accordingly turned on the interpretation of Jewish
prophecy. This phase of the contest is seen in the New Testament,
in the Apology of Justin Martyr against Trypho, to which
a new kind of objection expressive of prejudice is added in the
discourse which Celsus, as preserved in Origen (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contr. Cels.</span></span> b. i.
and ii.), puts into the mouth of the Jew whom he introduces. In
reference to it, the commentators on these fathers, and especially
Semisch's work on Justin Martyr (translated), and the works on
the Jewish Talmudic literature and philosophy, may be consulted.
The contest is continued at intervals in treatises by inferior
writers; an account of which may be found in the sources of information
hereafter given, and in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hagenbach's Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 144.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. The second phase of the contest is seen in the middle ages,
and in modern times till about 1700 A.D. It is marked by two lines
of thought on the part of the Jewish writers; a system of defence
of their own tenets by a method of scriptural interpretation; and
the attack of calumny or of argument against Christianity. The
former existed especially in Moorish Spain about the twelfth century,
the golden age of Jewish literature. For a brief account of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the theological literature of the Jewish nation at that time, and in
the period which had intervened since the early ages, the writer
may be permitted to refer to one of his own Sermons, and the
references there given (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Science in Theology</span></span>, 1859, Sermon IV.); to
which references add Beugnot's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Juifs d'Occident</span></span>, 1820, and
the new work of De Los Rios on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spanish Literature</span></span>. The movement
included both a philosophical side in Maimonides, and a
critical in Jarchi, Aben Ezra, Kimchi, &amp;c.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other movement, which was hostile to Christianity, was
marked by a series of works, written by Jews for their own nation,
and carefully hidden from the sight of Christians, probably for
fear of persecution and suffering; which were given to the world
by the learning of the foreign Hebrew scholars of the seventeenth
century. The chief of these works are, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nizzachon Vetus</span></span> of
the twelfth century, first published in Wagenseil's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tela Ignea
Satanæ</span></span>, 1681. In the thirteenth, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Disputatio Jechielis cum
Nicholao</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Disputatio Nachmanidis cum fratre Paolo</span></span>, and the
celebrated <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Toldos Jeschu</span></span> or Jewish view of Christ's life. About
1399 the Rabbin Lipmann wrote the second book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nizzachon</span></span>, which was
published by Hackspan, 1644; and also the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carmen Memoriale</span></span>;
and about 1580<a id="noteref_1057" name="noteref_1057" href="#note_1057"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1057</span></span></a> the Rabbin Isaac wrote the noted <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chissuk
Emuna</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Munimen Fidei</span></span>. All these (with the exception of the
second <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nizzachon</span></span>) are contained in Wagenseil. During the period one
important defence of Christianity against the Jews appeared, the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pugio Fidei</span></span> by Raymund Martin, in Arragon, about 1278, which
has been edited with an introduction by De Voisin 1651, and by
Carpzov. Another defence was by Alphonso de Spina. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fortalitium
Fidei contra Judæos, Saracenos</span></span>, 1487. In Eichhorn's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">
der Literatur</span></span>, vol. vi. 26, another treatise is named by a writer
called Hieronymus, 1552.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During the period just considered the contest with the Jews
was carried on chiefly in Spain, or the few Jewish settlements of
Lithuania. Henceforth it is chiefly seen in Germany and Holland,
where the learned Dutch and German theologians of the seventeenth
century were brought into contact with them, or were
attracted to the study of the controversy by an interest in the
newly awakened taste for Hebrew learning. This age supplies
works of great value in gaining a knowledge of Jewish literature,
some of which will be named below, and a few treatises, such as,
one by Micrælius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Messiâ</span></span>, 1647); a brief notice by Hoornbeek,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa Controv.</span></span> 1653 (p. 65); an unfinished treatise by Hulsius,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologia Judaica</span></span>, 1653; and one by Cocceius,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jud. Respons. Consid.</span></span> 1662.
The activity of the Jews is seen in the fact that an
unfair attack by Bentz, 1614, was answered in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theriaca
Judaica</span></span> of the Jew Salomo Zebi, Hanover 1615, which again met
with a Christian respondent in Wulferus, 1681. Also Limborch
had a dispute with a Jew in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amica Collatio cum Erudito Judæo</span></span>
(Dr. Orobius), 1687. The controversy continued through the
eighteenth century, probably outlasting its cause; for defences on
the side of the Jews ceased. We meet with two works by Difenbach,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Judæus Convertendus</span></span>, 1696, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Judæus
Conversus</span></span>, 1709; Calvoer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gloria Christi</span></span>, 1710; Mornæus'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Verit. Relig. Christianæ</span></span>,
1707; and, in England, Bp. Kidder's and Dr. Stanhope's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle
Lectures</span></span>, the former of which was the basis of the treatise, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Demonstration of the Messias</span></span>, 1700; and C. Leslie's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Short Method
with the Jews</span></span>. Catalogues of the writings, of which the above are
the best known, may be found in J. A. Fabricius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Græc.</span></span>
(ed. 1715), vii. 125; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Verit. Relig. Christianæ</span></span>, 1725, ch.
xxxi; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Blasphemia Judæorum</span></span>, Id. ch. xxxvii; Walch's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Theol. Selecta</span></span>, vol. i. c. v. sect. 8. (1757); also in
Bartollocci's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of Jewish Authors</span></span>, 1678, and Imbonati's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of Christian Writers</span></span> concerning the Jews, 1694; and
especially in Wolff's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Hebr.</span></span>, 1715, and De Rossi's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dizionario degli
Autori Ebrei</span></span>, 1802. For information concerning sources of Jewish
theology and literature, it is enough to cite Hottinger's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia
Orientalis</span></span>, Carpzov's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introductio</span></span>, and Owen's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prelim. Exercitationes</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. In the third phase of the controversy, viz. that which exists
with the modern Jew, the controversy is a little changed. The
old prejudices against Christianity are in a great degree made obsolete
by the freedom of commercial intercourse, and the enjoyment
of protection and civil liberty; and hence the contest takes
two forms; either the continuation of the argument concerning
the meaning of Jewish prophecy, or a discussion on the function
of the Jewish religion in history. Sources for the former are
found in the older books of evidence. A digest of the arguments
concerning it is given in J. Fabricius (not the celebrated Fabricius),
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Consideratio Variarum Controversiarum</span></span>, 1704, p. 41, and in
Stapfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institut. Theolog. Polemic</span></span>, vol. iii. 1-288, 1752; or
in the modern works, Greville Ewing's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays addressed to the Jews</span></span>,
and Dr. McCaul's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Paths</span></span>, 1837, and his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Warburton Lectures</span></span>, 1846.
The condition of Jewish life and thought may he seen in Allen's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Judaism</span></span>. The system of interpretation on which the
controversy is conducted is either the ancient Messianic and allegorical
of the Targums and Talmud, or the literal and grammatical
introduced by the Spanish mediæval commentators.<a id="noteref_1058" name="noteref_1058" href="#note_1058"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1058</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other form of Jewish argument which Christians have to
encounter is more novel, and, being confined to educated Jews,
its influence is less wide, and does not actuate the stratum of Jewish
life with which missionaries generally come into contact. It
is based on modern rationalist speculations, and is seen in a work
of Dr. Philippsohn, late rabbin at Magdeburg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Development of the
Religious Idea in Judaism, Christianity, and Mahometanism</span></span>, (translated
both into English 1855, and also into French,) and in the
writings of Salvador. Dr. Philippsohn regards the mission of Judaism
to be, from first to last, to teach to the world the lesson of
monotheism. He traces the struggle in the Jewish church between
priestism and prophetism; and regards Christianity as an abnormal
form of the latter, which has led the world away to Tritheism:
and, so far from regarding the office of Judaism to be extinct, he
considers that its mission is still to restore monotheism to the world.
A comparison with the statement of the views of the Tübingen
school in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.
or the speculations of Mr. Mackay in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>. will show how completely this argument is
borrowed from the later forms of German historical criticism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The views of Salvador in France (see p. <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref">299</a>) are too original
to be regarded as typical of the views of a party. They reproduce
the critical difficulties of Maimonides and Spinoza, which seem
never to have found favour with the Jews; but the general similarity
of the doctrinal part of Salvador's system to that just described
is very observable.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_5" id="Note_5" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 5. p. </span><a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">12</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Contest Of Christianity With Mahometanism.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The contest of Christianity with Mahometanism, so far as it
has been a struggle of argument and not of the sword, offers few
remarkable points. In the first sweep of the Mahometan conquest,
when the Christian nations succumbed both in the east and west,
there was no field for a question of truth. It was only in Christian
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
nations which were removed from peril, and yet sufficiently in
contact to entertain the question of the claims of the Mahometan
religion, that a consideration of its nature, regarded as a system
of doctrine, could arise. Accordingly it is in Constantinople, or
in Spain and the other parts of western Europe which came into
connexion with the Moors, that works of this character appear.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history may be conveniently arranged in three periods,
each of which is marked by works of defence, some called forth
by danger, a real demand, but subsiding into or connected with
inquiries prompted only by literary tastes. The first is from the
twelfth to the middle of the sixteenth century; the second during
the seventeenth and eighteenth; the third during the present
century.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. A notice of the Mahometan religion exists in a work of J.
Damascenus, in the eighth century; and Euthymius Zigabenus, a
Byzantine writer of the twelfth: but the first important treatise
written directly against it was in 1210, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richardi Confutatio</span></span>,
edited in 1543 by Bibliander from a Greek copy. The refutation
of Averroes by Aquinas, about 1250, can hardly be quoted as an
instance of a work against the Mahometan religion, being rather
against its philosophy. A treatise exists by John Cantacuzene,
written a little after 1350; which is to be explained probably by
the circumstance that the danger from Mahometan powers in the
east directed the attention of a literary man to the religion and
institutions which they professed. Thus far the works were called
forth by a real demand.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A series of treatises however commences about the time of the
expulsion of the Moors from Spain, the cause of the existence of
which is not so easy of explanation. Such are those in Spain by
Alphonso de Spina, 1487, and by Turrecremata (see Eichhorn's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Lit.</span></span> vi.); by Nicholas de Cuza, published in 1543; in
Italy about 1500 by Ludovicus Vives, and Volterranus; one by
Philip Melancthon in reference to the reading of the Koran; and
a collection of treatises, including those of Richardus, Cantacuzene,
Vives, and Melancthon, published by Bibliander in 1543. Probably
the first two of this list may have been the relic of the crusade
of Christianity against the Moorish religion; the next two
possibly were called forth by the interest excited in reference to
Mahometans by reason of their conquests, or less probably by the
influence of their philosophy at Padua (see Lect. <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a> seq.).
The two last are hardly to be explained, except by supposing them
to be an offshoot of the Renaissance, and called forth by the largeness
of literary taste and inquiry excited by that event.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. When we pass into the seventeenth century, we find a series
of treatises on the same subject, which must be explained by the
cause just named, the newly acquired interest in Arabic and other
eastern tongues. We meet however with others, called forth by
the missionary exertions which had brought the Christians into
contact with Mahometans in the east.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The treatise by Bleda, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Defensio Fidei Christianæ</span></span>, 1610, stands
alone, unconnected with any cause. It was partly a defence of
the conduct of Christians towards the Mahometans. A real interest
however belongs to the work of Guadagnoli in 1631. A catholic
missionary, Hieronymo Xavier, had composed in 1596 a
treatise in Persian against Mahometanism, in which the general
principle of theism was laid down as opposed to the Mahometan
doctrine of absorption; next the peculiar doctrines of Christianity
stated; and lastly, a contrast drawn between the two religions.
See Lee's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tracts on Christianity and Mahometanism</span></span>
(below, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pref.</span></span> p. 5 seq.).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This work was answered in 1621 by a Persian nobleman named
Ahmed Ibn Zain Elébidín. The line adopted by him was, (1) to
show that the coming of Mahomet was predicted in the Old Testament
(Hab. iii. 3); (2) to argue that Mahomet's teaching was not
more opposed to Christ's than his was to that of Moses, and that
therefore both ought to be admitted, or both rejected; (3) to point
out critically the discrepancies in the Gospels; (4) to attack the
doctrines of the Trinity and Christ's deity. (Lee, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pref.</span></span> 41 seq.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This work was answered (1631) by a treatise in Latin by P.
Guadagnoli, dedicated to Pope Urban VIII. It is divided into
four parts; (1) respecting the objections about the Trinity; (2)
the Incarnation; (3) the authority of Scripture; (4) the claims of
the Koran and of Mahomet. (Lee, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pref.</span></span> 108 seq. who also gives
references (p. 113) to a few other writers, chiefly in the seventeenth
century.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The further works of defence produced in this century arose as
it were accidentally. The lengthy summary of the Mahometan
controversy in Hoornbeek's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa Controversiarum</span></span>, 1653, p. 75
seq. was either introduced merely to give completeness to the
work as a treatise on polemic, or was called forth by considerations
connected with missions, as is made probable by his work
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Conversione Gentilium et Indorum</span></span>. Le Moyne's publication on
the subject in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Varia Sacra</span></span>, vol. i. 1685, arose from the
accidental discovery of an old treatise, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bartholomæi Edess. Confutatio
Hagareni</span></span>. A third work of this kind, Maracci's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Criticism on the
Koran</span></span>, 1698, arose from the circumstance that the pope would not
allow the publication of an edition of the Koran, without an accompanying
refutation of each part of it. The work of Hottinger
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Orient.</span></span> b. i.), Pfeiffer's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. Judaica et Mahom.</span></span> and Kortholt's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Relig. Mahom.</span></span> 1663, form the transition into an independent
literary investigation; which is seen in the literary inquiries
concerning the life of Mahomet, as well as his doctrine, in
Pocock, Prideaux 1697, Reland 1707, Boulainvilliers 1730, and the
translation of the Koran by Sale 1734. A slightly controversial
tone pervades some of them. The materials collected by them
were occasionally used by deist and infidel writers (e.g. by
Chubb), for instituting an unfavourable comparison between Christ
and Mahomet.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The great literary historians of that period give lists of the
previous writers connected with the investigation. See J. A.
Fabricius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Græc.</span></span>
ed. 1715, vol. vii. p. 136; Walch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth.
Theol. Sel.</span></span> vol. i. chap. v. sect. 9. A summary of the arguments
used in the controversy is given in J. Fabricius,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delectus Argumentorum</span></span>,
p. 41, &amp;c. and Stapfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Polem.</span></span> iii. p. 289,
&amp;c.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. In the present century the literature in reference to Mahometanism
is, as in the former instances, twofold in kind. Part
of it has been called forth by missionary contests in the east;
part by literary or historic tastes, and the modern love of carrying
the comparative method of study into every branch of history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first class is illustrated by the discussions at Shiraz in 1811,
between the saintly Henry Martyn and some Persian Moollas.
The controversy was opened by a tract, sophistical but acute, written
by Mirza Ibrahim; (Lee, pp. 1-39); the object of which was
to show the superiority of the standing miracle seen in the excellence
of the Koran, over the ancient miracles of Christianity. Martyn
replied to this in a series of tracts (Lee, p. 80 seq.), and was
again met by Mohammed Ruza of Hamadan, in a much more elaborate
work, in which, among other arguments, the writer attempts
to show predictions of Mahomet in the Old Testament, and in the
New applying to him the promise of the Paraclete (Lee, pp. 161-450).
These tracts were translated in 1824, with an elaborate
preface containing an account of the preceding controversy of
Guadagnoli, by Professor S. Lee of Cambridge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Controversial
Tracts on Christianity and Mahometanism</span></span>, which is the work so
frequently cited above. To complete the history it is necessary to
add, that a discussion was held a few years ago between an accomplished
Mahometan and Mr. French, a learned missionary at
Agra.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The literary aspect of the subject, not however wholly free
from controversy, was opened by White, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>
for 1784; and abundant sources have lately been furnished.
Among them are, Sprenger's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Mahomet</span></span>, 1851, and Muir's,
1858. Also a new translation of the Koran by the Rev. J. M.
Rodwell, where the Suras are arranged chronologically. The following
ought also to be added, Dr. Macbride's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mahometan Religion
Explained</span></span>, 1857; Arnold on Mahometanism, 1859; Tholuck's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischte
Schriften</span></span>, i. (1-27); <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Wunder Mohammed's und der
Character des Religionstifters</span></span>; Dr. Stanley's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the
History of the Eastern Church</span></span>, lect. viii. and the references there
given; Maurice's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religions of the World</span></span>; and Renan's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes
d'Histoire Religieuse</span></span>. (Ess. iv.) The modern study has been
directed more especially to attain a greater knowledge of Mahomet's
life, character, and writings; the antecedent religious condition
of Arabia;<a id="noteref_1059" name="noteref_1059" href="#note_1059"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1059</span></span></a>
and the characteristics of Mahometanism,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
when put into comparison with other creeds, and when viewed
psychologically in relation to the human mind.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The materials also for a study of the Mahometan form of philosophy,
both in itself and in its relation to the religion, have been
furnished by Aug. Schmoelders, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur les Ecoles Philosophiques
chez les Arabes</span></span>, 1842. See also Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span>
iii. 665 seq.; iv. 1-181.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_6" id="Note_6" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 6. p. </span><a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">12</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Unitarianism.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may be useful to indicate the chief stages of the history of
Unitarianism, and the sources of information with regard to it, as
it bears a close analogy to some forms of free thought, such as
deism,<a id="noteref_1060" name="noteref_1060" href="#note_1060"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1060</span></span></a>
and connects itself more or less nearly with forms of rationalism
which occur in the course of the history.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first instance of it is in the early ages, either as a Jewish
Gnostic sect, Ebionitism, or in some of the other forms of Gnosticism;
passing in the east into Arianism, which lowered God, and
in the west into Pelagianism, which elevated man. For this period
see F. Lange, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte und
Lehrbegriff d. Unitarier vor d. Nicaenischen
Synode</span></span>, 1831; Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span>, § 23; and
the church histories which treat of this period.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the middle ages the tendency may be considered to be
mainly represented by Mahometanism, and hardly exists at all in
the Christian church.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Its modern form arises at the time of the Reformation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. Originating in Italy, it exists as a doctrine in Switzerland
and Germany from 1525-1560. See F. Trechsel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Protest.
Antitrinitarier vor Faustus Socinus</span></span>, 1844. The best known names
are Servetus, Lelio Sozini, and Ochino.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. It exists as a church at Racow in Poland, where the exiles
found a refuge. Here Faustus Sozinus (1539-1603), nephew of
Lelio, and J. Crellius, are the best known names. In 1609 Schmelz
drew up the Socinian Formula, the Racovian Catechism. It was
also here that the collection of Socinian writers, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca
Fratrum Polonorum</span></span>, 1626, was published. The history of the sect
up to this point may be found in the Introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rees's Translation
of the Racovian Catechism</span></span>, 1818. Also see Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Literature</span></span>, i. 554. ii. 335; Mosheim's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>,
sixteenth century, §2. P. ii. ch. iv; Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>
(Engl. Transl.), § 371, 2. The Socinians were driven out of Poland in 1658, by
the influence of the Jesuits; and, passing into Holland, became absorbed
in the church of the Remonstrants or Arminians.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. The next stage of Socinianism is, as a doctrine, in England
in the seventeenth century. In 1611 two persons, Hammont and
Lewis, suffered martyrdom for it; and it spread widely during the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Long Parliament. (See Dr. Owen's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vind. Evangel.</span></span> pref.) The
chief teacher was J. Biddle (1615-1662). The interest of it
arises from its supposed parallelism to the Arminianism of Hales
in the time of Charles I, and to the latitudinarian party of Whichcote
and More in that of Charles II. But the parallel is not quite
correct. The study of Arminius's writings (see J. Nicholls's translation,
1825,) shows that he was not a Pelagian,<a id="noteref_1061" name="noteref_1061" href="#note_1061"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1061</span></span></a> if even his successors
were. But even Episcopius and Limborch hardly reached
this point. Hales resembled Episcopius. Nor is the parallel much
nearer with <span class="tei tei-q">“the latitude men;”</span> for Socinianism lacked their Platonizing
tendency. The Arian tendency, which commenced at
the end of the century, both in the church, in such writers as
Whiston and Clarke, and among the presbyterians, offers a nearer
parallel, in being, like Socinianism, Unitarian in tendency. On
this period see Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch</span></span>. (Notes to § 234.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
4. Its next form, was as a set of congregations in England in
the eighteenth century, chiefly arising out of the presbyterians;
marked by great names, such as Lardner, Lowman, Priestley.<a id="noteref_1062" name="noteref_1062" href="#note_1062"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1062</span></span></a>
Shortly before the close of the century, it was introduced into
America.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
5. Its last form is a modification of the old Socinian view,
formed under the pressure of evangelical religion on the one side
and rationalist criticism on the other. The accomplished writers,
Channing in America and Mr. J. Martineau in England, are the
best types of this form. Priestley, Channing, and Martineau, are
the examples of the successive phases of modern Unitarianism:
Priestley, of the old Socinianism building itself upon a sensational
philosophy; Channing, of the attempt to gain a larger development
of the spiritual element; Martineau, of the elevation of view
induced by the philosophy of Cousin, and the introduction of the
idea of historical progress in religious ideas. In reference to this
part of the history see E. Renan's Essay on Channing, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de
l'Hist. Relig.</span></span> p. 357; E. Ellis's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Half
Century of Unitarian Controversy</span></span>
(in America), 1858; J. J. Taylor's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Retrospect of Religious
Life in England</span></span>, 1845; Dr. Beard's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unitarianism in its Actual
State</span></span>; and other references given in the notes to H. B. Smith's
translation of Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch</span></span>. New York, 1862. ii.
p. 441.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In addition to the above references, materials for the history
will be found in Sandius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Antitrin.</span></span> 1684; Bock's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Antitrin.</span></span> 1774; Otto Foch's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Socinianismus</span></span>, &amp;c. 1847; and
an article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 60, for May 1859. The
history of the controversial literature on the subject is given in
Pfaff's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. in Hist. Theol. Lit.</span></span> vol. ii. p. 320 seq.; and more
fully in Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Theol. Select.</span></span> vol. i. p. 902 seq. For a
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
digest of the arguments used in the controversy, see Hoornbeek's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa Controv.</span></span> 1653, p. 440; J. Fabricius,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Consid. Var. Controv.</span></span>
pp. 99-208; and Stapfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Polem.</span></span> vol. iii. c. 12.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_7" id="Note_7" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 7. p. </span><a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">24</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Classification Of Metaphysical Inquiries.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) This first subdivision of Metaphysics into Psychology
and Ontology is very neatly stated by Professor Mansel
(art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metaphysics in Encycl. Britann.</span></span> 8th ed. p. 555, and
p. 23 in the reprint of the article, 1860); Cfr. also
Archer Butler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lect. on Phil.</span></span> vol. i. lect. i-iii.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) It must be understood, that when we pass here from a
division of the inquiries concerning the mind to a supposed
division of the mind itself, we imply only a division
of states of consciousness or mental functions,
not an absolute and real division of the mind itself.
Distinctness of structure is only the inference; distinctness
of function is a fact, given in the act of consciousness.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) The distinctness of the Will, as a faculty, from the emotions
will be disputed by many. It is maintained by
Maine de Biran, and the Eclectic school of France.
Mr. Mill, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. ii. b. vi. ch. ii, implies the contrary,
and regards Will to be a particular state of feeling.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>) The difference of the presentative from the representative
consciousness is now generally understood, since
the arguments of Sir W. Hamilton have been commonly
known. See his edition of Reid, note B. p. 804;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discussions</span></span>, Ess. ii. and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lect. on Metaphysics</span></span>; Mansel's
work above cited, p. 560, 584; Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phil. of Relig.</span></span>
ch. ii.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>) The separation of Intuition from Perception is a point
much disputed. It is maintained by Schelling and by
Cousin, and made familiar by Coleridge, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Reflection</span></span>,
i. p. 168 seq. See also Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philos. of Relig.</span></span>
ch. ii; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Phil.</span></span> ii. p. 487 seq. Among
English psychologists however, intuition is identified
with perception; or if slightly distinguished, as by
Mr. Mansel, it is made synonymous with every <span class="tei tei-q">“presentative”</span>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
act of consciousness, and thus includes
the consciousness of our own minds, as well as the
sensational consciousness usually denoted by the word
<span class="tei tei-q">“perception.”</span> With reference to the view intended
on this subject in these lectures, see a note on p. <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>) With reference to these
schools, see Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of
Philosophy</span></span> (vol. i. Introduction); and Cousin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cours
de la Philosophie</span></span> du 18<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">me</span></span> Siècle.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></span>) This subdivision of the subject matter of Ontology is
well stated by Mansel in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyc. Britann.</span></span> above
cited, 603, 613 seq. This work of Mr. Mansel is on the
whole the clearest exposition of Psychology, studied
from the side of consciousness, which has appeared.
Mr. Morell's recent work on Psychology presents a
view different from his former ones, and unites the
physiological treatment of the inquiry; being borrowed
partly from the recent speculations which the
teaching of Herbert has induced in Germany. See
Note <a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_8" id="Note_8" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 8. p. </span><a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">28</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Quotation From Guizot On Prayer.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The following eloquent remarks seem worth quoting, as illustrative
of the instinct in the soul of man to perform the act of
prayer; the natural outgoing of the human soul after the infinite
Being. They are taken from Guizot,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Eglise et la Société Chrétienne</span></span>,
1861.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Seul entre tous les étres ici-bas l'homme prie. Parmi ses instincts
moraux, il n'y en a point de plus naturel, de plus universel,
de plus invincible que la prière. L'enfant s'y porte avec une docilité
empressée. Le vieillard s'y replie comme dans un refuge
contre la décadence et l'isolement. La prière monte d'elle-même sur
les jeunes lèvres qui balbutient à peine le nom de Dieu et sur les
lèvres mourantes qui n'ont plus la force de le prononcer. Chez
tous les peuples, célèbres ou obscurs, civilisés ou barbares, on rencontre
à chaque pas des actes et des formules d'invocation. Partout
où vivent des hommes, dans certaines circonstances, à certaines
heures, sous l'empire de certaines impressions de l'âme, les
yeux s'élèvent, les mains se joignent, les genoux fléchissent, pour
implorer ou pour rendre grâces, pour adorer ou pour apaiser.
Avec transport ou avec tremblement, publiquement ou dans le secret
de son cœur, c'est à la prière que l'homme s'adresse, en dernier
recours, pour combler les vides de son âme ou porter les fardeaux
de sa destinée; c'est dans la prière qu'il cherche, quand tout lui
manque, de l'appui pour sa faiblesse, de la consolation dans ses
douleurs, de l'espérance pour sa vertu.”</span> (p. 22.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Il y a, dans l'acte naturel et universel de la prière, une foi
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
naturelle et universelle dans cette action permanente, et toujours
libre, de Dieu sur l'homme et sur sa destinée.”</span> (p. 24.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘Les voies de Dieu ne sont pas nos voies:’</span> nous y marchons
sans les connaître; croire sans voir et prier sans prévoir, c'est la
condition que Dieu a faite à l'homme en ce monde, pour tout ce
qui en dépasse les limites.”</span> (p. 25.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_9" id="Note_9" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 9. p. </span><a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">31</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On The Modern View Of The Historical Method In Philosophy.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been implied in the text, at this place, and also in the
preface, that the <span class="tei tei-q">“historic method of study”</span> is the great feature
of this century. The term is ambiguous. The meaning of it however
is, that each problem ought to be approached from the historic
side. Whether the problem be a fact of society, or of thought,
or of morals, in each case the questions are asked—What are its
antecedents? how did it happen? How came it that men accepted
it?—This is a method exactly the reverse of that which was
common in the last century. The question then was, Is a thing
true? The question now is a preliminary one, How came it that
it was thought to be true? It is probable that in many minds
there is a slight tendency to pantheism in this method of study.
The universe is looked at as ever in course of development; evil
as <span class="tei tei-q">“good in the making;”</span> no fact as wholly bad; no thought as
wholly false. But, without involving such a tendency, whatever
is true in the method may be appropriated. It starts only with
the assumption that the human race is in a state of movement;
and that Providence has lessons to teach us if we watch this movement.
It is the method of learning by experience of the past, a
lesson for conduct in the future.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The method thus explained, however, is used for two different
purposes. Either it is intended to be the preliminary process
preparatory to discovery, or it is designed to take the place of discovery.
In the former case, we ask why men have thought a
thing true, for the purpose of afterwards discovering, by the use
of other methods, what is true; in the latter we rest content with
the historical investigation, and consider the attempt to discover
absolute truth to be impossible; and regard the problem of philosophy
to be, to gather up the elements of truth in the past. In
the former case truth is absolute, though particular ages may have
blindly groped after it; in the latter it is relative. In the former,
the history of philosophy is the preliminary to philosophy; in the
latter it is philosophy. In the former, philosophy is a science; in
the latter it is a form of criticism. The former view is held by the
school of Schelling and Cousin; the latter is an offshoot of that of
Hegel. The former marked French literature until recent years;
the latter is expressed in it at the present time; and is stated by
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
no one so clearly as by Renan and Soberer. Most English writers
will justly prefer the former view; but the explanation of the latter,
given in the two passages which follow, is expressed with
such clearness, and will be of so much use in explaining subsequent
allusions in these lectures (especially Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.
and <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.), that
it is desirable to print it here.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Le trait caractéristique du 19<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span>
siècle est d'avoir substitué la
méthode historique à la méthode dogmatique, dans toutes les études
relatives à l'esprit humain. La critique littéraire n'est plus que
l'exposé des formes diverses de la beauté, c'est à dire des manières
dont les différentes familles et les différentes âges de l'humanité
ont résolu le problème esthétique. La philosophie n'est que le
tableau des solutions proposées pour résoudre le problème philosophique.
La théologie ne doit plus être que l'histoire des efforts
spontanés tentés pour résoudre le problème divin. L'histoire, en
effet, est la forme nécessaire de la science de tout ce qui est soumis
aux lois de la vie changeante et successive. La science des langues,
c'est l'histoire des langues; la science des littératures et des philosophies,
c'est l'histoire des littératures et des philosophies; la
science de l'esprit humain c'est, de même, l'histoire de l'esprit
humain, et non pas seulement l'analyse des rouages de l'âme individuelle.
La psychologie n'envisage que l'individu, et elle l'envisage
d'une manière abstraite, absolue, comme un sujet permanent
et toujours identique à lui-même; aux yeux de la critique la conscience
se fait dans l'humanité comme l'individu; elle a son histoire.
Le grand progrès de la critique a été de substituer la catégorie
du <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">devenir</span></em> â la catégorie de <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">l'être</span></em>, la conception du relatif à
la conception de l'absolu, le mouvement à l'immobilité. Autrefois,
tout était considéré comme étant; on parlait de philosophie, de
droit, de politique, d'art, de poésie, d'une manière absolue; maintenant
tout est considéré comme en voie de se faire....... A
ce point de vue de la science critique, ce qu'on recherche dans
l'histoire de la philosophie, c'est beaucoup moins de la philosophie
proprement dite que de l'histoire.”</span>—(E. Renan, Pref.
to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>,
p. vi.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“Tout n'est que relatif, disions-nous tout à l'heure; il faut
ajouter maintenant: tout n'est que relation. Vérité importune pour
l'homme qui, dans le fatal courant où il est plongé, voudrait trouver
un point fixé s'arrêter un instant, se faire illusion sur la vanité des
choses! Vérité féconde pour la science qui lui doit une intelligence
nouvelle de la réalité, une intuition infiniment plus pénétrante
du jeu des forces qui composent le monde. C'est ce principe
qui a fait de l'histoire une science et de toutes les sciences une
histoire. C'est en vertu de ce principe qu'il n'y a plus de philosophie
mais des philosophies qui se succèdent, qui se complétent en
se succèdant, et dont chacune représenté avec un élément du vrai,
une phase du développement de la pensée universelle. Ainsi la
science s'organise elle-même et porte en soi sa critique. La classification
rationnelle des systèmes est leur succession, et le seul jugement
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
équitable et utile qu'on puisse passer sur eux est celui qu'ils
passent sur eux-mêmes en se transformant. Le vrai n'est plus
vrai en soi. Ce n'est plus une quantité fixe qu'il s'agit de dégager,
un objet rond ou carré qu'on puisse tenir dans la main.
Le vrai, le beau, le juste même se font perpétuellement; ils sont à
jamais en train de se constituer, parce qu'ils ne sont autre chose
que l'esprit humain, qui, en se déployant, se retrouve et se reconnait.”</span>—E.
Scherer, (article on Hegel in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>,
Feb. 15, 1861.)
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc26" id="toc26"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture II.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_10" id="Note_10" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 10. p. </span><a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">46</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Neo-Platonism.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On the nature and history of Neo-Platonism, see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Philosophy</span></span>, E. T. vol. iv. b. xiii; Creuzer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to
Plotinus</span></span>; Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual of Philosophy</span></span>, § 200-222; Hase's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 50, with the references which the two latter
supply; Jules Simon's and Vacherot's works on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecole
d'Alexandrie</span></span>; B. Constant's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du Polytheisme</span></span>, b. xv.
Among English works, see Archer Butler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Philosophy</span></span>,
vol. ii. 348 seq.; Lewes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>; Maurice's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>
(part ii.); Donaldson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greek Literature</span></span>, ch. 53
and 57; and an essay in R. A. Vaughan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Remains</span></span>,
1858.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The mystic and oriental tendency which Neo-Platonism embodied
is seen as early as Philo in the middle of the first century;
but it was Ammonius Saccus (A.D. 163-243) who developed the
new system about A.D. 200. The chief teachers of it were Plotinus
(born 203), who introduced it at Rome; Porphyry (233-305),
who however manifested more of the mystic Pythagorean spirit
and less of the dialectical Platonic; Iamblichus, a generation later,
who also inclined to theurgy; and in the fifth century Hypatia,
killed 415; and Proclus (412-485), who taught at Athens. A
growth of thought is perceptible in the successive members of the
school. The sketches of several of the above-named writers in
Smith's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographical Dictionary</span></span> are full of information, and
furnished with useful references.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_11" id="Note_11" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 11. p. </span><a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">47</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Pseudo-Clementine Literature.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Pseudo-Clementine literature consists of Homilies and
Recognitions; the latter being in a Latin translation by Rufinus.
It is published in Cotelerius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sancti Patres</span></span>, 1698, vol i.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A noble Roman, harassed by his doubts and eager for truth,
travels to the east, and there learns Christian truth, which makes
him happy. It is the former part of the narrative, viz. the doubts
of Clemens before becoming a Christian, which is alluded to in
the text, and is adduced by Neander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, i. pp.
54-56, as an instance of the preparation for the reception of Christianity
made by a sense of want in many hearts. But it is the latter
part which is valuable in a literary point of view, on account of
the light which the exposition of Christian doctrine contained in
it throws upon the Judaizing Gnostics, being an attempt to reconcile
Ebionitism with the teaching of St. Paul. Its interest in
this point of view has caused it to be made the subject of
several monographs by German theologians. A list of them,
with an account of the phases of doctrine described, is given in
Kurtz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, E. T. § 48, and
in Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>,
§ 35, 75, and 80. One of the most important of them is Schliemann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Clemetinen</span></span>, 1844.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_12" id="Note_12" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 12. p. </span><a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">48</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Absence Of References To Christianity In Heathen
Writers Of The Second Century.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Tzchirner has investigated this subject in an interesting dissertation,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Græci et Romani Scriptores cur rerum Christianarum
raro meminerint</span></span>; Opusc. Acad. p. 283. Lips. 1829, (translated in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Sacred Literature</span></span>, Jan. 1853;) and has discussed
the passages where mention is made of Christianity. The following
is the substance of his inquiries.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Though the notices concerning Christianity in heathen writers
are scanty, the silence of Eusebius gives good ground for inferring,
that not many further notices existed concerning it in the works
which are lost, than have been preserved to us. Perhaps a few
passages may have been erased in which Christianity was blasphemed,
even in that which is preserved.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The silence concerning Christianity during the first century
is not surprising; because the Christians, if known at all, would
be regarded as a Jewish sect, as in Acts xviii. 15; xxiii. 29; xxv.
19. In the third century they are both noticed and attacked. The
inquiry therefore with regard to the silence about them, refers only
to the period from about A.D. 80-180.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During this period, among the Greek writers who omit all
mention of Christianity, are Dio Chrysostom; Plutarch (for the
passage, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quæst.</span></span> iv, 4. § 3, about happiness consisting in hope,
probably does not refer to them); Œnomaus, who wrote expressly
to ridicule religion; Maximus Tyrius; and Pausanias: and among
Latin ones, Juvenal, who several times mentions the Jews, but
only indirectly refers to the Christians (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> i. 185-7), Aulus
Gellius, and Apuleius; (for the opinion of Warburton, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Div. Leg.</span></span>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
b. ii. § 4, that an allusion is intended, is now rejected,<a id="noteref_1063" name="noteref_1063" href="#note_1063"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1063</span></span></a> unless one
perhaps exists in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Met.</span></span> ix. ed. Panck. ii. 195.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among those who name Christians we find,—
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In Trajan's reign, Tacitus, who describes their persecution by
Nero (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span> xv. 44); Suetonius,
who names them, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. Neron</span></span>. ch.
16, and describes them as seditious, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. Claud.</span></span> 25, if indeed the
word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chresto</span></span> in the paragraph
is intended for <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christo</span></span>; and Pliny
the younger, in the well-known letter to Trajan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> x. 96).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the reign of Hadrian we find, in a fragment of Hadrian's
works in Vopiscus's Life of Saturninus (ch. viii.) a mention of them,
comparing them with Serapid worshippers; and one quoted by
Eusebius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. Hist.</span></span> iv. 9, addressed to a proconsul of Asia.
Also Arrian names them in two passages, in one describing them
as obstinate, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diss. Epictet.</span></span> b. iv. ch. vii. and in the other
speaking either of them or of the Jews as βαπτισταί (b. ii. ch. ii.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the reign of the Antonines we find Galen stigmatising
them for obstinacy (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Pulsuum Diff.</span></span> b. iii. ch. iii.), and for
believing without proof (b. ii. ch. iv.); and Marcus Aurelius himself
inquires (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comment.</span></span> b. xi. ch. iii), what can be the cause of
their inflexibility. His two epistles which contain allusions to Christianity,
one of them attributing his victory over the Marcomanni to the
thundering legion, and the other stating that it is the business of
the gods and not men to punish, are rejected as spurious.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the same reign we find Crescens and Fronto, who are treated
of elsewhere, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. p.
<a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>; and Lucian (p. <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>). Tzchirner
denies the allusions supposed to lurk in many passages of Lucian
examined by Krebsius and Eichstadt; but, independently of
those in the Peregrinus, ch. xi-xiv, on which see Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>
and Note <a href="#Note_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>,
there remains one where Alexander the magician is said to exclude
Christians and Epicureans from his magical rites. In the
same reign we meet with Celsus; after which time the notices of
Christianity are frequent; the account of which will be found in
Lardner's Works, vol. viii.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If now we pass from the facts to the cause, and ask why the
notices are so few, Tzchirner very properly answers, that the silence
in the first century is explained, partly by the general poverty
and retirement of the Christians, and partly by the circumstance
named above, that they were included among Jews. But
in the second century, when Christianity was so far known that
several learned men abandoned heathenism for it, such as Quadratus,
Melito, Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Minucius
Felix; Tzchirner refers the silence chiefly to the fact that the
opinions and position of the Christians prevented them from being
considered worthy of attention by members of any of those
schools of philosophy whose probable opinions in reference to it
have been already explained in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. Celsus alone had
the far-sightedness to apprehend danger from them, both philosophically
and politically.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_13" id="Note_13" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 13. p. </span><a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">49</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Peregrinus Proteus Of Lucian.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The question of Lucian's intention to injure Christianity has
been discussed and maintained by Krebsius in a Dissertation,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Malitioso Luciani Consilio Religionem Christianam scurrili dicacitate
vanam et ridiculam reddendi</span></span>, Opusc. Acad. p. 308 seq.
The contrary view is maintained by Eichstadt in a dissertation,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lucianus num scriptis suis adjuvare voluerit Religionem
Christianam</span></span>, Jena, 1822. Krebsius is extravagant in interpreting many
unimportant references in Lucian as relating to Christianity. See
Tzchirner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opusc. Acad.</span></span> p. 290. Neander also states his opinion on
the question, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span> i. 269 seq.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The same subject has been discussed with great care and learning
by Adolph Planck, dean of Heidenheim in Würtemburg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lucian
und Christenthum</span></span>, a contribution to the church history of the
second century; originally published in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>,
1851, and translated in the American <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span>, April and
July, 1853. He there studies Lucian's tract, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Peregrinus</span></span>, (1) in
the character which it offers of Peregrinus as a Cynic, for the
purpose of examining the probability of his death being a parody
on Christian martyrdom; (2) in his character as a Christian, in
order to exhibit Lucian's opinion of Christianity and of the traits
of Christian life brought out; (3) with a view to ascertain the
sources and amount of Lucian's knowledge of Christianity; discussing
fully, by means of quotations, the evidence of Lucian's
acquaintance with the early Christian literature.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The analysis of the Peregrinus Proteus is as follows: It professes
to be a letter from Lucian to Cromius narrating Peregrinus's
death. Peregrinus had gone to Olympia, with the pompous design
of displaying his death before the assembly at the games.
Lucian lets us hear the speeches, descriptive of Peregrinus's life,
delivered before the decisive act. A certain Theagenes, an admirer
of Peregrinus, delivers a bombastic eulogy, § 3-7, repelling
the charge of vanity imputed to him, and comparing his proposed
death with that of Hercules, &amp;c. Lucian opposes to this some invectives
delivered by another, whose name he professes to have
forgotten, which refer, § 7-30, to the history of Peregrinus to
which Theagenes had alluded; tracing his crimes, his journeys
from land to land, his turning Christian in Syria, his expulsion for
disobedience, his subsequent wanderings and crimes, and the universal
contempt which he had brought upon himself. Theagenes
replies to this speech; but Lucian preferred to go to see the
wrestling-match. Afterwards however he heard Peregrinus pronounce
his own eulogy, and boast of his sufferings on behalf of
philosophy. Then, after most of the guests had left Elis, § 35,
&amp;c. Peregrinus proceeded to erect his own funeral pile, and consumed
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
himself on it. Lucian after seeing the end went away, and
added a legend about the appearance of a hawk; which story he
soon afterwards found had already gained credence. The moral
which he draws is, that Cromius ought to despise such people,
and impute their conduct to love of fame.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The passages of the work which have specific reference to
Christianity are, § 11-13, which describe Peregrinus's intercourse
with the Christians; and § 35-41, which describe his martyrdom.
The references are to Dindorf's ed. Paris 1840.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_14" id="Note_14" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 14. p. </span><a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">51</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Work Of Celsus.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is difficult to obtain an exact conception of the work of Celsus.
This is due partly perhaps to its original form; for Origen
himself complains (Cont. Cels. i. 40) of the want of order in Celsus;
and partly to the fact that a mind like that of Origen did
not follow his opponent step by step, but frequently grasped a
general principle which enabled him to meet a group of objections
dispersed through different parts of Celsus's work.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As it was desirable for the object of the lecture to present Celsus's
views rather than analyse Origen's treatise, the writer endeavoured,
when preparing it, to select materials from Origen for
drawing out a sketch in systematic form, somewhat in the manner
of Neander's remarks (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, i. 274), of Celsus's
views, concerning (1) God and creation; (2) man's moral state;
(3) the Hebrew and Christian religions in their sacred books and
doctrines. But on the publication of Pressensé's work (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de
l'Eglise</span></span>, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span>
série, ii. pp. 104-142), he perceived the plan of arrangement
there suggested to possess so much more life, that he
adopted it in the text. Pressensé considers that, by a careful study
of the fragments of Celsus quoted by Origen, he is able to reproduce
a picture of the whole work, as well as to gather his opinions.
Such an arrangement must necessarily be hypothetical, like
Niebuhr's treatment of Roman history, though extremely probable.
It will be observed however, by noticing the references to
Origen's work in the foot-notes of Pressensé's text, and of Lecture
II. in this volume, that the arrangement suggested for Celsus's
treatise does not always coincide with the order in which
Origen has quoted the parts of it. Also the references to the later
books of Origen will be seen to be fewer than to the earlier; a
circumstance which arises from the quotations from Celsus's work
being fewer in those books, and from the thoughts of Origen in
them being a continuation of those presented earlier. Pressensé's
arrangement has the disadvantage too of leaving out many of the
critical difficulties which Celsus alleges in the scriptures; but he
rightly points out that they are all corollaries from a philosophical
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
principle. The reader may accordingly consult Neander for a
systematic view of Celsus's opinions, and Pressensé for a theory
of the arrangement of his work.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may be useful to give a brief statement of the order in which
Celsus's objections occur in Origen's treatise, so as to show the
manner in which the subject is there developed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first half of book i. is prefatory (ch. i-xl.); the second half,
together with b. ii. contains the attack by the Jew on Christianity
given in Lect. II. The early part of b. iii. (1-9) contains Origen's
refutation of the Jew. The subsequent parts and remaining books
give Origen's refutation of Celsus's own attack on Christianity.
First, Celsus attacks the character of Christians in the remainder
of b. iii. In b. iv. he returns to his attack on Judaism, and on the
scriptures of the Old Testament, especially on many of the narratives;
either regarding them as false, or as borrowed; and objecting
to their anthropomorphic character; also objecting to the
account of man's place in creation, and of divine interference. In
b. v. he continues his attack on the doctrines of both religions,
chiefly so far as he considers them to be untrue; and in b. vi. so
far as he considers them to be borrowed, dragging to light the difference
which existed between Judaism and Christianity. In
b. vii. the subject of prophecy and some other doctrines, as well
as the ethics of Christianity, are examined; and in b. viii, when
the attack on Christianity is mainly over, a defence of paganism is
offered by Celsus.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A detailed analysis of Origen's treatise, which is intricate, will
be found in Schramm's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analysis Patrum</span></span>, vol. iv. 1782. Pressensé's
view of Origen's arguments is given, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> vol.
2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> Serie, t. ii.
pp. 281-361. See also Lardner's Works, viii. 19. Hase (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church
History</span></span>, § 51) refers to several German works which relate to
Celsus.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_15" id="Note_15" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 15. p. </span><a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">56</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Charges Against Christians, And Causes Of Persecution, In
The Second Century.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The learned Kortholt, Professor at Kiel, in his work, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paganus
Obtrectator, sive Liber de Calumniis Gentilium in Veteres
Christianos</span></span> (1703), has carefully collected references to the objections
raised by the Pagans against Christianity. He has arranged
them according to the subjects, irrespective of the chronological
order in which they were respectively suggested; viz. (1) those
which relate to the origin and nature of Christianity, such as its
novelty, its alleged want of originality, &amp;c.; (2) false charges about
public worship; (3) false charges about life and morals. If we
exclude on the one hand those charges which are gathered out of
Celsus (in Origen), and on the other those from apologists later
than the date of Porphyry, the charges between these limits,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
which are learned from the apologists Minucius Felix, Theophilus
(ad Autolycum), and Tertullian, exhibit the objections which were
encountered in Rome, Syria, and North Africa, respectively.
They chiefly belong to the prejudices adduced in the second and
third of the classes made by Kortholt. Among the more intelligible
objections which belong to his first class, are found the
charges of the novelty of Christianity (ch. i. in his book), the superstitious
character of it (ix. and x.), and the want of cultivation
in its supporters (xi.). Among the prejudices about public worship
(class 2) in his work, we meet with the charge of ass-worship
(in Tertullian and Minucius Felix, ch. xi.); sky and sun worship
(ii. and iii.); priest and cross worship (iv, and vi.); and secret
sacred rites (ix.). Among the false charges about life and morals
(which form class 3), we meet with that of private and nocturnal
meetings forbidden by law, and the Agapæ (v.); Thyestean banquets
(Theoph. and Tertull. ix.); secret insignia (xvi.); treason
(vii.); and hatred of humanity (viii.).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
All these charges will be seen to be such as mark the transition
from a state of indifference to Christianity to that more distinct
comprehension of its nature which afterwards existed. Their
character indicates a moment when the new religion was forcing
itself on public attention as a secret organization ramifying through
the Roman world. In the main they resolved themselves into two
heads; (1) the vulgar prejudices arising from ignorance; and (2)
the alarm at the political danger arising from a vast secret society.
The latter charges reappear in the works of later apologists; but
the former are peculiar to this special period, between the time
of Celsus and of Porphyry.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among the vulgar prejudices thus named, the only two that
need further mention are the charges of priest-worship and ass-worship.
The former charge, named by Minucius Felix, ch. ix,
and thus described here by a euphemism, may be seen in Kortholt,
b. ii. ch. iv. p. 319; it probably arose from the homage paid
to the bishop on bended knee at ordination. The latter, taken
out of Minucius Felix (ch. ii.), and Tertullian (Apol. 16), is more
singular and puzzling even after the discussions by older authors
which Kortholt cites, b. ii. ch. i. p. 256, &amp;c. But the fact of the
charge has been corroborated by the recent discovery in excavations
made in some substructions on the Palatine hill, of a
<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">graffito</span></span> or pencil-scratching, in which a person is
worshipping toward a cross, on which hangs suspended a human figure with the head of
a horse, or perhaps wild ass, and underneath is the inscription
<span class="tei tei-q">“Alexamenus is worshipping God,”</span> Αλεξαμενος σεβετε [sic for
σεβεται] Θεον. It can hardly be doubted that it is a pagan
caricature of Christian worship, embodying the absurd prejudice
which Minucius names. A brief account of it may be seen in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>, No. 224, for October, 1859, p. 436, and more
fully in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Un Graffito Blasfemo nel Palazzo dei Cesari (Civiltà
Cattolica</span></span>, serie iii. vol. iv. Roma, 1856). The difficulty that the inscription
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
is in Greek, will be explained by the fact that the church
of Rome was Greek as late as the time of the writings of the so-called
Hippolytus.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other great class of objections to Christianity, which consisted
in imputing the charge of treason, expressed itself in deeds
as well as words, and was made the ground of the public persecution
of them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We cannot wonder that the profession of Christianity exposed
persons to the suspicion of treason. When we add the fact that
Christians declined obstinately to conform to the practice which
had grown up, of performing sacrifice to the honour of the reigning
emperors as the impersonation of the dignity of the state; and
when we consider the organization among Christians, the league
of purpose which was evident among them, we can understand
how fully they laid themselves open to the charge of treason, the
<span class="tei tei-q">“crimen læsæ majestatis.”</span> Perhaps too at particular moments
they were in danger of giving real ground for suspicion in reference
to this point. The warnings of St. Paul and St. Peter give
ground for inferring that there was danger of this even in their
times. (Rom. xiii. 1 seq.; 1 Pet. ii. 13 seq.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A greater difficulty than discovering plausible grounds which
may have created the suspicion of treason is, to find the causes
why a people so tolerant as the Romans should exhibit so persecuting
a spirit against Christianity; but we must remember,
first, that the idea as distinct from the practice of toleration was
unknown; and secondly, that the practice of toleration was only
supposed to be obligatory when the particular religion had been
licensed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The idea of man's universal rights, of universal religious freedom
and liberty of conscience, was alien to the views of the whole
ancient world. Indeed it is of quite modern introduction. It was
not known even in Christendom, not even in the protestant part
of it, till the seventeenth century. It was Milton who first enunciated
the principle in its breadth. The idea of individualism,
though long in spreading, was created in germ by two causes; viz..
the free spirit of independence introduced by the Teutonic system;
and the idea of the sacredness of the individual soul introduced
through Christianity. If the highest end of man be to live for
eternity, not to live for society, the individual is invested with a
new dignity; and we feel the impropriety of trespassing upon the
sphere for which each man is personally responsible. In the ancient
world however, where this idea was unknown, all the elements
of life, religion, and morals, were made subordinate to the
political. The state was supreme. Looked at accordingly from
the ancient point of view, a defection from the religion of the
state could not appear otherwise than as a crime against the state.
The Romans did certainly exercise religious toleration to the
religions of nations which they conquered; and in this way the
religion of the Jews was a tolerated creed, a
<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">religio licita</span></span>; but it
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg 407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
was such for the Jews alone; and deviation from the state religion
was, as we know from the great lawyers, unlawful. Though
doubtless from the abundance of foreigners who crowded to Rome,
many foreign religious practices became common, yet a special
decree of the senate was necessary before any Roman citizen could
be allowed to join in the observance of any such foreign rites.
When we consider the free use made by the Christians, for the
purposes of worship and burial, of the catacombs, by which the
plain in the neighbourhood of Rome is honeycombed, we may
conjecture that the vigilance of the imperial police cannot have
been strictly exercised; yet occasionally severe laws were passed
to repress the evil of the introduction of foreign sacred rites. We
may thus accordingly understand the causes of the persecution of
Christians, as we before understood the grounds of the prejudice
against them.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_16" id="Note_16" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 16. p. </span><a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">61</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Modern Criticism On The Book Of Daniel.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Some account of the modern criticism on the book of Daniel
has been introduced into the text of Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>.
(see pp. <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>,) and
the chief recent writers on it have been enumerated (p. <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>,
note).
Also the refutation of one argument used against the authenticity
of the book, viz. that drawn from the occurrence of Greek words
in it, was given in a note on p. <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other arguments which have been advanced against it, in
addition to those there named, are, (1) that the angelology and
ascetic doctrines are too recent to be of the time of Daniel; (2)
that the miracles are of a <span class="tei tei-q">“grotesque”</span> character, like those which
belong to the apocryphal books; (3) that the measure of the golden
statue of Dura, sixty cubits by six, is irreconcileable with any
theory of proportion suited to the human figure, and still more so
with the canon of Assyrian art, as seen in their sculpture, and can
apply only to an obelisk; (4) that Daniel has made honourable
mention of himself; (5) that the position of the book in the third
part of the Jewish canon, the Cethubim or Hagiographa, shows
that it was written later than the captivity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The replies made to these objections are as follows: In reference
to No. (1), it is denied that the angelology and asceticism
necessarily prove a late period, by referring to traces of them in
earlier Hebrew literature: No. (2) that the difficulty which has
reference to the character of the miracles is only one of degree;
and that the greatness of a miracle is no absolute ground for disbelief
if miracles be once admitted: (3) the inferences about the
statue are conceded, but reconciled with the text. As the word
עלם (iii. 1) does not necessarily mean a statue (see Buxtorf's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon,
sub voc.</span></span>), it is possible to conceive it to apply to an obelisk,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name="Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the existence of which in Assyria is confirmed by recent excavations.
(4) Daniel's honourable mention of himself is not improper
when taken in its connexion. (5) The argument which relates to
the third division of the canon is a difficulty common to several
other books, and depends on the theory that the principle of arrangement
of the three parts of the canon was founded on the date
of composition, and not on the subject matter, which is disputed.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In reference to the definite character of the predictions in the
book of Daniel, the difficulty stated in the text (p. <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>),
reply is easy. If the miraculous character of prophecy be admitted, the
definite character, though a peculiarity, cannot be a difficulty.
The definiteness too in this instance does not differ in kind, hardly
even in degree, from the case of other prophecies, but must be
admitted to be paralleled elsewhere, if the objector does not assail
those equally by the same process. The pretence that the definite
character ends at the reign of Antiochus is shown to be incorrect,
by proving (1) that the prophecy about the Messiah (ix. 24-26)
cannot refer to the Maccabean deliverers; and (2) that the fourth
empire predicted is the Roman, which thus would be equally
future even to a writer of the Maccabean era.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The further argument used in defence of the book, that the
New Testament authenticates the authorship of Daniel, is necessarily
only of value to those who admit, first, the authority of the
New Testament, and who, secondly, allow that the New Testament
writers never accommodate themselves on questions of criticism to
the mental state of their hearers. The opponents of this view on
the contrary assert, that the quotations in the New Testament only
affirm the predicate, not the subject; the truth of the theological
sentiment quoted, not the literary question of the authorship of
the book from which it is quoted.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An instructive paper on the book of Daniel by Mr. Westcott
appeared in Smith's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Dictionary</span></span>, from which a few of the
references to authors on Daniel (p. <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref">60</a>, note) were taken; and
another in Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Encyclopædia</span></span> by the lamented Hävernick.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_17" id="Note_17" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 17. p. </span><a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">64</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Reply Of Eusebius To Hierocles.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In his book against Hierocles, Eusebius states (b. i.), that he
refutes only that portion of the work which related to Apollonius
of Tyana; referring to Origen's answer to Celsus for a reply to the
remainder of it; and discusses only the parallel of Apollonius and
Jesus Christ. In b. i. he gives an outline of the argument of his
opponent, with quotations, and states his own opinion about Apollonius;
throwing discredit on the veracity of the sources of the
memoirs; and proceeds to criticise the prodigies attributed to
him, arguing that the statements are incredible, or borrowed, or
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
materially contradictory. Discussing each book in succession, he
replies in b. i. to the statements respecting the early part of Apollonius's
life; in b. ii. to that which concerned the journey into
India; in b. iii. to that which related to his intercourse with the
Brahmins; in b. iv. to his journey in Greece; in b. v. to his introduction
to Vespasian in Egypt; in b. vi. and vii. to his miracles;
and in b. viii. to his pretence to foreknowledge. He adds remarks
on his death, and on the necessity of faith; and repeats his opinion
respecting the character of Apollonius.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_18" id="Note_18" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 18. p. </span><a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">67</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Philopatris Of The Pseudo-Lucian.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This dialogue was held to be genuine by Fabricius; but Gesner
disproved it, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Philopatride Lucianeo Dialogo Dissertatio</span></span>, 1730.
See also Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, E. T. (Bohn) iii. 127, note.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work hardly merits an analysis. Critias, looking ill, is
met by Triepho. After a little banter, in which Triepho makes
fun of the gods by whom Critias swears, and of their history (§ 2-18),
Critias confesses that the cause that has made him pale is
the hearing bad news at an assembly of Christians. Having first
heard two Christian sermons, the one by a coughing preacher,
who was proclaiming release from debt, the other by a threadbare
mountaineer preaching a golden age, he had afterwards been persuaded
to go to a private Christian meeting; and it was the prediction
which he there heard of woes to the state which had so much
frightened him, § 20-27. Triepho has not patience to hear him
narrate the particulars. Another person enters, and the curtain
falls.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The theology of the dialogue is, if viewed on its negative side,
the ridicule of heathen mythology and of Christian doctrines and
habits; and on its positive, the proclamation of one God as the
object of worship. The work exhibits internal evidence of a
knowledge of Christian practices, § 20, &amp;c., and Christian doctrines,
such as the Trinity, § 12; uses Christian phraseology, § 18;
and calls Christians by the name given by Julian, Galilæan, § 12.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_19" id="Note_19" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 19. p. </span><a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">87</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Work Of Julian Against Christianity.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been already stated that our knowledge of the contents
of Julian's lost book is obtained from Cyril's reply to it; the text
of which is accordingly given in Spanheim's edition of Julian. It
is supposed to have consisted of seven books; but Cyril replies
only to three.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the brief account given in the text of Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>.
no attempt was made to form a hypothetical restoration of Julian's work
from the fragments, such as that which Pressensé has attempted
with regard to Celsus; but only a few of Julian's principles were
presented concerning the following subjects: (1) on God; (2) on
the Hebrew, and (3) the Christian religion. A few hints however
toward such a scheme, may not be uninteresting. If, as seems
probable, Cyril took the statements of Julian in the order in which
they stood in the now lost work, the plan of Julian's work may
have been somewhat as follows.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He proposed to institute a comparison between the Hebrew
and Christian religions and literature on the one hand, and the
Greek on the other. If we may judge from the purport of b. i. of
Cyril's work, Julian laid himself open to an attack by maintaining
the superior antiquity of heathenism, forgetting that the Hebrew
system was older than the Greek. At least Cyril establishes this
elaborately, and argues the direct derivation of many parts of the
heathen system from the Jews. The argument on Julian's part
seems to have been conducted by an examination of successive
points in the Hebrew history and system. In the beginning the
Hebrew cosmogony suggested an argument for the superiority of
the Platonic theory over the Mosaic. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyril.</span></span> b. ii.) Next he
successively attacked the account of Paradise as a fable; entering
upon both the probability of the story (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. iii.) and the moral
features of the Deity brought out in the narrative. He seems also
to have passed from the idea of creation to that of providence,
and to have dwelt on the inferiority of the Hebrew scheme as a
theory of providence, in having an absence of inferior deities beneath
the supreme one; and resists the idea of the obligation of
all men to embrace one creed, inasmuch as they do not possess
one character. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. iv.) Next, turning to the Mosaic moral
law, he argued against its originality, except in relation to the
sabbath; and passing through several of the narratives of Jewish
history, he pointed out characteristics of anger in the Jewish conception
of Deity; and compared by instances the Greek legislators
and kings with Jewish. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. v.) Next he seems to have passed
from Judaism to Christianity, and attacked the miracles, and
the Christian morals and practices; challenged the reasons for
prophecy; and rallied the Christians on accepting a religion derived
from so insignificant a nation as the Jews. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. vi.) He
seems next to have returned to the comparison of Greek and
Hebrew warriors, and of Greek and Jewish science, and the
educational value of the two literatures; and reverted to the subject
of Christianity, by representing it as a deviation from the
very religion on which it depended. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. vii.) He continued
this argument by the special example of prophecy, examining
several instances wherein he contended that Christians had abandoned
the Jewish sense of them. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. viii.) Next he seems to
have continued a similar argument with regard to the Jewish
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
typical system, and the utter dissimilarity of the Christian ideas
from its purpose (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. ix.); next to have assailed Christianity,
by trying to show that there had been a similar development in
Christianity itself, and a departure from its primitive form analogous
to that which Christianity bore to Judaism, alleging, incorrectly,
that St. John was the first to teach the divinity of Christ;
and instanced examples, objectionable in practice, such as the
worship of martyrs' tombs; and alleged against Christianity an
eclectic spirit which had appropriated parts of the Jewish system
but not the whole. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> b. x.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The reader must however be apprised that the above scheme is
entirely hypothetical. The objections of Julian are facts; the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lacunæ</span></span> are filled up by conjecture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The general spirit of Cyril's answer is the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">argumentum ad
hominem</span></span>; showing that the same faults, even if true, are equally
true of the Greek scheme of religion.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture III.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_20" id="Note_20" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 20. p. </span><a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">89</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On The Legendary Work, Entitled </span><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">De Tribus Impostoribus.</span><span style="font-size: 120%">”</span></span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Full particulars concerning the chapter in literary history
which relates to this work, will be found in Prosper Marchand's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire Historique</span></span>, 1758 (vol. i. pp. 312-319), and more
briefly in F. W. Genthe's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Imposturis Religionum breve
Compendium</span></span>, 1833. Both give lists of the earlier writers who have
treated of the subject; among which the most useful will be found
to be B. G. Struve, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertatio de Doctis Impostoribus</span></span>, 1703
(§ 9-23); De La Monnaie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettre sur le Prétendu Livre</span></span>; and Calmet,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire</span></span>, article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Imposteur</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The rumours concerning the existence of a book with the title
<span class="tei tei-q">“De Tribus Impostoribus”</span> commence in the thirteenth century.
About the sixteenth, more definite but still unsatisfactory statements
appear respecting its existence. Its authorship has been
attributed to above twenty distinguished persons; such as Frederick
II, Boccaccio, Pomponatius, Bruno, Vanini, &amp;c.; the reasons
for which in each case are explained in Marchand. De La
Monnaie however wrote, questioning the existence of the book.
A reply to his letter respecting it was published in French at the
Hague in 1716, which pretended to offer an analysis of the ancient
work; the falsehood of which however is shown by the Spinozist
philosophy contained in it. Genthe in his tract, besides a literary
introduction in German, republishes the French tract just named;
and also a second tract in Latin, equally a fabrication, bearing a
slightly different title, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Imposturis Religionum</span></span>, Lucianlike in
its tone, which, by an allusion to Loyola (§ 20), cannot be older than
the sixteenth century, and is probably of German origin. Both
writers conclude that the existence of the book in the middle ages
was legendary. Renan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>, pp. 280, and 272-300), and
Laurent (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Reforme</span></span>, pp. 345-8), coincide in this conclusion. The
title was a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mot</span></span>, not a fact.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is hardly necessary to state that the numerous writers who,
like Kortholt, have adopted the title <span class="tei tei-q">“De Tribus Impostoribus”</span>
for their books, have merely used the name in irony, and do not
profess to give transcripts of the old work.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc28" id="toc28"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture IV.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_21" id="Note_21" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 21. p. </span><a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">118</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On Some Technical Terms In The History Of Unbelief.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are a few terms, which are frequently used in reference
to unbelief, of which it would be interesting to trace the meaning
and history. A few notes in reference to this subject may both
prevent ambiguity and throw some light on a chapter in the history
of language. The words alluded to are the following: 1. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Infidel</span></span>;
2. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Atheist</span></span>; 3. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Pantheist</span></span>; 4.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Deist</span></span>; 5. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Naturalist</span></span>;
6. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Freethinker</span></span>; 7. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Rationalist</span></span>; 8.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sceptic</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Infidel</span></span>.—This word began to be restricted as a
technical term, about the time of the Crusades and throughout the
middle ages, to denote Mahometan; as being <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></span> the
kind of unbelievers with which Christians were brought into
contact. Perhaps the first instance of its use in the more
modern sense, of disbeliever generally, is in the Collect for Good
Friday, <span class="tei tei-q">“all Jews, Turks, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">infidels</span></em>, heretics;”</span> which words were
apparently inserted by the Reformers in the first Prayer Book
(1547); the rest of the prayer, except these words, existing in
the Latin Collect of the ancient Service-book from which it is
translated. Ordinarily however, during the sixteenth century,
it is found in the popular sense of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">unfaithful</span></span>; a meaning which
the increasing prevalence of Latin words was likely to bring into
use. In writers of the seventeenth, the use of it in the sense of
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">unbeliever</span></span> becomes more common: an instance from Milton is
cited in Richardson's Dictionary. In the beginning of the eighteenth
century it becomes quite common in theological writers in
its modern sense; and toward the end of the century was frequently
appropriated to express the form of unbelief which existed
in France; a use which probably arose from the circumstance that
the French unbelievers did not adopt a special name for their
tenets, as the English did, who had a positive creed, (Deism,) and
not merely, like the French, a disintegration of belief.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Atheist</span></span>.—This word needs little discussion. In modern
times it is first applied by the theological writers of the sixteenth
century, to describe the unbelief of such persons as Pomponatius;
and in the seventeenth it is used, by Bacon (Essay on Atheism),
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Milton, (Paradise lost, b. vi.), and Bunyan (Pilgrim), to imply
general unbelief, of which the disbelief in a Deity is the principal
sign. Toward the end of the same century it is not unfrequently
found, e.g. in Kortholt's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Tribus Impostoribus</span></span>, 1680, to include
Deism such as that of Hobbes, as well as blank Pantheism like
Spinoza's, which more justly deserves the name. The same use is
seen in Colerus's work against Spinoza, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Arcana Atheismi Revelata</span></span>.
Tillotson (serm. i. on Atheism); and Bentley (Boyle Lectures) use
the word more exactly; and the invention of the term Deism induced,
in the writers of the eighteenth century, a more limited
and exact use of the former term. But in Germany, Reimannus
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia Univ. Atheismi</span></span>, 1725, p. 437 seq.) and Buddeus
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Atheismo et Superstitione</span></span>, 1723, ch. iii. § 2), use it most
widely, and especially make it include disbelief of immortality. Also
Walch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Theol. Selecta</span></span>, 1757, uses it to include the
Pantheism of Spinoza, (vol. i. p. 676, &amp;c.) This transference of the
term to embrace all kinds of unbelief has been well compared
with the extension of the term βάρβαρος by the Greeks.<a id="noteref_1064" name="noteref_1064" href="#note_1064"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1064</span></span></a> The
wide use of the term is partly to be attributed to the doubt which
Christian men had whether any one could really disbelieve
the being of a God,—an opinion increased by the Cartesian notions
then common concerning innate ideas; and whether accordingly
the term Atheist could mean anything different from Deist.
Compare Buddeus's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, p. 1203, and the chapter <span class="tei tei-q">“An dentur
Athei”</span> in his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Atheismo</span></span>. (ch. i.) By the time of
Stapfer's work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Instit. Theol. Polem.</span></span> 1744, the two terms were
distinguished; see vol. ii. ch. vi. and vii. and cfr. p. 587.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The term was subsequently applied to describe the views of
the French writers, such as D'Holbach, who did not see the necessity
for believing in a personal first Cause. In more modern times
it is frequently applied to such writers as Comte; whose view is
indeed atheism, but differs from that of former times, in that it is
the refusal to entertain the question of a Deity as not being discoverable
by the evidence of sense and science, rather than the
absolute denial of his existence. The Comtists also hold firmly
the marks of order, law, mind, in nature, and not the fortuitous
concurrence of atoms, as was the case with the atheists of France.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Pantheist</span></span>.—One of the first uses of this word is by
Toland in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pantheisticon</span></span>, 1720, where however it has its
ancient polytheistic sense. It is a little later that it passes from the idea of
the worship of the whole of the gods to the worship of the entire
universe looked at as God.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This exacter application of it is more modern. It is now used
to denote the disbelief of a personal first Cause: but a distinction
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
ought to be made between the Pantheism like that of Averroes,
which regards the world as an emanation, and sustained by an
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">anima mundi</span></span>; and that which, like the view of Spinoza, regards
the sum total of all things to be Deity. This distinction was
noticed and illustrated in p. <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref">107</a>. The account of the word in
Krug's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosoph. Lexicon</span></span> is worth consulting.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
4. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Deist</span></span>.—One of the first instances of the use of this
word occurs in Viret, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epistr. Dedicat. du 2. vol de l'Instruction
Chrétienne</span></span>, 1563, quoted by Bayle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire</span></span>, (note under
the word Viret.) It is appropriated in the middle of the seventeenth century
by Herbert to his scheme, and afterwards by Blount (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles
of Reason</span></span>, p. 99), to distinguish themselves from Atheists. In
strict truth, Herbert calls himself a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theist</span></span>; which slightly
differs from the subsequent term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deist</span></span>, in so far as it is
intended to convey the idea of that which he thought to be the true worship of
God. It is theism as opposed to error, rather than natural religion
as opposed to revealed: whereas deism always implies a
position antagonistic to revealed religion. But the distinction is
soon lost sight of; and Nichols (1696) entitles his work against
the deists, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conference with a Theist</span></span>. Towards the close of the
seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the
Christian writers sometimes even use Deist as interchangeable
with Atheist, as shown above. It is also used as synonymous
with one of the senses of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naturalist</span></span>. See below, under
the latter word; and cfr. Stapfer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Polem.</span></span> vol. ii. p. 742,
with p. 883.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
5. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Naturalist</span></span>.—This word is used in two senses; an
objective and a subjective. Naturalism, in the former, is the belief
which identifies God with nature; in the latter, the belief in the
sufficiency of natural as distinct from revealed religion. The
former is Pantheism, the latter Deism. In the former sense it is
applied to Spinoza and others; e.g. in Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Theol.
Select.</span></span> i. 745 seq. In the latter sense it occurs as early as 1588 in
France, in the writings of J. Bodin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Colloq. Heptapl.</span></span> 31. Rem.
2); and towards the end of the seventeenth century both in Germany
and England, e.g. in Kortholt's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Trib. Impost.</span></span> 1680; and
the Quaker, Barclay's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologia</span></span>, 1679, p. 28. At the end of the
seventeenth century, and in the eighteenth, the name was applied
in England to deists, (e.g. in Nichols's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conference with a Theist</span></span>,
pref. § 15); and in Germany it became a commonly known word,
owing to the spread of the Wolffian philosophy. Stapfer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Instit.
Theol. Polem.</span></span> 1744, vol. ii. p. 881), using Wolffian phraseology,
divides this latter kind of naturalism into two kinds, viz. philosophical
and theological. The philosophical kind maintains the
sufficiency of natural religion, and disbelieves revealed; the theological
kind holds the truth of revelation, but regards it as unnecessary,
as being only a republication of natural religion. The
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416" id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
adherent of the former is the <span class="tei tei-q">“Naturalist”</span> of Kant; the latter his
<span class="tei tei-q">“pure Rationalist”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verg. Religion Innerhalb, &amp;c.</span></span>); the
former the Deist, the latter the Rationalist, of a school like that of Wegscheider,
&amp;c. (See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Cfr. Bretschneider's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der Dogmatik</span></span>; i. 72. note.
Hahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Rationalismi Indole</span></span> (quoted by Rose on Rationalism, 2d
ed. Introd. p. 20) names writers who make a third kind of naturalism,
viz. Pelagianism; but this is rare.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
6. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Freethinker</span></span>.—This term first appears toward the close
of the seventeenth century. It is used of Toland, <span class="tei tei-q">“a candid Freethinker,”</span>
by Molyneux, in a letter to Locke 1697 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Locke's Works</span></span>,
fol. ed. iii. 624); and Shaftesbury in 1709 speaks of <span class="tei tei-q">“our modern
free-writers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, vol. i. p. 65. But it was Collins in
1713, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse of Freethinking</span></span>, who first appropriated
the name to express the independence of inquiry which was claimed by the deists.
The use of the word expressed the spirit of a nation like the English,
in which, subsequently to the change of dynasty, freedom to
think and speak was held to be every man's charter. Lechler has
remarked the absence of a parallel word in other languages. The
French expression <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Esprit fort</span></span>,
the title of a work of La Bruyère, does not convey quite the same idea as
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Freethinker</span></span>. <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Esprit</span></span>
expresses the French liveliness, not the reflective self-consciousness
of the English mind of the eighteenth century: the
<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">fort</span></span> is a relic
of the pride of feudalism; whilst the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">free</span></em> of the English Freethinker
implies the reaction against it. The English term smacks
of democracy; the French carries with it the notion of aristocracy.
(Lechler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Engl. Deismus</span></span>, p. 458.) There is no word
to express the English idea in foreign languages, except the literal
translation of the English term. Even then, in French the
expression <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">la libre pensée</span></span>
has changed its meaning; since it is now
frequently used to describe the struggle, good as well as evil, of
the human mind against authority. It thus loses the unfavourable
sense which originally belonged to the corresponding English
expression.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
7. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Rationalist</span></span>.—The history of the term is hard to trace.
The first technical use of the adjective <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rational</span></em> seems to have been
about the seventeenth century, to express a school of philosophy.
It had probably passed out of the old sense of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dialectical</span></em> (cfr.
Brucker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Phil.</span></span> iii. 60.), into the use just named; which we
find in Bacon, to express rational philosophy, as opposed to
empirical, (see a quotation from Bacon's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apophthegms</span></span> in
Richardson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sub voc.</span></span>);
or, as in North's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span>, 1657, p.
984, for intellectual philosophy as opposed to mathematical and
moral. The word Rationalist occurs in Clarendon, 1646 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">State
Papers</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 40), to describe a party of presbyterians who
appealed only to <span class="tei tei-q">“what their reason dictates them in church and
state.”</span> Hahn (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Rationalismi Indole</span></span>) states that Amos Comenius
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name="Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
similarly used the term in 1661 in a depreciatory sense. The
treatise of Locke on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of Christianity</span></span> caused
Christians and Deists to appropriate the term, and to restrict it to
religion. Thus, by Waterland's time, it had got the meaning of
false reasoning on religion. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, viii. 67.) And, passing into
Germany, it appears to have become the common name to express
philosophical views of religion, as opposed to supernatural. In
this sense it occurs as early as 1708 in Sucro, quoted by Tholuck,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischt. Schriften</span></span>, ii. pp. 25, 26,
and in Buddeus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, 1730,
pp. 213 and 1151. It is also used often as equivalent to naturalism,
or adherence to natural religion; with the slight difference
that it rather points to mental than physical truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The name has often been appropriated to the Kantian or critical
philosophy, in which rationalism was distinguished from naturalism
in the mode explained under the latter word. (See Kant's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion Innerhalb der Grenzen der Blossen Vernunft</span></span>, pp. 216, 17.)
During the period when Rationalism was predominant as a method
in German theology, the meaning and limits of the term were
freely discussed. The period referred to is that which we have
called in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>. p. <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref">230</a>
the second subdivision of the first of the
three periods, into which the history of German theology is there
divided; viz. from 1790-1810; occupying the interval when the
Wolffian philosophy had given place to the Kantian, and the philosophy
of Fichte and Jacobi had not yet produced the revival
under Schleiermacher. This form of rationalism also continued to
exist during the lifetime of its adherents, contemporaneously with
the new influence created by Schleiermacher. (See Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.)
The discussion was not a verbal one only, but was intimately connected
with facts. The rationalist theologians wished to define
clearly their own position, as opposed on the one hand to deists
and naturalists, and on the other to supernaturalists. The result
of the discussion seemed to show the following parties: (1) two
kinds of Supernaturalists, (α) the Biblical, such as Reinhardt, resembling
the English divines of the eighteenth century;<a id="noteref_1065" name="noteref_1065" href="#note_1065"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1065</span></span></a>
(β) the Philosophical, sometimes called Rational Supernaturalists, as the
Kantian theologian Staüdlin: (2) two kinds of Rationalists, (α) the
Supernatural Rationalists, like Bretschneider, who held on the
evidence of reason the necessity of a revelation, but required its
accordance with reason, when communicated; (β) the pure Rationalists,
like Wegscheider, Röhr, and Paulus, who held the sufficiency
of reason; and, while admitting revelation as a fact, regarded
it as the republication of the religion of nature. It is this
last kind which answers to the <span class="tei tei-q">“theological naturalist,”</span> named
above, under the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naturalist</span></span>. It is also the form which is
called <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationalismus vulgaris</span></span>
(as being opposed to the later <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">scientific</span></em>),
though the term is not admitted by its adherents. This
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418" id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
rationalism stands distinguished from naturalism, i.e. from <span class="tei tei-q">“philosophical
naturalism”</span> or deism, by having reference to the Christian
religion and church; but it differs from supernaturalism, in
that reason, not scripture, is its formal principle, or test of truth:
and virtue, instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“faith working by love,”</span> is its material
principle, or fundamental doctrine. A further subdivision might
be made of this last into the dogmatic (Wegscheider), and the critical
(Paulus). Cfr. Bretschneider's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span>, i. 81, and see Lect.
VI. Also consult on the above account Kahnis, p. 168, and
Lechler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deismus</span></span>, p. 193, note;
Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch</span></span>. § 279,
note.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This account of the term being the result of the controversy as
to the meaning of the words, it only remains to name some of the
works which treated of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The dispute on the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationalism</span></em> is especially seen at two
periods, (1) about the close of the last century, when the supernaturalists,
such as Reinhardt and Storr, were maintaining their
position against rationalism. One treatise, which may perhaps be
considered to belong to this earlier period, is J. A. H. Tittmann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber Supernaturalismus, Rationalismus, und Atheismus</span></span>, 1816; (2)
in the disputes against the school of Schleiermacher, when supernaturalism
was no longer thrown on the defensive. This was
marked by several treatises on the subject, such as Staüdlin's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Rationalismus und Supernaturalismus</span></span> 1826, (see
the definitions given in it, pp. 3 and 4;) Bretschneider's remarks
in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span> (i. pp. 14, 71, 80 ed. 1838); and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historische Bemerkungen Ueber den Gebrauch der Ausdrücke Rational. und
Supernat.</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oppositions-Schrift.</span></span> 1829. 7. 1);
A. Hahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Rationalismi
qui dicitur Verâ Indole</span></span>, 1827, in which he reviews the
attempts of Bretschneider and Staüdlin to give the historic use of
the word; Röhr's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Briefe Ueber Rationalismus</span></span>, pp. 14-16; Paulus's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Resultate aus den Neuesten Versuch des Supernat. Gegen den
Rationalismus</span></span>, 1830; Wegscheider's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Christianæ
Dogmaticæ</span></span> (7th ed. 1833. §§ 11, 12, pp. 49-67), which is full of references to
the literature of the subject. The controversy was aggravated and
in part was due to the translation of Mr. H. J. Rose's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermons on
Rationalism</span></span>. He was answered by Bretschneider in a tract, in
which that theologian entered upon the defence of the rationalist
position. Mr. Rose (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd.</span></span> to 2d ed. 1829, p. 17) enters briefly
upon the history of the name. Krug (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philos. Lexicon</span></span>) also gives
many instances of its use in German theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
To complete the account it is only necessary to add, that it is
made clear by Lectures <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a>
and <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a> that if subsequent theological
thought in Germany to the schools now described, be called
Rationalism for convenience by English writers, the term is then
used in a different sense from that in which it is applied in speaking
of the older forms.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
8. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sceptic.</span></span>—This term was first applied specifically to
one school
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419" id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of Greek philosophers, about B.C. 300, followers of Pyrrho of
Elis (see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Phil.</span></span>
E. T. iii. 372-398; Staüdlin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
des Scepticismus</span></span>, vol. i; Tafel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte und Kritik des
Skepticismus</span></span>, 1836; Donaldson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Greek Lit.</span></span> ch. xlvii. § 5);
and also to a revival of this school about A.D. 200. (See Ritter. Id. iii.
258-357; Donaldson, ch. lvi. § 3.) The tenet was a general disbelief
of the possibility of knowing realities as distinct from appearances.
The term thus introduced, gradually became used in the specific sense
of theological as distinct from philosophical scepticism, often with
an indirect implication that the two are united. Walch restricts
the name Sceptic to the latter kind. Writing about those who
are called Indifferentists (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Theol. Select.</span></span> i. 976), he
subdivides them into two classes; viz. those who are indifferent through liberality,
and those who are so through unbelief. The former are
the <span class="tei tei-q">“Latitudinarians,”</span> the latter the Sceptics above named. Cfr.
also Buddeus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, pp. 1208-10. In more recent times the
term has gained a still more generic sense in theology, to express
all kinds of religious doubt. But its use to express philosophical
scepticism as distinct from religious has not died out. In this
sense Montaigne, Bayle (cfr. Staüdlin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Scept.</span></span> p. 204),
Huet, Berkeley, Hume, and De Maistre, were Sceptics; i.e. sceptical
of the certitude of one or more branches of the human faculties.
Sometimes also it is used to express systems of philosophy
which teach disbelief in the reality of metaphysical science; e.g.
the positive school of Comte; but this is an ambiguous use of the
term. For philosophical scepticism may be of two kinds; viz. the
disbelief in the possibility of the attainment of truth by means of
the natural faculties of man; and the disbelief of the possibility
of its attainment by means of metaphysical, as distinct from physical,
methods. The former is properly called Philosophical Scepticism,
the latter not so. Pyrrho in ancient times, and Hume in
modern, represent the former; the Positivists of modern times,
and perhaps the Sophists of the fifth century B.C., represent the
latter. It is hardly necessary to repeat that the philosophical
scepticism proper of Berkeley and Hume must not be confounded
with religious. They may be connected, as in Hume, or disconnected,
as in Berkeley or De Maistre. See on this subject Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Philos.</span></span> i. p. 68, ii. ch. vi.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On the subject of the words explained in this note see, besides
the works referred to, Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Theol. Select.</span></span> i. ch. v.
sect. 5, 6, 7, 11, and iii. ch. vii. sect. 10. § 4. 1757: Pfaff's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. in Hist. Theol.</span></span> lib. ii. b. iii. § 2. 1725: Stapfer's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Polem.</span></span>
ii. ch. vi, vii, x; iv. ch. xiii. 1744: Reimannus' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Univ. Ath.</span></span>
sectio i. 1725: J. F. Buddeus's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Atheismo</span></span>, 1737, ch. i. and ii:
J. F. Buddeus's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, 1730, pp. 1203-1211: Lechler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Deismus</span></span>, 1841;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schlussbemerkungen</span></span>, p. 453 seq.: J. Fabricius, 1704,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Consid. Var. Controv.</span></span> p. 1: Staüdlin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch.
des Skepticismus vorzüglich in Rücksicht auf. Moral. und Religion</span></span>. 1794: J. F.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg 420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Tafel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. und Kritik des Skepticismus und Irrationalismus</span></span>,
with reference to Philosophy, 1834.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_22" id="Note_22" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 22. p. </span><a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">136</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Woolston's Discourses On Miracles.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In addition to the notice of these Discourses given in the text,
it may be well to give a brief account of their contents.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In Discourse I. Woolston aims at showing (α) that healing is
not a proper miracle for a Messiah to perform, and that the
fathers of the church understood the miracles allegorically: (β)
that a literal interpretation of miracles involves incredibility, as
shown in the miracle of the expulsion of the buyers and sellers
from the temple, the casting out devils from the possessed man of
the tombs, the transfiguration, the marriage of Cana, the feeding
the multitudes: (γ) the meaning of Jesus when he appeals to miracles.
In Discourse II. he selects for examination the miracle of
the woman with the issue of blood, and also her with the spirit
of infirmity; also the narrative of the Samaritan woman, the triumphal
entry into Jerusalem, the temptation, the appearance of
the spirits of the dead at the resurrection. In Discourse III. he
selects the cursing of the fig-tree, and the miracle of the pool of
Bethesda. It may be allowable to give one illustration of the
coarse humour with which he rationalizes the sacred narrative in
his explanation of this last miracle. He says of the healed man,
<span class="tei tei-q">“The man's infirmity was more laziness than lameness; and Jesus
only shamed him out of his pretended idleness by bidding him
to take up his stool and walk off, and not lie any longer like a lubbard
and dissemble among the diseased.”</span> It will be perceived,
that if the coarseness be omitted, the system of interpretation is
the naturalist system afterwards adopted by the old rationalism
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rationalismus vulgaris</span></span>). In Discourse IV. he selects the healing
with eye-salve of the blind man, the water made into wine at
Cana; where he introduces a Jewish rabbi to utter blasphemy,
after the manner of Celsus; and the healing of the paralytic who
was let down through the roof, which, as being one of the most
characteristic passages of Woolston, Dean Trench has selected for
analysis. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on Miracles</span></span>, Introduction, p. 81.) In Discourse
V. he discusses the three miracles of the raising of the dead; and
in Discourse VI. the miracle of Christ's own resurrection.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
His conclusion (in Disc. I.) is, that <span class="tei tei-q">“the history of Jesus, as
recorded in the evangelists, is an emblematical representation
of his spiritual life in the soul of man; and his miracles figurative
of his mysterious operations;”</span> that the four Gospels are
in no part a literal story, but a system of mystical philosophy or
theology.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page421">[pg 421]</span><a name="Pg421" id="Pg421" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture V.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_23" id="Note_23" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 23. p. </span><a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">178</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Literary Coteries Of Paris In The Eighteenth Century.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
An account of these coteries may be seen in Schlosser's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.
of Eighteenth Century</span></span>, (E. T.) vol. i. ch. ii. § 4; the particulars of
which chapter he has gathered largely from the Autobiography
of Marmontel, and from Grimm's Correspondence. See also
Sainte-Beuve's Papers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Portraits</span></span>, vol. ii.) on Espinasse and
Geoffrin. These coteries were specially four: viz. (1) that of Madame
De Tencin, mother of D'Alembert, which included Fontenelle,
Montesquieu, Mairan, Helvetius, Marivaux, and Astruc; (2) of
Madame Geoffrin, who took the place of De Tencin. It included,
besides some of the above, Poniatowsky, Frederick the Great
when in France, the Swedish Creutz, and Kaunitz, the whole of
the Voltaire school, and at first Rousseau; (3) of Madame Du
Deffant, contemporary with Geoffrin. This was less a coterie of
fashion, and more entirely of intellect; and included Voltaire,
D'Alembert, Hénault, and Horace Walpole when in Paris. Later
M<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">lle</span></span>.
Espinasse took the place of Deffant, and this became the
union-point for all the philosophical reformers, D'Alembert, Diderot,
Turgot, and the Encyclopædists; (4) of D'Holbach, consisting
of the most advanced infidels.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_24" id="Note_24" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 24. p. </span><a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">198</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Term Ideology.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As the term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ideology</span></em> has lately been employed in a novel theological
sense, (e.g. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>, Ess. iv.), and as it is employed
in these lectures in its ordinary sense, as known in metaphysical
science, it may prevent ambiguity to state briefly the
history of the term.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ideology</span></em>, as denoting the term to express metaphysical
science, seems to have arisen in the French school of De
Tracy at the close of the last century. Cfr. Krug's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philos.
Lexicon</span></span>, sub voc.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page422">[pg 422]</span><a name="Pg422" id="Pg422" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As early as Plato's time metaphysics was the science of ἰδέαι,
i.e. of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">forms</span></em>; but the word ἰδέα implied the objective form in
the thing, not the subjective conception in the mind. It was Descartes
who first appropriated the word Idea in the subjective
sense of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">notion</span></em>. This arose from the circumstance that in his
philosophy he sought for the idea in the mind, instead of the essence
in the thing contemplated, as had been the case in mediæval
philosophy. In the following century Locke's inquiries, together
with Berkeley's speculations, caused metaphysics to become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the
science of ideas</span></em>. The representative theory of perception which
was held, increased, if it did not cause, the confusion: all knowledge
was restricted to ideas. The subsequent attempts of Condillac
and others to carry forward the analysis of the formation
of our ideas still farther, caused metaphysics to be restricted to
them alone. This apparently was the reason why De Tracy gave
the name of Ideology to the science of metaphysics in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elémens
d'Idéologie</span></span>.<a id="noteref_1066" name="noteref_1066" href="#note_1066"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1066</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It was the sceptical notion of the unreality of the objects as
distinct from the ideas, partly the offshoot of a sensational philosophy,
like that of De Tracy, partly of the spiritual philosophy
of Germany, which farther caused the term Ideological to slide
into the sense of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ideal</span></em>; a meaning of the term which the employment
of it in English in recent theological controversy seems
likely to make common.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_25" id="Note_25" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 25. p. </span><a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">195</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Works Of Dr. Geddes.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, free thought began
to manifest itself in England under a rationalistic form, in a Roman
catholic, Dr. Geddes, who lived 1737-1802. (See Life by
Mason Good, 1804.) Vol. i. of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Translation</span></span> of the Bible appeared
in 1792; vol. ii. in 1797; and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critical Remarks</span></span> (vol.
i.) in 1800. His free criticism is seen in discussing the character
of Moses (pref. to vol. i. of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transl.</span></span>); the slaughter of the
Canaanites (pref. to vol. ii.); Paradise (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Crit. Rem.</span></span> p. 35); the
remarks on Genesis xlix. (Id. p. 142); on the Egyptian plagues (p.
182); on the passage of the Red sea (p. 200). As soon as the
first volume was published the Catholic bishops silenced him.
Geddes was a believer in Christianity; but felt so strongly the
deist difficulties, that he sought to defend revelation by explaining
away the supernatural from the Jewish history, and inspiration
from the Jewish literature. His views, so far as they were not
original, were probably derived from the incipient rationalistic
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page423">[pg 423]</span><a name="Pg423" id="Pg423" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
speculations of Germany, though he quoted almost none of the
German except Michaelis and Herder. His position in the history
of doubt is with the early rationalists, not with the deists. A
writer of somewhat similar character, Mr. Evanson, a unitarian,
wrote a critical attack on the Gospels, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dissonance of the Four
generally received Evangelists</span></span>, in 1805.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_26" id="Note_26" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 26. p. </span><a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">196</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Works Of Conyers Middleton.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Dr. Conyers Middleton lived from 1683 to 1750. In 1749 he
published <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the Early
Church</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-q">“by which it is shown that we have no sufficient reason
to believe, upon the authority of the primitive fathers, that any
such powers were continued to the church after the days of the
apostles.”</span> He was attacked by Dodwell, Church, and Chapman,
who described the work as discrediting miracles. The object of
it was to place the church in the predicament of denying altogether
the authority of the fathers, or else of admitting the truth of the
Romish doctrine of miracles. Gibbon, when young, chose the
latter horn of the dilemma. A list of Middleton's works in
chronological order will be found in vol. i. of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous
Works</span></span> (1752). The one which created disputes in theology
besides the above was, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Anonymous Letter to Waterland</span></span>, 1731,
in reference to his reply to Tindal's work; which was answered
by Bishop Pearce. His posthumous work on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Variations or
Inconsistencies which are found among the Four Evangelists</span></span>,
(Works, vol. ii. p. 22); his essay on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Allegorical Interpretation
of the Creation and Fall</span></span> (ii. 122); and his criticism in 1750 on
bishop Sherlock's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourses on Prophecy</span></span>, may cause Middleton to
be regarded as a rationalist. See his Works, ii. 24, 131, and iii. 183.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page424">[pg 424]</span><a name="Pg424" id="Pg424" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc30" id="toc30"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VI.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_27" id="Note_27" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 27. p. </span><a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">213</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On Pietism In Germany In The Seventeenth Century.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The person who commenced the religious movement afterwards
called Pietism, was John Arndt (1555-1621), who wrote
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The True Christian</span></span>, a work as useful religiously, as Bunyan's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilgrim's Progress</span></span>, or Doddridge's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion in
the Soul</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Spener followed (1635-1705). The private religious meetings
which he established about 1675, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Collegia Pietatis</span></span>, were the
origin of the application of the name Pietism to the movement.
One of his pupils was the saintly A. H. Francke, whose memoir
was translated 1837. Paul Gerhardt, the well known author
of the German hymns, also belonged to the same party. The
university of Halle became the home of Pietism; and the orphan-house
established in that town was renowned over Europe. The
opposition of the old Lutheran party of other parts of Germany
produced controversies which continued till about 1720; for an
account of which, see Weismann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem. Eccl. Hist. Sacr.</span></span> 1745, p.
1018 seq.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Pietism propagated its influence by means of Bengel in Würtemburg
and the university of Tübingen, and in Moravia through
Zinzendorf. Arnold and Thomasius belonged to this party at the
beginning of the eighteenth century. Œtinger at Tübingen,
Crusius at Leipsic, and, to a certain extent, Buddeus also, partook
of the spirit of Pietism. It manifested a tendency to religious
isolation; and in its nature combined the analogous movements
subsequently carried out in England by Wesley and by Simeon
respectively.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A brief account of it is given in Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 409:
and for a fuller account, see Schröckh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Kirchengesch.</span></span> vol.
viii. pp. 255-91; Pusey on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">German Theology</span></span>, part i. (67-113);
part. ii. ch. x; Amand Saintes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Crit. Hist. of Rationalism</span></span>, E.
T. ch. vii. Spener's character and life may be seen in Canstein's memoir of
him; and in Weismann, pp. 966-72. A philosophical view of
Pietism, as a necessary stage in the development of German religious
life, is given by Dorner in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>, 1840,
part ii. 137, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber den Pietismus</span></span>. Kahnis, who himself quotes it,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page425">[pg 425]</span><a name="Pg425" id="Pg425" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Germ. Prot.</span></span>) E. T. p. 102, regards Pietism as ministering
indirectly to rationalism; much in the same way as bishop Fitzgerald
criticised the similar evangelical movement of England,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, p. 49, &amp;c.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_28" id="Note_28" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 28. p. </span><a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">224</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Classification Of Schools Of Poetry In Germany.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The materials for understanding the awakening of literary
tastes in the last century in Germany, through Lessing's influence,
are furnished by Schlosser, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Eighteenth Century</span></span>.
See vol. i. ch. iii. E. T. for the period from the Pietists to Lessing;
and ch. v. in reference to the Deutsche Bibliothek, and also vol.
ii. ch. ii. § 3. See also Vilmar's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of German Literature</span></span>
(translated and abridged by Metcalfe).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may facilitate clearness to name the classification of schools
of German poetry and taste, which is given in the last-named
work. They are divided into five classes: viz. I. that which was
antecedent to Lessing, which is subdivided into (1) the Saxon
school of Gottsched; and (2) the Swiss school of Bodmer, and of
Wieland in his early manner; which was connected with the Gottingen
school of Haller, Hagedorn, and Klopstock, together with
the Stolbergs and Voss. II. Lessing, and writers influenced by
him, such as (1) Kleist and the Prussian group; (2) Wieland in
his second manner, and J. Paul Richter; (3) Kotzebue, who was a
mixture of Wieland and Lessing. In these two periods Klopstock,
Wieland, and Lessing, were the intellectual triumvirs. III. The
<span class="tei tei-q">“Sturm und Drang”</span> period; the Weimar school with its second literary
triumvirate, Herder, Goethe, Schiller. IV. The later schools:
(1) the romantic, viz. the two Schlegels, Novalis, Tieck, Uhland,
Fouqué; (2) the patriotic of the liberation wars, Arndt and
Koerner. V. The modern school of disappointment and uneasy
reaction against the absolute government, H. Heine and Grün.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is an interesting psychological problem to trace the close
analogy between the schools of poetical taste and the corresponding
character in the contemporary criticism of ancient literature,
the speculative philosophy, and the theology.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_29" id="Note_29" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 29. p. </span><a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">225</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Wolfenbüttel Fragments.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It has been stated in the text that these were Fragments,
which Lessing published in 1774 and the following years, of a
larger work which he professed to have found in the library of
Wolfenbüttel, where he was librarian. They were published in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page426">[pg 426]</span><a name="Pg426" id="Pg426" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the third of the series of works, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur Geschichte und Literatur
aus den Schätzen der Herzoglichen Bibliothekzu Wolfenbüttel</span></span>,
under the title, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragmente Eines Ungenannten Herausgegeben von
G. E. Lessing</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After Lessing's death, C. A. E. Schmidt published further
Fragments, under the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uebrige noch Ungedruckte Werke des
Wolfenbüttelschen Fragmentisten. Ein Nachlass von G. E. Lessing</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The authorship of the Fragments was suspected at the time by
Hamann; but it remained generally unknown, and became as
great a secret as the authorship of the Letters of Junius, until 1827, when the question
was discussed by Gurlitt in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leipziger Literatur-Zeitung</span></span>,
No. 55, and proof was offered that the author was
Reimarus of Hamburg.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The result of this and subsequent investigations is as follows.
The original work of Reimarus, from which the Fragments were
taken, remains in MS. in the public library of Hamburg. It was
entitled <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologie oder Schutz-Schrift für die vernünftigen Verehrer
Gottes</span></span>. When written, it was shown only to intimate friends.
Lessing was allowed to take a copy, and showed the MS. to Mendelssohn
in 1771. Lessing wished to publish it entire; but the
censorship would not give the imprimatur. Consequently it came
out in fragments among the series of contributions from the Wolfenbüttel
library, which were free from the censorship. The pretended
discovery of them in the library was a mere excuse; and
there is proof in Lessing's remains that he admitted the fact. See
the statement of these facts in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lessing's Leben</span></span>, by Guhrauer, (of
which, vol. i. is by Danzel; vol. ii. by Guhrauer,) vol. ii. b. iii. ch.
iv. p. 133, note 3, and b. iv. p. 141.<a id="noteref_1067" name="noteref_1067" href="#note_1067"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1067</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Several writers, subsequently to Gurlitt's examination of the
question of authorship, have written, either on the question of the
authorship of the Fragments, or on the contents of the larger
work from which they are selections. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für die
Historische Theologie for 1839</span></span>, part iv. is an article composed from
W. Körte's life of Thaer, in reference to the former question.
Also Dr. W. Klose examined the original MS. in the Hamburg
library, and published an account of it, with considerable extracts,
in several of the numbers of the same journal, Niedner's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift</span></span>,
1850, (part iv; 1851, part iv; 1852, part iii.) It is in the preface
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vorbericht</span></span>) to the first of these parts that the account
of Reimarus's own mental history is given, to which allusion was made
in the text of Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>. (p.
<a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
During the last year the question has been made the subject
of a monograph by the celebrated Strauss. He had heard of the
existence of a copy of the original MS. in private hands at Hamburg,
and proceeded to collate it with the view of publication.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page427">[pg 427]</span><a name="Pg427" id="Pg427" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
He found it to differ in some respects from the Fragments published
by Lessing and Schmidt. He did not consider the hitherto
unpublished parts of the work sufficiently important, either in a
literary or historical point of view, to merit publication
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in extenso</span></span>; but contented himself with stating the results of his
study of it in a small work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. S. Reimarus und seine Schutz-Schrift,
&amp;c.</span></span> 1861.
It contains a brief account of the literary question of the Fragments,
and of Reimarus's life and stand-point; also an analysis of
the unpublished parts of the work, written with the clearness
which characterises all Strauss's didactic works. It would appear
from the analysis that the pieces printed by Lessing were not only
some of the ablest, but some of the least offensive of the whole
work. The concluding pages contain some very interesting remarks,
in which Strauss contrasts the criticism of the eighteenth
century with that of the present day; the characteristics of the
former being, that it charges imposture on the scripture writers;
that of the latter, that it admits their honesty, but explains away
their statements and opinions by reference to psychological and
historical phenomena.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In addition to the sources given above, information is contained
in the following works: Schröckh's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ Kirchengesch.</span></span> vi.
275; Schlosser's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Eighteenth Century</span></span>, E. T. vol. ii.
266 seq.; Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span>, § 275
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">notes</span></span>, (where reference is made to Guhrauer's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bodin's Heptaplomeres</span></span>, 1841, p. 257 seq.);
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conversations-Lexicon</span></span>, art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reimarus</span></span>;
Amand Saintes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Rationalism</span></span>, E. T. p. 84;
Kahnis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> p. 145 seq.; K. Schwarz,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lessing als Theolog</span></span>, of which ch. iv. is on the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragmenten-streit</span></span>; Strauss's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine Schriften</span></span>, 1861; Lessing's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, xii. 508. (ed. Lachmann.)
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_30" id="Note_30" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 30. p. </span><a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">242</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Schleiermacher's Early Studies.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may be interesting to trace more fully the parallel noticed
in the text between the development of Plato's thoughts and
Schleiermacher's early studies.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Though it is impossible to arrange the dialogues of Plato in
the chronological order in which they were composed, so as to be
able to study the master in his successive styles, yet several systems
of arrangement, founded on different principles, seem to coincide
so far as to render it probable that Plato's great theory of
ideas or forms grew upon him through these stages: viz. (1) it was
viewed as a fact of mind, an innate conception of forms (e.g. in
Meno); (2) as useful in guiding perplexed minds to truth, and
sifting philosophical doctrines by means of the dialectical process,
e.g. in the Theætetus and Parmenides; (3) as representing an objective
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page428">[pg 428]</span><a name="Pg428" id="Pg428" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
reality, a true cause in nature external to the mind, as well
as an hypothesis in science (e.g. in the Republic); (4) as having
a mystical connexion with divinity, and furnishing a cosmogony,
Whether this passage, from the subjective conception to the objective
reality, be really or only logically the order of development
in Plato's ideal theory, it is clear that the growth of Schleiermacher's
mind admits of comparison with this supposed order of
development in Plato; though there is a slight variation in the
steps of the process. Schleiermacher went through three stages,
(1) the philosophy of Jacobi, (2) of Fichte, and probably (3) of
Schelling; from which he learned respectively, (1) to have faith
in our intuitions, (2) to construe the outward by the inward, (3)
to believe in the power of the mind to pass beyond the inward,
and apprehend absolute truth. If the resemblance to the above
account of Plato were exactly perfect, the love of a philosophy like
Fichte's ought to have preceded that of Jacobi. Schelling's influence,
it ought to be noted, is very slight on Schleiermacher, compared
with that of the others. The traces of it which appear are
perhaps resolvable into a similarity to Jacobi's system.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_31" id="Note_31" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 31. p. </span><a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">244</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Schleiermacher's Theological Works.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The theological works of Schleiermacher are doctrinal, critical,
and pastoral. The latter consist chiefly of the sermons which he
delivered in Berlin. The critical works are mentioned in a footnote
to p. <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a>; but it may be useful to give a brief notice of his
doctrinal works, of which some are referred to in the text.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The earliest was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reden über die Religion an die Gebildeten
unter ihren Verächtern</span></span>, 1799, (Discourses on Religion addressed
to the educated among its despisers,) which ought not to be read
in earlier editions than the fourth (1829), the notes of which contain
explanations. The object of these discourses was to direct
attention away from the study of religion in its outward manifestations,
to its inward essence; which he showed to lie neither in
knowledge nor in action, but in feeling. See especially Discourse
II. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uber das Wesen der Religion</span></span>. For the effect which the
discourses created, see Neanders testimony, quoted by Kahnis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.
of Prot.</span></span> E. T. p. 208.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The works which succeeded the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reden</span></span> were the following: in
1800, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monologen</span></span> (Soliloquies); in 1803,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre</span></span>
(Critique on previous Ethical teaching); in 1806,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Weinachtsfeier</span></span> (Christmas Eve); in 1811,
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kurze Darstellung des Theologischen Studiums</span></span>
(Plan of Theological
Study;—lately translated), which gave rise to the branch
now common in German universities, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologische
Encyclopädie</span></span>;<a id="noteref_1068" name="noteref_1068" href="#note_1068"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1068</span></span></a>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page429">[pg 429]</span><a name="Pg429" id="Pg429" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
in 1821, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der
Evangelischen Kirche</span></span> (the Christian Faith on the principles of the
Evangelical Church), which was improved in the subsequent
editions.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reden</span></span> breathed the spirit of Jacobi, the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monologen</span></span> breathed that of Fichte. They
study the ethical, as the former the religious side of man; the action of the
personal will as distinct from the feelings of dependence. The dialogue of the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Weihnachtsfeier</span></span>
showed Christ as the means of effecting that oneness with
the absolute which the two former works had shown to be necessary.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaubens-lehre</span></span>, Schleiermacher gives a general view of
dogmatic theology, viewed from the psychological side, i.e. its
appropriation by the Christian consciousness. He studies (1) man's
consciousness of God, prior to experience of the opposition of
sin and grace; next, after being aware of such an opposition, as
(2) the subject of sin, and (3) the subject of grace; or, in theological
language, the states of innocence, of sin, and of grace. Each
of these is subdivided in spirit, even when not in form, in a threefold
manner; describing respectively the condition of man, the attributes
of God, and the constitution of the world, as they relate
to the above three named states. The subjective and psychological
character of the inquiry is seen in the fact, that when treating
the second of these subdivisions,—the Divine attributes,—he does
not study them as peculiarities of God's nature, but as modifications
of the mode in which we refer to God our own feeling of
dependence. This subjective tendency illustrates the influence of
Fichte and Jacobi on Schleiemiacher.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The contrast is an interesting one between a dogmatic treatise
of the schoolmen, of the reformers, and of Schleiermacher. The
first commences with the Deity and his attributes, and passes to
man: the second generally begins with the rule of faith, the Bible;
and then, passing to the Deity, proceeds mainly after the scholastic
fashion: the third begins and ends with the human consciousness,
and its contents.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_32" id="Note_32" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 32. p. </span><a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">252</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On Some German Critical Theologians. (de Wette, Ewald,
Etc.)</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Some of the theologians of the critical school which is described
in the text, deserve a more full notice than was possible in the
foot-notes to the Lecture.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
De Wette (1780-1849) was educated at Jena, under Griesbach.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page430">[pg 430]</span><a name="Pg430" id="Pg430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
He was made Professor at Berlin in 1810, but was deprived in
1819, in consequence of the Prussian government having opened
a letter of condolence written by him to the mother of Sand, the
assassin of the dramatist Kotzebue. (For the history of the excited
state of the German students at this time, see K. Raumer's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pädagogik</span></span>, vol. iv. translated.) In 1826 he was made Professor
at Basle. An interesting life of him is given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca
Sacra</span></span> for 1850. His most important works are, his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung
ins Alt. und Neu. Test.; Lehrbuch der Dogmatik</span></span>, 1819; his New
Translation of the Bible (1839); and Commentaries on several
parts of Scripture. On his doctrinal views see Kahnis, p. 231 seq.
He is said to have been a man of sweet and amiable character;
and indeed he appears to be so in his writings. It has been remarked,
as a proof of his singular fairness, that he not only candidly
states the opinions of an opponent, but even sometimes
confesses his inability fully to refute them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Along with De Wette ought to be classed a great number of
distinguished men, most of whom wrote parts of the Commentary
which he designed under the name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exegetisches Handbuch</span></span>.
They were mostly critics rather than writers on doctrine, and
represent the modified state of thought of his later life; but still
maintain, for the most part, his critical stand-point in reference to
the scriptures; and therefore, though contemporary with the new
Tübingen and other schools described in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>,
which have arisen since Strauss's criticism, in that which we called the third
period of our sketch, they really belong to the school of critics of
the older or second period. Such are, or were, Gesenius, Knobel,
Hirzel, Hitzig, Credner, Tuch, E. Meier, Hupfeld, and Stühelin.
See Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. xi.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
H. Ewald, born 1803, became Professor at Göttingen 1831.
In 1837 he was one of the seven professors who sacrificed their
position when the new king of Hanover, Ernest, interfered with
the constitution. From 1838 to 1848 he was professor at Tübingen:
since 1848 at Göttingen. His works are partly on the
oriental languages, and partly on theology. Among the latter the
chief are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Poetischen Bücher des Alten Test.</span></span>, 1835;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Propheten
des Alten Bundes</span></span>, 1840; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Volkes Israel</span></span>,
1842-50; a work which, whatever may be thought of the theological
aspects of it, if regarded in respect of scholarship, poetic
appreciation, and grandeur of generalization, is one of the most
remarkable books ever produced even in Germany. (Renan has
based upon it the most brilliant of his essays, ess. ii. in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes
d'Hist. Religieuse</span></span>.) His works on the New Testament are partly
directed against the views of the new Tübingen school. He differs
from the older critical school of De Wette, in applying himself
more exclusively to the Semitic literature; and cannot be
classed with them in any other way than that he represents the
effort of independent criticism, linguistic and historic; removed
from the dogmatic school, and also from the later forms of critical.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page431">[pg 431]</span><a name="Pg431" id="Pg431" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_33" id="Note_33" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 33. p. </span><a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">255</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Name Jehovah.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The name יהוה is written <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span>, by transferring to it the
vowel points of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonai</span></span>, אדני, which the pious scruples
of the Jews led them to substitute for it. It was probably read
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahveh</span></span>. In reference to the meaning of
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span>, see
Gesenius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span> on the words אל (p. 45. Engl. Transl.), and
יהוה (p. 337); also the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hajah</span></span>, היה, (p. 221.) See likewise
Hengstenberg's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Authentie. des Pentateuches</span></span>, i. 222 seq.; especially
p. 230, where he shows that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jahveh</span></span>, יהוה, is derived by regular
analogy from the future of the verb <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hajah</span></span>, היה ( =
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">havah</span></span>, היה).
See also M. Nicholas's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Crit. sur la Bible</span></span>, pp. 115, 163; and
the article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span> in Smith's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Dictionary</span></span>.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_34" id="Note_34" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 34. p. </span><a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">256</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Use Of The Names Of Deity In The Composition Of
Hebrew Proper Names.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A curious list of these is given by Dr. Donaldson. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian
Orthodoxy</span></span>, pp. 235, 6.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Examples of names before the age of Saul, compounded with
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>, are seen in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>-kanah,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>-i, Samu-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>,
Abi-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>. When Saul reigns
we find the name Jah or Jehovah appear, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeho</span></span>-nathan,
Ahi-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jah</span></span>, Jedid-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>; and during
the regal period in the list of kings, Jos-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeho</span></span>-abaz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeho</span></span>-i-akim,
Zedek-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>; and among the prophets,
Isa-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>, Jerem-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>,
Mica-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeho</span></span>-sheah. After the fall of
Judah we find the name El reappear; e.g. Ezeki-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>
( = Hezek-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>),
Dani-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>, Micha-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>,
Gabri-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>-iashib,
Shealti-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">el</span></span>. After the captivity
the name Jah recurs; e.g. Nehem-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>,
Zephan-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>, Zechar-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>,
Malach-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iah</span></span>. The name
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>-i-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jah</span></span> ( = my God is Jah) is an instance
of a word compounded with both names.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Donaldson tries to generalize from the above to the effect,
that, previously to the age of the early kings, proper names compounded
with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span> were prevalent; and in the regal and prophetic
age, those compounded with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jah</span></span>; again, after the fall of Judah,
and in the captivity, those with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>; and after the captivity, with
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jah</span></span>. But the selection is too limited to admit of such a
generalization being satisfactory. It does however prove the knowledge
of the twofold conception implied by the use of the names.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page432">[pg 432]</span><a name="Pg432" id="Pg432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VII.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_35" id="Note_35" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 35. p. </span><a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">264</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Hegelian Philosophy.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The purpose of this note is to supply references to sources for
the study of Hegel's philosophy; and also to point out the parallel
and contrast in the central thought and tendency of the philosophies
of Schelling and Hegel.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The most intelligible account of Hegel's system is given by
Morell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 161-196; and the best general
view of its tendencies, especially in reference to theology, is
contained in an instructive article by E. Scherer, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des
Deux Mondes</span></span> for Feb. 15, 1861, from which assistance has been derived
in this lecture. The student will also find great help in
Chalybaüs's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Spec. Philos.</span></span> ch. xi-xvii (translated 1854);
and A. Véra's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction à la Phil. de Hegel</span></span>, 1855; together
with his French translation of Hegel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>. (Véra is one of the
few Italians who understand Hegel.) The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie der Geschichte</span></span>,
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Philosophie</span></span> are the two most intelligible
of Hegel's works; the former of which is translated into English;
but the study of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span> is indispensable, for seeing the
applications of his method, as well as for appreciating his metaphysical
ability and real position.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Schelling and Hegel both seek to solve the problems of philosophy,
by starting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> with the idea of the absolute; but in
Schelling's case it is perceived by a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">presentative</span></em> power (intellectual
intuition), and in Hegel's by a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">representative</span></em>. The former faculty
perceives the absolute object; the latter the absolute relation,
if such a term be not a contradiction. In each case the percipient
power is supposed to be <span class="tei tei-q">“above consciousness;”</span> i.e. not trammelled
by those limitations of object and subject which are the conditions
of ordinary consciousness. In both systems a kind of threefold
process is depicted, as the law or movement according to
which the absolute manifests itself.<a id="noteref_1069" name="noteref_1069" href="#note_1069"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1069</span></span></a> Sir W. Hamilton has shown
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page433">[pg 433]</span><a name="Pg433" id="Pg433" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the inconsistencies of Schelling's system, in criticising that of
Cousin, who was his great exponent; see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertations</span></span>, ess. i.
(reprinted from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>, 1829); and Mr. Mansel has
extended a similar analysis to Fichte and Hegel. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>,
ii. and iii; and article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metaphysic</span></span> in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclop. Britann.</span></span> 10th
ed. p. 607, &amp;c. See also Rémusat <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De la Philosophie Allemande</span></span>,
Introduction.) Yet a grand thought, even though, psychologically
speaking, it be an unreal one, lies beneath the awkward terminology
of the systems of Schelling and Hegel; and their <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">method</span></em>
has influenced many who do not consciously embrace their philosophy.
The effect produced by Schelling is the desire to seize the
prime idea, the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">beau idéal</span></span> of any subject, and trace its
manifestations in the field of history; a method which is seen in the French
historic and critical literature of the followers of Cousin in the
reign of Louis Philippe. (See Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>, and the references
given in Note <a href="#Note_44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.) The spirit produced by Hegel, is the
desire to realise the truth contained in opposite views of the same subject; to view
each as a half truth, and error itself as a part of the struggle toward
truth. This spirit and method are seen in such a writer as
Renan, and is clearly described in the passages quoted from Scherer
and others in Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_36" id="Note_36" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 36. p. </span><a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">271</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Christology Of Strauss.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The following extract from Strauss's work conveys his Christology.
</p>

<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This is the key to the whole of Christology, that, as subject
of the predicate which the church assigns to Christ, we place
instead of an individual, an idea; but an idea which has an existence
in reality, not in the mind only, like that of Kant. In an
individual, a God-man, the properties and functions which the
church ascribes to Christ contradict themselves; in the idea of
the race they perfectly agree. Humanity is the union of the two
natures;—God become man; the infinite manifesting itself in the
finite, and the finite spirit remembering its infinitude: it is the
child of the visible mother and the invisible father, Nature and
Spirit: it is the worker of miracles, in so far as in the course of
human history the spirit more and more completely subjugates nature,
both within and around man, until it lies before him as the
inert matter on which he exercises his active power: it is the sinless
existence, for the course of its development is a blameless
one, pollution cleaves to the individual only, and does not touch
the race or its history. It is Humanity that dies, rises, and ascends
to heaven; for, from the negation of its phenomenal life,
there ever proceeds a higher spiritual life; from the suppression of
</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page434">[pg 434]</span><a name="Pg434" id="Pg434" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
its mortality as a personal, rational, and terrestrial spirit, arises
its union with the infinite spirit of the heavens. By faith in this
Christ, especially in his death and resurrection, man is justified
before God; that is, by the kindling within him of the idea of
humanity, the individual man participates in the divinely human
life of the species. Now the main element of that idea is, that the
negation of the merely natural and sensual life, which is itself the
negation of the spirit, is the sole way to true spiritual life. This
alone is the absolute sense of Christology. That it is annexed to
the person and history of one individual is a necessary result of
the historical form which Christology has taken.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
vol. ii. § 151. (pp. 709, 10. 4th ed. 1840); in the English translation,
vol. iii. p. 433.
</span></div>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_37" id="Note_37" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 37. p. </span><a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">278</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Strauss.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A few facts concerning the life and writings of Strauss may be
interesting.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
He was born in 1808, and was educated at Tübingen and Berlin.
He was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Repetiteur</span></span> at Tübingen in 1835, when he published
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, described in the text of Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>. In 1837 he published his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Streit-schriften</span></span>, or replies to his critics. In 1839 he
was elected Professor of theology at Zurich, an appointment
which produced such popular indignation that it was cancelled,
and a change of government was caused by it. In 1840 he published
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Christliche Glaubenslehre im Kampfe mil der modernen
Wissenschaft dargestellt</span></span>; in which, after an introduction concerning
the history of opinions on the relation of the two, he discussed
the principles of Christian doctrine, such as the Bible, Canon, Evidences,
&amp;c. and next the doctrines themselves; viz. (part i.) on
the divine Being and His attributes, as an abstract conception;
(part ii.) on the same, as the object of empirical conceptions in its
manifestation in creation, &amp;c. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Foreign Quart. Rev.</span></span> No. 54.
1841; and C. Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der n. Theol.</span></span> b. ii. ch. i. He
published also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monologen in dem Freihafen</span></span>, translated 1848;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Soliloquies on the Christian Religion, its Errors, and Everlasting
Truth</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In 1848, the revolutionary year, he was elected to the Wurtemburg
Parliament; and took the conservative side, to the surprise
of his constituents. He has subsequently lived chiefly at Heilbronn,
engaged in literary labours; mostly writing the lives of
sceptics, or persons connected with free thought whose fate has
been like his own. Among these have been, a sketch of Julian,
1847, intended probably as a satire on the romantic reaction conducted
by the late king of Prussia; a Life of Schubart, 1849, a
Swabian poet of the last century; one of Maerklin 1851, his own
early friend; one of N. Frischlin, 1856, a learned German of the
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page435">[pg 435]</span><a name="Pg435" id="Pg435" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
sixteenth century; a life of Ulric von Hütten, 1858; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gespräche
von Hütten</span></span>, 1861; also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kleine Schriften</span></span>, 1861; and a work
on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reimarus</span></span>, 1862, concerning which see Note
<a href="#Note_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>. Some of these
works are reviewed in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. Rev.</span></span> Nos. 7 and 12.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_38" id="Note_38" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 38. p. </span><a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">273</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Replies To Strauss.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Schwarz gives an interesting account of the various replies to
Strauss, and of the works written by various theologians to support
their own point of view against his criticisms. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der n.
Theol.</span></span> p. 113 seq.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work was criticised,—
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
I. From the old school of orthodoxy, (α) by Steudel, Strauss's
own teacher, in a work called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vorlaüfig zu Beherzigenden zur
Beruhigung der Gemüthen</span></span>. (β) From the new orthodoxy, by
Hengstenberg, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</span></span>. (γ) From the
school which formed the transition between this and that of
Schleiermacher by Tholuck;, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaubwürdigkeit der Evangelischen
Geschichte</span></span>, 1837.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
II. From the school of Schleiermacher, (α) in Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben
Jesu</span></span>, (β) in Ullmann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>, 1836. part iii.
Reprinted as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historisch oder Mythisch</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
III. By the Hegelians; 1. from the <span class="tei tei-q">“right”</span> of the party (using
the illustration drawn from the distribution of political parties in
the foreign parliaments), (α) by Göschel in the work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Von Gott,
dem Menschen und dem GottesMenschen</span></span>, 1838; (β) by Dorner in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Person Christi</span></span>, 1839. (γ) by Gabler and Bruno
Bauer, who at that time was on the side of orthodoxy: 2. from
the Hegelian <span class="tei tei-q">“centre”</span> in Schaller's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Historischer Christus und
die Philosophie</span></span>, 1838; 3. from the <span class="tei tei-q">“left,”</span> (α) by Weisse, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
Evangelische Geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet</span></span>, 1838:
(β) by Wilke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Ur-evangelist</span></span>; both of whom regard St. Mark's
as the primitive evangile; and (γ) by Bruno Bauer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der
Synoptiker</span></span>, 1842, when he had changed to the opposite side of the
Hegelian school: (δ) by Luetzelberger; (ε) by A. Schweizer;
both of whom wrote on St. John's Gospel. Several of the latter
were not intended to be replies to Strauss, but attempts to reconsider
their own position in relation to him. This was particularly
the case in reference to the works which were written by the Tübingen
school, (see next note,) of which Schwarz gives a description,
p. 153 seq.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page436">[pg 436]</span><a name="Pg436" id="Pg436" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_39" id="Note_39" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 39. p. </span><a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">278</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Tubingen School.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The leader of the historico-critical school which bears this
name, was C. Baur (1792-1860), author of various works on the
history of doctrine, and on church history both doctrinal and critical.
His work against the Roman catholic theologian Moehler,
which first made him noted, was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gegensatz des Protestantismus
und Katholicismus nach den principien und Haupt-dogmen der
beiden Lehrbegriffe</span></span>, 1833. An account of his works is given in C.
Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der neuest. Theol.</span></span> p. 165. The following may be
here specified: his work on the history of the doctrine of the
atonement, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Lehre von der Versöhnung</span></span>, 1838;
also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der
Christlichen Dogmengeschichte</span></span>, 1845, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Christliche Kirche
der drei ersten Jahrhunderte</span></span>, 1853; the last part of which has been
published since his death. Some interesting remarks, comparing
him with Strauss and Schleiermacher, (though hardly fair to the
last,) appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Rev.</span></span> Jan, 1861. See also the
sketch by Nefftzer in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue Germanique</span></span>, vol. xiii. parts 1
and 2.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other members of the school besides Baur have been
Schwegler, the commentator on Aristotle's Metaphysics, and author
of a Roman History (died 1857); Zeller, also a writer on Greek
philosophy, now Professor of philosophy at Marburg; whose appointment
to Berne in 1847 has been elsewhere stated
to have caused a similar excitement to that of Strauss to Zurich;
Koestlin, Professor of aesthetics at Tübingen; and Hilgenfeld,
Professor of theology at Jena, who is the best living representative
of the modified form which the school has now assumed.
Respecting these theologians, see the notes which Stap has affixed,
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue Germanique</span></span>, vol. ix. p. 560, &amp;c. to a French
translation of a part of Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concerning this school see Baur's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Tübinger Schule</span></span>, 1859.
The organ of it from 1842-57 was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologische Jahrbücher</span></span>,
edited by Baur. Since it ceased to be published, Hilgenfeld has
created a new journal, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche
Theologie</span></span>, which receives the support of critics not directly of the Tübingen
school, such as Hitzig and Knobel. Perhaps Schneckenbürger
ought to be ranked with the same school; and Gfrörer
also, author of a work on Philo, 1831; but he differed in holding
the authenticity of St. John's Gospel; and in 1846 became a Roman
catholic, and Professor at Freiberg. See also a paper in Von
Sybel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Zeitschr.</span></span> for 1860,
part iv. translated in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Sacr.</span></span>,
Jan. 1862. The Tübingen school has met with able opponents,
e.g. Thiersch, Dorner, Ewald, Bleek, Reuss, and Hase.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page437">[pg 437]</span><a name="Pg437" id="Pg437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_40" id="Note_40" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 40. p. </span><a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">281</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The German Theologian Rothe.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concerning this theologian, now Professor at Heidelberg, see
C. Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</span></span>, p. 279 seq. The
cause why the remarks in the text are so brief in regard to Rothe
is, that the writer has not been able to see his more important works,
which are out of print; and accordingly he derives his knowledge
of him at second hand.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Rothe's two most important works are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Anfänge der Christlichen
Kirche</span></span>, 1837, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologische Ethic</span></span>, 1845. An account of
the former is given in the often-quoted article by Scherer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des
Deux Mondes</span></span>, Feb. 15, 1861), pp. 848-860. It appears to view the
Christian church from its ideal side, to absorb the individual in
the constitution, to show that Christendom is the object of Christianity,
an institution the great means of embodying the doctrines;
but that, as society becomes fermented by its spirit, the office of
Christianity is fulfilled by the state, and the beau ideal would be a
society where the church is the state. It is a view similar to that
of Coleridge in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church and State</span></span>, or of Dr. Arnold in his work
on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Church</span></span>. Mr. F. C. Cook, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to
Faith</span></span> (p. 159), has given some interesting illustrations of this point.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The second of Rothe's works, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethic</span></span>, is briefly described in
a previously-cited article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> for April,
1857. Like the former it starts with the idea of the identity of
ethics and religion. Regarding personality or the moral relations
as the central fact of existence, it surveys material creation under
this aspect. Next it discusses the moral and religious history of
man, as means of enabling the personal being to subordinate to
himself all the forces without or within him. The object apparently
is to show, that the spiritual element is not an intrusion,
but the normal development of nature or providence; and the
moral society, the State, the normal development of the religions
society, the Church. Rothe's later views have hardly been developed
in system. According to him theology is theosophy; philosophy
can work out a theology from the consciousness.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is probable that the writer of these lines is unintentionally
doing injustice, through having to trust to secondhand information,
to one who is regarded in Germany as belonging to the highest order
of scientific theologians; though perhaps the interesting account
of C. Schwarz leaves little to be desired.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Rothe, in accordance with his wish to strengthen orthodox
theology by an independent philosophy, and not to support it by
material agency, has lately taken part politically on the liberal
side, in some questions connected with the church constitution of
Baden. (See Colani's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouvelle Revue de la Theologie</span></span>, Aug. 1862.)
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page438">[pg 438]</span><a name="Pg438" id="Pg438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_41" id="Note_41" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 41. p. </span><a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">285</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Most Modern Schools Of Philosophy And Theology In
Germany.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The object of this note is to carry on the history of philosophy
and theology to a more recent date than was necessary in the text.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The idealist school of philosophy reached its highest point
with Hegel; and subsequently there has been as great a reaction
against this mode of speculation, as the contemporaneous theological
one in religion.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The philosopher who was directly or indirectly the cause of
the realist tendency was Herbart (1776-1841), who succeeded
Kant at Königsberg, and afterwards was Professor at Göttingen.
Concerning his system, see Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 206,
&amp;c. Chalybaüs, ch. iv. and v. He followed out the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">material</span></em>, as
distinct from the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formal</span></em>, system of the Kantian philosophy, and
strove to develop it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The schools of modern Germany may be reckoned as four:—
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(1). The young Hegelian school; e.g. of the younger Fichte,
which, though professedly idealistic, and adopting Hegel's method,
is really affected largely by realistic tendencies, and seeks for a
philosophy of matter as well as form. See Taillandier in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
des Deux Mondes</span></span> for 1853, vol. iii. p. 633; and also Oct. 1858;
Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 216, &amp;c. Kahnis, p. 252.
This school manifests decidedly realistic tendencies in Kuno Fischer,
Weisse, and Branis.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(2.) That which shows a tendency to approach the subject of
mental phenomena from the physiological side, in Drobisch, Waitz,
and Volkmann, somewhat in the manner of the English writer
Herbert Spencer.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
(3.) A school decidedly materialist, e.g. Vogt, Moleschott, and
Büchner. See Taillandier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Oct. 1858.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These three tendencies form a gradation from the ideal, and
approach the real, until at last the ideal itself is destroyed. The
other tendency, if such it may be called, stands apart, and is akin
to the older ideal ones. It is (4.) that of Schopenhauer (1788-1860),
and tries to solve the problem of existence from the side
of the will, instead of the intellect, and bears a remote resemblance
to that of Maine de Biran. His system has long been before
the public, but since his death has been much discussed. It
has been explained by Frauenstädt. It is also well described in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, April, 1853.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We now pass from the schools of philosophy to theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have implied that there are three great schools of it in
Germany; the Neo-Lutheran, the Mediation school, and the Tübingen;
and have seen that they are each in course of transition
into slightly new forms in younger hands. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Neo-Lutheranism”</span>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page439">[pg 439]</span><a name="Pg439" id="Pg439" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
has assumed a more ecclesiastical position, which has been
called <span class="tei tei-q">“Hyper-Lutheranism.”</span> The <span class="tei tei-q">“Mediation”</span> school of Schleiermacher
is replaced by a newer form, modified by Hegelianism in
Dorner. It remains to add, that the Tübingen school is giving
place to another, of which C. Schwarz himself is a representative—a
kind of derivation from the Tübingen school and that of De
Wette. Its organ is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Protestantische Kirchenzeitung</span></span>; and to
it are said<a id="noteref_1070" name="noteref_1070" href="#note_1070"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1070</span></span></a>
to belong Dr. Dittenberger, court preacher at Weimar,
C. Schwarz, who holds the same position at Gotha; Ellester of
Potsdam, Sydow of Berlin, and Schweizer of Zurich. Their position
seems to be more ethical and less evangelical than the members
of the party of free thought in the protestant church of
France.
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page444">[pg 444]</span><a name="Pg444" id="Pg444" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_43" id="Note_43" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 43. p. </span><a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">289</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Modern Theology Of Switzerland And Holland.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be observed, that no notice has been taken in the text,
of the modern theology of Switzerland and Holland. It may be
desirable therefore to suggest an outline here.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Theology of Switzerland</span></span>.—The materials for the account
of it are scanty and disjointed. Since the reform of the
Swiss universities during the present century, theological thought
has chiefly taken the colour of the adjacent countries, Germany or
France, in the respective universities where those languages are
spoken. In the church of Geneva, about a quarter of a century
ago, there seem to have been two parties, similar to those in the
French protestant church: one professing the old Calvinistic orthodoxy,
which had degenerated into semi-Socinianism; the other,
the result of a revival of biblical truth and spiritual religion, under
such pastors as D'Aubigné, the historian of the Reformation, and
recently Gaussen, the writer on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Théopneustie</span></span>. A movement was
commenced under Vinet of Lausanne, which may be considered
to be the only native school which Switzerland has produced. It
was a mixture of science and earnestness, founded chiefly on a
combination of Pascal and Schleiermacher. Concerning Vinet,
see a very just article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 42, August
1854; and see below, Note <a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>. Scherer was a friend of Vinet,
but has since changed his views, or, as some would think, developed
logically their results, and has long left his professorship at
Geneva, and acts with the new liberal school in the French protestant
church. See Note <a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
German Switzerland has been connected with Germany rather
than France. The teaching at the university of Basle was moulded
by De Wette, who was made professor there in 1826, a few years
after his removal from Berlin. Its character, however, expressed
the more orthodox and moderate views of his later years. The
instructive writer Hagenbach, professor there, belongs to the
<span class="tei tei-q">“mediation school”</span> of theology, and is a worthy representative
of its learned and devout spirit. Zurich possessed a teacher, Usteri,
belonging to the school of Schleiermacher; and others, whose
tone rather resembled that of the critical school of De Wette, or
of the Tübingen school. The well-known critics Hitzig and
Knobel, were formerly its professors; and at present Schweizer is
there, concerning whom see Note <a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>. A few years after Strauss
had published his noted work, he was elected, as stated before,
theological professor at Zurich, but the appointment was cancelled
by a revolution of the people. See the Address of Orelli (translated
1844). The appointment of Zeller of the Tübingen school to
Berne, created a similar excitement. In the proceedings of the
Evangelical Alliance at Geneva, 1861, professor Riggenbach, of
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page445">[pg 445]</span><a name="Pg445" id="Pg445" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
Basle, stated that some of the journals of eastern Switzerland
adopt sceptical principles. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">News of the Churches</span></span>, Oct. 1861.)
He named the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeit-stimmen aus der Reformirten Kirche der
Schweiz</span></span>, which is edited at Winterthur by Lang, a pupil of Baur.
In German Switzerland, however, as well as French, there exists
a biblical school of theology; of which professor Riggenbach of
Basle is an example.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The Theology of Holland</span></span>.—The sources were given above
(p. <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref">110</a>.) for the study of Arminianism and Calvinism in the
seventeenth century. The subsequent history is soon told. We omit,
of course, the history of the Romish church in Holland, and of the
Jansenist secession from it, which took place in 1705.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Protestant church continued to exist in two branches;
viz. the Calvinists, or established church, who professed the creed
of the synod of Dort; and the Remonstrants, who professed
the moderate Arminianism of Episcopius; similar to that
which was taught by our own Hales and Chillingworth. The
studies in the established church were specially devoted to exegesis,
in reference to which the name of Schultens of Leyden, in
the last century, is well known; manifesting a slight inclination
to free inquiry in Van der Palm (1763-1838).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
About 1830, the condition of the church was a cold orthodoxy,
much like that of the <span class="tei tei-q">“moderate”</span> party in the church of Scotland
before the rupture of 1843. The stronghold of this party was the
university of Utrecht. Living isolated, and resembling the English
in not easily admitting foreign influences, the Dutch read little
of German literature. A periodical existed, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theological
Contributions</span></span>, which used to bestow praises on the school of Bretschneider.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A little before 1830, a movement of evangelical piety had been
kindled in the church, through the influence of the poet Bilderdyk
(who died 1831), and of his two disciples, the Portuguese Jew of
Amsterdam, Da Costa (who died in 1860), and Cappadose. Their
position however was, a return to the rigid decrees of the synod
of Dort and the theology of Calvin. They resembled very
nearly the party in the church of Scotland which formed the free
church. They acquainted themselves with German theology for
the purpose of refuting it; and Da Costa wrote a work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Four
Witnesses</span></span>, on the four Evangelists, in reply to Strauss; which has
been translated. In 1834 they separated from the national church
under two pastors, De Cock and Scholte, and endured much persecution.
The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voices of the Netherlands</span></span> was the periodical which
expressed their views. Van Oosterze, pastor at Rotterdam, belonged
to them. This party has been represented in the Dutch
parliament by Groen van Printsterer. It has lost its political influence
in some degree in recent years, by opposing political reforms.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Almost simultaneously with this Calvinistic revival, a school
arose in the university of Groningen, a <span class="tei tei-q">“mediation”</span> school, modelled
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page446">[pg 446]</span><a name="Pg446" id="Pg446" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
upon Schleiermacher, under the influence of the Platonist
Van Heusde (1778-1839), led by Hofstede de Groot, Pareau, and
Muurling. Its organ was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Truth in Charity</span></span>. The views held
were a spiritual Arianism. They may be seen in a novel published
recently (1861) at Cape Town, for the Dutch colonists, entitled,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Pastor of Vliethuizen, or Conversations about the Groningen
School</span></span>, translated by Dr. Lorgian.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These three parties were the chief in Holland, until about 1850.
Since then a more decided movement of free thought has begun
in the university of Leyden. Up to that time the venerable Van
Hengel remained there, the example of the old philological orthodoxy
of Holland. Two professors have now created an independent
movement, more nearly resembling that of the Tübingen
school; J. H. Scholten, in dogma; and, with rather more advanced
views, the orientalist H. Kuenen in philology. (A list of some
of Scholten's publications may be seen in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>
for July, 1862, page 43, note. His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. comparée de la Philos. et de
la Relig.</span></span> was translated by Reville, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouvelle Rev. de la
Theologie</span></span>, April 18.) Busker Huet has asserted still more advanced
views than these, apparently simple naturalism. The Positivist
philosophy has found an advocate in Opzoomer, one of the professors
at Utrecht.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The sources of this account are chiefly found in Ullmann's paper
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>, 1840, part iii. translated by
professor Edwards, with additions, in the American <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca
Sacra</span></span> for 1845; and in an interesting article by A. Reville of Rotterdam,
himself one of the liberal school of the French protestant church,
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span> for June 15, 1860. Chautepie de la
Saussure, pastor of the Walloon church at Leyden, formerly of the
Groningen school, has also written in French, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Crise Religieuse
en Hollande</span></span>, 1859; but it is chiefly devoted to personal questions.
A sketch of the Dutch universities and their intellectual characteristics
was given by Esquiros in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, 1856,
vol. iii.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_44" id="Note_44" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 44. p. </span><a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">297</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Eclectic School Of France.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The Eclectic School is sketched in Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
vol. ii. c. viii; Damiron's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur l'Histoire de la Philosophie
en France au 19ème siècle</span></span>, 1828, pp. 280-385: Nettement's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de la Litt. Franc. sous la Restoration</span></span>, 1853, vol. i. b.
ii. p. 127 seq.; vol. ii. b. viii. p. 290 seq.; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Litt.
Franç. sous le Gouvernement de Juillet</span></span>, vol. i. b. vi: also in Taine's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie
Française du 19ème siècle</span></span>. The last writer is wholly unfavourable
to the school, on the ground of the uselessness of metaphysical
philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The eclectic school was the means of uniting together the philosophy
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page447">[pg 447]</span><a name="Pg447" id="Pg447" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of Scotland and Germany, which had previously been running
in separate streams. The leading minds of the school have
been four,—Royer Collard, Maine de Biran, Cousin, and Jouffroy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The founder of it, R. Collard (1763-1845), was a disciple of the
Scotch school, who about 1812 commenced an attack on the philosophy
of Condillac, very similar to that of Reid on Hume. He
devoted himself to the analysis of the intellectual and moral parts
of men, in order to assert the existence of a world within, independent
of sensational impressions. The next writer, Maine de
Biran (1766-1824), devoted himself especially to the examination
of the will and the notion of cause, and reproduced the ideas of
Leibnitz. The third, Cousin (born 1792), succeeded Collard in
1815 as professor at Paris; and in his early lectures followed the
Scotch school. When the conservative reaction occurred in 1822,
consequent on the assassination of the duke de Berri, the constitutional
party was thrown into disgrace; and Cousin therefore
retired into Germany, and there imbibed the spirit of the great
schools of philosophy, especially of Schelling and Jacobi. He has
given, his own history in the preface to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragments Philosophiques</span></span>,
vol. ii. Lastly came Jouffroy, the translator of Dugald Stewart,
who improved upon the Scotch school. See Sainte-Beuve's criticism
on Jouffroy. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Crit. Litt.</span></span> vol. i.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Damiron was an admirable exponent of the eclectic school;
Benjamin Constant, Degerando, and Lerminier, partially belonged
to the same school. Its effects are ably stated in Morell. The
delicate hand of E. Renan also has sketched the influence of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cousin
et L'école Spiritualiste</span></span>, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Monds</span></span>,
April. 1858; reprinted in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essais de Morale et de Critique</span></span>.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_45" id="Note_45" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 45. p. </span><a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">300</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Catholic Reactionary School Of France.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Concerning this school, see Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, vol.
ii. pp. 274-318; Damiron (as in the last note), pp. 105-197; Nettement
(second work), vol. i. b. v.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The members of this school all agree in reposing upon the
principle of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">authority</span></em>; but differ in the source in which they
place it. Their philosophy accordingly does not aim at discovering
truth, but only the authority on which we may rely as the
oracle of truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The founder of the movement was De Maistre (1753-1821),
the bitter opponent of the Baconian philosophy, whose doctrine,
about the time of his death, was absolute submission to the catholic
church. See concerning him C. Rémusat in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux
Mondes</span></span>, May 1857; and E. Scherer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mélanges de la Critique
Religieuse</span></span>. Lamennais belonged to the same movement. In his early manner,
as expressed in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur l'Indifference</span></span>, 1821, he
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page448">[pg 448]</span><a name="Pg448" id="Pg448" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
found the test of truth in primitive revelations transmitted by testimony;
in his later, he abandoned this school, and strove to work
out philosophy, in part independently of authority. The next
writer, De Bonald, sought for truth in the same source, viz. fragments
of divinely communicated knowledge, transmitted in the
languages of mankind. On Bonald see C. Rémusat (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue</span></span>, as
quoted above). The Abbé Bautain improved upon this system by
placing the ground of certitude in the authority of Revelation, and
considered the office of philosophy to end when it has shown the
necessity of a revelation. Next to him came D'Eckstein, who
sought the test of truth in authority based on researches into
the catholic beliefs of mankind. The two latter views, it will be
perceived, are far nobler than the former. Maret, whose writings
have been before cited, also belongs to this reactionary school.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_46" id="Note_46" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 46. p. </span><a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">304</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The Modern School Of Free Thought In The Protestant
Church Of France.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The object of this note is to enumerate some of the chief of
those theologians to whom allusion is made in the text, and to exhibit
their relations to each other.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One of the best known is Colani, a pastor at Strasburg, the
able editor of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouvelle Revue de la Theologie</span></span>, and author of
several volumes of sermons: also A. Reville, pastor of the Walloon
church at Rotterdam, a frequent writer in the same Review,
and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>; Reuss, a professor at Strasburg,
author of a history of the early church, in French, and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zu den Theologischen Wissenschaften</span></span>, in German; Scherer,
the friend of Vinet, once professor at Geneva, author of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mélanges
de Critique Religieuse</span></span>, reprinted mostly from Colani's Review, of
which the first four papers give his theological views on Inspiration,
the Bible, and Sin.<a id="noteref_1071" name="noteref_1071" href="#note_1071"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1071</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The able critic, Michel Nicholas, professor at Montauban, author
of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Critiques sur la Bible</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Des
Doctrines Religieuses des Juifs pendant les deux siècles antérieurs à l'ère
Chrétienne</span></span>, probably may be classed with the same; but he has not written
on doctrine. A. Cocquerel <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">fils</span></span>,
pastor at Paris, also is connected
with Colani's Review, and is considered to possess the same sympathies.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The difference of the point of view of these writers from that
of the Eclectic school would be, that while the latter would regard
the human race as able to pass beyond Christianity, the former
would only wish to get rid of the dogmas which they think have
been superadded in the course of ages, and to return to the simple
teaching of the sermon on the mount.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One writer more has been reckoned with the same party by
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page449">[pg 449]</span><a name="Pg449" id="Pg449" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
the English public, E. De Pressensé, a pastor in the free Protestant
church at Paris, author of the Church History so often referred
to in this volume, and of sermons on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sauveur</span></span>, and editor
of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue Chrétienne</span></span>; but he appears to possess an evangelical
and more orthodox tone than some of the above.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In truth there are two distinct parties in the movement which
we are describing, each of which stands in a different relation to
the older parties of the protestant church. At the beginning of
the century the French protestant church held an unpietistic kind
of supernaturalism, not very unlike that of Reinhard in Germany,
of which the best living type is the eloquent and learned A. Cocquerel
<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pére</span></span>. About 1820 an awakening of the spiritual life of
the church took place, under the action of the Spirit of God primarily,
and through the agency of such ministrations as those of Adolphe
Monod instrumentally. From the former school has arisen the
movement seen in Colani and Reville; from the latter, that seen
in Vinet and Pressensé. The former is a change which has passed
over the old Latitudinarian school, much like those which in Germany
have taken the place of the teaching of such men as Reinhard
and Bretschneider. Of the pastors named above, who belong
to this class, A. Cocquerel <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">fils</span></span> is the least removed
from the ordinary creed. His stand-point may be compared to that of
Schleiermacher, or of the school of Groningen. (See Note <a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>.)
Reville and Colani advance very much farther. The other movement,
of which Vinet of Lausanne was the cause, has sprung from
the application of science to the newly-spreading views of evangelical
religion. Vinet tried to harmonize religion and knowledge,
by presenting Christianity on the ground of its internal rather
than its external evidence, and proclaimed it as ethics built on
doctrine; which doctrine he held to be built on historic fact. His
position may be best compared with Neander's in Germany, or
perhaps in some respects with that of Tholuck. Nearly the same
position is assumed by Pressensé at Paris, and Astié at Lausanne.
Pressensé rests upon the Bible as the <span class="tei tei-q">“formal principle”</span> of
theology, and the work of Christ as the <span class="tei tei-q">“material.”</span>
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The writer feels much hesitation in venturing to classify these
authors, which nevertheless seemed desirable on account of the
spread of their writings in England. The above description,
founded on personal study of their works, is confirmed by two
criticisms on them; one by C. Rémusat, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux
Mondes</span></span>, Jan. 1862; the other in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>,
Oct. 1862. But care ought to be used in describing the actors in
a movement which is not complete; and in making the attempt, to
distinguish especially those who are conceived to deviate from vital
truth in doctrine, from those who may differ in questions of literature
or criticism. It is due to these writers to express admiration
for their genuine love of intellectual and political liberty, much as
we may be compelled to differ from their theological opinions.
</p>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page450">[pg 450]</span><a name="Pg450" id="Pg450" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
<a name="toc32" id="toc32"></a>
<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lecture VIII.</span></h2>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_47" id="Note_47" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 47. p. </span><a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">320</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
Modern Opinions With Respect To Mythology.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the last century the opinions on the nature of mythology
were two. That which taught that myths are distortions of
traditions derived from the early Hebrew literature, was put forward
in the seventeenth century, as early as philosophy was applied
to the subject, by Huet and Bossuet, and retained its hold
throughout the last century, and is advocated in the present by
Mr. Gladstone (Work on Homer, vol. ii. ch. ii). The opposite
theory interpreted myths by an Euhemeristic process, or allegorized
them by regarding them as originally descriptions of the physical
processes of nature. In the present century Creuzer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Symbolik</span></span>,
1810) applied the method of comparison, and, studying Greek
mythology in correlation with that of other countries, taught in a
Neo-Platonic sense that myths are a second language, the echo of
nature in the consciousness. Creuzers system was opposed by
Lobeck about 1824, Voss, and G. Hermann, who objected to the
excess of symbolism and the sacerdotal ideas implied in it; and by
Ottfried Müller, and Welcker, on the narrower ground of asserting
the independence of Greek mythology from foreign influence.
More recently the careful study of the Sanskrit language and early
literature by Max Müller, Kuhn, &amp;c. has thrown new light upon
the subject; and the solution of the problem is now approached
from the side of language, and not merely from that of tradition
or monuments. The distinction of myth and legend is now clear;
the family relationship between the myths of different nations is
made apparent; the date in human history of their creation; and
the cause of them is sought in the attempt to express abstract
ideas by means of the extension of concrete terms. See the Essay
on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comparative Mythology</span></span> by Max Müller, in the Oxford Essays
for 1856. See also the Journal for Comp. Phil. of Kuhn and Aufrecht.
And for a criticism on Creuzer, see E. Renan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes
d'Histoire Religieuse</span></span> (Ess. i).
</p>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page451">[pg 451]</span><a name="Pg451" id="Pg451" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_48" id="Note_48" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 48. p. </span><a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">363</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The External And Internal Branches Of Evidence.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It may be almost superfluous to name that the evidences are
usually divided into 1. external, and 2. internal. Each of these
requires a subdivision into (α) the divine, and (β) the human.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">external divine</span></em> are miracles and prophecy; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">external
human</span></em> are the historical proof as to the authenticity and genuineness
of the literature which contains the narrative of the miracles
and the prophecy. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">internal divine</span></em> are sought in the accordance
of the materials of the Revelation, the character of Christ,
the scheme of Redemption, &amp;c. with the moral sense of man, and
with the expectations which we should form antecedently of the
contents of a revelation; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">internal human</span></em>, in the critical evidence
of undesigned coincidence. Looked at logically, the second
is like the corroboration of the testimony of a witness; the fourth,
like cross-examining him. The first two may amount almost to
demonstration, being what Aristotle (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhet.</span></span> i. 2.) would call
τεκμήρια: the two latter have only the force of probability; the third being
antecedent probability, εἰκός; the fourth, the ἀνώνυμον σμηεῖον, or
circumstantial evidence. The argument of analogy used by
Butler, which may be regarded as almost<a id="noteref_1072" name="noteref_1072" href="#note_1072"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1072</span></span></a> one form of Aristotle's
παράδειγμα (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhet.</span></span> ii. 20), (if looked at on its positive side, and
not merely its negative, as disproof of objections,) comes under the
third, inasmuch as it offers a series of principles obtained by
generalization from the natural and moral world, which furnish
an antecedent presumption of the character of any revealed
scheme. The remarks in the text relate to tho comparative
weight to be given to the first and third of the four classes named
above. The advantage of Butler's argument over the other cases
of internal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> evidence is, that it is founded on previous
careful induction; the other kinds of anticipations are founded only on
hasty empirical generalizations. For this view of the evidences,
see Hampden's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Philosophical Evidences of
Christianity</span></span>; Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Prophecy</span></span> (Introductory
Lecture); and W. D. Conybeare's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Theology</span></span>, ch. i.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_49" id="Note_49" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 49. p. </span><a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">366</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
The History Of The Christian Evidences.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
As frequent references have been made to the subject of apologetic
in connexion with the history of free thought, it seems
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page452">[pg 452]</span><a name="Pg452" id="Pg452" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
desirable to give a brief literary history of the Evidences, and to
indicate the works where further information may be obtained
with regard to them.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There are two methods of studying the subject; either to
classify the Evidences in the manner of the last Note,<a id="noteref_1073" name="noteref_1073" href="#note_1073"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1073</span></span></a> and proceed
to notice the ages in which, and the authors by whom, each
portion of them has been developed, together with the causes
which have called them forth; or else, to adopt the historic plan,
and trace their gradual growth through the course of ages. By
the latter method (if we exclude all that strictly belongs to the
province of polemic as distinct from apologetic), we find the following
controversies:—in the early centuries, the double contest
against the Jews and against the Pagans; in the early middle
ages, against the Mahometans without, and Freethinkers within,
the limits of Christendom; at the Renaissance, against unbelief
within the church: in more modern times, whilst the argument
against the Jew has been called forth by contact with the Jewish
denizens scattered through Europe, and the Mahometan has been
occasionally excited by missionary labours; there has been the
contemporaneous struggle within the church, against deism, atheism,
and rationalism.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This history, it will be observed, is so complex, that it would
be necessary to study each branch of the contest separately. Accordingly,
we have treated in distinct notes the contests with the
Jew (Note <a href="#Note_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>), and the Mahometan (Note
<a href="#Note_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>); and there remain for
study those which existed with the Pagan in the early ages, and
with the various forms of scepticism in the later.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be convenient to classify the inquiry, under the four
epochs according to which we have studied the history of unbelief
in the preceding lectures; viz. (1) the contest of Christianity with
Paganism; (2) with the incipient free thought of the middle ages;
(8) with the unbelief of the Renaissance; and (4) with the subsequent
forms of unbelief, which it may be useful to classify according
to the countries where they have respectively appeared,—England,
France, and Germany.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The apology or defence of Christianity against Pagans commences
with the apostolic age.<a id="noteref_1074" name="noteref_1074" href="#note_1074"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1074</span></span></a>
Its first form is seen in the missionary
speech of St. Paul at Athens. The first chapter of his
Epistle to the Romans also may be regarded as expressing the
same ideas. The defence consisted in an appeal to the heart as
well as to fact; to show the heathen the need of Christianity before
presenting the statement of its nature, and the evidence of its
divine character. In the second century, when it became gradually
understood that Christianity was not a mere Jewish sect; and
when the attack consisted in calumnies and persecutions, as
stated in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. pp. <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>,
<a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>, the apologies especially were directed
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page453">[pg 453]</span><a name="Pg453" id="Pg453" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to repel the charges, or to demand toleration: (see Note <a href="#Note_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>.)
In the third and fourth centuries the attack was more intelligent,
and the statement of objections more definite; and the character
of the apologies altered correspondingly.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is some difficulty in arranging the early Apologies. A
recent writer, Pressensé, who has made a special study of them,
has used, as his fundamental principle of classification, the view
which the authors took of the relation of the soul of man to
Christianity; according to which he makes three classes; the first,
comprising those who thought that the soul of man was fitted for
truth, and acknowledged the heathen religions as a preparation for
Christianity; the second, those who, taking the same view of
human nature, regarded the heathen religions as corruptions, and
wholly injurious; and the third, those who took such a desponding
view of human nature as to regard it as possessing no truth
without revelation (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> vol. ii. ser. ii. p. 164-5.) As examples
of the first class, he cites Origen and most of the earlier fathers;
of the second, Tertullian; of the third, Arnobius. He thinks, but
perhaps hardly rightly, that the chronological order in which the
three views occurred, coincides also with this mode of arrangement.
It will be evident that the first two classes show an attempt
to approach Christianity <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>, by arousing the sense of
want; the last by <span class="tei tei-q">“crushing the human soul”</span> by authority: the
first of the three trying to open the way for the reception of
Christianity, by describing it as the highest philosophy and religion;
the second as the substitute for both; but both schools
agreeing in describing it as the satisfaction of the world's yearnings.
It will be also apparent why the presentation of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>
internal Evidences should precede the external. When the world
had been impressed with the necessity of a new religion, then the
opportunity came for employing the cogent power of the external
and historic evidence which authenticates Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A less artificial manner however of studying the Apologies
would be to view them in time, and in space; i.e. according to
their date, and the churches from which they emanate, whether
Syrian, Alexandrian, Roman, or African; with the view of witnessing
at once the alteration in the attack and the character of the
apology which existed in different countries at one and the same
time.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It appears worthy of notice however, that the attempt to find
difference of treatment according to difference of country almost
entirely fails. If applied as a principle of classifying manuscripts,
or modes of exegesis, or liturgical uses, sufficient variety is exhibited
to prove that the Christian church was a collection of provincial
churches, each possessing its national peculiarity, each contributing
to swell the general harmony by uttering its own appropriate
note; but, when applied to the subject of apologetic, the
method fails to show a difference in the method of defence which
was simultaneously used in the great Christian army; which
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page454">[pg 454]</span><a name="Pg454" id="Pg454" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
forms a proof of the facility of intercourse between different
churches, and of the uniformity in the character of the attack
directed simultaneously on the church in different lands. The
change in the character of the Evidences with the growth of time,
according to the alteration of attack described above, is apparent,
but not the variation at the same date in different parts of the
world. We shall therefore merely present a list, in which the
apologists are arranged according to place and date, without attempting
to draw inferences which cannot be supported.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The recent publication of Pressensé's work, where the spirit
of the apologies is given, together with an analysis of their contents,
renders it unnecessary to offer here a full analysis of them,
as had been intended. Other works indeed partially supplied the
need previous to his. Such, for example, were Houtteville's
Introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Religion Chrétienne prourée par des Faits</span></span>,
containing an account of the authors for and against Christianity
(translated 1739); Schramm's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analysis Patrum</span></span>, 1780; Scultetus's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Medullœ. Patr. Syntagma</span></span>, 1631; and for the Apostolic Fathers,
the Introduction to Mr. Woodham's edition of Tertullian's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apology</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be sufficient accordingly to give a list of the writers,
with a very brief mention of the object of their treatises,<a id="noteref_1075" name="noteref_1075" href="#note_1075"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1075</span></span></a> and to
enumerate the literary sources from which further information
may be obtained in respect to them.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page455">[pg 455]</span><a name="Pg455" id="Pg455" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Table of the Early Apologists, according to Date and Place.</span></span>
</p>

<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="6"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">A.D.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Rome and Western Provinces.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Africa.</td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell">Athens.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Alexandria.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Syria.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">150</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell">[Aristides 130]; [Quadratus]; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Justin?</span></span> 150;
           <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tatian</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Athenagoras</span></span>;
           <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermias?</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">200</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tertullian</span></span>;
           <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Minucius Felix?</span></span> 230</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell">Clement 190</td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theophilus</span></span> 180</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Cyprian; Commodian</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Origen 240</td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">300</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Arnobius</span></span>
     <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lactantius</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell">[Methodius]; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eusebius</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Jul. Firmicus; Ambrose; Prudentius</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Athanasius</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Chrysostom</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">400</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Orosius; Salvian</td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Augustin</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td>
     <td class="tei tei-cell"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyril</span></span></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Jerome? Theodoret</td></tr></tbody></table>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page456">[pg 456]</span><a name="Pg456" id="Pg456" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
N. B. The names in brackets are of authors whose apologies
are almost wholly lost; those in italics are the ones which alone
are usually mentioned in a list of apologists. To the above ought
perhaps to have been added for completeness, Maternus, A.D. 350;
Ephraim the Syrian; and Apollinaris of Asia Minor, who replied
to Julian. The names marked with a note of interrogation denote
those in reference to which the reader may demur to the
classification. Justin Martyr wrote at Rome; but he wrote in
Greek, and was a Greek philosopher in spirit. Of Hermias little
is known. Jerome lived much in Syria, and leaned to the Syrian
school of exegesis, so that he has been classed with the Syrian
church, though his intimacy with Augustin and his writing in
Latin might rather have caused him to be classed with the western.
Also Minucius Felix ought perhaps rather to be classed with
the Roman than the African church.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We shall next state the purpose of the treatises of those Apologists,
whose names are printed in italics in the table.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first group consists of Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Hermias,
and Theophilus; the first three of whom may be considered
to express the defence of Christian philosophers, who were striving
to explain the nature of Christianity, partly with a view to
plead for toleration, partly to make converts.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Justin has left two apologies; one against the Jews, the other
against the heathens; (a second against the heathens is a fragment.)
In both he adopted the same plan, of first repelling prejudices,
and then assaulting his opponent. That which is directed
against the Jews is analysed in Kaye's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Justin</span></span>, c. xi. In that which
was directed against the heathens, he first repelled the charges
made against Christians, such as atheism, Thyestean banquets, and
treason against the state; and next, those made against Christianity,
especially those which related to its late introduction, the
person of Christ, and the doctrine of the resurrection. In proceeding
to assault heathenism, he endeavoured to show that it did
not possess religious truth, and claimed that the points of agreement
with Christian truth were borrowed; and after having thus
shown the superiority of Christianity to heathenism, he endeavoured
to show its divinity, by the internal evidence of its doctrines
and effects, and by the external evidence of miracles and prophecies.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Tatian's treatise in substance was an invective against the pagans,
on the absurdity and iniquity of the pagan theology and its
recent origin, with a running comparison between it and Christianity.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The object of Athenagoras was to plead for toleration; and
consequently he employed himself in vindicating the Christians
from various charges, such as incest, Thyestean banquets; and
retaliated the charges on the heathen.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The little work of Hermias, the date of which is uncertain,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page457">[pg 457]</span><a name="Pg457" id="Pg457" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
(see Lardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cred.</span></span> ch. xxv. and
Cave, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Lit.</span></span> lxxxi. is a kind
of sermon on St. Paul's words, <span class="tei tei-q">“The wisdom of this world is foolishness
with God.”</span> In an amusing manner, not unlike Lucian, he
criticised the heathen philosophy, arguing its falsehood from the
contradictory opinions held in it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The form of Theophilus's work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad Autolycum</span></span> is not unlike some
of those which have preceded. Indeed the form was suggested
by circumstances; being a defence of Christianity against particular
charges, and the retaliation of similar ones on the heathens.
He drew out the attributes of the true God, b. i; and afterwards
exhibited the falsehood of the heathen religion and history, b. ii;
defending Christians from the absurd charges made against them;
and attempting to show the originality and antiquity of the Hebrew
history and chronology, b. iii.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The next group of Apologists, which comprises the writers of
the African church, Tertullian and Minucius Felix, differs from
the last in spirit, though resembling them in purpose. It is the
defence made by rhetoricians instead of philosophers. The purpose
too, like that of the preceding Apologists, is partly to effect
conviction, partly to obtain toleration; but there is a consciousness
of the presence of danger, hardly perceivable in the former
writers. We feel, as we read these early African writers, that
they write like men who felt themselves in the presence of persecution,
and who were brought more nearly than the former
writers into the face of their foe.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Tertullian's Tract, which is analysed both by Mr. Woodham in
his edition of it, and by Mr. T. Chevallier in his translation of it,
is chiefly defensive. He claims toleration, ch. i-vii; refutes the
miscellaneous charges against Christianity, ch. x-xxvii; and the
charge of treason (xxviii-xxxvii); explains the nature of Christianity
(xvii-xxiii); and compares it with philosophy, ch. xlv-xlvii.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Minucius Felix is a dialogue between a heathen,
Cæcilius, and a Christian, Octavius. The heathen opens by denying
a Providence; next inveighs against the Christians, by a series
of charges such as were named in Note <a href="#Note_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>; and then attacks the
Christian doctrines and condition. The Christian Octavius is made
to answer each point successively.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In passing now from the African school of Apologists to the
Alexandrian, we leave the rhetoricians, and meet with the philosophers,
Clement and Origen. Clement precedes Tertullian by a
few years; Origen succeeds Minucius Felix.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Clement, in part of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stromata</span></span>,
and in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cohortatio</span></span>, has expressed
the spirit of his apologetic; which resembles those of the
first group, in admitting the value of heathen philosophy as a preparation
for Christianity, and claims that the Hebrews are the
source of philosophy, and that Christianity is the full satisfaction
for those who sought knowledge.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page458">[pg 458]</span><a name="Pg458" id="Pg458" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The spirit and details of Origen's defence have been so fully
given in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. and Note
<a href="#Note_14" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>, that it is unnecessary to enlarge
upon the subject. His apology marks a further step. Tertullian
replied to the prejudices of the vulgar, and M. Felix to the scepticism
of the educated, which formed two elements in the heathen
reaction of the second century. Origen furnished the reply to the
attack made by the heathen philosophy. It is in reply to Celsus,
who possessed a competent knowledge of Christianity; and who,
though writing earlier than the time when the charges which
Tertullian afterwards refuted were common, was too well informed
to have believed them, and opposed Christianity on deeper grounds.
Celsus stands later logically, though not chronologically, than the
authors of those frivolous charges, and midway between them and
the educated assailants of Christianity of the third century, such
as Porphyry. Origen's defence too marks a similar advance, and,
by exhibiting sympathy with the very philosophy which Porphyry
and others adopted, shows the kind of defence which was thought
likely to attract philosophic minds.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The chronology compels us to return to the African church,
and introduces us to two Apologists;—Arnobius and Lactantius;
one of whom seems to have written a little before Christianity
had become a tolerated religion; the latter a little afterwards.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Arnobius is taken up, partly in repelling charges
made against the Christians, such as that the Christians do not
worship, which are no longer charges of the absurd kind made a
century before, partly in comparing Christianity and heathenism;
and partly in offering the evidence for Christianity. It is in this
point that we find the peculiarity which belongs to Arnobius. He
is the first writer who lays firm stress on the demonstrative character
of the evidence of fact. In previous writers Christianity had
been proved by probability: he makes it to rest on the evidence
of certainty; and considers the fact of the revelation to guarantee
the contents of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The large work of Lactantius, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institutiones Divinæ</span></span>, is a
work of ethics as well as of defence. Christians have obtained
protection, and defence is becoming didactic: apology is expiring
in instruction: all that is now needed for the spread of Christianity
is, that its nature should be understood. The work is partly a
work of religion, partly of philosophy, partly of ethics; the object
in each case being to show that Christianity supplies the only true
form in each department of thought.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The remaining Apologists may be grouped together, though
they have no point of union, except that their arguments are directed
to the special condition of heathenism; when, being no
longer triumphant, it was standing on the defensive, and, at the
time of the two latter of the group, was fast declining. They are,
Eusebius, Cyril of Alexandria, and Augustin.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page459">[pg 459]</span><a name="Pg459" id="Pg459" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If Origen is the metaphysical philosopher of the early Apologists;
if Augustin is the political; Eusebius is the man of erudition.
He has left, besides the small work against Hierocles (see
Note <a href="#Note_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>), two works
of defence; the first the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelica Præparatio</span></span>,
against the Gentiles; the second the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelica Demonstratio</span></span>,
more suited for the Jews. The former work is to show that Christianity
has not been accepted without just cause; which he attempts
to prove by a very elaborate discussion (valuable to us in a literary
point of view, on account of the quotations which he has preserved)
of the various religions, Egyptian, Phœnician, Greek, and of the
various types of Greek thought and belief; and, by a comparison
of them with the Hebrew, he shows the superiority of the last.
The other work, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelica Demonstratio</span></span>, is designed to prove
that Christ and Christianity fulfil the ancient prophecies. His
apology marks the transitionary time when Christianity was becoming
the religion of the Roman world, and men hesitated as to
its truth, looking back with regret to the past, with uneasiness to
the future.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other two Apologists are nearly a century later; when
Christianity had been long established.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Cyril has already come before us as the respondent to Julian.
It is enough to refer to Lecture <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. and
Note <a href="#Note_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>, in relation to
him. It is worthy of observation, that the circumstance that he
should consider it necessary to reply to Julian's work, at so long
a period after the death of the author, and the frustration of his
schemes, seems to show the continued existence of a wavering in
the faith of Christians, of which we seldom have the opportunity
of finding the traces at so late a period.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
If Cyril marks the apology of the Alexandrian church at the
commencement of the fifth century, Augustin similarly exhibits
that of the African in presence of the new woes which were
bursting upon the world. Christianity had long lived down the
charges made against it by prejudice, and shown itself to be the
philosophy which the educated craved. The charges of treason
too had ceased, for it had become the established religion; but
one prejudice still remained. Victorious with man; triumphant
over the prejudices of the vulgar, the opinions of the philosophers,
and the power of the state; it still was not, it seemed, victorious
in heaven; and at last the heathen gods were arousing themselves
to take vengeance on the earth for the overthrow of their worship,
by a series of terrible calamities. Apprehensions like these
haunted the imagination; and it was the object of Augustin, in his
work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civitate Dei</span></span>, to remove them. That work was a philosophy
of society; it was the history of the church and of the
world, viewed in presence of the dissolution, social and political,
which seemed impending.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These brief remarks will suffice to give a faint idea of the line
of argument adopted by the early Apologists. Further information
in regard to them may be found in the following sources:—
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page460">[pg 460]</span><a name="Pg460" id="Pg460" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In a history of this period written by Tzchirner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
Apologetik</span></span>, 1805; also another by Van Senden, 1831, translated
into German from the Dutch, 1841; Clausen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologetæ Ecc. Chr.
ante-Theodosiani</span></span>, 1817; and a brief account in Stein, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
Apologetik des Christenthum</span></span>, § 6. p. 13. Other references may be found
in Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, E. T. § 52; Hagenbach's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span>,
§ 29, 117; and in J. A. Fabricius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delectus Argument</span></span>, ch. i.
In the same work (ch. ii-v.) is an account of the chief Apologists,
and of the fragments of their lost writings. In reference to the
character of the apologetic works of the early fathers, information
may also be obtained in Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Patristic.</span></span> (ed. Danz.
1834.) § 97-100. ch. x; and concerning some of them in P. G.
Lumper's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Theol.-Crit. de Sanct.
Patr.</span></span> 1785; Moehler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Patrologie</span></span>,
1840; Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span> i
and ii; Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>,
i. 242 seq.; ii. 411 seq.; Kaye'a works on Justin, Clement,
and Tertullian; and Dr. A. Clarke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Succession of Ecclesiastical
Literature</span></span>, 1832.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On a review of these early apologies, some peculiarities are
observable.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
First, with the exception of Origen's treatise, and some parts
of Eusebius, they are inferior as works of mind to many of modern
times.<a id="noteref_1076" name="noteref_1076" href="#note_1076"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1076</span></span></a>
This was to be expected from the character of the age;
the literature of that period being poor in tone, compared with
the earlier and with the modern. In works of encyclopædic history
and geography, and in a reconsideration of philosophy by the light
of the past, it had indeed some excellences; but the literature as a
whole, not only the Latin, but even the Greek, was debased by
the substitution of rhetoric for the healthy freshness of thought
and poetry of older times: and the apologetic literature partakes
of the tone of its age. The Christian writers, when looked at in
a literary point of view, must be compared with authors of their
own times. The Alexandrian apologies rise sometimes to philosophy;
but those of the Greek nation sink to rhetoric. In later
times, men who were giants in mind and learning have written on
behalf of Christianity; and it would be unfair to the apologetic
fathers to compare them with these.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Secondly, we cannot fail to remark the abundant use of what
is now called the philosophical argument for Christianity, the conviction
that prejudice must be removed, and antecedent probabilities
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page461">[pg 461]</span><a name="Pg461" id="Pg461" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
be suggested, before the hearer could be expected to submit
to Christianity. The just inference from this is not that which
some would draw, the depreciation of the argument from external
evidence, but rather a corroboration of the importance of the
emotional element, as an ingredient in the judgment formed on
religion. The only practical inference that can be drawn in reference
to ourselves is, that if it be true that our age resembles
theirs, as has been suggested by Pressensé (see Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>. p.
<a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref">356</a>), we must adopt the same plan; not because we admit that
the external evidence is uncertain or unreal, but because the
other kind of evidence is best adapted, from philosophical reasons,
to such a state of society as ours.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Several centuries pass before we again meet with works of
evidence. In the dark ages, the public mind and thought were
nominally Christian; and at least were not sufficiently educated
to admit of the generation of doubts which might create a demand
for apologetic works. Accordingly we pass over this interval, and
proceed at once to the middle ages.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
II. The scepticism of the second period of free thought possessed
so largely the character of a tendency rather than an attitude
of fixed antagonism, that it gave no opportunity for direct works
of refutation. But the spirit of apologetic is seen in two respects;
in the special refutation of particular points of teaching, as in
Bernard's controversy with Abélard, and more especially in the
works of the scholastic theology.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
This theology, especially as seen in the works of the great realist
Aquinas, and of others who took their method from him, was
essentially, as has been before said (pp. <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref">11</a> and
<a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>), a work of
defence. In the two centuries before his time we already find the
spirit of reverent inquiry working. Anselm's two celebrated
works, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monologium</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proslogium</span></span>, a
kind of soliloquy on the Trinity, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cur Deus Homo</span></span>, or
theory of the Atonement, are the work of a mind that was reconsidering its own beliefs,
and restating the grounds of the immemorial doctrines of the
church. (See J. A. Hasse, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anselm</span></span>, 1843, 52.) In the following
century (viz. the twelfth), the work of Peter Lombard, called the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sententiæ</span></span>, marks an age when inquiry was active; and the material
was supplied for its satisfaction by means of searching amid the
opinions of the past for the witness of authority. But in the
thirteenth century, the grand advance made by Aquinas in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa</span></span>, is no less than the result of the conviction that religion
admitted of a philosophy; that theological truth was a science;
and so, commencing with the plan of first discussing God; then
man; then redemption; then ethics; he created a method, which
had been indeed suggested by his predecessors, but was more fully
displayed by him, for arranging the truths of theology in a systematic
form, in which their reasonableness might appear, and
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page462">[pg 462]</span><a name="Pg462" id="Pg462" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
through which they might commend themselves to the judgment
of a philosophical age.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The most successful mode of replying to objections is not to
refute the error contained in them, but to grasp the truth and
build it into a system, where the doubter finds his mind and heart
satisfied with the possession of that for which he was craving. If
the twelfth century had not had its Abélards, its spirit of inquiry,
of analysis, and of doubt; the church would never have had its
champion philosopher Aquinas: but if it had not had its Aquinas,
the succeeding ages would probably have produced many more
Abélards. The scholastic theology accordingly must be regarded
as the true rationalism, the true use of reason in defence. Like
as the mind goes through the process of perceiving facts, then of
classifying and generalizing, next of defining and tracing principles
to practical results; so the church, in forming its theology, receives
its facts as they were once for all apprehended by inspired
men of old, and are corroborated by the experience of the Christian
consciousness from age to age: but, after so receiving them,
it exercises its office in creating a theology, by classifying and
arranging them, and generalizing from them; and when new
doubts or objections arise, it recompares its teaching with the
faith once delivered to the saints; defines and prescribes the
limits of truth and error; and thus absorbs into its own system
whatever is true in the newly-presented doubts or objections.
This is really the action of the church in moments of peril; and is
that which was effected by the scholastic theologians,—Anselm,
the two Victors, Aquinas, Bonaventura, and others. It is sufficient
to refer to Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, iii. 502 seq.; iv.
257 seq.; Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vol. viii; Stein's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Apologetic</span></span>,
§ 7 and 8; Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 150; and Hase's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 218, 277, 278; for information concerning these
writers and their position.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
III. At the time of the Renaissance, in the fifteenth century,
which was the third period at which the Christian faith was in
peril from doubt, we begin to meet with works of evidence of a
more directly controversial kind. Defence is no longer a spirit,
but a fact. Apologetic theology is severed from Dogmatic.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
One work remains, written in the fourteenth century by
Petrarch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opp. de Otio Religiosor</span></span>), which defends the truth of
Christianity against Philosophers, Mahometans, and Jews: partly
on the evidence of miracles, but mainly on the internal evidence
of the purity and godliness of Christianity. In the early part of
the fifteenth century, Raimond de Sebonde, professor of medicine
at Barcelona, wrote his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologia Naturalis</span></span>, which was afterwards
translated into French by Montaigne. It was charged with
deism, but really was in spirit, as previously observed (p.
<a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref">104</a>), only like Locke's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of Christianity</span></span>. See Hallam's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, i. 138; Ritter's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, iv.
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page463">[pg 463]</span><a name="Pg463" id="Pg463" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
658 seq. Another exists by Æneas Sylvius; another by Ficinus,
1450, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Relig. Christianâ</span></span>, in which the evidence of prophecy
and miracles is adduced; the arguments from the moral character
of the apostles and martyrs, the wonderful spread of Christianity,
and the wisdom of the Bible, are used; and a comparison is drawn
between Christianity and other creeds.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the close of the same century, as soon as printing became
common, several similar treatises occur. One exists by Alphonso
de Spina, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fortalitium Fidei contra Judæos, &amp;c.</span></span> 1487; also by
Savonarola, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Triumphus Crucis, sive de Vera Fide</span></span>, 1497; also by
Pico di Mirandola; and by Ludovicus Vives, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate Christianâ</span></span>,
1551. A carefully written account of all these is given by Staüdlin,
in Eichhorn's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Literatur</span></span>, vol. vi. p. 24 seq. See
also Fabricius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delect. Argument</span></span>, ch. xxx.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The preceding works were mostly directed against the first of
the two species of unbelief which belonged to this period, viz. the
literary tendency (see Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref">94</a>). A few however
exist which were directed against the second species, which was
connected with the philosophy of Padua. They are not so much
general treatises, as works written against particular opinions, of
Pomponatius, Bruno, or Vanini. An account of them may be
found in the memoirs respectively published concerning these
writers; the references to which are given in the notes to Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. (See pp. <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">101-103</a>.)
The work of Mornæus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate
Religionis Christianæ adv. Atheistas, Epicureos, &amp;c.</span></span> 1580, was
probably suggested by this species of philosophy.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
IV. The fourth great period, marked by the unbelief connected
with the activity of modern speculation and the influence of
modern discovery, commenced in the sixteenth century. The
works of defence are so numerous that we can only give a brief
notice of the principal writers and writings. A list may be collected,
down to the respective dates of their publication, from J.
A. Fabricius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate Rel. Christ.</span></span> c. 30; Pfaff's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Litt. Theol.</span></span> ii. § 2; Buddeus's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, pp. 856-1237; Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth.
Theol. Select.</span></span> vol. i. ch. v. § 5-7: and the principal arguments are
summed up in Stapfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Instit. Theol. Polem.</span></span> 1744, vol. i. ch.
iii. and vol. ii. Tholuck also has written a history of modern apologetic,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber Apologetik und ihre Litteratur</span></span> (Vermischte Schriften,
i. pp. 150-376), and the Abbe Migne has published a most important
collection of the principal treatises on apologetic in all ages,
arranged in chronological order. It is contained in twenty vols.
4to. 1843. The title of the work is given
below.<a id="noteref_1077" name="noteref_1077" href="#note_1077"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1077</span></span></a>
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page464">[pg 464]</span><a name="Pg464" id="Pg464" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The work of Grotius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate Religionis Christianæ</span></span>, is the
one which opens the period of evidences which we are now considering;
of which a notice may be found in Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Literature</span></span>, ii. 364, and in Tholuck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verm. Schr.</span></span> i. 158;
but no very definite cause can be pointed out why it was written. It
was merely indeed one of the class of treatises already described
(Notes <a href="#Note_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a> and <a href="#Note_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>), which devoted a
portion of space to the controversy with the Jews and Mahometans. It is when a new
standpoint had been assumed by scepticism, and the causes, intellectual
or moral, which have been pointed out in these lectures, had begun
to create a real peril, that writings on the evidences begin to
derive a new value and assume a new form.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We shall give an account of them according to countries.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The English works of evidence</span></span>.—Those which were called
forth in England by Deism were of several kinds. Perhaps they may
be arranged under four heads.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The first class consists of specific answers to certain books,
published from time to time; of which kind are most of those
which are named in the foot-notes to Lecture <a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.
Waterland's reply to Tindal is a type of this class. Occupied with tracking the
opponent from point to point of his work, such replies, though
important while the sceptical book is operating for evil, become
obsolete along with the war of which they are a part, and henceforth
are only valuable in literary history, unless, as in the special
instance of Bentley's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phileleutherus Lipsiensis</span></span> in reply to
Collins, they are such marvellous instances of dialectical ability and literary
acuteness that they possess a philosophical value as works of
power, when their instructiveness has ceased.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A second kind consisted of homilies rather than arguments;
sermons to Christian people, warning them against forms of unbelief,
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page465">[pg 465]</span><a name="Pg465" id="Pg465" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
and regarding unbelief from a practical point of view rather
than a speculative; and discussing, as would appropriately belong
to such an object, the moral to the exclusion of the intellectual
causes of doubt. Some of Tillotson's sermons are an example of
the highest of this kind of works. The value of this class is twofold:
in a purely pastoral point of view, the suggestions which
they contain concerning the moral causes of doubt being founded
on the real facts of the human heart, and on the declarations of scripture,
have a lasting value; and in a literary point of view, these
works contribute to the knowledge of the state of public feeling
of the time. This is seen in this instance. Until about the end
of the seventeenth century, there is no clear perception, except
among the very highest of this class of writers, of the particular
character of the forms of doubt against which their remarks are
directed. The general name, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Atheism</span></em>, is used vaguely, to describe
every form of unbelief. This fact tells its tale. It witnesses to
the consciousness that they lived in an age of restlessness, when
change of creed was going on, and doubt was prevalent; but when
unbelief had not shaped itself into form, and found as yet few
organs of expression. We are reminded of the works before
named of the fifteenth century (p. <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref">93</a> seq. 104.) At that time
doubt and restlessness prevailed, as we learn from the frequent
references to it; yet the works which transmit the knowledge of
it to us are few, and the allusions to it vague: while the works
of evidence then written are directed against antiquated forms of
it,—Mahometan, Jewish, or philosophical. In like manner, in the
seventeenth age, we see, as we look back, that the Christian sermons
were mostly directed against older forms of unbelief,—the
atheism of the ancients, or of the Paduan school; and that the
contemporary unbelief had not become definite enough to enable
the Christian writers to apprehend its nature. This fact too explains
another circumstance. The preachers evince a bitterness,
which is not merely the rudeness common in that age on all subjects,
nor the indignation which arises from solicitude for souls,
common in all ages on a subject so momentous as salvation; but
it is the bitterness of alarm. There is a margin in their expression
of vituperation, which is only to be explained by the fact,
that the absence of a clear statement of the grounds of doubt, such
as was subsequently given in the eighteenth century, deprived the
preachers of the means of understanding the alleged excuse for the
prevailing doubt. They appear not to be conscious of the causes
which could create in the minds of others a restlessness which
they did not feel themselves. They seem like persons living in a
state of political society, who are conscious of a vast amount of
general dissatisfaction, and a suspicion of a plot against society,
the authors of which are unknown, as well as the causes of their
supposed grievances; and where the danger is necessarily
heightened from the very absence of knowledge as to its precise
amount.
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page466">[pg 466]</span><a name="Pg466" id="Pg466" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A third class of the English apologies consists of works which
have neither the speciality of the first class, nor the vagueness of
the second. They were directed against special writers and particular
books; but instead of being adapted as a detailed reply,
chapter by chapter, to the special work, the authors of them seized
hold of the central errors of the unbeliever, or the central truths
by which he was to be refuted. The works of the two Chandlers
against Collins, and Leland's work on the deists, rise into this tone
at times. Bishop Gibson's later Pastorals against Woolston are a
good type of it; and still better, many of the courses of Boyle
Lectures; and above all, Warburton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine Legation of Moses</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is a fourth class of works, of a grander type, which resemble
the one just named, in discussing subjects rather than
books: but differ in that they are not directed against particular
books or men, but take the largest and loftiest view of the evidences
of Christianity. The first of this class, though a small one,
is Locke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of Christianity</span></span>. The best examples are,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Divine and Human conceived of by Analogy</span></span>, by Dr. Peter
Browne, 1733; and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analogy</span></span> of Bishop Butler, in reference to
the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity; with the works of
Lardner and Paley in reference to the Historical. Books of this
class are elevated above what is local or national, and are in some
sense a κτῆμα ἐς ἀεί.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
After this description of the different classes of works of evidence,
it remains to give a brief notice of a few of the more important
writers, especially of the two latter classes, in chronological
order.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Omitting the repetition of those books named in the foot-notes
of Lect. <a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>. which were directed against Herbert,
Hobbes, and Blount, and which, as already remarked, belonged to the first of
the four classes just named, and also the enumeration of the various
sermons which belong to the second, we meet with the following
writers:—Robert Boyle (1626-1691), an intelligent philosopher
and devout Christian, who wrote works to reconcile reason
and religion, suggested by the growth of new sciences; and with
Ray, who first supplied materials for the argument for natural religion,
drawn from final causes, 1691; and Stillingfleet, who investigated
religion from the literary side, as the two just named
from the scientific. Boyle not only wrote himself on the Evidences,
but founded the Boyle Lectures,<a id="noteref_1078" name="noteref_1078" href="#note_1078"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1078</span></span></a> a series which was
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page467">[pg 467]</span><a name="Pg467" id="Pg467" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
mainly composed of works written by men of real ability, and
contains several treatises of value, as works of mind, as well as instruction.
Among the series may be named those of Bentley
(1692); Kidder, 1694; Bp. Williams, 1695; Gastrell, 1697; Dean
Stanhope, 1701; Dr. Clarke, 1704, 5; Derham, 1711; Ibbot, 1713;
Gurdon, 1721; Berriman, 1730; Worthington, 1766; Owen, 1769:
all of which belong to the third of the classes named above, while
one or two approach to the grandeur of the fourth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among separate treatises, the popular ones by the Non-juror
Charles Leslie ([+]1722), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Short Method with the Deists</span></span>; Jenkins's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of Christianity</span></span>, 1721; Foster's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Usefulness and Truth of Christianity</span></span>, against Tindal; and Bp.
Sherlock's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Trial of the Witnesses</span></span>, against Woolston;
Lyttelton on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. Paul's Conversion</span></span>;
Conybeare's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Defence of Revelation</span></span>, 1732; Warburton's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine Legation of Moses</span></span>; are the best known. A complete list of
the respective replies to deist writers may be found under the criticism
of each writer, in Leland's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deists</span></span>, and Lechler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Engl. Deismus</span></span>. The great work of Bishop Butler, which
appeared in 1736, has been sufficiently discussed in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>. p. <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a> seq.
It was the recapitulation and condensation of all the arguments
that had been previously used; but possessed the largeness of
treatment and originality of combination of a mind which had not
so much borrowed the thoughts of others as been educated by
them. Balguy's works also, though brief, are scarcely inferior.
(See his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse on Reason and Faith</span></span>, vol. i. serm. i-vii; vol.
ii. serm. ii, iii, iv; vol. iv. serm. ii. and iii.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have already pointed out (p. <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207</a>), that in the latter half of
the century, the historical rather than the moral evidences were
developed. The philosophical argument preceded in time, as in
logic. First, the religion of nature was proved: at this point the
deist halted; the Christian advanced farther. The chasm between
it and revealed religion was bridged at first by probability;
next by Butler's argument from analogy, put as a dilemma
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page468">[pg 468]</span><a name="Pg468" id="Pg468" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to silence those who objected to revelation, but capable, as
shown in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.
of being used as a direct argument to lead the
mind to revelation; thirdly, by the historic method, which asserted
that miracles attested a revelation, even without other
evidence. The argument in all cases however, whether philosophical
or historical, was an appeal to reason; either evidence of
probability or of fact; and was in no case an appeal to the authority
of the church.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Accordingly, the probability of revelation having been shown,
and the attacks on its moral character parried, the question became
in a great degree historical, and resolved itself into an examination
either of the external evidence arising from early testimonies,
which could be gathered, to corroborate the facts, and to
vindicate the honesty of the writers, or of the internal critical
evidence of undesigned coincidences in their writings. (See
Note <a href="#Note_48" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>.) The first of these occupied the attention of Lardner
(1684-1768). His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Credibility</span></span> was published 1727-57. The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Collection
of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies</span></span> (1764-7.) The
second and third branches occupied the attention of Paley; the
one in the Evidences, the other in the Horæ Paulinæ.<a id="noteref_1079" name="noteref_1079" href="#note_1079"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1079</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Before the close of the century the real danger from deism had
passed, and the natural demand for evidences had therefore in a
great degree ceased. Consequently the works which appeared
were generally a recapitulation or summary of the whole arguments,
often neat and judicious, (as is seen at a later time in Van
Mildert's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lectures</span></span>, vol. ii. 1805; and in a grander manner in
Chalmers's works, vol. i-iv.); or in developments of particular
subjects, as in Bishop Watson's replies to Gibbon and to Paine;
(See p. <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref">198</a>, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref">199</a>,
note); or in Dean Graves's work on the Pentateuch, 1807.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is only in recent years that a new phase of unbelief, a species
of eclecticism rather than positive unbelief, has arisen in England,
which is not the legitimate successor of the old deism, but
of the speculative thought of the Continent; and only within recent
years that writers on evidences have directed their attention
to it. In the line of the Bampton Lectures, for example, which,
as one of the classes of annually recurring volumes of evidences,
is supposed to keep pace with contemporary forms of doubt, and
may therefore be taken as one means of measuring dates in the
corresponding history of unbelief; it is not until about 1852 that
the writers showed an acquaintance with these forms of doubt derived
from foreign literature. The first course<a id="noteref_1080" name="noteref_1080" href="#note_1080"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1080</span></span></a> which touched
upon them was that of Mr. Riddle, 1852, on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural History
of Infidelity</span></span>; and the first especially directed to them was that in
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page469">[pg 469]</span><a name="Pg469" id="Pg469" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
1858 by Dr. Thomson, on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Atoning Work of Christ</span></span>; since which
time only two courses, those of Mr. Mansel, 1858, on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Limits
of Religious Thought</span></span>; and of Mr. Rawlinson, in 1859,<a id="noteref_1081" name="noteref_1081" href="#note_1081"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1081</span></span></a>
on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Historical Evidences of the Truth of Scripture</span></span>, have been directed
to the subject, the one to the philosophy of religion studied on its
psychological side, the other to the historical evidences.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among isolated works on evidences not forming parts of a general
series, it is hard to make a selection without unfairness. We
can only cite a few, premising that silence in reference to the rest
is not to be considered to be censure, nor to mark the want of a
cordial and grateful acknowledgment of the utility of many smaller
works of evidences in the present day, dictated by deep love for
Christ; whose authors, though omitted in this humble record,
have their reward in being instruments of religious usefulness by
means of their works, and are doubtless not unnoticed by a merciful
Saviour, who looks down with love on all who strive to spread
his truth.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The following seem to merit notice. First, the arguments in
favour of natural religion, drawn from physical science, stated in
the Bridgewater Treatises, analogous to the earlier works of Derham
and Paley; the connection of science with revelation, in Cardinal
Wiseman's Lectures delivered in Rome, 2d ed. 1842, (which
are a little obsolete, but very masterly;) several works by Dr.
M'Cosh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine Government,—Typical Forms</span></span>, &amp;c. in which
the author takes a large view of the world, and of the province of revealed
religion in the scheme of general truth, founded mainly on
Butler; also a work of Dr. Buchanan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Atheism</span></span>, valuable
for its literary materials as much as for its argument; and of T.
Erskine on the Internal Evidences, 1821. The Bampton Lectures
of Mr. Miller in 1817 also deserve to be singled out as a thoughtful
and original exhibition of the argument in one branch of the
internal evidence; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Divine Authority of Scripture asserted from
its adaptation to the real state of human nature</span></span>; also Mr. Davison's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Warburton Lectures on Prophecy</span></span>, 1825. Among works directed to
special subjects, we ought to specify, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Restoration of Belief</span></span>,
by Mr. Isaac Taylor, intended indirectly against speculations such
as those of the Tübingen school; and an able and thoughtful work
on the subject of the superhuman character of Christ, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Christ
of History</span></span>, by Mr. Young; also E. Miall's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bases of Belief</span></span>;
with the two Burnett Prize Essays by Thompson and Tullock; and a
reply to Mr. Newman's Phases of Faith, viz. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Eclipse of Faith</span></span>,
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letters of E. H. Greyson</span></span>, by H. Rogers, constructed however
partly on the argument of the dilemma.<a id="noteref_1082" name="noteref_1082" href="#note_1082"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1082</span></span></a> The replies written to
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>, especially
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, ought to be added.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
We have reserved for separate mention one work, which ascends
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page470">[pg 470]</span><a name="Pg470" id="Pg470" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
to the philosophy of the religious question, Mr. Mansel's
Bampton Lectures, 1858, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Limits of Religious Thought</span></span>, because
it is a work which is valuable for its method, even if the
reader differs (as the author of these lectures does in some respects)
from the philosophical principles maintained, or occasionally
even from the results attained.<a id="noteref_1083" name="noteref_1083" href="#note_1083"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1083</span></span></a>
It is an attempt to reconstruct
the argument of Butler from the subjective side. As Butler
showed that the difficulties which are in revealed religion are
equally applicable to natural; so Mr. Mansel wishes to show that
the difficulties which the mind feels in reference to religion are
parallel to those which are felt by it in reference to philosophy.
Since the time of Kant a subjective tone has passed over philosophy.
The phenomena are now studied in the mind, not in nature;
in our mode of viewing, not in the object viewed. And hence
Butler's argument needed reconstructing on its psychological side.
Mr. Mansel has attempted to effect this; and the book must always
in this respect have a value, even to the minds of those who
are diametrically opposed to its principles and results. Even if
the details were wrong, the method would be correct, of studying
psychology before ontology; of finding the philosophy of religion,
not, as Leibnitz attempted, objectively in a theodicée, but subjectively,
by the analysis of the religious faculties; learning the
length of the sounding-line before attempting to fathom the ocean.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
These remarks must suffice in reference to the history of Evidences
in England. We shall now give an account of those which
existed in France; which will be still more brief, because the
works are considered to be of small general value, at least they
have not a general reputation.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The French works of evidence</span></span>.—In the middle of the
seventeenth century we meet with Pascal and Huet; both of them,
metaphysically speaking, sceptics, who disbelieved in the possibility
of finding truth apart from revelation;<a id="noteref_1084" name="noteref_1084" href="#note_1084"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1084</span></span></a>
and with whom therefore
the object of evidences was to silence doubt rather than to
remove it. (On Pascal, see Rogers's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, Essay reprinted
from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>, January 1847; and on Huet, an article
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 194, September 1855, and the
reference given p. 19. Also see Houtteville, introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La
Religion Chrétienne prouvée par des Faits</span></span>, 1722.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among the Roman catholics, at the close of the same century,
were the following: Le Vassor([+]1718); the two Lamy [+] 1710 and 15,
and Denyse; and in the eighteenth century, Houtteville, whose preface
to his own work, an historical view of evidences and attacks to
his own time, has been just named; Bonnet; D'Aguesseau, [+] 1751;
and Bergier [+] 1790: and among the Protestants,—Abbadie, [+] 1727;
and Jacquelot, [+] 1708; nearly all of whom are treated of by Tholuck
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page471">[pg 471]</span><a name="Pg471" id="Pg471" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verm. Schr.</span></span> i. p. 28) and
Walch (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Theol. Sel.</span></span> ch. v. sect.
6). Several more will be found in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Demonstrations Evangeliques</span></span>;
among which are Choiseul du Plessis, Praslin, Polignac,
De Bernis, Buffier, Tournemine, and Gerdil; the Lives of several
of whom are in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Though some of these were men whose works were of ordinary
respectability, they were by no means a match in greatness
for the intellectual giants who prostituted their powers on behalf
of unbelief; and on one occasion, when a prize essay had been
offered for a work in behalf of Christianity, no work was deemed
worthy of it. (Alison, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Europe</span></span>, i. 180.) Since the
beginning of the present century, however, there has been a
change. Whatever may be thought of the line of argument
adopted, the skill with which it has been put forward, and the
ability of the minds that have given expression to it, is undoubted.
Chateaubriand may be considered as the first who, with a full appreciation
of the tastes and wants of modern society, tried to show
not only the compatibility of Christianity with them, but that the
perfection of society was only realized in it. The work of the
Christian labourers who had to bring back France to Christianity
was hard. It was not the apologist, acting, as in England, from
the vantage ground of a powerful church against the Deist, who
was making an attack on it; but it was a weak and feeble minority
acting against a powerful mass of educated intellect. The
apologists were indirectly aided by philosophy. The philosophers
did not aim primarily at religious truth, and we have had reason
to take exception to many of their views; yet they rekindled in
France the elements of natural religion, on which the Christians
then proceeded to base revealed. The works of Jules Simon are
the highest expression of it. (See Note <a href="#Note_44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.)
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The school of evidences that has existed, has been the church
school of De Maistre, already described. (See Note <a href="#Note_45" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, and the
references given there.) With somewhat of the spirit of the
writers of the fifteenth age, they have directed their efforts to reestablish
the catholic church as the condition of re-establishing
the Christian religion. To this we have already taken exception,
Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>. p. <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref">300</a>;
and the remarks there given may suffice in
reference to the movement. Yet the literary appreciation of the
line of argument used by the older apologists, is perceptible in the
large publication of Migne, already named.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The other attempt in France to re-establish Christianity by
Protestant apologists, noticed in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>, of which the
ablest was Vinet, is rather directed against rationalism than
against full unbelief; and aims to turn the flank of the rationalist
argument, and, while accepting its premises, deny its conclusions.
(On Vinet, see Note <a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>.) The problem which is now before the
apologists is, not to show that Christianity is not imposture, but
rather that it is not merely philosophy. (Compare the remarks
of Strauss, at the close of his work on Reimarus, alluded to in
Note <a href="#Note_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>. p. <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref">427</a>).
</p>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page472">[pg 472]</span><a name="Pg472" id="Pg472" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There now only remains the history of Apologetic in Germany.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The German works of evidence.</span></span>—As early as the end of
the seventeenth century, we find the attention of Kortholt directed
to Spinoza; and in the early part of the eighteenth we see, in
the grand attempt of Leibnitz to find a philosophy of religion; in
Haller, 1705-77; in Euler, 1747, (for which see Tholuck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">V. Schr.</span></span>
ii. 311-362, together with a list of others there given,) a proof of
the attention which the Evidences received. The existence of
works like J. A. Fabricius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delectus Argumentorum</span></span>, 1725;
Reimannus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia Atheismi</span></span>, 1725; Buddeus,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Atheismo</span></span>, 1737;
Stapfer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Polem.</span></span> 1752; as well as the attention shown
by the bibliographers, Pfaff, Walch, Fabricius, to the literature of
Evidences, is a proof of the same fact.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The replies were still directed against Deism, as in England or
France. It is not till later in the century that rationalism appears.
When however it arose, writers were not wanting who
opposed it. The history of the German theology has been treated
so largely in Lectures <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>. and
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>. that it is only necessary to indicate
the steps. The early deistic rationalism of Reimarus and
Lessing met its opponents in contemporary writers named in the
notes to Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>. The critical rationalism of Eichhorn
and Paulus was really answered by the later critics, as was shown
when we noticed that criticism gradually abandoned their view,
and rescued itself from their extravagant opinions (p. <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref">257</a>
seq.), while the dogmatic rationalism which was connected with it was
dispersed by the discussion on the province of the supernatural
already described (p. <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref">418</a>). In the present century the aspect of
the attack and of the defence has changed. The question had been
as to the existence of the supernatural.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In the present the question has been, If the supernatural be
admitted, what is the capacity of man to discover it by the light
of feeling or reason respectively, without revelation? Therefore,
while in the last century it was important to show that the supernatural
exists, and that the religion that taught it was not deception;
in the present the endeavour has been, to bring men from
the supernatural to the biblical, and to make them feel that the
Christian religion is not a mere mistake. Thus they have been
led from the natural to the supernatural; from the supernatural
to the revealed; from the ideal to the historic.<a id="noteref_1085" name="noteref_1085" href="#note_1085"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1085</span></span></a> The steps of
this process in the present century have been twofold:—the philosophical
Christianity of Schleiermacher, and the revival of biblical
religion. Neander has been already adduced (p. <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref">364</a>) as the
type of the Christian movement which sought to unite the two:
wishing to appropriate that which he believed, he strove to present
Christianity as the highest form of the religious life; as a life
based on a doctrine; the doctrine itself being based on a revealed
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page473">[pg 473]</span><a name="Pg473" id="Pg473" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
history. It must suffice thus to have indicated, without tracing
into detail, the apologetic literature which has been partly named
in the Notes of the lectures, and may be found by consulting the
references there given.
</p>

<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
In all ages the purpose of Evidences has been conviction; to
offer the means of proof either by philosophy or by fact. In arguing
with the heathen in the first age, the former plan was
adopted; the school of Alexandria trying to lead men to Christianity
as the highest philosophy: in the middle ages the same method
was adopted under the garb of philosophy, but with the alteration
that the philosophy was one of form, not matter. In the
later middle ages the appeal was to the Church: in the early contests
with the Deists to the authority of reason, and to the Bible
reached by means of this process; in the later, to the Bible reached
through history and fact: in opposing the French infidelity the
appeal was chiefly to authority; in the early German the appeal
was the same as in England; in the later German it has been a return
in spirit to that of the early fathers, or of the English apologists
of the eighteenth century, but based on a deeper philosophy;
an appeal to feeling or intuition, and not to reflective reason; and
through these ultimately to the Bible.
</p>

</div>

<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
<a name="Note_50" id="Note_50" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<h3 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Note 50. p. </span><a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 120%">373</span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.
On The History Of The Doctrine Of Inspiration.</span></h3>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The subject of the history of inspiration has been named both
in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. and
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>. It may be useful therefore to point out
the sources for the study of it.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
The history of it is briefly sketched in Hagenbach's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span>,
§ 32, 121, 161, 243, 292. A valuable catena of passages
relative to the primitive doctrine of inspiration is given in Mr.
Westcott's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Gospels</span></span>, Appendix B. second edition,
1860; and a continuation of the history to more recent periods
in Dr. Lee's important work on Inspiration, especially in Appendices
C and G; and in Tholuck's Doctrine of Inspiration, translated
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Sacred Literature</span></span>, July 1854.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It appears that the theories held respecting inspiration in different
ages may be arranged under three classes:
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
1. The belief in a full inspiration was held from the earliest
times, with the few exceptions observable in occasional remarks
of Origen, Jerome, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Euthymius Zigabenus
(in the twelfth century).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
2. Traces after a time begin to appear of a disposition, (α) to
admit that the inspiration ought to be regarded as appertaining to
the proper material of the revelation, viz. religion; but at the
same time to maintain firmly the full inspiration of the religious
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page474">[pg 474]</span><a name="Pg474" id="Pg474" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
elements of scripture. This view occurs in the allusions of the
writers just named, and existed in the seventeenth century in the
Helmstadt school of Calixt in Germany, and the Saumur school
of Amyrault, Cameron, and Placæus, in France; and is stated decidedly
by a series of writers in the English church. Some of the
latter go so far as to avow, (β) that the value of the religious element
in the revelation would not be lessened if errors were admitted
in the scientific and miscellaneous matter which accompanies
it. This admission increased after the speculations of
Spinoza and the pressure of the Deist objections.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
3. A third theory was suggested by Maimonides, which was revived
by Spinoza, and has been held among many of the rationalists
in Germany, and has lately appeared in English literature:
this theory is, that the book does not, even in its religious element,
differ in kind from other books, but only in degree. It will be observed
that a wide chasm separates this view from either of those
named under the second head; the only point in common being,
that in all alike the writers agree that the nature of inspiration
must be learned from experience, and not be determined antecedently
by our own notions of optimism, without examining the
real contents of revelation. Coleridge would by many be considered
to give expression to this third theory in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions of
an Inquiring Spirit</span></span>. Perhaps however he hovered between it
and the one previously named; being anxious rather to identify
inspiration psychologically with one form of the Νοῦς or <span class="tei tei-q">“Reason,”</span>
than theologically to confound the material of revelation
with truth acquired by natural means.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It is not the purpose of this note to discuss the true view of
inspiration; but merely to state the historic facts. The writer
may however be allowed to repeat what has been already implied
in the preface, that he dissents entirely from the third of these
views. To him there seems evidence for believing that the dogmatic
teaching implied on religious subjects in holy scripture is a
communication of supernatural truth, miraculously revealed from
the world invisible. Cfr. p. <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On the subject of inspiration, in addition to the works above
named, instruction will be derived from the sources indicated in
the Essay on Inspiration in Bp. Watson's Tracts, 1785, vol. iv. pp.
5 and 469; and from Dean Harvey Goodwin's Hulsean Lectures,
first course, lectures vii. and viii. The first of the above-named
views is stated in Gaussen's work on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theopneustie</span></span>, and on the
Canon; the third in Morell's [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span>], c. iv; and
in the first three essays of Scherer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mélanges de Crit.
Religieuse</span></span>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
A list of those theologians who have held the second class of
views above named, together with the extracts from their writings,
is given by Dr. S. Davidson in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Facts, Statements, &amp;c.
concerning</span></span> vol. ii. of ed. x. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">of Horne's Introduction</span></span>, 1857;
and Mr. Stephen, in his defence of Dr. R. Williams, 1862, has quoted some
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page475">[pg 475]</span><a name="Pg475" id="Pg475" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
of the same passages, and added a few more (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Def.</span></span> pp.
127-160.<a id="noteref_1086" name="noteref_1086" href="#note_1086"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1086</span></span></a>)
As the reader was referred hither from Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref">114</a>. for the
proof of the assertion there made, that this theory had been largely
held in the last century in England, it seems fair here to add
the references. At the same time this list is not given with the
view of endorsing the views of these writers, but merely to prove
the accuracy of the assertion in the text of Lectures
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. and <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among English divines, those who have asserted the form of
the theory named above as No. 2 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>,
are, Howe (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Div. Author. of
Scripture</span></span>, lecture viii. and ix.); Bishop Williams
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lect.</span></span>
serm. iv. pp. 133, 4); Burnet (Article vi. p. 157. Oxford ed. 1814);
Lowth (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vind. of Dir. Auth. and Inspir. of Old and New Testament</span></span>,
p. 45 seq.); Hey (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. Lect.</span></span> i. 90);
Watson (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tracts</span></span>, iv. 446);
Bishop Law (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theory of Religion</span></span>);
Tomline (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theology</span></span>, i. 21);
Dr. J. Barrow (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertations</span></span>, 1819, fourth Diss.); Dean Conybeare
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theolog. Lect.</span></span> p. 186); Bishop Hinds
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inspir. of Script.</span></span> pp.
151, 2); Bishop Daniel Wilson (lect. xiii. on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evidences</span></span>, i. 509);
Parry (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inq. into Nat. of Insp. of Apost.</span></span> pp. 26, 27); Bishop
Blomfield (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lect. on Acts</span></span> v. 88-90).
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
Among those who have gone so far as to hold the form of the
theory above given as No. 2 b, are, Baxter (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Method. Theol. Chr.</span></span>
part iii. ch. xii. 9. 4.); Tillotson (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, fol. iii. p. 449.
serm. 168); Doddridge (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">on Inspir.</span></span>);
Warburton (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Doctr. of Grace</span></span>, book i. ch.
vii); Bishop Horsley (serm. 39 on Ecc. xii. 7. vol. iii. p. 175);
Bishop Randolph (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rem. on Michaelis Introd.</span></span> pp. 15, 16); Paley
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evidences of Christianity</span></span>, part iii. ch. ii); Whately
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ess. on Diff. in St. Paul</span></span>, Ess. i. and ix;
Sermons on Festivals, p. 90; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pecul. of Christianity</span></span>, p. 233);
Hampden (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lect.</span></span> pp. 301, 2); Thirlwall
(Schleiermacher's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Luke</span></span>, Introd. p. 15); Bishop Heber
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampt. Lect.</span></span> viii. p. 577); Thomas Scott
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essay on Inspir.</span></span> p. 3); Dr. Pye Smith
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Script. and Geol.</span></span> 276, 237. third ed.); Dean Alford
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proleg. to Gosp.</span></span> ed. 1859) vol. i. ch. i. §
22.<a id="noteref_1087" name="noteref_1087" href="#note_1087"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1087</span></span></a>
</p>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
It will be observed however, that both these classes of writers
are separated by a chasm from those which belong to the third
class above named; inasmuch as they hold inspiration to be not
only miraculous in origin, but different in kind from even the
highest forms of unassisted human intelligence.
</p>

</div>

</div>

</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page477">[pg 477]</span><a name="Pg477" id="Pg477" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
<a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a>
<a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a>
<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1>

<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The figures refer to the pages, without distinction of text
from foot-notes.</span></span>
</p>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abbé Paris, miracles of, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abélard; a nominalist, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">character of, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works of, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82-84</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">different opinions concerning his scepticism, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a Biblical critic, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Accommodation, principle of, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used by English divines, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Acts, book of, controversy in Germany concerning, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ahmed Ibn Zain Elebedin, a Mahometan writer against Christianity, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander Hales (Alesius), a scholastic, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander of Aphrodisias, Pantheism at Padua derived from, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander of Pontus, named by Lucian, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander VII. pope, prohibits Lucian's Peregrinus, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexandrian school of Fathers, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">opinions held concerning the relation of Christianity to other religions, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Allegory, distinguished from myth and parable, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Allen's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Judaism</span></span>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alphonso de Spina, treatise against Mahometans, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Amyntor</span></span> of Toland, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Angelo Mai, edition by, of Fronto, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Porphyry's letter to Marcella, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Annet Paul, a Deist writer, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anselm, view of the Atonement, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works of, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apollinaris, <a href="#Pg455" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>, <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apollonius of Tyana, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a> seq. <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apologetic, office of, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apologetic Lectures. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-lectures" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apologies of early fathers, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Pressensé's mode of classifying, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sources for studying, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">table of, <a href="#Pg455" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">African school of, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Alexandrian school of, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">peculiarity of and inferiority to modern, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Apprehend</span></span>, how distinguished from <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">comprehend</span></span>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aquinas, his dogmatic position defensive, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Argens. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-dargens" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">D'Argens</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arian tendency in English church, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ariosto, sceptical jests in, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aristotle, criticism on Plato by, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arminius, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>; Arminians, Ib.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arndt, J. a Pietist, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arnobius's Apology, <a href="#Pg458" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">458</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arnold of Brescia, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arnold, German church historian, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ass, worship of, imputed to Christians, <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Association mental, works on, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Astroc, first to distinguish documents in Genesis, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Atheism, causes of in modern times, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">history of the uses of the term, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Athenagoras, apology of, <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-atonement" id="index-atonement" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Atonement, <a href="#Pg335" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a>, <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">360</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literary history of, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aufklürung-zeit</span></span>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Augustin on Porphyry, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparison with Aquinas, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aurellus, Marcus, views of, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Averroes, influence of, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">altered tone of Christians towards, ib.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pantheism derived from, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">threefold influence of, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Avesta Zend, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bacon, influence of, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works respecting, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his philosophy of method, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bahrdt, disciple of Semler, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Balguy, Dr. works on the Christian evidences, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bampton, John, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bampton Lectures, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bangorian Controversy, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baronius, the church historian, pref. <a href="#Pgxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvi</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Barre. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-labarre" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">La Barre</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bartholmess, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">le Scept. Theol.</span></span> <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Crit.</span></span> <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page478">[pg 478]</span><a name="Pg478" id="Pg478" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bartollocci, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Basedow, institutions of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Basle, theology of the university of, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bauer, Bruno, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bauer, L. 441.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baumgarten-Crusius, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, 442.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baur, Chr. of Tübingen, work on Gnosis, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Celsus, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Apollonius, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">theological position, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life and works, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bautain, abbé, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bayle, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bazard, the Simonian, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beard's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Voices of the Church</span></span>, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beaufort, critic of Roman history, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bello, Italian poet, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bembo, cardinal, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Benedictines on Abélard's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bengel, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bentham, Jeremy, remarks on by J. S. Mill, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bentley, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Phalaris</span></span>, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Phileleutherus Lipsiensis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berkeley, Bp. <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berlin, university of, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bernard, St. contest of with Abélard, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berry Street Lecture, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beugnot, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Juiss</span></span>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bhagavat Gitá, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bible, statement of modern difficulty on, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblia Pauperum</span></span>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bibliander, collection of works against Mahometanism, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bibliolatry, origin of the term, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum</span></span>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bibliotheca Sacra, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Biddle, J. the English unitarian, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bilderdyk, Dutch poet, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bini Carlo, Italian poet, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-biographical" id="index-biographical" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Biographical treatment of doubt, use of, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Biran. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-de-biran" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Biran</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blackball, against Toland, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blackwood's Magazine on Renan, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bleda's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Defensio Fidei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blount, C. the deist, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Blount, Prof. works of, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boccaccio, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Tre Aunella</span></span>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boethius quotes Porphyry on predication, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bolingbroke, works and opinions, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bolton, Hulsean Prize Essay, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bonald, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boone, Shergold, argument on divine attributes, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boulmier, Life of Bayle, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boyle, Robert, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boyle Lectures, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>; list of several, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bretschneider, German Theologian, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bridgewater Treatises, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">British Quarterly Review, on Italian Renaissance, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Spinoza, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on German theology, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Schleiermacher, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on modern German theology, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Comte, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Browne, Dr. Peter, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brucker on Scholastic philosophy, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bruno Giordano, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buchanan on Atheism, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buckle, on the state of France in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on office of free thought, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buddeus, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buddhism, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buddhist pilgrims, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bunsen, Chevalier, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burgh, reputed a deist, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burnouf, Eugene on Zend, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burton, Dr. on Gnostics, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Butler, Bp. relation to Shaftesbury, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">account of his works, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">points in his <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Analogy</span></span> weakened, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">attacks on the <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Analogy</span></span>, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his originality, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his position, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Whewell on his Ethics, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">value of, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Butler, Charles, works of, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buxtorf, on Hebrew vowel points, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Byron, Vision of Judgment, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his scepticism, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cabanis, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cabbala, Franck on, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calas, the family of, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Calderon, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Campanella, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Canon, date when fixed, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works on, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Toland on, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cantacuzene, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Canz of Tübingen, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Capellus, on Hebrew vowel points, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cappadose, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cardan, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carlisle, an unbeliever in the present century, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carlyle, T. his works and influence, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Carmen Memoriale</span></span>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-causes" id="index-causes" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Causes in Christianity for a struggle with free thought, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a>, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in the nature of man for ditto, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13-32</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">moral causes of doubt, pref. <a href="#Pgvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">vii</a>.; <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14-18</a>, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">intellectual of ditto, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">instances of, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">why selected for study, pref., <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">peculiarity of analysis of them, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of unbelief in old heathens, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of ditto in the present age, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">why the work is written, pref. <a href="#Pgxii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Celsus, named, S; character and life, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">work of analysed, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">discussed, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Pressensè on, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Century, nineteenth, comparison of with third century A.D. <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chaldee letters, when introduced into Judæa, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chalmers's works, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chandlers, the, against Collins, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-change" id="index-change" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Change of tone in modern doubt, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page479">[pg 479]</span><a name="Pg479" id="Pg479" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Channing, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Charron, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chateaubriand, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Chissuk Emuna</span></span>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity not Mysterious</span></span>, of Toland, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ditto as old as Creation</span></span>, of Tindal, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Christianity, peculiarities in it which are the ground of attack by free thought, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">1</a>, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>.</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cause</span></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Remembrancer</span></span>, on French preachers, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Christology of Strauss, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chronicles, Books of, works on, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chrysostom, compared to Bernard, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chubb, T. the deist, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Church, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-history-church" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-english-church" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">English</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-french-church" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">French</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Classification of German theologians, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Claudius, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Clement, the apology of, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Clementines, the, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Clergy, education of in reference to doubt, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cocceius, allegorical interpretation of, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cocquerel, the two, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Colani, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coleridge, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mill on, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his system described, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literature concerning, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on inspiration, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Collard, Royer, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Collins, the Deist, on Daniel, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">views of explained, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Combe, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Communism, French, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Comparative study of religions, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-religion" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Comte, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>; system explained, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> seq. <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Condillac, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Conferences</span></span> in Paris, history of, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Congregational Lectures, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Consciousness, the Christian, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Constant, Benjamin, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Polytheisme</span></span>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De la Religion</span></span>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Convocation, proceedings of against Toland, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cosmas Indicopleustes, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Costa, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-da-costa" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Da Costa</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coteries in Paris in eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Courcelles, disturbs readings of the Text, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cousin, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Spinoza, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">system explained, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> seq. <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coward, a materialist, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Coward Lecture, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Crescens, attack of on Christianity, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Creuzer, on mythology, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Criticism, two kinds of, pref. <a href="#Pgix" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">ix</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">standard for in this work, pref. <a href="#Pgxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xi</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">science of created by the Germans, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cyril, work of against Julian, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-da-costa" id="index-da-costa" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Da Costa, converted Jew at Amsterdam, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Daillé, on Ignatian Epistles, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Alembert, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Damascenus, J. <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Damiron, pref. <a href="#Pgxx" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xx</a>.; <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Daniel, Book of, Porphyry's attack on, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">commentators on, ib.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek words in, ib.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">peculiarities of, ib.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">difficulties concerning it stated, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dante on Averroes, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-dargens" id="index-dargens" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Argens, work on Julian, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Darwin's theory of species, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Daub, German theologian, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Aubigné of Geneva, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Davidson, Dr. S. on Job, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>; on Inspiration, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-de-biran" id="index-de-biran" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Biran, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Bonald, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Eckstein, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deism, in England, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">division of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name explained, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">peculiarities of English, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">introduced into Germany, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with unitarianism, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De la Monnaie, on the <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Tribus Impostoribus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deluge, difficulties on, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Maistre, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Demoniacs, Semler on, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dèmonstrations Evangeliques</span></span>, a collection of works on Evidences, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Prades, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Pressensé, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-pressense" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pressensé</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Descartes, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works on, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">method of, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Tracy, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dewar on German theology, pref. <a href="#Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiv</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">De Wette, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">429</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D'Holbach, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Διαλεκτική of Plato, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Diderot, life and works, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Difenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jud. Convert.</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jud. Convers.</span></span> <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Difficulties, chief in the present day, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Disputatio Jechielis, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dodwell, a deistical pamphlet of, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dogmatic theology in Germany in seventeenth century, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dolet, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Döllinger's Judenthum, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Donnellan Lecture, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dorner's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Person Christi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>; pref.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dort, synod of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Doubt, causes of, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-causes" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cause</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-biographical" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographic</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-change" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Change</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-utility" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Utility</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Douglas, Bp. J. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Criterion</span></span>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dragonnades, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dura, image of, <a href="#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ecclesiastes, book of, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eclectic school in France, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">new school of, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecrasez l'infame</span></span>, explained, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Edelmann, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Edinburgh Review on Correlation of Force, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on mental association, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Education of the clergy at the present time, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page480">[pg 480]</span><a name="Pg480" id="Pg480" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Education of the World</span></span>, Lessing not the real author of, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eichhorn, rationalism of, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">El, in composition of proper names, <a href="#Pg431" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">431</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eleatic schools, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ellis on <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine Things</span></span>, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Elohim, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Emerson, remarks on, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Encyclopædists in France, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Enfantin, the St. Simonian, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">England, unbelief in, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">IV</a>. and <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">V</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern forms of, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">VIII</a>. and <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">books of, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-english-church" id="index-english-church" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">English church, subdivisions of the history of, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">English divines, seven chief, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">English, works of Evidences in, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a> seq.</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works on Inspiration, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Epicureans, opinions of on religion, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Episcopius, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ernesti, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Erskine's Evidences, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Esprit fort,</span></span> compared with <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">freethinker</span></span>, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Essays and Reviews, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Este, Alphonso de, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ethical school, rise of in England, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eusebius on Porphyry, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reply to Hierocles, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>, <a href="#Pg459" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">459</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Euthymius Zigabenus, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Evanson on the Gospels, <a href="#Pg422" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">422</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Everlasting Gospel</span></span>, Franciscan book so called, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Evidences, history of, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in early church, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>, <a href="#Pg455" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in the Alexandrian school, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">alteration in, according to time and place, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in the middle age, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at the Renaissance, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in France in eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Germany, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in England, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Butler, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern books on, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">subdivision of history of, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">two modes of studying, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">external, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">why less used in early church, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">internal, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">value of in eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">instances of value, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">logical force of, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">opposition to, whence, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ewald, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg430" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">430</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ewing, Greville, on Jews, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fabricius, J. A. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works on Jewish controversy, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fabricius, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">J. Consid. Var. Controv.</span></span> <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fairness necessary in the inquiry, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Farmer on Demons, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fathers of the fourth century, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feeling used as a test of truth, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Félix, Père, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ferrara, court of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feuerbach, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fichte, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ficinus, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Rel. Christ.</span></span> <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fiction modern, pantheistic character of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fleury, the historian, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fleury, opinion on English literature, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fontenelle, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Foreign Quarterly Review on Tholuck, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Formula Concordiæ, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Formula Consensus, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Foscolo on Romantic epic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Foster, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fourier, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fox, W. J. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Ideas</span></span>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Foxton, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Christianity</span></span>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">France, state of when infidelity arose in eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sources of freethinking in, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">school at beginning of century, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidences in, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Franck on Cabbala, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Salvador, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Francke, A. H. the Pietist, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fraser's Magazine, on utilitarianism, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on pantheism in the university of Paris, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Renan, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Frederick II, blasphemy concerning three impostors, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Frederick II, of Prussia, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Freethinker explained, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Freethought, critical history of, pref. <a href="#Pgix" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">ix</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">three kinds of, pref. <a href="#Pgv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">v</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">law expressing the mode of its operation, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6-11</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">four epochs of its action, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7-11</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">office of in history, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">political character of in middle ages, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">change in modern forms of it, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">352</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">use of inquiry into, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a> seq. <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">causes which made it turn into unbelief, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-french-church" id="index-french-church" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">French church under Bourbons, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">French protestant church. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-protestant" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Protestant</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">French revolution, religious aspects of, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fries, German philosopher, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fronto's attack on Christianity, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Galen, speaks of Christianity, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Galileo, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gallican liberties, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gaussen, writer on <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Theopneustie</span></span>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Geddes, Dr. works of, <a href="#Pg422" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">422</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gellius Aulus, remark on Peregrinus, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Genesis, De Wette on, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Genthe, F. W. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Impost. Relig.</span></span> <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Geology, difficulties arising from, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gerard on evidences, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>, <a href="#Pg452" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">452</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gerhardt, German hymn-writer, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Germany; works of evidence in, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literature of, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">patriotism in liberative war, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">philosophy of, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">theology of, subdivision of, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">three periods in its history, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sources of, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classification of, 440.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gfrörer, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gibbon, works criticised, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page481">[pg 481]</span><a name="Pg481" id="Pg481" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gibson, Bp. Pastorals of against Woolston, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gildon's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles of Reason</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gnostics <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Godwin, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Political Justice</span></span>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goerres, German mystical philosopher, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Göttingen, university of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Göze, opponent of Reimarus, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gospels, controversy on explained, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Graffito blasfemo</span></span>, <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grant, Sir A. on stoics, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Graves, on Pentateuch, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greece, state of in fifth century B.C. <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greek words in the book of Daniel, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greg, W. R. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Creed of Christendom</span></span> of, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gregory IX. pope, remark on Frederick II. <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grimm, baron, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Groen Van Printsterer. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-printsterer" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Printsterer</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gröningen party in Dutch church, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grote on Greek mythology, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on sophists, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on state of Greece in fifth century B.C. <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grotius, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Ver. Chr. Relig.</span></span> <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grove on correlation of force, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guadagnoli, a writer against Mahometanism, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guhrauer, on Lessing, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guizot on Prayer, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gurlitt on Wolfenbüttel Fragments, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gustavus Adolphus association, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gutskow, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hadrian, mention of Christianity, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hävernick, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hagenbach, pref. <a href="#Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiv</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hallam, subdivision of historical inquiry by, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Halle, pietistic oppostion to Wolff at, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">university of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">orphan-house at, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hamilton, sir W. criticism on Cousin, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hampden, Bp. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophical Evidences of Christianity</span></span> on Butler, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hardwick, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ and other Masters</span></span>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Harms's Theses, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hartley, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hauréau on scholasticism, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heathens, ancient, opposition to Christianity, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">II</a>,;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">religious tendencies among, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reaction in favour of, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">parallel to the struggle with, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">few references to Christianity among, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hebrew monarchy, F. Newman on, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">people, Ewald's history of, <a href="#Pg430" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">430</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hegel, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Heraclitus, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hegelian philosophy, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">contrasted with that of Schleiermacher, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hegelian school, subdivided, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">young school of, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heine, H. the poet, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Helvetius, works, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hengstenberg, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Job, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Pentateuch, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Henke, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.; <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hennell, S., <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herbart, German philosopher, creator of a realistic tendency, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herbert of Cherbury, works. <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herder, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hermes, professor at Bonn, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hermias, apology of, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herzog's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Real-Encycl.</span></span> <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hey, professor at Cambridge, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hierocles. <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Eusebius's work against, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hieronymus, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-jerome" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jerome</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hieronymus Xavier, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-xavier" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Xavier</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hilgenfeld, professor at Jena, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hindu, literature, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">philosophy, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Historic evidences of Christianity, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Historic method of study in philosophy, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the peculiarity of this age, pref. <a href="#Pgxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xiii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">History, threefold phase of, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">2</a>, <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-history-church" id="index-history-church" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">History of church, writers on, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hobbes, works, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holland, sir H. on force, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holland, modern theology of, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">remonstrants, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holsten, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Vita Porphyrii</span></span>, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Holyoake, G. J. <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hoornbeek, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa Controv.</span></span> <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hottinger, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia Orientalis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Houtteville, pref. <a href="#Pgxv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xv</a>.; <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huet, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hütten, Ulric von, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hulse, founder of the Lecture, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hulsius, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hume, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Essay on miracles, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hundeshagen, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>; pref. <a href="#Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiv</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-hyper-lutheranism" id="index-hyper-lutheranism" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hyper-Lutheranism, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iamblichus, life of Pythagoras by, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Idea, first used in a subjective sense by Descartes, <a href="#Pg422" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">422</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Idealism, difficulties arising from school of, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ideology explained, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ignatian epistle, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illgen's Zeitschrift, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Reimarus, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illuminism, name explained, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Imbonati, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Impostoribus, De Tribus</span></span>, legendary book so called, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Infidel, word discussed, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Infidelity in France, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">division of, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">summary of, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in England after the French revolution, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Infinity, different theories on our knowledge of, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Inspiration, psychological analysis of, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page482">[pg 482]</span><a name="Pg482" id="Pg482" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">view of in Germany in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">history of, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">opinions of English divines concerning, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literature of, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Interpretation, history of, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Semler's historic method, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">methods of, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Strauss's account of, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Intuition, relation of to religion as a test of truth, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27-29</a>, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with νοῦς, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Isaac, Rabbin, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jacobi, German philosopher, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jehovah, discussion on name, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg430" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">430</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">used in composition of Hebrew proper names, <a href="#Pg431" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">431</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jena, university of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jenkins, writer on evidences, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-jerome" id="index-jerome" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerome, passages of about Porphyry, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerusalem, temple of, Julian's attempt to rebuild, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerusalem, German theologian, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jewish controversy against Christianity, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jews, reformed, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Joachim, author of <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Everlasting Gospel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Job, Book of, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">John of Parma, author of the preface to <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Everlasting Gospel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jouffroy, French philosopher, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Journal, Kitto's; on inspiration, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Journalism, French, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jowett, Professor, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Julia Domna, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Julian. S;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life of. <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">acts of, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">book against Christians by, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rebuilding of temple by, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Justin Martyr, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>; apologies, <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kahnis, work on German protestantism, pref. <a href="#Pgxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxv</a>.; <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kant, relation of his view to religion, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Abélard, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spread of his philosophy, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spirit of it, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">theology of, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">division of rationalists by, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Keil on Chronicles, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kidder, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Demonstration of Messias</span></span>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kingsley, C. <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirchenbund, and Kirchentag, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirchoff, discoveries on contents of solar
atmosphere, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Cyclæpedia</span></span>, on Job, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Isaiah, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Interpretation, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on accommodation, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Daniel, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Klose on Reimarus, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Koerner, the poet, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Koestlin, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kortholt, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Relig. Mahom.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Tribus Impost.</span></span> <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">414</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Paganus Obtrectator</span></span>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Krebsius on Lucian, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kuenen, professor at Leyden, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-labarre" id="index-labarre" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Labarre, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Labbeus, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Concilia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laotantius, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Divin. Instit.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg458" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">458</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lake school of poetry</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-lambert" id="index-lambert" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lambert, St., <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lamennais, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">La Mettrie, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Landscape art of England, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lardner's works, Lect. II. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">passim</span></span>; pref. <a href="#Pgxix" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xix</a>; <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Larroque, sceptical works of, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Latitude party in the English church in time of Charles II. <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laurent's works, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lavator, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laws of contradiction and sufficient reason, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lay scholars among reformers, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lechler, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Engl. Deismus</span></span>, pref. <a href="#Pgxx" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xx</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leclerc on inspiration, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-lectures" id="index-lectures" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lectures apologetic, Boyle, &amp;c. <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lee, Dr. S., tracts on Mahometanism, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on German theology, pref.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lee, Dr. W. on inspiration, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leibnitz, philosophy of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leipsic, school of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leland on Deism, pref. <a href="#Pgxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xviii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leman lake, exiles of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Le Moyne, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Varia Sacra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leopardi, Italian poet, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lerminier, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De l' influence, &amp;c.</span></span> <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leslie, C. Method with Deists, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lessing, works, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">authorship of <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">his Education of the World</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Libre pensée</span></span>, pref. <a href="#Pgv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">v</a>.; <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Limborch, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Amica Collatio</span></span>, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lime Street Lecture, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lindsay, lord, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Scepticism a retrogression</span></span>, pref. <a href="#Pgxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvi</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lippman, Rabbin, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Literature in France, new tone of in eighteenth century, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Fleury's opinion of, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lobeck on Mythology, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Locke, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>; Webb on, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Logic, Metaphysics, &amp;c. distinguished, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">method of, taught by physical science, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Logical and chronological priority distinguished, <a href="#Pg372" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Λόγος of Philo, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lombard, Peter, <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Louis XIV. <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lucian, a sceptic, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Peregr. Prot.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a> seq. <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Philopatris, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lucretius, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lutheran reaction. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-neo-lutheranism" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Neo</span></a></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-hyper-lutheranism" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hyper Lutheranism</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lyall, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Propæd. Prophet.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lyons, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Infallibility of Human Judgment</span></span>, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page483">[pg 483]</span><a name="Pg483" id="Pg483" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lyttleton, on St. Paul, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mabillon's Bernard, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Macaulay, subdivision of history, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mackay, R. W. works of, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Macmillan's Magazine on Cowper, &amp;c. <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Miracle Plays, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maerklin, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Magdeburg Centuries, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mahábhárata, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mahomet. <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mahometans, controversy with, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maimonides, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maine de Biran, Eclectic philosopher, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mandeville, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mansel, Bampton Lect. <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Kant, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Fichte, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maracci, Koran, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marchand's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire</span></span> de Impostoribus, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maret, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marheinecke, Hegelian theologian, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Marmontel, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Martineau, J. <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Butler, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Martyn, II. pamphlets on Mahometanism, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Masson, Essays, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Materialism defined, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Germany, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maternus, <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maupertnis, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maurice's Boyle Lectures, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">M'Caul's works on Judaism, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">M'Cosh, works, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">M'Gill on the Chaldee of Daniel, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mediation school of theology, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mendelssohn the philosopher, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Metaphysics, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tests of truth in, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">subdivision of, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mettrie, La, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Miall, E. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bases of Belief</span></span>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Michaelis, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Michael Scot, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Micrælios, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Middleton, Conyers, <a href="#Pg423" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">423</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Migne, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Livres Sacrés</span></span>, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Démonstrations Evangeliques</span></span>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mill, Dr. on Strauss, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mill, J. S. on variation of terms, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on laws, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on utility, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on society, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Bentham and Coleridge, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Miller's Bampton Lectures, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mills, various readings, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Milman on Gibbon, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Milton, compared with Pope and Tennyson, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Minucius Felix, apology, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Miracle Plays, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Miracles, Hume on, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">how distinguished from wonder, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Trench's classification of attacks on, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Miscreant, name explained, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Missions in Germany, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-modern-english" id="index-modern-english" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Modern English theology, tendencies in, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moehter, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Monnaie, de La, <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montaigne, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montesquieu, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Montgéron on the miracles of Abbé Paris, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moral causes of doubt. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-causes" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cause</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moral sense, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moravians, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Morell's works on tests of truth, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on inspiration, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Morgan's works, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Morinus on Hebrew vowel points, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mornæus, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De Ver.</span></span> <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mosheim on <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Everlasting Gospel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moyer, lady, lecture on Arianism, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Müller, Julius, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Müller, Max, on myths, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Sanskrit <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Müller, Ottfried, on mythology, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mundt, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mysticism, instances of, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Myth, distinguished from parable and legend, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mythology, Grote on, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">altered opinion on in present century, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Names proper, in Hebrew, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>, <a href="#Pg431" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">431</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">National Review on Ecclesiastes, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Swedenborg, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Gibbon, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Shelley, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Strauss, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on J. H. Newman, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the working classes, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Theodore Parker, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the Acts, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Natural history of doubt, peculiarity of inquiry, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Naturalism, term explained, <a href="#Pg415" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">415</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with positivism, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Neander, Lect. II. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">passim</span></span>; life and views. <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">opposed prohibition of Strauss's book, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-neo-lutheranism" id="index-neo-lutheranism" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Neo-Lutheranism, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Neo-Platonism, explained, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works on, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">teachers of, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in English theology <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nettement's works on French literary history, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">New Testament, questions on, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Newman, F. <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> seq;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Phases</span></span> <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hebr. Mon.</span></span> <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nicholai, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nicholas, Michel, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>, <a href="#Pg430" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">430</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Niedner's Zeitschrift, on Reimarus, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nitzch, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nizzachon, the two, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nominalism, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">North British Review, on Alexandrian school, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on socialism, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on German theology, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Comte, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Galileo, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on S. Hennell, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Vedas, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Socinianism, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Vinet, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on apologetic literature, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Norton on Gospels, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page484">[pg 484]</span><a name="Pg484" id="Pg484" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Novalis, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Novel, modern, tendency of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oberlin, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ochino, a unitarian, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ogilvie, Dr. on doubt, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Olshausen, H. <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ontology explained, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles of Reason</span></span> of Blount, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oracles on Christianity, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Orcagna, Averroes in his fresco, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Origen against Celsus, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparison of with Schleiermacher, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Osiander, comparison of his views with Schleiermacher's, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oxford movement in church, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-reaction" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Reaction</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Owen, R. <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> seq. <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Owen, R. D. <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Padua, university of, philosophy at, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paine. T. <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Painting, early Italian schools of, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paley, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Panizzi on Romantic Epic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pantheism at Padua, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">two kinds of, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">name explained, <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">414</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paolo Giovio, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Para du Phanjas, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parable, distinguished from myth, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paris, àbbé, miracles of, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parker, Theodore, life and writings of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pascal, <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Patriotism in Germany, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paulus, German theologian, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pearson on infidelity, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-pecock" id="index-pecock" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pecock, Reginald, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pentateuch controversy, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peregrinus Proteus of Lucian, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> seq. <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Persecution, cause of, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pestalozzi, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Peter, St. joke on in Romantic Epic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Petrarch on Evidences, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pfaff, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Phases of Faith, of F. W. Newman, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philippsohn on Judaism, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philopatris of Pseudo-Lucian, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philosophy, scholastic, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">German, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a> seq. <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philostratus's Life of Apollouius, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Physics, difficulties derived from, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">teaches logical method, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Physiology, modern discoveries in. <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mode of approaching psychology through, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Piers Plowman, the poem, on contemporary scepticism, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pietism, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Planck, A. on Lucian, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Planck's Sacred Philology, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plato on Sophists, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">doctrines on religion, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Platonic dialectic, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Platonic party at Cambridge in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plurality of worlds, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Poetry in Germany, schools of, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pomponatius, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pope, compared with Milton and Tennyson, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence of Bolingbroke on, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Porphyry, life and character, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a> seq. <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">references for studying, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">view of oracles, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">work against Christians, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">attack on Daniel, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">other views of, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on predication, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">letter to Marcella, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Port Royal, miracle of the thorn, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Positivism, described, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in England, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">religion of, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Naturalism, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pouilly, critic on Roman history, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Powell, Baden, on Deluge, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prayer, extract from Guizot on, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prejudices of heathens against Christianity, <a href="#Pg405" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">405</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Presentative consciousness, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Press, freedom of in England, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-pressense" id="index-pressense" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pressensé, pref. <a href="#Pgxix" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xix</a>., <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>, <a href="#Pg404" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">404</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg449" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg453" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Priestly, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-printsterer" id="index-printsterer" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Printsterer, Groen van, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Progress in religion, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-protestant" id="index-protestant" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Protestant church in France, freethought in, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Protestantism distinguished from scepticism, pref. <a href="#Pgvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">vi</a>.; <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Providence, Holyoake on, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Psalms: the seventy-third named, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the division of into books, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pseudo-Clementines, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pseudo-Lucian, Philopatris, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Psychology explained, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Morrell on, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pugio Fidei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pulci, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pusey on German theology, pref. <a href="#Pgxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxi</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on inspiration, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>.</div>
</div>


<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quakers, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quarterly Review, on Leopardi, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Romantic Epic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Theophilanthropists, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Fourier, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quinet, E. on comparison of religions, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Strauss, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Racovian Catechism, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rámayana, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rambouillet, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ramus, P. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rationalism in Germany, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">subdivided, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg417" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">417</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Deism, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">explained, <a href="#Pg416" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">416</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literary dispute on, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in English church, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ratisbon, confession of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ray, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page485">[pg 485]</span><a name="Pg485" id="Pg485" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Raymond, Martin, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Raynal, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-reaction" id="index-reaction" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reaction among heathens, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Catholic in France, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Italy, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Oxford, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Readings, variety of in sacred texts, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Realism explained, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rees, translation of Racovian Catechism, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reformation, twofold element in, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not sceptical, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>:</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pref. <a href="#Pgvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">vi</a>.; <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Italy, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reformed Jews, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reimannus, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reimarus, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reinhardt, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reinhold, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-religion" id="index-religion" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Religion, comparative study of, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greek, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">eastern, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Remonstrants in Dutch church, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Renaissance, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literature at, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">unchristian sympathy at, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">evidences at, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Renan, E. <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a> seq.; <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Averroes, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Lect. <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">III</a>. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">passim</span></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rénand, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Repressor. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-pecock" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pecock</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Responsibility for belief, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reuss, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reville, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Revolution, French, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">profanity of, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Revue des Deux Mondes; Taillandier on Abélard, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Saisset on Spinoza, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Remusat on Herbert, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Girardin on Rousseau's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Scherer on Hegel, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Reville on Parker, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Comte, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Moleschott, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Young Hegelians, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Reville on Holland, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Renan on metaphysics, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Revue Germanique, on Lessing, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Gospels, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Richardi <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Confutatio</span></span>, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Riddle's Bampton Lectures, pref. <a href="#Pgxv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xv</a>.; <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rigg, J. H. Anglican theology, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Riggenbach, <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Robespierre, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Robins, S. pref. <a href="#Pgxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvi</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rogers, H. <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">374</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Röhr, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romaine, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roman catholic theology in Germany, 442.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romantic Epic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">school in Germany, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roscelin on Trinity, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rose, H. J. on German theology, pref. <a href="#Pgxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxi</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rosenmüller, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rothe, German theologian, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rousseau, sources for study of, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Contral social</span></span>, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Emile, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span>, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Voltaire, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ruge, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saintes-Amand, pref. <a href="#Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiv</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saisset, E. on Spinoza. <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salomo Zebi. <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salvador, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sanskrit literature, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saumur, school of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saussure, Ch. de la, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scepticism explained, <a href="#Pg418" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">418</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">kinds of, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schelling, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scherer, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schlegel, F. <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schleiermacher, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">critical works of, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translates Plato, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">theological works of, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>, <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Glaubenslehre, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his studies, <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Origen and H. St. Victor, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and with Plato, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schmidt, G. <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schneckenbürger, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scholastic, philosophy, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of name, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divisions of, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">value of scholastic theology, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scholtens J. H. professor at Leyden, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schools of German poetry, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schopenhauer, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schramm, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Anal. Patr.</span></span> <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schrockh, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scholtens, <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">446</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schulze, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schwarz, C. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch.</span></span> pref. <a href="#Pgxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxv</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schwegler, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schweizer, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">439</a>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Science, anticipations of the future condition of, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Science in theology</span></span>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scriptures, doubts of, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sebonde on natural religion, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Secker, Abp. relieves Annet, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">subscribes to Voltaire, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Secularism, explained, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Semler, works and system, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sensation, as a test of truth, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sensationalisim, meaning of, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Servetus, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Severus, Sept. <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shaftesbury, Lord, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shelley, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>; <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sherlock, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Silence of heathens on Christianity, <a href="#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Simeon of Cambridge, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Simon, Jules, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Simon, Richard, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sirven, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, on Ecclesiastes, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Canon, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Genesis, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Daniel, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Jehovah, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Socialism, English, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">French, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in 1848, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with English, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Socinianism, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Socrates, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Σοφία, of Aristotle, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sophists of Greece, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sources of information for the attacks of heathens, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sources for lectures, pref.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spener, the Pietist, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spinoza, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sources of information on, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>;</div>
<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page486">[pg 486]</span><a name="Pg486" id="Pg486" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">philosophy of, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologicus Politicus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">effects of <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stahl, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stanhope's Boyle Lectures, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Statistics, difficulties from, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stattler, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stephen, list of writers on inspiration, <a href="#Pg474" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sterling, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stilling, Jung, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stillingfleet, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stirner, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">St. Lambert. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-lambert" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lambert</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stoics, religious opinions of, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Storr, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Strauss, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Julian, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life and writings, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href="#Pg434" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">434</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life of Christ, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Christology, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">view of Christ's ideal, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">replies to, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>, <a href="#Pg435" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">435</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">effects of, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">view of his own work, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Reimarus, <a href="#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">St. Simon, life and sect, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-subjective" id="index-subjective" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Subjective character of modern unbelief, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Συγκατάβασις, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Suetonius on Christianity, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Supernatural, tendency of labour to depress the sense of, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Swedenborg, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Swift, on Woolston, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Switzerland, modern theology of, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Symmachus, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tacitus on Christianity, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taillandier on Abélard, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taine on Livy, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tatian, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg456" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taylor, A. on Latitudinarians, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Taylor, I. <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Technical. See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-terms" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Terms</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Telesius, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Templars, unbelief of, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tendencies, religious, among ancient heathens, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tennyson, compared with Pope and Milton, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quoted, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-terms" id="index-terms" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Terms, technical, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>; literature of, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tertullian's Apology, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-tests" id="index-tests" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tests of truth, effects of various theories of, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25-30</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thaer, author of Lessing's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Education of the World</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theodore of Mopsuestia, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theodosius II. destroyer of heathen works against Christianity, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theologians, German; classification of, 440 seq.</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-modern-english" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern English</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theophilanthropists, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Theophilus, apologist, <a href="#Pg457" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tholuck, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on evidences, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>:</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">pref. <a href="#Pgxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiii</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on inspiration, <a href="#Pg473" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">attack on Butler's Analogy, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thomson's, Bp. Bampton Lectures, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">See <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-atonement" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Atonement</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tillemont, pref. <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xvii</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tindal, M. works, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">suggestive of Butler's Analogy, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Toland, works, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Toldos Jeschu, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Toleration, works on, and principle of, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Treason, charge of against early Christians, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">406</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Trench's Calderon, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Truth, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-tests" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tests</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tübingen school, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">university of, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tullocks Inaugural Address, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Burnett prize, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turpin, Abp. joke on in Romantic Epic, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Twelfth century, great minds in, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Twesten, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tzehirner's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Essay</span></span>, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">400</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologetik</span></span>, pref. <a href="#Pgxix" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xix</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ullmann, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Unbelief, see <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-causes" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cause</span></a></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><a href="#index-subjective" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Subjective</span></a></span>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Uniformities of Causation and Co-existence, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Unigenitus Bull, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Union of German churches, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Unitarianism, history of, and works on, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Universities, German, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">that of Paris attacked for Pantheism, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-utility" id="index-utility" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Utility of the inquiry into doubt, pref. <a href="#Pgxii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xii</a>, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Van den Ende, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vanim, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a></div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Van Mildert, pref. <a href="#Pgvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">vi</a>, <a href="#Pgxv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xv</a>.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on moral causes of doubt, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vaughan, R. A. on mystics, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>; essays, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vedas, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vendidad Sade, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vilmar, classification of German poetry, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">425</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vinet, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vituperation in books of evidence of seventeenth century, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">465</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Volney, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Ruines</span></span>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a> seq.; <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Voltaire, on Woolston, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life of, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">character of, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Carlyle on, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">theological works of, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">opinions of, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ridicule, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vowel points in Hebrew, controversy on, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wagenseil, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tela Ignea Satanœ</span></span>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">385</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Walch, <a href="#Pg419" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">419</a>, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Walton's Polyglott, various readings in, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Warburton, Divine Legation, <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">466</a>, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Waterland, reply to Tindal, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Watson, Bp. <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Webb on Locke, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wegscheider, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Weimar, court of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Welcker on mythology, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Werenfels, tests for miracles, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wesley, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>.</div>
</div>

<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page487">[pg 487]</span><a name="Pg487" id="Pg487" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Westcott on canon, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Daniel, <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">408</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Inspiration, <a href="#Pg472" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Westminster Review:</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Job, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Heine, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Rousseau, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">German theology, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Byron and Shelley, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Owen, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Weimar, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Vedas, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Bentham, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Positivism, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Carlyle, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Emerson, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">S. Hennell, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Parker and Strauss, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">F. Newman, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Socialism, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Taine, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Schopenbauer, <a href="#Pg432" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">432</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whately's Rhetoric, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whewell, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">White, Blanco, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whitfield, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wichern's Inner Mission, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Will distinct from Emotion, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wiseman, Cardinal, Lectures, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wolfenbüttel Fragments, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>, <a href="#Pg426" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">426</a> seq.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wolf, J. A. on Homer, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">253</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wolff's Bibliotheca Hebraica, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wollf, philosophy of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> seq.;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">life of, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sources for studying, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>;</div>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">effects of, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Woodham, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg454" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">454</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Woolstencraft, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Woolston, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a> seq. <a href="#Pg420" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wordsworth quoted, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>; <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wulferus, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<a name="index-xavier" id="index-xavier" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xavier, Hieronimo, a writer against the Mahometans, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yaçna, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Young's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ of History</span></span>, <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">469</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zeitstimmen, &amp;c., <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zeller, <a href="#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zend Literature, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zeno of Elea, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zinzendorf, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zoroaster, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div>
</div>

<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zurich, university of, <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>.</div>
</div>

</div>

</div>
<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
  <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
    <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a>
    <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a>
    <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1>
    <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pref.
pp. <a href="#Pgx" class="tei tei-ref">v.-ix</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. pp.
<a href="#Pgx" class="tei tei-ref">x</a>, <a href="#Pgxi" class="tei tei-ref">xi</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. pp. <a href="#Pgxii" class="tei tei-ref">xii</a>,
<a href="#Pgxiii" class="tei tei-ref">xiii</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. <a href="#Pgxiv" class="tei tei-ref">xiv</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">Lect. I</a>.:
and <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">Lect. VIII.</a> p. <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref">340</a>
seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g., in the
French expression <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">la libre pensée</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Note, p.
<a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref">413</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1713.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many of the
modern French protestant critics so employ it; e.g. A. Reville,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Parker, Oct. 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. pp. <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>
and <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. p.
<a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>, and Notes <a href="#Note_4" class="tei tei-ref">4</a>,
<a href="#Note_5" class="tei tei-ref">5</a>, and <a href="#Note_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>,
at the end of this volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Boyle Lectures (1802-4).
See note, p. <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref">345</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bacon's Nov. Org. lib. i. Aph.
104.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. pp.
<a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref">14-20</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pp. <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32-34</a>.
Pp. <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref">24</a>,
<a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref">25</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pp. <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref">24-31</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. p.
<a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref">346</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
especially <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">Lect. VIII.</a> p. <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref">357</a>
seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some
valuable remarks on the proper balance of the mind in study are contained
in a sermon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Nemesis of Excess</span></span>, recently preached
at Oxford, by Bp. Jackson.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">pp.
<a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref">35-37</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. pp. <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref">31</a> note,
<a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref">342</a>; and Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>. pp.
<a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396-8</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natural
History of Infidelity and Superstition in Contrast with Christian
Faith.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A work partly on the history
of unbelief, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scepticism a Retrogressive Move
in Theology and Philosophy</span></span>, has also been lately written (1861) by the accomplished
lord Lindsay. Great learning is shown in it. Though written with a special
controversial purpose, and though the facts accordingly are briefly stated, without
literary references, it contains a useful summary and suggestive reflections.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In a
literary point of view it is incorrect, in one chapter, if the author
understands Mr. Robins rightly, where he seems to classify together, under the
same head of Pantheism, the atheism of the French school of the Encyclopædists
in the last century and that of the German philosophers of the present. The two
indeed agree in denying or ignoring the existence of a personal God; but in tone,
premises, and metaphysical relations, they differ diametrically. (Since this note
was written, the sad intelligence of Mr. Robins's death has appeared.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche
Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, &amp;c. 45 vols. 1768-1812. The writer of these
lectures has taken occasion elsewhere (p. <a href="#Pg466" class="tei tei-ref">466</a>.)
to deplore the want of any complete
history of the English church. He may here add also the want of a history
in English of European Christianity since the Reformation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may
offer an explanation of subsequent references to some church historians,
to name the classification given by Schaff (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span>,
1850). After treating of the ancient and mediæval histories, and making the obvious
subdivision of the modern into Romish and Protestant, and subdividing these again
according to their nations, he arranges the Protestant historians of Germany
chronologically under five classes: (1) the Polemico-orthodox, such as the Magdeburg
centuriators; (2) the Pietistic,—Arnold and Weismann; (3) the
Pragmatico-super-natural,—Mosheim,
Walch, Planck, Schröckh; (4) the Rationalist,—Semler,
Henke, Gieseler (in reference to which latter he is perhaps hardly fair); (5) the
Scientific, viz. (α) of the Schleiermacher school,—Neander; (β) of the Hegelian,
unchurchlike and heterodox,—Baur; (γ) of the Hegelian, churchlike and
orthodox,—Dorner. Concerning older church historians, see the late Rev. J. G.
Dowling's excellent work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Critical Study of
Ecclesiastical History</span></span>, 1838; and, on the most modern German church
historians, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British
Review</span></span>, Nov. 1858.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. pp.
<a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100-103</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Englischen Deismus.</span></span>
1841.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">J. Leland's View of the Deistical
Writers</span></span>, 1754. An edition published in
1837 contains an account of the subsequent history of Deism by Cyrus R. Edmonds.
It is edited by Dr. W. L. Brown.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An older work, in some
respects similar to Pressensé's, is Tzchirner's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Apologetik</span></span>, 1805.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref">82</a>,
note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
<a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref">76</a>, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href="#noteref_35">35.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href="#noteref_36">36.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The able French critic C. Remusat has bestowed
attention on some of the English deists. A paper on Shaftesbury has appeared since
Lecture IV. was printed, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Nov.
1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href="#noteref_37">37.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href="#noteref_38">38.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edited
by Vater.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href="#noteref_39">39.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref">177</a>, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href="#noteref_40">40.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a>, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href="#noteref_41">41.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lectures
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a> and <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href="#noteref_42">42.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a> p. <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref">213</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href="#noteref_43">43.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some of
these works were subsequent to the discussion caused abroad by
the sermons of Mr. Rose, described below.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href="#noteref_44">44.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Afterwards Principal
of the King's College, London.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href="#noteref_45">45.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical Inquiry into the
Probable Causes of the Rationalist Character lately predominant
in the Theology of Germany.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href="#noteref_46">46.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1829.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href="#noteref_47">47.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical Inquiry</span></span>, &amp;c.
part ii. 1830.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href="#noteref_48">48.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.
</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href="#noteref_49">49.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. S. Lee,
of Cambridge, also appended a dissertation on some points of
German Rationalism to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Six Sermons on Prophecy</span></span>, 1830.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href="#noteref_50">50.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
Appendix to the second edition of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">State of Protestantism in
Germany</span></span>, 1829.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href="#noteref_51">51.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A brief sketch of Tholuck's views it given in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Foreign Quarterly Review</span></span>,
vol. 25.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href="#noteref_52">52.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Protestantismus, seine
Vergangenheit and seine heutigen Lebensfragen
in zusammenhang der gesammten rationalentwickelung beleuchlet von
einem Deutschen.</span></span> A very instructive article was written in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 26, May 1851,
founded chiefly on this work.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href="#noteref_53">53.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kahnis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Internal History
of German Protestantism</span></span> (E. T.), p. 169, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href="#noteref_54">54.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An English clergyman, Mr. E. H. Dewar,
wrote a small work in 1844, on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">German Protestantism</span></span>; based
chiefly on Amand Saintes, but in tone like that of
Mr. Rose. It was considered very unfair, and was answered by Neander in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrbücher fur Wissenschaftliche Kritik</span></span>, October 1844; and when
Mr. Dewar replied, was again answered by him in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antwortschreiben</span></span>, 1845. It may be proper
to name here, that Mr. B. Hawkins's work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Germany, Spirit of her
History</span></span>, &amp;c. 1838, contains miscellaneous information on many points of
German life, which illustrate this portion of the history.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href="#noteref_55">55.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>.
Neander has also written a work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Verflossenen
halb-Jahrhunderts</span></span>. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Zeitschrift</span></span>, 1850.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href="#noteref_56">56.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He belongs to
a new form of the historico-critical school; See Note <a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>,
p. <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref">438</a>; but writes without prejudice. An article elsewhere
referred to (p. <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>) in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster
Review</span></span>, may convey an idea of the facts of Schwarz's work; but
it expresses a more definite tendency and opinions than his work.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href="#noteref_57">57.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a> p. <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref">289</a> seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href="#noteref_58">58.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
<a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref">290</a>, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href="#noteref_59">59.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href="#noteref_60">60.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href="#noteref_61">61.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As the relation of
the present condition of religions belief in England to
forms of philosophy may not have been made perfectly clear even by the remarks in
Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII.</a> p. <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a> seq.,
and Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a> (p. <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref">396</a>),
it may be well here to state the sequence
intended, even at the risk of repetition. The father of the modern philosophy is
Kant. He first gave the impulse to resolve truth, which was supposed to be
objective, into subjective forms of thought. Hence, in succeeding systems of philosophy,
the idea was thought to be of more importance than the facts; and an
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> tendency was created. But in the two philosophers,
Schelling and Hegel, this developed in different modes. Both sought to approach facts
through ideas; to both the ideal world was the real; but with the former, truth was
absolute, with the latter, relative. In the former case the mind was thrown in upon
itself, and had a secure ground of truth in the eternal truths of the reason; in the
latter it was thrown (ultimately, though not immediately) outward, and taught to trace
the transition of the ideas in the world, the growth of truth in history. Hence in
theology, while the tendency of both was to find an appeal for truth independent
of revelation, the one produced an intuitional religion, the other, proximately, an
ideal, but ultimately generates scepticism; for the one clings to the eternal ideas
in the mind, the other views the fleeting, changing aspects of truth in the world.
The spirit of the former is seen in Carlyle, Coleridge, and Cousin; the spirit of
the latter in Renan and Scherer, and is beginning to appear in the younger writers
of the English periodical literature. Hence in English theology we have two
broadly marked divisions; one doctrinal, and the other literary; the former of
which subdivides into the two just named.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href="#noteref_62">62.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many references to them are given in Smith's (American)
Translation of Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Doctr.</span></span> 1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href="#noteref_63">63.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In
Lect. <a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>. p. <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref">16</a> (last par.),
<a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref">35</a>, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a>; In Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>. p. <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref">66</a> (last par.); in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III.</a> p. <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref">80</a> (last half),
<a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref">81</a> (first half), <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref">92</a>,
<a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref">97</a>; <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref">98</a> (last par.),
<a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>; <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a>,
<a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref">104</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>,
<a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref">108</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref">111</a> (part): in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV.</a> p. <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref">120</a>,
<a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref">122</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref">124</a> (part),
<a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref">143</a>,
<a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref">145-147</a>; <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref">148</a>: in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V.</a> p. <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref">181</a>,
<a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref">182</a>; <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref">184</a>;
<a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref">196-203</a>; in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a>
p. <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref">210</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>;
<a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250-259</a> (nearly all): in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a> p. <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref">281</a> (part);
<a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref">291-301</a>: in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII.</a>
p. <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref">307</a> (part); <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310-339</a> (for which a
brief analysis was substituted); p. <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a>;
<a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref">355</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref">369</a> (part).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href="#noteref_64">64.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His thanks are
especially due to Mr. Macray, the Librarian of the Taylor
Institution, for his kindness in the last respect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href="#noteref_65">65.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pp. <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>,
<a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref">378</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href="#noteref_66">66.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The attitude
of the mind towards the national mythology in successive ages
of Greek history has been treated by Grote, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greece</span></span>,
vol I. ch. 16.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href="#noteref_67">67.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Quinet's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, t. i. c. 5, and especially § 4. On the doubts
expressed in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes respectively, see the
article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Job</span></span> by Hengstenberg
in Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature</span></span>,
(reprinted in a volume of Hengstenberg's miscellaneous works), and the
article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecclesiastes</span></span> by
Mr. Plumptre in Smith's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of the Bible</span></span>.
For the free-thinking inquiry into the two books, see the article on Job in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, October 1853, founded mainly on Hirzel;
and that on Ecclesiastes in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National
Review</span></span>, No. 27, for January 1862,
founded chiefly on Hitzig. E. Renan, in his work on Job, and others, have
studied the doubts expressed in it as an internal evidence for its date.
Very full information in reference to both books may be found in Dr. S.
Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. to the Old
Testament</span></span> (1862), vol. ii. p. 174 seq., 352
seq. It is deeply interesting to observe, not merely that the difficulties
concerning Providence felt by Job refer to the very subjects which painfully
perplex the modern mind, but also that the friends of Job exhibit the
instinctive tendency which is observed in modern times to denounce his
doubt as sin, not less than to attribute his trials to evil as the direct cause.
These two books of Scripture, together with the seventy-third Psalm, have
an increasing religious importance as the world grows older. <span class="tei tei-q">“The things
written aforetime were written for our learning.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href="#noteref_68">68.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Attention, for
example, should be directed to the efforts of the mind
in emancipating itself (1) from particular forms of political government,
or social arrangements, or artificial laws, in the struggle against the feudal
system, and in the development of political liberty in modern times, or (2)
from traditional systems of scientific teaching, as the Ptolemaic theory of
astronomy, or the Cartesian of vortices. The absence too of such attempts
in the stagnation of Eastern life is an instructive negative instance for
study.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href="#noteref_69">69.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is proper to express
my obligations for a few hints in this part of
the lecture to an able historic sketch of modern German thought, based on
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</span></span> of C. Schwartz, in the
Westminster Review, April 1857 (especially p. 333), The enumeration of the epochs
which follows nevertheless occurred to me for the most part independently
of those suggestions, and had been previously expressed in public. A
classification of a different kind will be found in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reimannus Historia
Atheismi</span></span>, 1725, p. 315.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href="#noteref_70">70.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The author
(supposed to be Hundeshagen) of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Protestantismus</span></span>
thus expresses himself (§ 6.): <span class="tei tei-q">“In the history of the world
there are four successive periods in which open unbelief and unconcealed
enmity to Christianity made the tour in some degree among the chief
nations of Europe. Italy made the beginning in the fifteenth and sixteenth
century; England and France followed in the seventeenth and
eighteenth; the series closed in Germany in the nineteenth.”</span> The first
of the four crises in our text occurred in the ancient world; the second is
mediæval; the third, at the moment of transition into the modern history,
is the Italian crisis of the quotation just cited; the three others therein
named make up the fourth in our enumeration.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href="#noteref_71">71.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the office
of language, and the changes to which it is liable, consult
the chapter on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Natural History of the variations in the meaning
of terms,”</span> in J. S. Mill's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span> (vol. ii. b. 4. ch. 5.).
An explanation of many of the terms which occur in the history of doubt, viz., Deism,
Rationalism, &amp;c. will be found in Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21.</a>
at the end of these Lectures.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href="#noteref_72">72.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Empirical,”</span> as in
Lessing and Paulus; <span class="tei tei-q">“Spiritual,”</span> as in the later
schools. See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI.</a> and
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href="#noteref_73">73.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A brief view
of the history of the Christian evidences will be found
in Note <a href="#Note_49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a> appended to these Lectures.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href="#noteref_74">74.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz. toward the close of Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII.</a></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href="#noteref_75">75.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The moral
causes of unbelief have been frequently discussed, but the
intellectual rarely. Van Mildert has collected, in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lectures</span></span> (note
to Lect. XXIV.), references to many valuable authors where the moral sins
of pride and impiety are discussed; and J. A. Fabricius
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Delect. Argument.</span></span>
1725.) has devoted a chapter to the literature of the subject (c. 36. p. 653.)
Dr. Ogilvie wrote in 1783 a separate work on the causes of the recent unbelief;
but the causes alleged by him, though well treated in the details,
are superficial. A satisfactory discussion of this and cognate topics connected
with unbelief is given in a popular but instructive book, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infidelity,
its aspects, causes, and agencies</span></span>, a Prize Essay (1853) of the Evangelical
Alliance, by the Rev. T. Pearson, Eyemouth, N. B.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href="#noteref_76">76.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare
some remarks on this point in Whately's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhetoric</span></span> (part 2.
ch. I. § 2.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href="#noteref_77">77.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Proof being of two kinds, viz.
<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antecedent probability</span></em>, εἰκός, (Arist.
Rhet. i. 2. § 15) which shows the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cause</span></em>; and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">evidence</span></em>, σημεῖον,
which shows the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fact</span></em>; it is clear that the latter, if of the positive kind,
τεκμήριον, is demonstrative; but if merely of the probable kind, or of the nature of
circumstantial evidence, ἀνώνυμον σημεῖον, requires the antecedent probability
in addition for the purpose of effecting conviction. Otherwise the evidence
may seem to be an accidental concatenation of circumstances, unless explained by the
antecedent probability that existed for the occurrence of the
main fact which the accumulation of circumstances is adduced to attest.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href="#noteref_78">78.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, the commencement of Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V.</a>; and on the influence of
social disaffection in causing modern unbelief, see
Pearson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infidelity</span></span>,
part 2. ch. 3. p. 373 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href="#noteref_79">79.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Giacomo Leopardi
(1798-1837), a native of the trans-Apennine
Roman states. His works were published (1845-49), consisting of philological
pieces, poems, papers on philosophy, and letters. The Italians consider
him to have been a prodigy in philological power that might have
rivalled Niebuhr. As a poet he was one of the finest of his country in the
present century. His letters are very classical in expression, and have
been said to rival the correspondence of the best ages of Italy. His fine
mind was darkened with the deepest shades of doubt. Shelley is the
nearest English representative. A masterly sketch of his mental and
literary character was given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>
(No. 172. March 1850), generally supposed to be from the pen of an English statesman
well known for his knowledge of the Italian literature and his sympathy with
constitutional government.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href="#noteref_80">80.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carlo Bini (1806-1842),
a native of Tuscany of less note, who
belonged to the Republican party in politics, and like Leopardi burned
with an unquenchable love of <span lang="it" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style="font-style: italic">la patria</span></span>.
A monument with an inscription
by his friend Mazzini has been recently erected over his grave at Livorno.
The tender pathos shown in his poetry has been compared to that of Jean
Paul. One of his poems, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Anniversario
della Nascita</span></span> 1833, expressive
of deep and afflicting scepticism and life-weariness, will be found in the
Collection of Italian Poetry edited by Arrivabene (1 vol. 12mo. 1855.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href="#noteref_81">81.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shelley's
mental character is discussed near the close of Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href="#noteref_82">82.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heinrich Heine
(1799-1856), a poet who betook himself to Paris,
about 1830, in disgust with the political state of Germany. His poetry
was chiefly subsequent to this event. He had a mixture of German imagination
with French esprit. In tone he has been compared to Byron.
Vapéreau (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diction. des Contemp.</span></span>)
compares his wit to that of Swift or
Rabelais. His collected works have been published at Philadelphia; and
his poems were translated into English by E. A. Bowring, 1861. In later
life Heine laid aside the extreme unbelief of his earlier years. An article
respecting him appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> (Jan.
1856.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href="#noteref_83">83.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A brief
statement of the difficulties raised on this point is given by
Professor Baden Powell in the article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deluge</span></span>
in Kitto's Cyclopædia (first edition).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href="#noteref_84">84.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These
discrepancies formed part of the subject of an early work of
De Wette (ueber die glaubwuerdigkeit der buccher der Chronik 1806), and
are noticed in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung ins
Alt. Test.</span></span> (See the chapters which refer
to these books); also in Dr. S. Davidson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Old Testament</span></span>
1862, vol. ii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chronicles</span></span> § 6 and 8. Mr. F. Newman, in his work,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Hebrew Monarchy</span></span>, has
made great use of these difficulties for destructive
criticism. Movers (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Untersuchungen ueber die Chronik</span></span> 1834), and C.
F. Keil (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologetischer Versuch ueber
die Chronik</span></span> 1833), endeavour to
remove them. Also see the translation of the Commentary of Keil and
Bertheau on Kings and Chronicles, the former of the two being based on
the work of the same author previously named.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href="#noteref_85">85.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. Bengel (1689-1752),
author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gnomon of the New
Testament</span></span> (translated, with Life prefixed to vol. iv.) Cfr. also the article
by Hartmann in Herzog's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real. Encyclopædie</span></span> and Burt's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span> of him
(translated 1837.) The labour of his life, to fix the text of the New Testament,
was prompted by the alarm which his pious mind felt at the uncertainty
thrown on the sacred books, the inspiration of which he believed to
extend to the words.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href="#noteref_86">86.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The denial
of responsibility for belief may either be a denial of all
responsibility whatever, in consequence of the opinion that our characters
are formed for us by circumstances, or else a denial of our responsibility
for our belief, as distinct from our responsibility for the agreement of our
conduct with our belief; the moral responsibility, according to this view,
lying in our adherence to a standard, irrespective of the truthfulness of
the standard. The former of these views is the fatalism advocated in the
system called (English) Socialism (See Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
i. 472 seq.); the latter has occasionally been imputed to teachers of the
utilitarian school of Ethics, perhaps with less justice; their assertions in
reference to it being intended to apply only to political and not to moral
responsibility.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href="#noteref_87">87.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such
an attitude of mind, for example, was presented in the seventeenth
century by Huet, and in the present by De Maistre. On the
former, see Bartholmess' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Scepticisme Theologique</span></span> (1852); for
reference to sources for the study of the latter, see Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>. Consult Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span> (vol. ii. ch. 6. § 2) for the history of
this kind of philosophical scepticism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href="#noteref_88">88.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Psalm lxxiii. 15-17.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href="#noteref_89">89.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See pp.
<a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href="#noteref_90">90.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See pp.
<a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref">8-12</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href="#noteref_91">91.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The names <span class="tei tei-q">“lower”</span> and
<span class="tei tei-q">“higher”</span> for the two respective branches into which literary
criticism is divisible, are commonly used in all modern German works of
criticism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href="#noteref_92">92.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See previous footnote.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href="#noteref_93">93.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The work which will most clearly explain my purpose in the
following history is Mr. J. D. Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical and Critical View
of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the nineteenth century</span></span>. (1847.) It
exhibits the influence of metaphysical philosophy on various branches of
knowledge. (See sect 1 and 5 of the introduction to vol. i., and in vol.
ii. ch. 9.) Also in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the Philosophical Tendencies of the
Age</span></span> (1848), he treats the same subject with direct reference to religion.
Compare also on the same points Cousin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de la Philosophie
du 8</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> siècle</span></span>, vol. ii. leçon 30; Pearson on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infidelity</span></span>, part ii. ch. 2. p. 340 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href="#noteref_94">94.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tennyson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In Memoriam</span></span>,
§ 94.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href="#noteref_95">95.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An instructive
comparison of Milton, Cowper, and Wordsworth, which
will further illustrate this subject, may be found in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macmillan's Magazine</span></span> for Jan. 1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href="#noteref_96">96.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href="#noteref_97">97.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The cause is, that whatever difficulties may be presented by
it are the statements of rival teaching opposed to the Christian; conclusions, not
premises; whereas those which arise from the psychological branch are
rival premises; not difference of belief merely, but causes of such difference.
Therefore the difficulties suggested by Ontology belong to those
described above in p. <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>.
Many illustrations of this branch may be found in Bartholmess'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Crit. des Doctrines Religieuses de la Philosophie
Moderne</span></span>, 1855.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href="#noteref_98">98.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The classification
of faculties here intended, with their respective functions, will be illustrated
by referring to Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Phil.</span></span>, vol.
ii. p. 338; and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span>, ch. 1. and 2.
The altered scheme given in his subsequent works on Psychology (1853 and 1861,)
ought also to be compared with the former one. See also Coleridge's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Reflection</span></span>, i. 168 seq. The terms Sensationalist,
Idealist, and Mystic, are nearly always used in the present lectures in the sense in
which Morell, following Cousin, uses them; viz. to express those who place the
ultimate test of truth in sense, innate ideas, or feeling, respectively.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href="#noteref_99">99.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. In the history of the eighteenth century in
France. (See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.) In estimating the effects of
philosophical opinions, care must be used, to distinguish the results which may be
thought by opponents to flow from such opinions by logical inference, from those which
have been proved by history to flow from them in fact. Some portion of Cousin's
brilliant criticism, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Phil. Française du</span></span>
18<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">siècle</span></span>, and in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecole Sensualiste</span></span>, is thought to be open to exception on this
ground. It is from a conviction of the importance of not attributing to a philosopher
that which we merely conceive to be a corollary, though a logical one, from his
opinions, that the writer has abstained from introducing here into the text
examples of the different views sketched, and has treated the subject in this
page broadly and without minuteness. The religious results here stated to
appertain to particular metaphysical opinions must accordingly be regarded
as logical tendencies, not as necessary effects. The truth of opinions must
not be tested merely by supposed consequences, though the practical value
of such a test ought to be allowed its due weight.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A statement of
the steps of proof similar to those described here, by
which we ascend to the knowledge of a Deity, is to be found in the
Sermons of the late lamented Rev. Shergold Boone (Sermons 2-7; and
especially 2 and 3; 1853). Compare also the steps of proof which
Rousseau gives in the Confession of the Savoyard Vicar of
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>,
analysed in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These
charges are frequently made indiscriminately against all who
hold that expedience is a sufficient explanation of the origin of moral
ideas. They were true in a great degree against Utilitarians of the last
century, together with some of those in the early years of the present.
But when applied at the present time, they only indicate a tendency, not
a fact; as may be seen in the delicate manner in which Mr. J. S. Mill has
explained the doctrine of Utility, in a series of papers in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fraser's Magazine</span></span> for 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
first of these two views is seen in Kant, with whom the forms
of thought are only regulatively true; the second in Schelling and Cousin.
The references for studying Kant's religious views will be found in a note
to Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
dangers of such a view arise from those results which have been
pointed out in Sir W. Hamilton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertations</span></span> (Diss. I. on
Cousin). In reference to the office of the intuition in science, Dr. Whewell's view, in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences</span></span>, may be adduced as one
which appears to possess the advantage designed by Schelling's theory, and not be
open to those criticisms which have been directed against it. Possibly a
true philosophy of the action of the intellectual faculties in reference to
religion might be obtained by transferring to it the analysis which Dr.
Whewell has given of their action in reference to science. Dr. McCosh,
in his work on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Intentions of the Mind</span></span> (1859), has done much
towards effecting it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span> (c. 5 and 6,) are remarks on the
relation of intuition to inspiration, to which attention may be directed, but only in
a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">psychological</span></em> point of view. Pious minds that believe in miraculous
inspiration will rightly hesitate before holding any particular psychological
theory of the field of its operation; yet it would seem, if we may
hazard a conjecture, that it is the intuitive power of the mind which is
mostly the organ to which the divine revelation is unveiled, and on which
the inspiring influence acts. It is certain that we cannot understand the
<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">modus operandi</span></span>, but we may without irreverence humbly
seek to discover the field on which God's Spirit condescends to operate. In this view
inspiration would be analogous to natural genius <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">psychologically</span></em>, but
wholly different <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">theologically</span></em>, inasmuch as all who believe in its
miraculous character must hold firmly that it is due to a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">supernatural</span></em>
elevation of this mental power by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">immediate</span></em> operation of divine agency,
whereas the discoveries of ordinary genius are due to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">unassisted</span></em> and
normal condition of the faculty. Morell, in the passage referred to, will probably be
thought to be right in the psychological question, and wrong in the theological.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The mysticism of the Quakers of the
seventeenth century, and of Swedenborg in the eighteenth, is of this character. The
excessive self-mortification of the Franciscan order in the middle ages may be set down
to the influence, perhaps not consciously analysed, of the same standard
used for guidance. On Mysticism, see Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 332 seq. and 356 seq.; and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the
Philosophical Tendencies of the Age</span></span> (Lect. III.); on Swedenborg, see
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span> No. 12; and
on mystics generally, consult the interesting work of the lamented Rev. R.
A. Vaughan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hours with the Mystics</span></span>, 1856.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As in Spinoza, or the school
of Schelling.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As in Herbert in the seventeenth
century, and Theodore Parker in the nineteenth. On the intuitional theology, see
McCosh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine Government</span></span>,
b. iv. ch. 2. § 4. (note.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The above are only a very few instances,
of which many will occur hereafter; but they will sufficiently indicate that the French
infidelity is mostly connected with the appeal to the first test of truth, sensation;
German rationalism, the result of an appeal to an intuitive faculty <span class="tei tei-q">“transcending
consciousness;”</span> English deism, and the earlier forms of German
rationalism, the appeal to the ordinary reason, as able to create religion
for itself. The separate appeal to feeling has generally, it will be perceived,
caused too much belief, instead of too little; mysticism instead of
scepticism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was the
view presented in the teaching of Cousin and the Eclectic
school of France. Many of the younger thinkers of Europe now consider
that the history of philosophy constitutes the whole of philosophy, and
is not merely, as here maintained, the preliminary to it. This new view
is probably unconsciously derived from Hegel, and is the residuum left by
his philosophy. Two able living French critics, Renan and Scherer, have
so very clearly expressed this view of the function of philosophy, that it
may be well to quote their words (see Note 9);
the more so, as this subject will be named again in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>. Renan has also expressed the same
ideas in the Revue des deux Mondes (Jan. 15, 1860),
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De la Metaphysique
et de son avenir</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is not
from any wish to evade the real question that the writer
thus avoids taking a side in the metaphysical dispute. His object is to explain
the various effects of metaphysical theories on religious belief; and
while considering that the respective evil effects of these systems are a
logical corollary from them, as well as an historical result, he is prepared
to admit, as previously remarked, that men are sometimes better than their
systems, and do not always draw the logical conclusions from their own
premises; and therefore he has not thought it right to make these lectures
a direct argument on behalf of some favourite metaphysical system, and
attack on some rival one. In such case, the history would lose its independent
character. While therefore he has never concealed his opinions on
the subject of religion, he has thought it more proper not to obtrude, except
indirectly, his opinions on that of metaphysics.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the question
at issue between modern Positivists and their
opponents. Comte declared the possibility of discovering the fixed laws
on which society depends as really as the physical ones of matter. Mr.
Mill, in his account of the logic of history
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, b. vi. c. 4. (6-10)), lays
down more maturely the theory of such a process. On the contrary, Mr.
Kingsley, in his inaugural lecture at Cambridge, 1861, asserts the very
opposite position; and, in his wish to elevate the influence of individual
men on the course of events, almost reduces history to a series of
biographies.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The kind of analysis
here alluded to may be illustrated by referring to one of the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span> of Mr. D. Masson, in which he has compared in a very
striking manner Shakspeare and Goëthe, by regarding their respective
works as reflecting the mental peculiarity of each writer. He considers the
meditative melancholy of Shakspeare's youth, as expressed in his Sonnets,
to be the clue to the reflective analysis that in later life could depict the
doubts of Hamlet.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Christian Maerklin (1807-1849),
a fellow student of Strauss at
Tübingen, whose views were unsettled, partly by a tone like that of the
Renaissance derived from the contrast of classic and Christian culture, and
partly by the philosophical speculations of the time. He embraced pantheism
and the mythical idea of Christianity. For ten years after 1840
he undertook ministerial work, and then left the church, and till his death
in 1849 devoted himself with assiduity to the business of education. A
short memoir of him was written by Strauss in 1851, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">C. Maerklin, ein
Lebens-und-Character-Bild aus der Gegenwart</span></span>; a brief review of which
is given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sterling
(1806-1844), a clergyman, curate to archdeacon Hare.
His works were edited, with a memoir prefixed, by the archdeacon in
1848; and a life written of him by Carlyle (1851.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Blanco White
(1775-1841), a Spanish priest, who became a protestant,
and a refugee in England. He was much respected in Oxford,
and the University gave him a degree. He afterwards turned unitarian,
and perhaps at last deist. His life was published in 1845; and his mental
character analysed in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>
No. 151, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian
Remembrancer</span></span> vol. 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. F. Newman. See Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See further
remarks concerning the purpose of the course of Lectures
in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">John xx. 26-29.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Mr. J. J. Conybeare
(1824), on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History and Limits of the
Secondary Interpretation of Scripture</span></span>; Dr. Burton (1829),
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Heresies of the Apostolic Age</span></span>; Dr. Hampden
(1832), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Scholastic Philosophy
in relation to Christian Theology</span></span>; as well as several works which investigate
doctrines historically, such as the Lectures on the Atonement by Dr.
Thomson (1853), by Dr. Hessey on the Sabbath (1860).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above,
p. <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref">8</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">By Dr. Burton in 1829,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Inquiry into the Heresies of the Apostolic
Age.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burton was
such a careful student, that he hardly omitted anything
on the subject which had been published up to his time. Subsequent
investigations have added little material directly for the knowledge of
Gnosticism, but much for a better appreciation of those sources from
which it sprung. The oriental philosophy, as is shown in note <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>
to Lect. I, is much better known; in like manner the Neo-Platonic. The Jewish
Cabbala has also been made known by A. Franck
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoires sur la Cabbale</span></span>).
The speculations too of the new Tübingen school, of which Baur's
work on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gnosis</span></span>, 1835, is an example,
have been specially directed to the study of the
<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">origines</span></span> of the Christian church and of Gnostic
heresy, and however unsatisfactory in results, present much valuable research. Kurtz
in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span> § 48-50, and Hase,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span> § 75-82, refer to several
other monographs of the same kind. See also the discussion on Gnostic
sects in Professor Norton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evidences of the
Genuineness of the Gospels</span></span>, vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such instances
are seen in the Renaissance, in the state of France
during the eighteenth century, and in some of the writings of the English
deists and German critics, as will be shown in subsequent lectures. A
general view is given, in the introduction to Houtteville's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Christianisme
prouvé par des faits</span></span>, of <span class="tei tei-q">“the method of the principal authors for and
against Christianity from its beginning,”</span> (translated 1739.) Hase also
quotes a work of D. Baumgarten-Crusius, De Scriptoribus sæc. II. qui
novam relig. impugnarunt, 1845.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are four
sources of information in reference to the opinions
of the heathens concerning Christianity; viz. (1) the slight notices which
occur in heathen literature, on which see note <a href="#Note_12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>;
(2) the works written
expressly against Christianity, which are sufficiently analysed in the text
and foot-notes; (3) the special replies to these attacks, on which see notes
<a href="#Note_13" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, <a href="#Note_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>,
<a href="#Note_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>; (4) the
general treatises on evidence in the early fathers, on
which see note <a href="#Note_49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>.
The recent publication of Pressensé's work, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span>
série, t. 2, where the analysis of the two latter sources is ably executed, renders
unnecessary the publication of an analysis of each. Several of them are
also analysed in Schramm, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analysis Patrum</span></span>, 1782.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It
has been recently made a matter of dispute whether Plato's own
description of the teaching of the Sophists is not rendered untrustworthy
by these faults. See Grote's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greece</span></span>, vol.
viii. ch. 67.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These tendencies are
discussed so fully and with such great learning
by Neander (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vol.
i. Introduction), and by Pressensé, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de
l'Eglise Chrétienne</span></span>, (2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span>
série, t. ii. ch. 1), to whom I am largely
indebted, that it is unnecessary to quote the original sources. Neander
exhibits an analogous process in the Jewish religion, in sects of the later
times of the nation. See also Döllinger's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Judenthum und
Heidenthum</span></span> (translated 1862.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The mental
character of Lucretius has been well analysed by Mr.
Sellar, in the volume of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford Essays</span></span>, 1855.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pressensé
(ut sup. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> série, t.
ii. 77 seq.) has ably sketched the character
of Lucian. His utter scepticism is seen in the Ζεὺς τραγῳδός
(47-49).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Instances, with
references, may be seen in the introductory chapter
in Neander, p. 18 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
Greek literature offers the opportunity for studying the whole
process. See Grote, i. ch. 16, previously quoted.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The character Cæcilius,
in the dialogue of Minucius Felix, is made
to express this view, (c. 8. and elsewhere.) A useful modern edition of
this dialogue is given by H. A. Holden, 1853.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This reaction deserves
to be made the subject of special study.
Pressensé is one of the few writers who have pointed out its importance,
(2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> série, t. ii. ch. 1.)
Also compare the remarks in Benjamin Constant's
posthumous work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du Polytheisme Romain</span></span>,
1833. (t. ii. I. 12, 13, 15.)
Kurtz refers on this subject to Tzchirner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">der
Fall des Heidenthum</span></span>, i. 404, (1829.); E. Kritzler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Helden-zeiten des Christenthum</span></span>, vol. i. (1856), and
Vogt's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neo-Platonismus und Christenthum</span></span>
(1836.) Also Cfr. Tzchirner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologetik</span></span> (1804.)
c. 2, parts 2 and 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meditations</span></span>
of M. Aurelius were edited by Gataker (1698.)
See concerning them Fabricius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblioth. Græc.</span></span> v. 500,
(ed. Harles); Donaldson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gr. Lat.</span></span> ch. 54, § 2;
and concerning his opinions, Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch</span></span>. I. 177.
Mr. G. Long has recently translated the Meditations
into English. The philosophy of the Roman Stoics, of which M. Aurelius
is one of the best types, is briefly but excellently treated by Sir A. Grant
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford Essays</span></span> for 1858. Also consult Ritter's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
vol. iv. b. 12, ch. 3, and Neander's paper on the relation of Greek
Ethics to Christianity in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Christliche
Wissenchaft und Christliches Leben</span></span> (1850,) translated in the American
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span> for 1853.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pressensé even suggests
(2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span>. série, t. ii. p. 62) that the ultimate
result was almost the nirvana of Budhism. It will be observed, that the
view taken in the text concerning the Neo-Platonic philosophy, for which
I am largely indebted to Pressensé, is different from that which regards it
as monotheism, and which has been made popular by Mr. Kingsley's novel,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hypatia</span></span>, and by his lectures on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Schools of Alexandria</span></span> (Lect. 3),
1854.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ritter
happily calls this philosophy Neo-Pythagoreanism, as the
former was Neo-Platonism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. the Alexander of Pontus,
whom Lucian holds up to ridicule.
On Apollonius of Tyana, see a subsequent note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Crescens is named
in Justin Martyr (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apolog.</span></span> II. 3), who wrote
against his attack; Tatian (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oral. adv. Grac.</span></span> c. 3);
Eusebius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. Hist.</span></span>
iv. 16). The last, on the strength of Tatian, accuses him of causing Justin's
death.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cornelius Fronto
is referred to by Minucius Felix (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Octav.</span></span> ch. 9 and
31), as having charged incestuous banquets on the Christians. Tzchirner
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opusc. Acad.</span></span> 1829. p. 294)
conjectures that his work may have been a
legal speech against some Christian, which implied a defence of the imperial
persecution. Part of Fronto's works have been found during the
present century, and edited with a dissertation on his life and writings by
Angelo Mai. (On his work against Christianity, see p. 57 of the dissertation.)
A brief account of them may be found in Smith's Biographical
Dictionary sub <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fronto</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucian probably lived from about
A.D. 125 to 200. Consult the account given by Donaldson
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gr. Lit.</span></span> ch. 54, § 3 and 4) of his life,
opinions, and works, where a comparison is drawn between him and Voltaire:
also Mr. Dyer's article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lucianus</span></span> in
Smith's Biographical Dictionary; also Fabricius'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Græca</span></span>, v. 340 (ed. Harles);
Lardner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Collection of Jewish and Heathen Testimonies</span></span>,
Works, vol. viii. ch. 19. The satire referred to above is entitled
Περὶ τῆς Περεγρίνου τελευτῆς.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We learn from other
writers that Peregrinus was a real character;
but Aulus Gellius (xii. 11), gives a much more favourable character of
him than Lucian.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The passage
(of which this is Tzchirner's paraphrase) is: Πεπείκασι
γὰρ αὑτοὺς οἲ κακοδαίμονες τὸ μὲν ὅλον ἀθάνατοι ἔσεσθαι καὶ βιώσεσθαι τὸν
ἀεὶ χρόνον, παρ᾽ ὅ καὶ καταφρονοῦσι τοῦ θανάτου καὶ ἑκόντες αὑτοὺς ἐπιδιδόασιν
οἱ πολλοί; ἕπειτα δὲ ὁ νομοθέτης ὁ πρῶτος ἕπεισεν αὐτοὺς ὡς ἀδελφοὶ
πάντες εἷεν ἀλλήλων, ἐπειδὰν ἅπαξ παραβάντες Θεοὺς μὲν τοὺς Ἑλληνικοὺς
ἀπαρνήσωνται, τὸν δὲ ἀνεσκολοπισμένον ἐκεῖνον σοφιστὴν αὐτῶν προσκυνῶυσι
καὶ κατὰ τοὺς ἐκείνου νόμους βιῶσι. Pereg. Prot. § 13.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Pereg.
Prot. § 11 and 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bp. Pearson considered
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vindic. Ignat.</span></span> part. ii. 6,) that an allusion
is made to the death of Ignatius, (Cfr. Le Moyne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Varia Sacra</span></span>
(pref.) 1694, for a somewhat similar argument in reference to Polycarp.) A.
Planck in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lucian und Christenthum</span></span> (part i.) in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stud. und Krit.</span></span> 1851,
the references to which are given in note <a href="#Note_12" class="tei tei-ref">12</a>
of these lectures, tries to show
that Lucian alludes even to Ignatius's letters. If he does not succeed in
establishing this point, he at least (part iii.) makes Lucian's knowledge of
Christian literature extremely probable.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These
are enumerated by A. Planck, (id. part ii.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Huet thinks
the date was subsequent to A.D. 246. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origeniana</span></span> i.
c. 3, § 11, ed. 1668.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a
doubt whether the Celsus against whom Origen wrote is
the friend to whom Lucian has addressed his life of the magician Alexander
of Abonoteichus. The arguments on this question are stated and
weighed in Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vol. i. 169,
and Baur's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
der drei ersten Jahrhunderte</span></span>, p. 371. Both conclude that the persons
were different. The evidence of their oneness is chiefly Origen's conjecture
that they were the same person (Cont. Celsum. iv. 36.) The evidence
against it is, (1) that Lucian's friend attacked magical rites; the Celsus of
Origen seems to have believed them; (2) that Lucian's friend was probably
an Epicurean, the other Celsus a Platonist or Eclectic; (3) that the former
is praised for his mildness, the latter shows want of moderation.
Pressensé nevertheless (ut sup. vol. ii. p. 105) regards them as the same
person.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. c. 28.
The references are made to the chapters in the Benedictine
edition by De la Rue (Paris, 1733.) The earlier part of b. i. is
miscellaneous in nature and seems prefatory; and it is not easy to determine
the relation of Origen's remarks in it to the arrangement of Celsus's
book.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Speaking generally,
B. i. ch. 27, 28, 32, may be taken as the one,
and the rest of b. i., together with b. ii. as the other.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"> B.
ii. § 32.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. 28, 32-35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. 37, 58, 66.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. 38, 68.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. 57; ii. 9,
&amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. ii. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. ii. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. ii. 16.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 38.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 59, 55, 57, 78.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
iii. § 1 and elsewhere.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii.
§ 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. § 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. i. 17, 18; i. 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 71; vi. 62.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 48.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vii.
3; viii. 45.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vii. 14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 22, 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
iv. 74; vi. 49, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
vi. 60.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
v. vi. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
iii. 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
iii. 5, 14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. § 55; viii. 73.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. viii. 69.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. viii. 69.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 44, 50.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 59, 62, 74.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 55;
viii. 37.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vii. 9; i. 2; i. 9;
iii. 39; vi. 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vi. 15;
vi. 22, 58, 62; v. 63; vi. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
iii. 22; vii. 28-30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 37;
vi. 49.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 14;
v. 2; vii. 36.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 62, 70.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. v. 14; vii. 28, 36, vi. 78.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 74, 76, 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii. 65.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. v. 14, 15.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
vii. 68; viii. (2-14) 35, 36.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. viii. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 99.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 3, 7, 18.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv. 74.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the alteration
in the attacks, Cfr. Gerard (of Aberdeen), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Compendium
of Evidences</span></span>, 1828 (part ii. ch. 1.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Porphyry lived from about A.D. 233 to 305.
For his life and writings see Holstenius <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Vit. Porphyr.</span></span>
(1630); Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Græc.</span></span> v.
725. (ed. Harles); Lardner's Works, viii. 37; Donaldson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gr.
Lit.</span></span> ch. 53, § 7. For his attack on Christianity consult Neander's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span> i. 290; Pressensé ii. 156.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His own words, quoted in Eusebius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl.
Hist.</span></span> iii. 19), have been thought to imply this, but seem merely to state
his acquaintance in youth with Origen. See Holsten. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit.
Porphyr.</span></span> p. 16.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cousin
(Pref. to Edition of  Abélard <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, p. 61, note 46,)
considers that a passage which Boethius quoted from Porphyry was the
means of reviving philosophical speculation on this point.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He seems
especially to have felt the difficulty which was before
noticed as marking one type of religious opinion, the craving for a theology
which rested on some divine authority, revelation from the world
invisible, (Cfr. Augustin's criticism on him in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei.</span></span>
x. ch. 9, 11, 26, 28); and hence he drew such a system from the real or pretended
answers of oracles, in his περὶ τῆς ἐκ λογίων φιλοσοφίας, of which fragments
exist in Eusebius and Augustin (Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Gr.</span></span> v. 744).
Heathens, it would seem, had consulted oracles on this very subject of Christianity;
and it is these, the genuineness of which may be doubted, that he uses.
His aim seems to have been to support the existing religious system; and
for this purpose he favoured the alliance with the priestly system, and the
institution of religious rites. See Neander <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span>
i. 293.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
this work, κατὰ Χριστιανῶν, see Holsten. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vita Porphyr.</span></span> c. x.)
who quotes at length from the Fathers the principal passages in which allusion
to it is made.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Omitting allusion
to the references concerning the canon furnished
in older works, e.g. of Cosin, Dupin, Jones, Lardner, Michaelis, some of
which were written in reference to the controversy between the Romanists
and Reformed, others between the Christians and freethinkers, we may at
least name Moses Stuart's work on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Canon of the Old
Testament</span></span>, and Credner <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Geschichte des Kanons</span></span> with
reference to the New; (the former is apologetic, the latter independent and slightly
rationalistic, but full of learning;) and especially the work on the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Canon of the New Testament</span></span>
by Mr. B. F. Westcott (1855), and the article on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Canon</span></span> by him in
Smith's Biblical Dictionary, where references to fuller literary materials
are given.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hieronymi
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opera</span></span>, (at the end of the Proem. of the Commentary on
Galatians) vol. 4. part i. p. 223, Benedictine edition of Martianay, 1706;
also Galat. ii. 11 (id. p. 244); also at the end of book xiv. (Isaiah liii.)
vol. iii. p. 388; also Ep. 74 to Augustin (id. iv. part ii. 619, 622.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. Hist.</span></span>
vi. c. 19 (ed. Gaisford, p. 414) gives a long
extract from Porphyry. Of the second book nothing is known.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
the school of Alexandria see H. E. F. Guericke <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schola quæ
Alex. floruit</span></span>, 1825 (p. 51-81); Matter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur l'école
d'Alexandrie</span></span>, 1840; Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span> II. 908
seq. 1196 seq. On the allegorical method of interpretation adopted by Origen, see
Huet's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origeniana</span></span> II. quæst. 13 (vol. i. 170); Conybeare's
Bampton Lecture for 1824 (Lect. 2-4); R. A. Vaughan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and
Remains</span></span> (Essay I); and an article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British
Review</span></span>, No. 46, August 1855. Also compare a note on
systems of interpretation in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb.
Præp. i. 9; x. 9; which passages merely express the hostility
of Porphyry.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Jerome's Proem. to Daniel are four passages. (See Works,
vol. iii. p. 1073-4.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Jerome.
Comm. on Matt. xxiv. 15 (b. iv. vol. iv. p. 115).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As
early as the time of Spinoza, from whose work, the Theologicus
Politicus, Collins may perhaps have indirectly derived hints; doubts of the
authenticity of parts were expressed; and the inquiry was pursued by
Michaelis and Eichhorn: but the modern criticism on it dates especially
from Berthold (1806), who impugned its authenticity. Bleek (1822), De
Wette, Von Lengerke of Königsberg (1835), Maurer (1838), more
recently Hitzig (1850), and Lücke (1852), followed on the same side. The
English theologian, Dr. Arnold, adopted the same view. The contrary
opinion has been maintained by Hengstenberg (1831), Hävernich (1832),
Keil (1853); Delitzch (in Herzog's Encycl. 1854), Auberlen (1857), by
Moses Stuart, and by Dr. S. Davidson (Introduction to the Old Testament,
1856). Hengstenberg, Hävernich, and Auberlen are translated. The first
of these three is valuable, especially for the literary and exegetical questions;
the second as a controversial commentary; the third for tracing
the organic unity of the book.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The importance
attached to the occurrence of Greek words is much
over-estimated. They can only be shown to be four, which occur in
ch. iii. 6, 7, 10; viz., קיתרה κιθάρα, סמבא σαμβυκή, סומפניה συμφωνία,
פסלתרין ψαλτήριον; all of which relate to musical instruments, not unlikely
to be introduced by commerce, and which would naturally be called
by their foreign names. Some of the writers named in a preceding note
have examined incidentally the character of the Hebrew and Chaldee of
Daniel, and consider that both are similar to those of works confessedly
of the age of Daniel; and that the Chaldee is separated by a chasm from
that of the earliest Targums. Professor Pusey delivered a lecture on the
subject in the university, containing the results of his own recent studies,
in the summer of the present year, which will form one of a printed
course of lectures on Daniel. See also an article by the Rev. J.
M<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">c</span></span>Gill in
the Journal of Sacred Literature, Jan. 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g.
the wars of the kings of the north and of the south, c. xi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz., till
about B.C. 164.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He seems also to have entered into some examination of the
specific prophecies; for he objects to the application of the words <span class="tei tei-q">“the abomination
of desolation”</span> to other objects than that which he considers its original
meaning. See Hieronym. on Matt. xxiv. 15, the reference to which
is given in a preceding note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A
few other traces of Porphyry's views remain, which are of less
importance, and are levelled against parts of the New Testament: e.g.
the change of purpose in our blessed Lord (John vii. [Hieronym. vol.
iv, part ii. p. 521 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial. adv. Pelag.</span></span>)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> (101) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad Pammach</span></span>. Several
are given in Holsten. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. Porphyr.</span></span> p. 86)]),
the reasons why the Old
Testament was abrogated if divine, [Augustin. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> (102, olim 49,
Benedict. ed. 1689) vol. ii. p. 274, where six questions are named, some
of which come from Porphyry:] the question what became of the generations
which lived before Christianity was proclaimed, if Christianity was
the only way of salvation; objections to the severity of St. Peter in the
death of Ananias; and the inscrutable mystery of an infinite punishment
in requital for finite sin. (Aug. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Retract.</span></span> b. ii. c. 31. vol.
i. p. 53, concerning Matt. vii. 2.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hierocles' work was called Λόγοι φιλαλήθεις πρὸς τοὺς Χριστιανούς.
Our knowledge of it depends upon the refutation which Eusebius wrote of
it; and upon passages in Lactantius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Instit.</span></span> v. 2,
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Mort. Persecut.</span></span>
16.) Concerning Hierocles see Bayle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary, sub voc.</span></span> (notes);
Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Gr.</span></span> i. 792. note; Cave's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Lit.</span></span> i. 131. ii. 99; Lardner's
Works, vol. viii. ch. 39. § 1-4, and Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span>
i. 296.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Apollonius of Tyana, see
Lardner's Works, vol. viii. ch. 39.
§ 5, 6. Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span> (vol. iv, b. xii. ch. 7),
and especially the monograph by C. Baur of Tübingen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apollonius von
Tyana and Christus oder das Verhaeltniss des Pythagoreismus zum Christenthum</span></span>
(1832); also the Abbé Houtteville's Essay affixed to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse on
the Method of the Principal Authors for and against Christianity</span></span>, translated
1739; and the article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apollonius</span></span> by Professor Jowett in Smith's
Biographical Dictionary.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He was probably midway between Pythagoras and the
Alexander named by Lucian.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It was written about
A.D. 210, at the request of Julia Domna, and
is entitled τὰ ἐς τὸν Τυανέα Ἀπολλώνιον. On this life by Philostratus see
Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Gr.</span></span> v. 541; the above-named works of Houtteville and
Baur; Donaldson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gr. Lit.</span></span> ch. lii. § 7; Pressensé ii. 144 seq.;
and a recent translation of Philostratus with remarks by A. Chassang, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le Marveilleux
dans l'Antiquité”</span> (1862).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lardner and
Ritter think that Philostratus did not write with a
polemical reference to Christianity, but Baur concludes otherwise. Dean
Trench has made a few remarks in reference to this question (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes to
Miracles</span></span>, p. 62).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Iamblichus's
Life of Pythagoras, see Fabricius's Bibl. Gr. v. 764;
Lardner viii. 39. § 7, who however concludes in this case, as in that of
Philostratus, that the book was not designed against Christianity.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles Blount in 1680. See Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A.D. 313.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A.D. 361-3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν.
See Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Gr.</span></span> vii. 738; Lardner viii. 46.
§ 2, and 4; Donaldson iii. 303. Fragments of it are preserved in Cyril's
reply. The Marquis d'Argens, at the court of Frederick the Great of
Prussia, translated and tried to unite them. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Défense du Paganisme par
l'Empéreur Julian</span></span>, 1764.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the life
and reign of Julian, see Gibbon (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>,
c. 22-24); Fabricii <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lux Evangelii</span></span>, 1721, c. 14, where the edicts
which refer to Christianity are collected; Lardner viii. 46; Abbé de la Bletterie's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de Julien</span></span>; Neander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch</span></span> iii.
76. and 188, who also wrote in 1812 a monograph on the subject; Wiggers in Illgen's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Zeitschr.</span></span>
1837; Milman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Christianity</span></span> iii. 6. On Julian's works see
Fabric. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Gr.</span></span> vi. 719 seq.; Donaldson iii. 57. § 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wyttenbach
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opusc.</span></span> i. 6; Donaldson iii. p. 307.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">By Strauss,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Romantiker auf dem Throne des Caesaren oder
Julian der abtruennige</span></span> 1847.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are
some good remarks on Julian in Waddington's Church
History, ch. viii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He
also made the well-known attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem.
On the alleged miracle which prevented the execution of the
scheme, see Warburton's works, vol. iv., Lardner, vol. viii. ch. 46. § 3, and
Milman's note to Gibbon (c. 23.) Warburton believes the miracle; but
Lardner hesitates. The original passages which refer to it are Amm.
Marcell. xxiii. ch. 1; Ambr. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span>
xi. 2; Chrysost. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">adv. Jud. et Gent.</span></span>;
Greg. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Naz. Orat.</span></span> 4. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">adv. Jul.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Ep.
to Ecdidius (Ep. 9, Spanheim's edition, 1696); Decree to
the Alexandrians (Ep. 26, 51); Ep. to Arsacius (49).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cyril, adv. Jul.
B. iii. and iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. v. and vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vii. and x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. viii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">B.
x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg.
Naz. Op. i. Orat. 4 and 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Q. Aurelius
Symmachus was deputed by the senate to remonstrate
with Gratian on the removal of the altar of Victory (A.D. 382) from the
council hall; and afterwards, when appointed (384) præfect of the city,
he addressed a letter to Valentinian requiring the restoration of the pagan
deities to their former honours. Both Symmachus's address and St. Ambrose's
refutation are given in Cave's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of Fathers</span></span> (Life of Ambrose,
§ 3. p. 576.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Augustin
refutes this objection in several places of the first five
books in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The work
of Cosmas Indicopleustes in the middle of the sixth century
is designed to show the falsehood of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy
in assuming the world to be a sphere, and proves the continuance of
speculation on the harmony of science and revelation. See Donaldson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gr. Lit.</span></span> III. 59. § 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
<a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref">14-17</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears from a letter
of Porphyry to his wife Marcella, discovered
by Angelo Mai, and edited at Milan, 1816, in which his personal religious
aspirations are seen.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
this discussed towards the close of Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
obvious that this belief blunted in some degree the force of
arguments built upon miracles and prophecy: this circumstance explains
the comparative absence of these arguments in the early apologies against
the heathens. The reality however both of miracles and prophecy is
always implied; and occasionally the direct appeal to them is used. The
apologists were thus compelled, even if no other reason founded deeper in
the philosophy of evidence had inclined them to do so, to lay stress on
what would now be called the argument from internal evidence for the
truth of Christianity. The Hulsean Prize Essay for 1852, by Mr. W. J.
Bolton, contains a useful account of the apologists, with extracts from their
writings. And Mr. H. A. Woodham, in the preface to his edition of
Tertullian's Apology (1843), has made some very suggestive remarks.
Both writers show that the fathers use the argument from miracles more
frequently than had generally been supposed.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the
intellectual and social condition during this period, consult
Guizot's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilization in France</span></span>;
Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Middle Ages</span></span>, ch. ix.
part i.; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, ch. i. Also three
works by Laurent, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Barbares et le Catholicisme</span></span>,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Papauté et l'Empire</span></span>,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Féodalité et l'Eglise</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>. p. <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Guizot's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilization in Europe</span></span>, ch. vi. and x.; Laurent,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Reforme</span></span>, 1861 (p. 131-271.) The last-named work, to which
frequent reference will be made, is an able production by a Professor
(probably a freethinker) in the university of Ghent. It is the eighth of a
series of works, entitled, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Histoire de l'Humanité</span></span>,
of which three were named in a previous note, and contains a careful examination (1) of
the reform, religious and social, of the middle ages; (2) of heterodoxy,
both as free thought and incredulity, during the same period; (3) of the
Renaissance; (4) of the principles of the Reformation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has
been conjectured that the name was probably derived from the
circumstance that it was the philosophy which arose in the various
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scholæ</span></span> which Charlemagne established throughout his empire; and
afterwards was that which existed in the scholæ or halls of the mediæval universities.
Brucker has discussed the previous history of the word (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Critical Philosophy</span></span>, iii. 710; and Hauréau, nearly repeating him,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie Scholastique</span></span>, i. 7, with a view to show how it was
used before it became changed into the meaning just assigned to it). See also a few
remarks by Saisset in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, 1850, vol. iii.
p. 645.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
called logic, if we denote that part of it which studies the mode
of investigation, and the comparative value of evidence in the different
fields of inquiry. It is the psychological branch of metaphysics, if it explores
the structure and functions of the mind, ascertaining the subjective
validity of the data employed in the method which forms the subject
matter of contemplation in logic. It is the ontological branch, if it reaches
to the still higher problem of searching for the traces of objective reality,
independent of the act of human thought, which are involved in the data
previously examined.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Διαλεκτικὴ of
Plato, it is well known, was the method of analysis
by means of language, and comprised the field which his successor Aristotle
separated in two, viz. Διαλεκτικὴ, logic, the inquiry concerning method;
and Σοφία, metaphysics, the inquiry concerning being. See Bp. Hampden's
article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span> in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopædia
Britannica</span></span>; Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>
(English translation), vol. ii. b. 8, c. 2 and 3; and vol. iii. c. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz. antecedents in the mechanical
class of sciences, types in the
zoological and botanical. The distinction is that which is indicated by Mill
under the names of <span class="tei tei-q">“uniformities of causation,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“uniformities of
coexistence.”</span> See Mill's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. i. b. i.
ch. 7, § 4; vol. ii. b. iii. ch. 22; b. iv. ch. 7. Compare also Whewell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences</span></span>,
vol. i. b. iii. c. 2. and b. viii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the
explanation of the fact already quoted from Cousin, that
the mediæval philosophy depended on a quotation made by Boëthius from
Porphyry.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz. Darwin's Inquiry into
the Origin of Species, 1859.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Inasmuch as
the realist assumed that the innate ideas of the mind
gave a knowledge of real essences in nature.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Neque
enim quæro intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam,”</span>
are the words of the realist Anselm (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proslog.</span></span> I. p. 43. ed.
Gerberon.) <span class="tei tei-q">“Dubitando ad inquisitionem venimus; inquirendo veritatem percipimus,”</span>
are those of the nominalist Abélard. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sic et Non</span></span>, p. 16.
ed. Cousin.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The best
modern work on scholasticism is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoire Couronné</span></span>,
by B. Hauréau, 2 vols. 1850, in which the various authors and schools of
thought are fully treated. Among older sources, the following are important;
Brucker, iii. 709-868; Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 237-79; Ritter's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>; Buhle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
der Neuern Philosophie</span></span>, i. 810 seq.; Hampden's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton
Lectures</span></span> (I. and II.), and the article by him on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aquinas</span></span>
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopædia Metropolitana</span></span>; also Maurice's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mediæval Philosophy</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Tennemann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual of Philosophy</span></span>, § 243.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Abélard's
personal character, see Guizot's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettres d'Abélard</span></span>,
1839; and Remusat's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Abélard</span></span>, 1845, vol. i. part x.,
the latter of which writers has long studied his life, philosophy, and theology; also
Taillandier's article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Libre pensée du moyen age</span></span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes, Aug. 1861</span></span>); Tennemann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Phil.</span></span> viii. 170 seq.; Tennemann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 251.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Liber
Calamitatum</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introductio ad Theologiam</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologia
Christiana</span></span>. See Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, viii. 505
seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In A.D. 1121.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The nature of
this contest is given in Mabillon's edition of Bernard
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Præf.</span></span> § 5), and the characters of the two disputants are
sketched in Sir J. Stephens's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the History of France</span></span>,
ii. (163-207); also in Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span>, vol. viii,
p. 533 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It was published
by Cousin in 1836, with an elaborate preface relating
to the literary history of Abélard's works and opinions, as well as the
character of the scholastic philosophy generally. An edition of the text,
including the passages not printed by Cousin, has subsequently been published
by Henke and Lindenkohl, (Marburg, 1851.) See also Neander's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span>, viii. p. 523 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
following are examples of the questions proposed: No. (5.) Quod
non sit Deus singularis et contra; (6) Quod sit Deus tripartitus et contra;
(14) Quod sit filius sine principio et contra; (18) Quod æterna generatio
filii narrari vel sciri vel intelligi possit et non; (28) Quod nihil fiat casu et
contra; (30) Quod peccata etiam placeant Deo et non; (38) Quod omnia
sciat Deus et non; (121) Quod liceat habere concubinam et contra; (153)
Quod nulla de causa mentiri liceat et contra; (156) Quod liceat hominem
occidere et non.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Abélard's
Preface is analysed and discussed in Cousin, p. 191 seq.,
and Stephens, vol. ii. p. 169.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz.
(1) the peculiarities of their style; (2) their use of popular
language on scientific questions; (3) the corruption of the text; (4) the
number of spurious books; (5) the retraction by the fathers of their own
previous statements; (6) their careless use of profane learning; (7) the
describing things as they appear, not as they are; (8) their ambiguous use
of words.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Simon had published a work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire
Critique du Vieux Testament</span></span>,
1678, in which positions were stated which were new at that time,
but which, as Hallam observes, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Lit.</span></span> iii. 299,) <span class="tei tei-q">“now
pass without reproof.”</span> The history of the controversy connected with Simon is contained
in Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta</span></span>, 1765, vol. iv. (251-9.)
See also Bp. Marsh's Lectures, part i. p. 52.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Martène et Durant in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thesaur. Nov. Anecdot.</span></span> (1717) vol. v.
Pref. p. 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cousin
thinks him a sceptic. So also Sir J. Stephens, ii. 170. Taillandier
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des Deux Mondes</span></span> quoted above) takes the view given in the
text, that his character was complex. See also Laurent's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La
Reforme</span></span>, pp. 318-331.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Preller's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Phil. Gr. Rom.</span></span> xxxviii. § 158. Bayle's Dictionary,
art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeno</span></span> (vol. iv. edition 5, p. 539 note).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kant's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik</span></span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transcendent. Dial.</span></span> b. ii. div. 2, p. 322, Engl. transl.).
The illustration is borrowed from Taillandier, to whose article I am indebted
for several other suggestions.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote,
vol. viii. ch. 68.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his Prologue.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Cousin's
Preliminary Dissertation, p. 201-3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Laurent's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Reforme</span></span>,
p. 263.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may
be sufficient to allude to names like those of Innocent III.,
Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Frederick II., Cimabue, Dante; and to the great
works of law (civil and canon) and philosophy, the great works in Gothic
architecture, and the revival of painting, as examples of the intellectual
character of the age; and to the commencement of constitutional liberty,
the final settlement of Europe, and commencement of the present European
kingdoms, as illustrations of its advance in social government.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1229.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The work is
attributed to Joachim, a Calabrian abbot, about A.D. 1200,
whom Dante names (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradiso</span></span>, xii. 140). It was edited in 1250,
with an introduction probably written by John of Parma, general of the
Franciscans. Mosheim (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></span>, cent. 13, part ii. ch. 2,
§ 33 note), has carefully investigated the subject. See also Laurent's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Reforme</span></span>, pp. 295-302; F. Spanheim's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, vol. i. p. 1665; Neander's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span> vol. viii. p. 844 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1260. Labbei
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Concil.</span></span> (1671) vol. xi. part. ii. p. 2361.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev.
xiv. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The work
so entitled passed under Lessing's name; but its authorship
has been recently disputed. In an article in Illgen's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für
die Historiche Theologie</span></span> for 1839, part iv., on the life of A. Thaer compiled
by Koerte, there is evidence given that Lessing was only the editor,
Thaer having sent it to him anonymously. See also a remark in a letter of
Lessing, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, vol. xii. p. 503, (Lachmann's edition.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Ruines</span></span>,
c. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. in Benjamin Constant's
work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De La Religion</span></span>, and Laurent's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Histoire de l'Humanité</span></span>; Buckle's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilization</span></span>;
Comte's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie Positive</span></span>. It is chargeable in spirit
on many others.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The letter of Gregory IX.,
in which the statement is contained, bears date July 1, 1239.
It is quoted in Raynald's Supplement to Baronius. (Annal. Eccles.
1747. vol. ii. p. 218, 13 of Greg. IX. xxvi.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Renan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes
et l'Averroisme</span></span>, pp. (292-300), an admirable
work, to which we shall have occasion frequently to refer.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Michelet's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.
de France</span></span>, iii. 201. The charge of unbelief against
the Templars was never satisfactorily established.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decameron</span></span>,
i. 3, <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Tre Annella</span></span>.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Averroes see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
der Christlichen Philosophie</span></span>, vol. iv. b. 11, c. 5;
Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 259; Laurent's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La
Reforme</span></span>, p. 338-45, 364-85; and especially Renan's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>, p. 205 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inferno</span></span>, iv. 144;
<span class="tei tei-q">“Averrois che il gran comento feo.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan enlarges in one chapter of his work in a most
interesting manner on <span class="tei tei-q">“Le rôle d'Averroès dans la peinture Italienne du moyen âge,”</span>
pp. (301-16). The illustrations above given are borrowed from it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the poem Piers Plowman, pp. 179, 180, Wright's
edition; the doctrine of the Fall and its consequences is the subject of the scepticism
named.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inferno</span></span>, Canto x;
15, 118.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Dante,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inferno</span></span>, xix. 104, &amp;c. See Laurent's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reforme</span></span>, 364-70, 372-78.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this
subject, see Laurent, b. iii., and J. D. Burchard's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Cultur
der Renaissance in Italien</span></span>, 1860.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1400-1625.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An Essay
of great value, on <span class="tei tei-q">“the Literature of the Italian Revival,”</span>
appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 42,
April, 1885, from which
most of the illustrations and remarks which follow in the next two pages
are taken.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Laurent,
id. p. 364-70.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among recent critics who think so
are Foscolo (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>,
No. 42, p. 521), and Panizzi (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boiardo</span></span> and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariosto</span></span>, vol. i. 203), and in
part also Hallam (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>,
vol. i. 195, 303-5), and Guinguené (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Lit. de l'Italie</span></span>,
vol. iv. c. 3-101).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The view
here taken is maintained with great ability by the writer
of the Review named above. One joke, which he cites as not uncommon
in these epics, is the representation of St. Peter streaming with perspiration
with the labour of opening and shutting the gates of Paradise
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morg. Mag.</span></span>
26. 91); and, as a more allowable one, the frequent citation of a certain
archbishop Turpin as a witness for any absurdities,
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Berni Orl. Innam.</span></span> 18.
26), whose existence and pseudonymous work Pope Calixtus II had pronounced
to be real.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The last remnant
of these miracle plays, which occurs decennially in
a valley in Bavaria, is an actual proof of this statement. An interesting
account of the last celebration of it was written by Dr. Stanley
in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macmillan's Magazine</span></span> for October, 1860.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dean Trench's
Introduction (ch. 3) to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Translations from
Calderon</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The proof of this
position must be sought in the Review already indicated.
The illustration from Byron is due to it. Pulci lived 1431-87;
Bello, about the end of the fifteenth century, the exact date not known;
Ariosto, 1474-1533.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eichhorn's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Literatur</span></span>, vol. ii. 443; Bayle's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sub voc.</span></span>; Halllam's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, vol. i. 4. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Roscoe,
in his works on the Medicis, is silent about these tendencies.
In the fifteenth century, Ficinus, Poggio, Politian, Aretin; and at the beginning
of the sixteenth, at the Roman court, Paolo Giovio and Bembo were
suspected. See Brucker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Philosophiæ</span></span>,
Period iii. part 1. l. ii. c. 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The comparison of the
painting of the Roman, or the later Florentine
schools of the sixteenth century, with that of the older Florentine,
or of the Umbrian of the fifteenth, will establish this fact
so far as regards art.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Similar
periods will be hereafter described; viz. French <span class="tei tei-q">“Humanism”</span>
in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>. and German in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This fact is also taken from
the anonymous reviewer before quoted.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is hardly necessary
to point out that physical science has not only
made discoveries in its own sphere, but in logic also. By presenting a
definite body of verified truth, it has rendered possible the creation of a
system of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></em> as distinct from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formal</span></em>
logic. In the scientific discoveries
that have been made, we can read the logic of the process by which they
were attained, and thus raise <span class="tei tei-q">“applied logic”</span> to the dignity of a science,
and indirectly discover a logic of probable evidence. It is the intellectual,
and not merely the material value of physical science to which allusion is
made in the text. It shows at once what man can know, and the limits
where knowledge must give place to faith, and science to revelation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Guizot's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la
Civilisation de l'Europe</span></span>, ch. (9-11.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Reginald Pecock
was a bishop of Chichester about the middle of the
fifteenth century; who in his rigour against the Lollards himself incurred
the charge of deism. His work which laid him open to it, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Repressor
of overmuch blaming of the Clergy,”</span> has lately been edited with an instructive
preface by Mr. Churchill Babington. The work appeals to reason,
but is not open to the charge of deism. In tone it may be compared to
Locke's <span class="tei tei-q">“Reasonableness of Christianity.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
contest in which Hütten was engaged against the monks, with
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum</span></span>,
which related to it, is treated in Sir W. Hamilton's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discussions on Philosophy</span></span>, p. 205-240 (reprinted from
Edinburgh Review, No. 53, March 1830). Strauss has also published two
works on Hütten, the one a memoir, 1858; the other translations from his
work, 1861. (See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 12, April 1858.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servetus,
though a Spaniard by birth, learned his protestantism in
Italy; Castellio, Ochino, and the Sozini were Italians. See Hallam's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, i. 366, 379; 552 seq.: for their
views Merle D'Aubigné's <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Three Discourses on the Authority of
the Scripture</span></span>.”</span> On the Reformation in Italy see Quinet's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. iv. b. iii. ch. 1; and
Professor Blunt's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, p. 89,
(essay reprinted from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>,
January 1828.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is important
to notice that the question asked by the reformed
churches was simply, what did the inspired apostles teach? and the dispute
between them and the Roman catholics referred to the question, what
source was most suited for supplying information on this point;—whether
ecclesiastical tradition or the original documents of the inspired teachers
themselves.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hallam,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, i. 315. A large portion of
Renan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>, viz. pp. 322-432,
is devoted to this subject, and is the
source of much of the following information.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, id. (122-8.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, id.
(353-67.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He lived
about A.D. 200.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Pomponatius (1462-1530), see
Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Ch. Phil.</span></span> V.
pp. 390 seq.; Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>,
i. 315; Renan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>,
353, &amp;c.; Tennemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 293;
and the Life in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie
Universelle</span></span>. His theological treatise which was
chiefly suspected was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
Immortalitate</span></span>; but Brucker quotes from his other writings to prove
atheism. As early as 1512 a Lateran council took notice of the disbelief
of immortality.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In place of the scholastic
philosophy, which was disappearing, but
which lived in Padua nearly a century later than in the rest of Europe,
three tendencies manifested themselves; viz., (1) a reconstruction of
metaphysical philosophy, on a new, partially Platonic basis; (2) a reconstruction of
logic, by P. Ramas in France (see Hallam, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>,
i. 388-90); (3) attention to experimental science, which led ultimately
to the experimental method of Bacon. Telesius and Campanella
belong to the first of these classes. The system of the former is briefly
explained in Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, p. 561 seq.;
Renouvier's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de Philosophie</span></span>, t. 2; and in Hallam,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, ii. 7;
and of the latter in Hallam, id. (372-6); Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>,
§ 317; and Ritter, id. vi. 3, seq. Both systems are metaphysical rather than
theological. That of Cesalpini is also explained in Ritter, id. v. 653, seq.; in
Hallam, id. ii. 5; that of Cardan in Brucker, period iii. part ii. lib. l. c.
3; Buhle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Neu. Phil.</span></span> ii. 857, seq.; and in
Morley's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Cardan</span></span> (1853).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Giordano Bruno (1550-1600), Ritter's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span> v. 595. &amp;c. See
Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Lit.</span></span> ii. (8-14.)
Buhle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Phil.</span></span> ii. 703.
His life and opinions have been described by Mr. G. H. Lewis
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biogr.
Hist. of Phil.</span></span> p. 314, seq. A list of his works is
given in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buhle Gesch.
der Neu. Phil.</span></span> ii. 703, seq., and more briefly in
Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>,
§ 300. They were collected and published in 1830. One of them, the
<span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spaccio della bestia trionfante</span></span>,”</span>
being very scarce, and only known by
report, was formerly thought to be a translation of the celebrated work
<span class="tei tei-q">“De Tribus Impostoribus.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his travels
he reached Oxford, and was admitted to lecture in the
university.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucilio Vanini (1586-1619.)
His chief works were <span class="tei tei-q">“Amphitheatrum
Æternae Providentiæ,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“De Admirandis Naturæ Arcanis.”</span> The
latter was condemned by the Sorbonne. Full particulars are given in
Brucker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Phil.</span></span> period iii. part ii.
1. i. ch. 6. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buhle, Gesch.
der Neu. Phil.</span></span> ii. 866, seq.; and the Life in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
this reaction, see Hallam, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Lit.</span></span>
i. (536-44).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This revival is at the same time
the proof of the existence of doubt. Staüdlin, in Eichhorn's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Lit.</span></span> vol. vi. p. 24 seq. enumerates
treatises of this kind by Ficinus, Alfonso de Spina, Savonarola, Æneas
Sylvius, and Pico di Mirandola. The rare work of Sebonde also, which
has been supposed to be deistical, is really a treatise on natural religion as an
evidence of revealed. See Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Lit.</span></span>
i. 139, 40; Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, 277.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Socrates, see Grote's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greece</span></span>,
vol. viii. ch. 68.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Bacon and
Descartes see Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, v. 309
seq., and vii. 3 seq., Buhle iii. (1-86), Tennemann's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, x. 200 seq.; and the references given in
Tennemann's Manual, § 312 and 333. Among English sources, see Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, i. 76, 166;
Lewes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, Hallam's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, vol. ii.
part 3. ch. 3. On Descartes, see also Bouillet's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire
de la Revolution Cartesienne</span></span> (1842) p. 95-144; and on Bacon, the monograph by Kuno
Fischer of Jena, translated 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In
chronological order Herbert and Hobbes ought to come before
Spinoza. Indeed their works furnished suggestions to him; but as the
forms of scepticism which follow are arranged by nations, it is more convenient
to place Spinoza here alone previously to treating the others.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The best
means of understanding Spinoza is the perusal of his own
works. It is only in modern times that he has been understood. The old
works against him, Reimannus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Atheismo</span></span>), Mansveldt, Cuperus,
and Kortholt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Trib. Impostoribus</span></span>), are chiefly obsolete.
A memoir exists by Colerus, 1706. Among the moderns he has been carefully studied by
E. Saisset, both in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essais de Philosophie Religieuse</span></span>, 1859, and
in a dissertation prefixed to a translation of his works, 1861, and in a learned
article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span> for Jan. 1862; also by
Damiron, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur Spinoza</span></span>. Among English writers, see Hallam,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, iii. 344 seq., Lewes'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, and an article on the
Theologico-Politicus in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 16,
for Nov. 1848, referring to Spinoza's theology. In Germany his opinions have been
examined by Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span> vii 169 seq.; Buhle iii.
503 seq.; Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, x. 462 seq. Schleiermacher
in early life expressed his opinion of him in words of extravagant eulogy,
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reden über die Relig.</span></span>, p. 47, quoted in Lewes'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>.) Consult also the various
references given in Tennemann's Manual, § 338. A volume of Spinoza's
writings has lately been found and published, which is made interesting by
a photograph from a rare portrait of him.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
admirable article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue</span></span>, quoted in the last note,
Saisset discusses carefully the sources from which Spinoza derived his
theology and philosophy. Cousin in earlier life had regarded his philosophy
as borrowed from Descartes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragm. de Phil. Cartes.</span></span>, p. 428
seq.), and Ritter coincides in this opinion. More recently, in the new edition
(1861) of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Gen. de la Philos.</span></span>, he regards it as
borrowed from Maimonides (p. 457.) See on Maimonides' Philosophy, Adolph. Franck's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Orientales</span></span>, p. 318. Saisset after a careful examination
comes to the conclusion that the theology was suggested by Maimonides'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">More Nevochim</span></span>, but that the philosophy was derived neither from
the Kabbala, nor Averroes, nor Maimonides, but from Descartes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the
references given in a former note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare the Essay on Cousin by Sir W. Hamilton (Dissertations,
p. 32).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethica</span></span>,
part ii. prop. 1 and 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref">100</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. Polit.</span></span>
c. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxi.
vol. iii. p. 195. (Lips. ed. 1846.) It will be hereafter seen
how exactly this result is parallel to the religious philosophy and Christology
developed in the Hegelian school. See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A succinct account of
the contests in Holland is given in C. Butler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Grotius</span></span>, c. 5, 6, 12.
See also Amand Saintes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de la Vie
Spinoza</span></span>, p. 63; Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>,
E. T. § 356; Hagenbach, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span>,
§ 235.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A good
analysis for an English reader may be found in the article
quoted above from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. Pol.</span></span> ch. 19, 20.
The idea here is borrowed from Hobbes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 1-6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 7-12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 13-15.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 1, 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 12-14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate.</span></span> See Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Great critical sagacity
is evinced in describing the characteristics of
prophecy (ch. i. and ii.), and the historic peculiarities of the Pentateuch
(ch. viii.); which however, it would seem, had been observed partially by
some of the learned Dutch theologians of the time.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This lay at the bottom
of the opposition which Buxtorf and Owen
offered to the view, now universally adopted, of Capellus and Morinus,
that the vowel points were a late introduction in Hebrew, perhaps of the
sixth to the tenth centuries A.D. The history of the controversy is given
in Walch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Theol. Select.</span></span>
vol. iv. p. 244, 268; and Wolf's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Hebr.</span></span>
part iv. p. 7; part ii. p. 25 and 270. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Formula
Consensus</span></span> of the Helvetic church (1675), (on which see Schweizer in Herzog's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real. Encycl.</span></span> xi. 439 seq.; Henke's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vol. iv. § 34;
Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 222),
was partly designed against the views
of Capellus. On the question of the vowel points, consult the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena</span></span> to Walton's Polyglot, iii. 39; Carpzov.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Crit. Sacr.</span></span> 242 seq. Wolf's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Hebraica</span></span>, ii. 475; iv. 214 seq.;
and among the moderns, Gesenius's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Hebr.
Sprache</span></span>, § 48.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g.
in Le Clerc. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sentimens de Quelques Theologiens d'Hollande
sur l'Histoire Critique du père Simon</span></span>, and his Five Letters on
Inspiration; and in the French Roman catholic critic, R. Simon, in reference
to whom see note on p. <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357" href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. by Dr. Lee on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inspiration</span></span>, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358" href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Dr. Lee's
learned and valuable work on Inspiration, ch. iv.
The writer of this lecture need hardly say, that he cordially and reverently
believes in the miraculous character of scripture inspiration; and that the
remarks here in the text are only aimed at the extravagant views held in
the seventeenth century, such as that, above named, in reference to the
Hebrew vowel points. No Christian however ought to fail to appreciate
the deep reverence for holy scripture implied in the theory from which
dissent is here expressed.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359" href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A note, giving proof
of the fact here stated, will be found at the end
of Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360" href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wordsworth,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecclesiastical Sonnets</span></span>, part ii. 47.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361" href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above p. <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref">11</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362" href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
computation regards lord Herbert of Cherbury as marking the
commencement, and Hume the close; the doubters of the latter half of the
eighteenth century, such as Gibbon, being excluded, because their writings
are marked by the forms of French unbelief.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363" href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The former in the
struggle of Arminians and Calvinists in the Puritan
controversy; the latter in the revolution supposed to be caused in our literature
by the influence of Dryden.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364" href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In addition to the
references given in Lect. III. (p. <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref">106</a>) see Cousin's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Phil. au 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">
siècle</span></span> (Leçon 3); and Remusat's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur Bacon</span></span>,
1857; but especially the sketch of the relation of Bacon's philosophy to
religion in K. Fischer's monograph on Bacon. (c. x. and xi.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365" href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This inquiry
was called forth in the disputes of the established church
against popery and puritanism, and led to works in favour of toleration by
Chillingworth, Bp. Jeremy Taylor (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Liberty of Prophesying</span></span>),
and later by Milton; and towards the close of the century by Locke.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366" href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hobbes's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leviathan</span></span> was not published till 1651; but the thoughts
were evidently suggested by the woes of the reign of Charles I.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367" href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herbert (1581-1648).
His works were, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate</span></span>, 1624, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Causis
Errorum</span></span>, 1645, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Religione Laici</span></span>,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Religione Gentilium</span></span>, 1663. An
autobiography was published in 1764. He was answered by Locke
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reason. of Christianity</span></span>), Baxter, Halyburton,
Leland (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deists</span></span>, lett. 1 and
2), and Kortholt; and his philosophy was attacked by Gassendi. On Herbert
see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, vi. 390 seq.;
Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch.</span></span> x. 113 seq.;
Eichhorn's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Lit.</span></span> 6, 95 seq.;
Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Literature</span></span>, ii. 380 seq.; and
Lechler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Englischen Deismus</span></span>,
p. 36-54; Remusat in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des. Deux Mondes</span></span>,
1854, vol. iii. His views in some respects seem to have resembled those
of Pecock or Sebonde.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368" href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In its mode
of treatment it has been compared to Bacon's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wisdom of
the Ancients</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369" href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370" href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Relig.
Gentil.</span></span>, 15. 199. App. to Relig. Laici, 2, 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371" href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a curious record
in his journal (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Autobiography</span></span>, p. 171-3)
of an earnest prayer for guidance on the subject of the publication of his
first book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Veritate</span></span>, which he no doubt
saw was opposed to popular belief.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372" href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lechler,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des E. D.</span></span> p. 64.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373" href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Because they bear, as he thought,
the great test of being self-evident.
It will be remembered that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">clearness</span></em> of an idea was the test
of the innate character of it in Descartes' system
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Principia Philosophiæ</span></span>,
§ 10). Such ideas are those which would be regarded in Kant's system
as necessary forms of thinking, and in Cousin's as belonging to the impersonal
reason.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374" href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hobbes (1588-1679).
The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leviathan</span></span> is a philosophy of society,
studied as the development of the individual. He first treats of the individual,
book i.; then the commonwealth, book ii.; then the Christian
commonwealth, book iii.; and the kingdom of error, book iv.; borrowing
the idea from Augustin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>.
The brevity of the notice in the text prevents the possibility of doing
justice to the grandeur and to the good sense shown
in many respects in Hobbes's works. He was answered
by Cudworth (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Intellectual System</span></span>);
Cumberland (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Leg. Nat.</span></span>); Dr. Seth
Ward; Bramhall, (1658); Archbp. Tenison, 1760; and Lord Clarendon, in
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Survey of Leviathan</span></span> (1676). For an
explanation and criticism on his philosophical principles, see Ritter,
ch. vi. 453 seq.; Tennemann, b. x. 53 seq.; Lewes'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>; Morell's Id.; Hallam, b. ii. 463
seq.; and on his religious opinions, Leland (ch. iii.), and Lechler (p. 67-107).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375" href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part i. c. 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376" href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part iii. c. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377" href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part iii. c. 33.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378" href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Coward (1657-1724 circ.)
was a physician, who wrote in 1702 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Second Thoughts on
Human Souls</span></span>, apparently intended to disprove the
existence of spirit and natural immortality, but not of immortality itself
as a divine gift from God to man, though opponents disbelieved him in
this assertion. The list of answers written is given in Chalmers's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographical Dictionary</span></span> under <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coward</span></span>.
The house of commons in 1704 condemned the book, and caused it to be burned.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379" href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spinoza's view of
religion is the part suggested by Herbert, and his
view of the relation of the state to religion that suggested by Hobbes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380" href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Note
<a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a> (p. <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref">413</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381" href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Blount
(1654-93) wrote the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anima Mundi</span></span>, 1679;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Apollonius Tyana</span></span>, 1680;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles of Reason</span></span>, 1695. (See Macaulay,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of England</span></span>, vol. iv. 352.)
He was refuted by Nichols (1723) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conference
with a Theist</span></span>. See Lechler (114-124), and Leland, ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382" href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Licensing Act
of 1662 concerning the press was allowed to expire
in 1679. When James II. came to the throne (1685) the censorship
was renewed for seven years; and again in 1693 was revived for two years,
at which time it finally expired. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>,
No. 60, (May 1859.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383" href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As proved by his work in 1705,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Deist's Manual</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384" href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oracles of Reason</span></span> (1693) consists of sixteen papers in several
letters to Mr. Hobbes and others, by Ch. Blount, Gildon, and others. Papers
(No. 1-4) are a defence of T. Burnet's archæology, or on subjects cognate
to it. No. 5 is concerning the deist's religion; 6 on immortality; 7 on
Arians, Trinitarians, and Councils; 8 that felicity is pleasure; 9 of fate
and fortune; 10 of the original of the Jews; 11 of the lawfulness of marrying
two sisters successively; 12 of the subversion of Judaism, and the
origin of the Millennium; 13 of the auguries of the ancients; 14 of natural
religion; 15 that the soul is matter; 16 that the world is eternal.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385" href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">No. 14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386" href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">No. 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387" href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Attention
had been called a little earlier to the consideration of the
first principles of religion, by the Platonizing Cambridge party of More
and Cudworth, followers partly of Descartes. See Burnet's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem. of his
Times</span></span>, i. 187; and the Rev. A. Taylor's able introduction to the edition
of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Simon Patrick's Works</span></span>, Oxford 1858, (p. 28-42).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388" href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Locke's philosophy
see Ritter <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span> vii. 449-534; Cousin's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de Philos. au 18e siècle</span></span>, ch. 15-25;
Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Phil.</span></span>, vol. i.
p. 100 seq.; Lewes <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Id.</span></span>: Lechler, 154-179. His work
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of Christianity</span></span> typified the tone
of the writers on the Christian evidences for the next half century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389" href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For this and
the next named controversy, see Lathbury's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Non-Jurors</span></span>
(1845), ch. iv., and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Convocation</span></span>, ch. 12-14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390" href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
the Bangorian controversy (1717, 18), see Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional
History</span></span> (vol. ii. 408). A list of the pamphlets which were written during
the controversy was made by the antiquarian Thomas Hearne, and is
printed in Hoadley's works (3 vols. fol. 1773). See vol. ii. 381, and the
continuation in vol. i. 689.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391" href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Toland (1669-1722).
He was born an Irish catholic, turned protestant,
wrote his first deist book, 1696; fled for refuge to the court of
Hanover, and found protection there; wrote political pamphlets, and lived
abroad till near the close of his life. His chief theological writings are,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity not Mysterious</span></span>, 1696;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amyntor</span></span>, or Defence of the Life of
Milton, 1699 (on the Canon); <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nazarenus</span></span>, 1718;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tetradymus</span></span>, 1720; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pantheisticon</span></span>,
1720, sive formula celebrandæ sodalitatis Socraticæ, 1720, a
parody on the Christian service books. These are collected in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Works</span></span> (1726). (Vol. i. contains his
translation of the Spaccio of Bruno.) He was answered by John Norris,
Archbp. Synge, and Dr. Peter Browne; by S. Clarke, and by Jones
in his work on the Canon. Consult Leland's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">View of
Deistical Writers</span></span>, Lett, iv.; Lechler (180-210), and (463-73),
and note on p. 193.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392" href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity not Mysterious</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393" href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amyntor</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394" href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For
these facts see the Memoir of Toland prefixed to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous
Works</span></span>, and also Chalmers's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographical Dictionary</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395" href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This opposition
increased Toland's bitterness, for, in the following
year, 1698, in publishing a Life of Milton, and taking occasion to disprove
that Charles I was the author of the Ikon Basilike, he threw out hints of
similar forgeries in works attributed to the apostles. The hatred of churchmen
was further increased by this work.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396" href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Wilkins's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Concilia</span></span>, vol. iv., 631; Burnet's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of his own Times</span></span>, vol. iv. 521; Lathbury's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Convocation</span></span> (1842), p. 288 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397" href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sect. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398" href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sect. ii. ch. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399" href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. ch. 4.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400" href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 1, 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401" href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sect. iii. ch. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402" href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403" href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404" href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apology for Christianity not Mysterious</span></span> 1697, and also a
letter from Mr. Molyneux to Locke (Locke's Works, ed. 1723, vol. iii.
p. 566), quoted in the memoir (p. 17) prefixed to Toland's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Works</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405" href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his Life of Milton (1698)
pp. 91, 92, he had alluded to works falsely
attributed to Christ and the apostles. This was attacked by Blackhall as
if intended against the canonical scriptures, and was defended by Toland
by the publication of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Amyntor</span></span>, a catalogue of
books mentioned by the fathers as truly or falsely ascribed to Jesus Christ,
his apostles, &amp;c. The learned Pfaff calls it <span class="tei tei-q">“insignem Catalogum”</span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diss. Crit. Nov. Test.</span></span> ch. i. § 2).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406" href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A
Memoir of Lord Shaftesbury (1671-1713), has been lately published
(1860). His chief work was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Characteristics</span></span>.
On his religious views see Leland ch. 5 and 6; Lechler 243-265;
and on his philosophical views, see Ritter vii. 535 seq.; Eichhorn,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Literatur</span></span>, vi. 424 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407" href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On his
moral system, see Mackintosh's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertation on Ethics</span></span>, p.
158-166; and on Butler's ethical system, and its relation to Shaftesbury,
see the same work, p. 171 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408" href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Works,
vol. ii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inquiry concerning Virtue.
Charact.</span></span> ii. 272 etc.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409" href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The readings of the text
had been disturbed by Courcelles (1658),
and by Walton in his Polyglot, which caused an alarm, on which see Hody
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Bibl. Text.</span></span> 563 seq.),
but not widely till Mills, 1707. Mills' readings
were attacked by Whitby in 1710, and the arguments of the latter were
afterwards turned by Collins against Revelation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410" href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1699.
Daillé's criticism on the Ignatian Epistles (1666) had
shown similar sagacity to that afterwards displayed by Bentley, and bore
to his inquiries the same relation which those just named in the test bore
to those of Mills.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411" href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Collins (1676-1729). His works were on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Immortality</span></span> (1707, 8) in the Dodwell controversy;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Freethinking</span></span>, 1713, refuted entirely by Bentley
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phileleutherus Lipsiensis</span></span>. (See also Dr. Ibbot's
Boyle Lectures, 1713, where the general subject is treated.) On
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Necessity</span></span>, 1715. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grounds of the
Christian Religion</span></span>, 1724 (occasioned by Whiston's work
on Prophecy); answered by bishop Chandler, Samuel Chandler, T. Sherlock,
and Moses Lowman; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scheme of Literal Prophecy</span></span>, 1727, in answer
to Chandler. See Leland, ch. vii., and Lechler, 217-240. Henke's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vi. s. 29.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412" href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In
the two works named below in the text.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413" href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g.
that of Buckle in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilization</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414" href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 71.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415" href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 5-27.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416" href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
32, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417" href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 56.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418" href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 86.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419" href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 92.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420" href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 100,
&amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421" href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part
i. § 1-5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422" href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. § 6, 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423" href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. 11.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424" href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. (8-10.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425" href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Two other
writers, Mandeville and Lyons, have been omitted; Mandeville
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fables of the Bees</span></span>, 1723), because his speculations did not bear
directly on religion; Lyons, because his work is not important. In 1723
he published the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infallibility of Human Judgment</span></span>, in
which he analysed the mind, and applied the results of his analysis to the first
principles of natural religion, and to discredit the evidences and doctrines of revealed.
It bears more resemblance to Toland and Chubb than to any other writers,
but is a feeble work, interesting only as showing the prevalence of psychological
inquiries, and the tendency to examine psychologically the subject
of religion.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426" href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Some of those in
Germany, see Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a> and
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427" href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moderator</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">controversy between the author
of the Grounds, &amp;c. and his reverend opponents</span></span>, 1727. (Woolston's Works,
vol. v.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428" href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Woolston, 1669-1733. His works are collected in five volumes,
with a life prefixed. His pamphlets on Miracles were refuted by bishops
Pierce, 1729, Gibson, and Smabroke, by Lardner, and by Sherlock in the
Trial of the Witnesses. On Woolston, see Leland (Let. 8), Lechler
(289-311), Henke, vi. 49.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429" href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sydney
Sussex.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430" href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Free Gift
to the Clergy, or the Hireling Priests challenged</span></span>, 1722,
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, vol. iii.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431" href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Memoir prefixed to his Works, pp. 5 and
22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432" href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Discourse iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433" href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Disc. i. Div. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434" href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strauss
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leb. Jes.</span></span> Introd. § 6) thinks that his bitterness manifests
that he did not.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435" href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Disc.
iv, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Defence</span></span>, sect. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436" href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Voltaire, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres Crit.</span></span>
vol. xlvii. pp. 346-356.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437" href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Swift's Poem on his Death,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, vol. xiv. p. 359.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438" href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The latest
Pastorals of Gibson are not only against Woolston, but
other deists also, such as Tindal.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439" href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His friends would have found money for the fine; but Woolston
could not find securities for his good behaviour if released.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440" href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew Tindal, (1657-1733),
a follow of All Souls' college, wrote in 1706
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Rights of the Christian Church asserted</span></span>, probably suggested
by Spinoza's writings, to show that the absolute subjection of the church
to the state was the only safeguard for public happiness; and in 1730,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity as old as the Creation</span></span>, which was answered by
Conybeare 1732, Leland 1733, and by Waterland. The reply of the latter was attacked
by Conyers Middleton. On Tindal, see Lechler, 326-341; Leland,
Lett. 9; Henke, vi. 57.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441" href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. i-vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442" href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443" href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444" href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445" href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446" href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. ix-xii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447" href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch.
xiii. p. 258 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448" href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 272 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449" href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xiv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450" href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the remarks
in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>, 1860, p. 272.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451" href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Morgan died 1743.
His chief work was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moral Philosopher</span></span>,
1737, with two volumes more in reply to opponents. It was refuted by
Leland, and the controversy was carried forward in Tracts which are
described in Leland's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deists</span></span>, vol. i. Lett. 11 and 12. See also
Lechler, 370-390; Henke, vi. 70.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452" href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol.
i. p. 86, 96. vol. ii. § 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453" href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 145 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454" href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455" href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. 272, &amp;c. ii. § 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456" href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. § 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457" href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. § 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458" href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Chubb
(1679-1747), of whom a brief memoir was published
1747. He was the author of various tracts, of which a list is given in
Darling's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyclopædia Bibliographica</span></span>, 1852. The account of Chubb's
views given in the text is brief, partly because of their similarity to others
previously named, and partly because the author has been able to see only
very few of Chubb's works. But they are explained in Lechler, p.
343-356, and Leland, ch. 13. Chubb's earlier writings seem to be Socinian,
his later deistical. His best known works are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Discourse concerning
Reason</span></span>, 1731; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the True Gospel of Jesus Christ</span></span>, 1739;
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Posthumous Works</span></span>, 2 vols. 1748.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459" href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Posthumous Works</span></span>, i.
287.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460" href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id.
i. 292.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461" href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. ii. sect. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462" href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Posthumous Works</span></span>,
ii. 152.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463" href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. 177, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464" href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. i. 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465" href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Another
work was published anonymously in 1742, entitled <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity
not founded on Argument</span></span>, supposed to be written by the younger
Dodwell, son of the learned nonjuror. Its aim is to show that Christianity
never propagated itself by argument, but that the evidence of it depends
upon a personal illumination of each person who believes it. The work
was supposed to be a satire on Christianity. If earnest, it marked the
truth that emotional causes are intertwined with intellectual in the formation
of belief. See Lechler, pp. 411-421; Leland, Lett. xi. The book
of Jasher, published in 1751, is a forgery, written probably by some deist
(Horne's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction</span></span>, vol. ii. part ii. p. 142. ed. 8).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466" href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He was imprisoned
in the King's Bench, and kept from starvation by
money from the benevolent archbishop Secker. He died in 1768. See
Lechler, pp. 313-22; Leland, ch. x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467" href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bolingbroke (1678-1751).
See Schlosser's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Eighteenth
Century</span></span>, vol. i. ch. i. § 3 (transl.); Lechler, pp. 396-405; Leland, ch.
22-34.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468" href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Pouilly,
see Sir C. Lewis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inquiry into the Credibility of Roman
History</span></span>, vol. i. ch. i. p. 5, note, Pouilly published
in 1722 his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertation
sur l'Incertitude et l'Histoire des quatre premiers siècles de Rome</span></span>.
(See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. de l'Academ. des Inscr.</span></span>, vol. ix.) Beaufort followed
out the same line of inquiry in 1738. The two writers are considered to have
laid the basis of the modern historical criticism of ancient history.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469" href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">They are chiefly,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Letter on one of Tillotson's Sermons</span></span> in vol. iii.
of his works; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, in vols. iii. and iv.;
viz. Essay 1 on Human
Knowledge, (2) on Philosophy, (3) on the rise of Monotheism, (4) on
Authority in Religion; and Fragments in vol. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470" href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. iii.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letter on Tillotson</span></span>, also
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letter to Pouilly</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471" href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol.
v. No. 57, 58.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472" href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cfr.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Remusat's Angleterre au 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">
Siècle</span></span> i. 22, for remarks on
Bolingbroke's influence on Pope. The following lines of Pope exactly
express Bolingbroke's philosophy:
</p>
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
<span class="tei tei-q">“The universal Cause</span><br />
Acts not by partial, but by general laws,<br />
And makes what happiness we justly call,<br />
<span class="tei tei-q">Subsist not in the good of one, but all.”</span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> iv. 35.)
</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473" href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Instances are
to be found in Leland, who discusses his opinions at
great length. The reader who compares Leland's quotations with Bolingbroke's
works will perhaps think that he has pressed their meaning rather
far; but further consideration will show that he has correctly expressed
Bolingbroke's spirit and purpose.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474" href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter
on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tillotson</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475" href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv. 328.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476" href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv. 227, 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477" href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch.
iv. 405, 272.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478" href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The history
of Apologetik passes through the same phases, and
when it devotes itself to the later forms, becomes of less general interest,
and is more simply literary; which illustrates the fact that the later doubts
are of a much less practical and more recondite character than those
hitherto named.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_479" name="note_479" href="#noteref_479">479.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hume (1711-1776).
For his philosophy, see Tennemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>,
xi. 425; Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philosophie</span></span>, viii. b.
7. ch. ii.; Cousin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire
de la Philosophie Moderne</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leçon</span></span>
xi.; Morell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
i. 338; Lord Brougham's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Preliminary Discourse to Paley's Natural
Theology</span></span>, p. 248. For his religious opinions, see
Leland, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lett.</span></span> 16-21;
Lechler pp. 425-34. His views on miracles were answered by Paley,
Bp. John Douglas, Campbell, and Chalmers.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_480" name="note_480" href="#noteref_480">480.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Works, vol. iv.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inquiry Concerning the Human Understanding</span></span>;
Essay xi. on Providence and Future Life; Essay x. on Miracles.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_481" name="note_481" href="#noteref_481">481.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The miracles
connected with the Abbé Paris were defended in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La
Verité des Miracles de M. Paris</span></span>, by C. de Montgéron, 1745. See concerning
them, C. Butler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church of France</span></span>,
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works</span></span>, v. pp. 135-142);
Bp. John Douglas's <span class="tei tei-q">“Criterion by which the true miracles contained in the
New Testament may be distinguished from those of Pagans and Papists;”</span>
Tholuck's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischte Schriften</span></span>, i. 183.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_482" name="note_482" href="#noteref_482">482.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. by
Professor Powell, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_483" name="note_483" href="#noteref_483">483.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This line
of thought concerning the necessity of establishing the
antecedent probability of the fact, in order that the evidence may be logically
convincing, is adopted by two writers of very different opinions, by
Mr. Mansel (Essay in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, § 18-23),
and Mr. J. S. Mill (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. ii. b. iii. ch. 25. § 2).
The distinction between wonder and
miracle is allowed by Dean Lyall (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Propædia Prophetica</span></span>);
and Mr. Penrose (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The use of Miracles in proving a Revelation</span></span>).
Cfr. also Doederlin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Instit. Theol. Christ</span></span>, § 9, 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_484" name="note_484" href="#noteref_484">484.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, Mansel's Essay, § 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_485" name="note_485" href="#noteref_485">485.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There
follows hence another peculiarity in reference to miracles;
viz., that we require an interpreting mind to explain them. This is the
reason why so many thoughtful men believe that the outburst of fire when
Julian tried to rebuild the Jewish temple, and the wonder of the thorn in
the history of Port Royal, were nothing more than natural wonders. If the
final cause be considered to have been sufficient in these cases to warrant
divine interposition, at least there was no interpreter to explain them, nor
any revealed message to be taught. It must be conceded that this trait is
wanting in some miracles recorded in scripture, but not in those which are
wrought to attest a revelation, those which we use in proof of a special
message from the unseen world. Werenfels (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Opusc. Theol.</span></span>
1718, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diss.</span></span> v.)
has given tests for the discrimination of miracles which are quoted by Van
Mildert (Boyle Lect. II. p. 584).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_486" name="note_486" href="#noteref_486">486.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Dean Trench's remarks
on the apologetic value of miracles,
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on Miracles</span></span>, Introd. ch. vi).
In the same work will be found an excellent and interesting account of
the various assaults made on the argument
from miracles. He classifies the assaults as follows: (1) the Jewish,
(2) the heathen (Celsus, &amp;c.), (3) the pantheistic (Spinoza), (4) the sceptical
(Hume), (5) that which regards miracles as such only subjectively (Schleiermacher),
(6) the rationalistic (Paulus), (7) the historico-critical (Woolston,
Strauss). With Dean Trench's remarks. Compare also Pascal,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pensées</span></span>, part ii. art. 19. § 9; Lyall,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prop. Proph.</span></span> p. 441; Dr. Arnold's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures
on Modern History</span></span>, pp. 133, 137.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_487" name="note_487" href="#noteref_487">487.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Lessing, &amp;c.
Reimarus, &amp;c. See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_488" name="note_488" href="#noteref_488">488.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Butler (1692-1752).
The Analogy was published in 1736. The
reader's attention is invited to the excellent edition of it by bishop Fitzgerald
(1st ed. 1849), and the able memoir and criticism which precede.
Mr. Bartlett has also written a memoir of Butler. Cfr. also Blunt's Essays,
p. 490 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_489" name="note_489" href="#noteref_489">489.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For example, some
of the physical proofs of immortality in part i.
ch. i. are weakened by the discoveries of physiology; and those in favour
of the miraculous character of creation, in part ii. ch. ii. would be regarded
as of small value by those who hold the hypothesis either of the transmutation
of species, or of their occurrence according to a law of natural selection.
Some things of a different kind in Butler, which need correction, are
pointed out in Fitzgerald's edition. See e.g. p. 184, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_490" name="note_490" href="#noteref_490">490.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is
the objection taken by Tholuck (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischt. Schrift.</span></span> p. 192,
3.) A somewhat similar objection is quoted by Fitzgerald from Mackintosh,
Introd. p. 49, upon both of which he offers criticisms. A kindred objection
has been stated (probably by Mr. Martineau) in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No.
15. Jan. 1859, (pp. 211-214,) and another by Miss S. Hennell in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the
Sceptical Tendency of Butler's Analogy</span></span>, 1857, in which she traces doubt
in Butler's life as well as teaching. Others may be found stated and
examined in bishop Hampden's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophical Evidence of
Christianity</span></span>, 1827. (pp. 229-291.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_491" name="note_491" href="#noteref_491">491.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This conjecture
is given by Fitzgerald in the life prefixed to his edition
of the Analogy (p. 36), where also two passages are quoted, one from
Foster, and the other from Berkeley, which certain passages of Butler
resemble. It would be interesting to know whether the work of Dr. Peter Browne on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Divine and Natural conceived of by Analogy</span></span>, 1733,
had come under Butler's notice. Many similar passages, as well as references
to the sources of the difficulties which Butler answers, are given in the
notes to Fitzgerald's edition. Mr. Pattison also
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>, p.
286) has expressed an opinion that Butler was much assisted by the works
of his predecessors. The probability is, that in all great works their authors
assimilate an amount of information current in the age, as well as create
new material. This was probably the case even in works like Euclid's
Geometry and Aristotle's Natural History and Organum.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_492" name="note_492" href="#noteref_492">492.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
value of Butler's argument is fully discussed in the admirable
work on Butler by bishop Hampden before quoted, which is the best existing
commentary on the author: second to it are Chalmers's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural Religion</span></span>
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bridgwater Treatise</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_493" name="note_493" href="#noteref_493">493.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hampden's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phil. Evid.</span></span> (131-228.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_494" name="note_494" href="#noteref_494">494.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The revival
in the early part of the century was due to the agency of
Wesley and Whitfield outside the church; in the latter to those of such
men as Romaine, Newton, and ultimately Simeon, within it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_495" name="note_495" href="#noteref_495">495.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g., W. Law's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Serious Call</span></span>, and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Perfection</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_496" name="note_496" href="#noteref_496">496.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz.,
by means of the Moravians of Herrnhut, whose founder, Zinzendorf,
himself sprang from the pietist movement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_497" name="note_497" href="#noteref_497">497.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zech. iv. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_498" name="note_498" href="#noteref_498">498.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The most
effective sketch of the intellectual and social state of France
in the last century is given in Buckle's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Civilization</span></span>, vol. i.;
especially in ch. 8, 11, 12, and 14. His narrative only sets forth the dark
side of the picture, and the Christian reader frequently feels pained at
some of his remarks; but it is generally correct so far as it goes, and the
references are copious to the original sources which the author used. I
have therefore frequently rested content with quoting this work without
indicating further sources. An instructive account of the centralization
under Louis XIV is given in Sir J. Stephens's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the History of France</span></span>, Lect. 21-23.
The reign of Louis XV is treated in De Tocqueville's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Philosophie du Règne de Louis XV</span></span>. A brief view of the
history may be seen in the works of the liberal Roman catholic, C. Butler,
vol. v. on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church of France</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_499" name="note_499" href="#noteref_499">499.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The passages from Benoit's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Edict de Nantes</span></span>, vol. v. p.
887 seq., and Quick's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Synodicon</span></span>, i. p. 130 seq.,
respecting the cruelties of
the dragonnades, are quoted at length in Buckle, i. p. 624, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_500" name="note_500" href="#noteref_500">500.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This occurred in
the contest concerning the Gallican liberties, and
the dispute about the Bull Unigenitus. Concerning the former see C.
Butler's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church of France</span></span> (Works, vol. v.) p. 34 seq., and Hase's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 424; and, on the latter,
Butler ut sup. 188-249, and Hase, § 420.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_501" name="note_501" href="#noteref_501">501.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The nature of the literature
of the reign of Louis XIV, and the
alteration of position of authors in the new reign, are explained in Buckle,
i. ch. 11 and 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_502" name="note_502" href="#noteref_502">502.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1715-1723.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_503" name="note_503" href="#noteref_503">503.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Literature really became a political power,
and exercised a similar
influence to that of the modern newspaper press.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_504" name="note_504" href="#noteref_504">504.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor Webb
of Dublin, in his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Intellectualism of Locke</span></span>,
has given evidence which establishes this point.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_505" name="note_505" href="#noteref_505">505.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Condillac
see Cousin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cours de la Philosophie Morale</span></span>, leçon 3;
Renouvier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie Moderne</span></span>,
v. 2. § 4 Villemain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cours de Literature</span></span>,
ii. 20; Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
i. 148 seq.; Lewes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Philosophy</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_506" name="note_506" href="#noteref_506">506.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may prevent
ambiguity to state that the term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">materialism</span></em>, when
employed in these lectures, is not used in its modern popular sense of mere
animalism, the obedience to the lower side of human nature; but in its
technical sense, as the kind of philosophy which so regards spirit to be a
property of matter as to produce inferences unfavourable to the belief in
immortality or moral obligation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_507" name="note_507" href="#noteref_507">507.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the scepticism of
Montaigne (1532-1592) see Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
der Philosophie</span></span>, ix. 443; Vinet's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai de
Philosophie Morale</span></span>; Sainte-Beuve <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critiques et
Portraits Littéraires</span></span>, vol. iv.; Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Literature</span></span>, ii. 29; Emerson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Representative Men</span></span>;
and R. W. Church in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford Essays</span></span>, 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_508" name="note_508" href="#noteref_508">508.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Charron (1541-1603) see
Tennemann, Id. ix. 527. Sainte-Beuve,
t. xi.; Hallam, i. 570, ii. 362, 511; and the article in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biogr. Univ.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_509" name="note_509" href="#noteref_509">509.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Bayle
(1647-1706) see Tennemann, xi. 268 seq.; Renouvier,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phil. Mod.</span></span> iii. 3. § 6; Sainte-Beuve, iii. 392.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_510" name="note_510" href="#noteref_510">510.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Fontenelle (1657-1757)
see Sainte-Beuve, iii. and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biogr.
Univ.</span></span> Another writer, Dolet (1509-1546), was also suspected, at an
earlier period, not only of scepticism but of atheism. See his Life, by J.
Boulmier, 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_511" name="note_511" href="#noteref_511">511.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On R. Simon see
Lect. <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. p. <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref">83</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_512" name="note_512" href="#noteref_512">512.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Lechler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Eng. Deismus</span></span>, p. 445.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_513" name="note_513" href="#noteref_513">513.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
the great eagerness for English literature in France at that time,
see the facts collected by Buckle, i. (658-670).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_514" name="note_514" href="#noteref_514">514.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A list of
those that are said to have been translated is given by
Lechler, Id. 446. On the comparison of English and French deism see
Henke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vi. s. 131.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_515" name="note_515" href="#noteref_515">515.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1726-1729.
Cfr. Villemain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cours de Litt.</span></span> i. (168-177). A letter of
Fleury, quoted from Schlosser by Lechler (Id. 446), proves that his fears
were excited by the influence which English literature was producing.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_516" name="note_516" href="#noteref_516">516.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this
charge of attack about 1750 see Buckle, i. 716-718; and on
the origin of the attack on the church, and the causes why it preceded that
on the state, Id. 684 seq. Cfr. also De Tocqueville's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Louis XV</span></span>, t. ii. ch. 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_517" name="note_517" href="#noteref_517">517.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Voltaire lived
1694-1778. The Life by Lord Brougham, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives
of Men of Letters</span></span>, is not only very full of facts, but contains some very
able criticism, especially on the dramatic works of Voltaire. More biographies
have been given in this lecture than in others, in accordance with
the reasons explained in Lec. <a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>. p.
<a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref">33</a>, because in this period the infidel
influence was the result of the teachers, as much as of the ideas taught.
See concerning Voltaire, Henke's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span>
vi. 166; Schlosser, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Eighteenth Century</span></span>,
i. 2. § 1, iv. § 1. Bartholmess, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Crit. des
Doctr. Relig. de la Phil. Mod.</span></span> i. 211 seq.; Bungener's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_518" name="note_518" href="#noteref_518">518.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1726.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_519" name="note_519" href="#noteref_519">519.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sirven was
condemned in 1762, on an unjust suspicion of causing his
daughter's death, to prevent her becoming a protestant.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_520" name="note_520" href="#noteref_520">520.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">La Barre was
a youth of seventeen, who, on the suspicion of having
injured a crucifix on the bridge of Abbeville, was condemned (1763) to be
tortured on the rack, to have his tongue cut out, and to be put to death;
which sentence was literally executed. See
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>, sub
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voltaire</span></span>, vol. xix. p. 484, and Brougham's Life of him
(94-99).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_521" name="note_521" href="#noteref_521">521.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Calas
were a family at Toulouse, the father of which was put to
death (1762) by catholic fanaticism. Voltaire investigated the facts with
care; and, by instituting legal proceedings at Paris, got the sentence of the
Toulouse court reversed, and all the reparation that was possible made to
the family. Money to defray the expenses was sent to him from all the
reformed parts of Europe. The English queen (Charlotte) and the archbishop
of Canterbury (Secker) headed the English subscription list. The
facts have lately been reinvestigated by the accomplished A. Coquerel
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fils.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jean Calas et sa Famille</span></span>,
1858. The narrative is told in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster
Review</span></span>, No. 28, for Oct. 1858. See also Henke's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, vi. 298 seq.
</p>
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
On the tomb of Voltaire, now a cenotaph, in the vaults of the Pantheon,
is an inscription, <span class="tei tei-q">“Il défendit Calas, Sirven, De la Barre, et Montbailly.”</span>
Since the Pantheon has been converted into a church, the side of the tomb
which bears this inscription has been concealed by a screen, so that visitors
are only permitted to view one of the other sides.
</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_522" name="note_522" href="#noteref_522">522.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carlyle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Works</span></span>,
vol. ii. It will be observed that
many of the following remarks are abbreviated from this source.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_523" name="note_523" href="#noteref_523">523.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carlyle, Id. p. 113.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_524" name="note_524" href="#noteref_524">524.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">i.e.
the age of Louis XV. See Id. pp. 180-185.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_525" name="note_525" href="#noteref_525">525.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
Voltaire's power of ridicule, see Id. 120, 167; and on his power
of order, 163 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_526" name="note_526" href="#noteref_526">526.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. 161.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_527" name="note_527" href="#noteref_527">527.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. 119.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_528" name="note_528" href="#noteref_528">528.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The question
of Voltaire's blasphemy is treated by lord Brougham
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span>, p. 7).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_529" name="note_529" href="#noteref_529">529.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The four
volumes are xxxii-xxxv of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres Complètes</span></span>, 8vo.
1785. Vol. xxxii contains the philosophical works, of which ch. 2, 6, 7,
9, of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité de Metaphysique</span></span>,
relate to religion; also the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Profession
de Foi des Théistes</span></span>; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Homélies
prononcées à Londres</span></span>. Vol. xxxiii
contains the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examen de Milord Bolingbroke</span></span>;
and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epitre aux Romains</span></span>. Vol. xxxiv,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Bible enfin Expliquée</span></span>, where the notes contain
Voltaire's views fully. Vol. xxiv,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Etablissement du Christianisme</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_530" name="note_530" href="#noteref_530">530.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
persecutions which fell on literary men, see Buckle, i.
(672-684.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_531" name="note_531" href="#noteref_531">531.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The proof
of this assertion is clear in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité de Metaphysique</span></span>,
c. 2. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. xxxii); in Letter iii of Memmius
to Cicero; in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Profess. de Foi des Théistes</span></span>;
and is shown by the fact of his opposition to
the Encyclopædists on the ground of their atheism; which is confirmed
by the inscription on his tomb, <span class="tei tei-q">“Il combattit les athées.”</span> It is his
blasphemous tone which has, not unnaturally, given rise to the idea of his
atheism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_532" name="note_532" href="#noteref_532">532.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ecrasez
l'infame”</span> are the words, the initials of which, signed at
the end of his letters to infidel friends, baffled the French police. Buckle
considers them to have been designed against the French church, but
offers no proof. It is to be feared that they were rather intended against
the Christian religion, if not against the sacred person of our blessed
Lord.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_533" name="note_533" href="#noteref_533">533.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary</span></span>
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. xxxiv.), the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Homélies</span></span> (vol. xxxii,),
and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span> (vol. xxxiv.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_534" name="note_534" href="#noteref_534">534.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the contrast
of his historic tone to that of Bossuet, see Buckle,
i. 726, and Schlosser, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Eighteenth Century</span></span>,
(English translation),
vol. i. ch. iv. § 2. p. 273.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_535" name="note_535" href="#noteref_535">535.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare
Carlyle's remarks <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ut sup.</span></span> p. 175.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_536" name="note_536" href="#noteref_536">536.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. 105.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_537" name="note_537" href="#noteref_537">537.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Frederick's
entertainment of these French refugees, see Henke,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch</span></span>. vi. 180; Schlosser, vol. i. 2. § 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_538" name="note_538" href="#noteref_538">538.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">La Mettrie (1709-1751).
His views are seen in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discours Préliminaire</span></span>
to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Nat. del âme</span></span>, and
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'homme machiné</span></span> (1748).
See a criticism on him in Ph. Damiron's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoires pour servir à l'Histoire
de Philosophie au 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> siècle</span></span>
(vol. i. pp. 1-49), reprinted from the Report
of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Académie des Sciences</span></span>; also Henke, vi, 13.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_539" name="note_539" href="#noteref_539">539.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">De Prades
(1720-1782). See Henke, vi. 201; also the article in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_540" name="note_540" href="#noteref_540">540.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">D'Argens (1704-1771).
See Damiron, Id. ii. 256-376.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_541" name="note_541" href="#noteref_541">541.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the old coteries of
Rambouillet, &amp;c., see Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Literature</span></span>,
iii. 137.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_542" name="note_542" href="#noteref_542">542.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">D'Alembert
(1717-83). For particulars of his life, see Brougham's
memoir in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of Men of Letters</span></span>. For his philosophy, see
Damiron, ii. 1-114; Henke, vi. 218; Schlosser, i. 4. § 7. His infidelity was known to
friends, but not openly avowed.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_543" name="note_543" href="#noteref_543">543.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marmontel (1723-99).
See Sainte-Beuve, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Portraits</span></span>, vol. iv.;
Schlosser, ii. 2. § 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_544" name="note_544" href="#noteref_544">544.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm, 1723-1807.
See Sainte-Beuve, vol. vii. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Correspondance
Litt. par le Baron Grimm et Diderot</span></span> is the great source for the
knowledge of his character.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_545" name="note_545" href="#noteref_545">545.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Lambert (1717-1803). See Damiron,
ii. 144-256.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_546" name="note_546" href="#noteref_546">546.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Abbé Raynal (1711-96).
See Schlosser, ii. 2. § 1. Henke, vol. vi.
enumerates many more of the same class. Particulars of all are given in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_547" name="note_547" href="#noteref_547">547.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
following refer to places where the tendency and spirit of this
whole movement are described, as well as literary information supplied.
Henke, vi. 208, &amp;c.; Bartholmess, i. 117-210; Lerminier's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Influence de la Phil. du 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">
siècle</span></span> (1833); Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Phil.</span></span> i. 158, &amp;c.;
Maurice, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mod. Phil.</span></span> p. 527-59; H. Martin's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de France</span></span>, vol. xv. and xvi. liv.
96, 99, 100, 101; Renouvier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mod. Phil.</span></span> b. v. ch. 2. § 6-8;
also Kuno Fischer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bacon</span></span>, p. 451,
and the references above given to Schlosser and to Damiron; Tennemann
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 378, &amp;c.) also gives many literary
references.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_548" name="note_548" href="#noteref_548">548.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diderot (1713-84).
His life and character have been sketched by
Carlyle, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Misc. Works</span></span>, vol. iv.);
also by Damiron, ii. (227-324); St. Beuve,
i. 355. Also see Villemain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tableau de la Litt.
au 18</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">e</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> siècle</span></span>, lec. xix. 20.
His novels are the parent of the impure novel of modern times. See
Schlosser, i. 4. § 5, ii 2. § 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_549" name="note_549" href="#noteref_549">549.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur le Mérite et la Vertu</span></span>, pp. 73, 87, he allows deism,
the God of moral order. Similarly in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pensées Philos.</span></span> § 46,
but it is the God of nature. But in the Dialogue with D'Alembert he teaches
atheism. On his theological views see Damiron, ii. 261 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_550" name="note_550" href="#noteref_550">550.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 25, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_551" name="note_551" href="#noteref_551">551.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Carlyle,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Misc. Works</span></span>, iv. 322.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_552" name="note_552" href="#noteref_552">552.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Helvetius (1715-1771).
See C. Remusat in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des Deux Mondes</span></span>,
Aug. 15, 1858. On the circle of Helvetius see Carlyle
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ut sup.</span></span> 287 seq.;
and on their atheism Buckle, i. 786 seq. Concerning Helvetius himself
see Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Philos.</span></span> viii. b. ix. ch. 2;
Cousin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de Phil. Morale</span></span>, leçon 7; Schlosser,
i. 4. § 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_553" name="note_553" href="#noteref_553">553.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De l'Esprit
et de l'Homme</span></span> (Œuvres compl. 1818, vol. i. and
ii.). Both treatises are excellently analysed in the table of contents prefixed
to the work. The allusions in the text here may be thought to fail
from their brevity in showing that Helvetius's opinions were a logical corollary
from his principles; they cannot at least give any notion of the great
power of analysis exhibited by him in expressing his own views.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_554" name="note_554" href="#noteref_554">554.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In
Discourse ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_555" name="note_555" href="#noteref_555">555.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_556" name="note_556" href="#noteref_556">556.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">D'Holbach (1723-89).
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Système de la Nature</span></span> bears the name
of a Mirabaud, secretary to the Academy. Some have thought it to be
written by Robinet, author of a similar work. (His works are discussed in
Damiron, ii, 480 seq.) Concerning the work see Villemain, iii. leç. 38;
Damiron, i. (93-177); Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ. Philos.</span></span>
viii. b. 9. ch. 3; Schlosser, i. 4. § 1. On D'Holbach's view of God
see Damiron, Id. p. 155, &amp;c.; Buckle, i. 787, note. The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Système de la Nature</span></span> is partly analysed and
criticised in Brougham's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse on Natural Theology</span></span>, pp. 232-47.
It comprised two volumes, and is followed by a volume containing three
small treatises relating to the natural principles of morals, and social
philosophy. The work was refuted by Bergier (1771).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_557" name="note_557" href="#noteref_557">557.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Partie 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">ere</span></span>
ch. iii. and iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_558" name="note_558" href="#noteref_558">558.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part
ii. ch. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_559" name="note_559" href="#noteref_559">559.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part ii. ch. xi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_560" name="note_560" href="#noteref_560">560.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part i. ch. xiii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_561" name="note_561" href="#noteref_561">561.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part
ii. ch. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_562" name="note_562" href="#noteref_562">562.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. ch. iv. and v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_563" name="note_563" href="#noteref_563">563.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Damiron discuses,
in addition to the writers already named, two or
three others, viz., Naigeon, Sylv. Marechal, and De la Lande, whose names
are not introduced here into the text.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_564" name="note_564" href="#noteref_564">564.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Rousseau
see Villemain ii. leçon (23-24); Brougham's life of
him in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Men of Letters</span></span>;
Bartholmess, i. 233-270; Henke, vi. 232, especially
p. 253, which refers to his theology; Schlosser, i. 4. § 4, and ii. § 2; St.
Marc Girardin on the Emile in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Dec. 1854;
and an article, too favourably written, but full of information, in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, Oct. 1859, which has been
of much use for this lecture.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_565" name="note_565" href="#noteref_565">565.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The chief
facts of Rousseau's life are these:—Born 1712; came to
Paris, 1741; wrote <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sur les Sciences et les Arts</span></span>, 1750;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'inegalité parmi les hommes</span></span>, 1753;
lived in the Paris coteries, 1754-60; wrote <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouvelle
Heloise</span></span>, 1760; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Contrat Social</span></span>, 1761, and
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>; an exile in Switzerland
1762, where he wrote <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettres de la Montagne</span></span>; accompanied Hume to
England 1776; wrote his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span>;
returned to the Continent 1767; died 1770.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_566" name="note_566" href="#noteref_566">566.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are some good remarks on this theory in the article in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> before quoted, the substance of which is
to show that Rousseau's doctrine was false in its method and in its tendencies. It marked
the stage of inquiry, indicative of the last part of the last century, when
men, ignoring the teaching of history, strove to solve problems by means
of abstract speculations; the attempt to study the origin of phenomena instead
of the facts of their progressive manifestation. The social contract
is nothing but the description of the collective development to which
society tends. The scheme was visionary: but, as a protest against unjust
monopolies which existed in that age, it woke up a response in society (cfr.
Mill on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Liberty</span></span>, p. 47-50); and in its tendency it made Rousseau
the precursor of the French revolution; but in typifying that movement it represented
only its transient aspect of subversive energy, not its work of
political reformation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_567" name="note_567" href="#noteref_567">567.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>,
b. iv. (See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. iv. p. 14-119, ed. Paris, 1823, by
Musset-Pathay.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_568" name="note_568" href="#noteref_568">568.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. 17-20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_569" name="note_569" href="#noteref_569">569.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. p. 22-30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_570" name="note_570" href="#noteref_570">570.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>,
p. 33: <span class="tei tei-q">“Si la matière mue me montre une volonté, la
matière mue, selon de certaines lois me montre une intelligence. C'est
mon second article de foi.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_571" name="note_571" href="#noteref_571">571.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 34, 36.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_572" name="note_572" href="#noteref_572">572.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 40-49.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_573" name="note_573" href="#noteref_573">573.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 50-53.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_574" name="note_574" href="#noteref_574">574.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 57-75.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_575" name="note_575" href="#noteref_575">575.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 83-86.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_576" name="note_576" href="#noteref_576">576.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 75-119.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_577" name="note_577" href="#noteref_577">577.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 86, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_578" name="note_578" href="#noteref_578">578.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 86.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_579" name="note_579" href="#noteref_579">579.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>, pp. 105-107.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_580" name="note_580" href="#noteref_580">580.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The comparison
of the statements of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span> with fragments
of Rousseau lately published, shows that many statements which they contain
in reference to other persons is false. The statement in the text is
made in deference to the opinion latterly stated (e.g. in Heine's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allemagne</span></span>),
that there is a general air of romance pervading the work. If the statements
in reference to himself are untrue, the narrative is only a greater proof of
the immorality of the author. The supposition however seems groundless.
The defender of Rousseau, G. H. Morin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai</span></span>, 1851), does not
exculpate his author by impeaching the historical truthfulness of the
Confessions.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_581" name="note_581" href="#noteref_581">581.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The high
moral standard is not of course seen in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions</span></span>,
which show Rousseau to have been the incarnation of selfishness, and much
worse than most of the other unbelievers, but is exhibited in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emile</span></span>.
The fact that the author of the latter work could write the former is a sad
example of a man knowing, like the ancient heathens, how to do good and
doing it not.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_582" name="note_582" href="#noteref_582">582.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henke
(vi. p. 267 seq.) draws out the comparison of Voltaire with
Rousseau in an excellent manner. Coleridge (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Friend</span></span>, vol.
i. 165-186) has given a comparison of Voltaire with Erasmus, and of Rousseau with
Luther.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_583" name="note_583" href="#noteref_583">583.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
Villemain, i. 14, 15., ii. 22; Schlosser, i. 2. § 2., 4. § 3, and ii.
2. § 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_584" name="note_584" href="#noteref_584">584.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Buckle, i.
(772-783).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_585" name="note_585" href="#noteref_585">585.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Macaulay's
remarks in reference to the Revolution, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>
(ed. 8vo. 1843), ii. 215, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_586" name="note_586" href="#noteref_586">586.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the
causes of the revolution compare the statements of Alison,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Europe</span></span>, i. ch. ii. and iii., and
Buckle, i. (836-850).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_587" name="note_587" href="#noteref_587">587.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
incipient hostility to religion in the National Assembly, see
Alison, vol. ii. ch. v. § 46, Id. § 32-35. On the full development of it in
the Convention, see Id. iv. ch. xiv. § (45-48).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_588" name="note_588" href="#noteref_588">588.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nov. 9.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_589" name="note_589" href="#noteref_589">589.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Concerning this
act of Robespierre, see Alison, iv. ch. xv. § 23, 24, 27.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_590" name="note_590" href="#noteref_590">590.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
state of religion under the Directory, see Alison, vol. v. ch.
xix. § 41, and vol. vi, ch. xxiv. § 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_591" name="note_591" href="#noteref_591">591.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See M.
Gregoire's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de la Théophilanthropie</span></span>, forming part of
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Sectes Relig.</span></span>, and the
notice of it in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>,
No. 56. Also the references in Alison, vi. ch. xxiv. § 19;
Staüdlin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte
des Rationalismus und Supernat.</span></span> 1826, (44-54.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_592" name="note_592" href="#noteref_592">592.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
state under Napoleon, see Alison, viii. ch. xxxv. § 1, and
30-40.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_593" name="note_593" href="#noteref_593">593.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">April 11, 1802.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_594" name="note_594" href="#noteref_594">594.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Morell,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist, of Phil.</span></span> vol. i. ch. iv. § 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_595" name="note_595" href="#noteref_595">595.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les
Ruines ou Meditations sur les Revolutions des Empires</span></span> (1791.)
A similar view of religion is taken in Dupuis,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origine de tous les Cultes</span></span>,
1795.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_596" name="note_596" href="#noteref_596">596.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_597" name="note_597" href="#noteref_597">597.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_598" name="note_598" href="#noteref_598">598.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_599" name="note_599" href="#noteref_599">599.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vii-xii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_600" name="note_600" href="#noteref_600">600.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_601" name="note_601" href="#noteref_601">601.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xix.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_602" name="note_602" href="#noteref_602">602.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xx. &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_603" name="note_603" href="#noteref_603">603.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xxii. p. 218.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_604" name="note_604" href="#noteref_604">604.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 226.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_605" name="note_605" href="#noteref_605">605.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 232.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_606" name="note_606" href="#noteref_606">606.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 238.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_607" name="note_607" href="#noteref_607">607.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 255.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_608" name="note_608" href="#noteref_608">608.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 262.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_609" name="note_609" href="#noteref_609">609.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 268.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_610" name="note_610" href="#noteref_610">610.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
274.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_611" name="note_611" href="#noteref_611">611.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 277.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_612" name="note_612" href="#noteref_612">612.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 285.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_613" name="note_613" href="#noteref_613">613.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 286.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_614" name="note_614" href="#noteref_614">614.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 287.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_615" name="note_615" href="#noteref_615">615.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 288.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_616" name="note_616" href="#noteref_616">616.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xxiv.
p. 320.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_617" name="note_617" href="#noteref_617">617.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such
as the idea of the plurality of worlds suggested by Fontenelle.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_618" name="note_618" href="#noteref_618">618.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The apologetic
literature of this period of the French church is not
powerful. See Buckle, i. 692, note; and Alison, i. 2. § 62.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_619" name="note_619" href="#noteref_619">619.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The influence on Germany will be seen in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_620" name="note_620" href="#noteref_620">620.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_621" name="note_621" href="#noteref_621">621.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon (1737-1794).
See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Autobiography</span></span> (Milman's edition 1839),
ch. iii. p. 73, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_622" name="note_622" href="#noteref_622">622.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. some remarks
(p. 27, 28,) in an instructive paper on Gibbon in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 3, on the relation of his method and
style to his age.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_623" name="note_623" href="#noteref_623">623.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"> Milman and Guizot.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_624" name="note_624" href="#noteref_624">624.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The first
of these is explained by Dr. Milman, Preface to edition of
Gibbon, p. 10, and the article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>,
No. 100.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_625" name="note_625" href="#noteref_625">625.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr.
Mackintosh (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span>, i. 244), quoted by Milman in his edition of
Gibbon, c. xv. first note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_626" name="note_626" href="#noteref_626">626.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The remarks
which follow are partly taken from the above-named
article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span> (pp. 33-36). Nearly the same thing
is said by Miss Hennell in the fifth Baillie Prize Essay on the early Christian
anticipation of the end of the world, 1860, a treatise which in other respects is
very objectionable.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_627" name="note_627" href="#noteref_627">627.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bp. Watson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apology for Christianity</span></span> was a reply to Gibbon,
1776. Dean Milman's notes to chapters xv. and xvi. of Gibbon are an
excellent comment and criticism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_628" name="note_628" href="#noteref_628">628.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Byron,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Childe Harold</span></span>, iii. 105-108.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_629" name="note_629" href="#noteref_629">629.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paine (1737-1809), published
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rights of Man</span></span>, 1790; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Age of Reason</span></span>,
1794. See the life by Cheetham, 1809, and Chalmers's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographical
Dictionary</span></span>. Bp. Watson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apology for the Bible</span></span>
was a reply to Paine (1796).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_630" name="note_630" href="#noteref_630">630.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Anacharsis Clootz.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_631" name="note_631" href="#noteref_631">631.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
danger arising from republican clubs is described in Alison, iv.
ch. xvi. § 6; and in W. Hamilton Reed's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rise and Dissolution of Infidel
Societies in the Metropolis</span></span>, 1800. See also the Report of the Committee
of the House of Lords on them, 1801. The works of Godwin on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Political
Justice</span></span>, 1793, and of Mary Woolstencraft on the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rights of Women</span></span>, are
generally adduced as illustrations of the prevalence of French political
principles at that time in England.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_632" name="note_632" href="#noteref_632">632.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part i.
pp. 3-19, and part ii. pp. 8-83.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_633" name="note_633" href="#noteref_633">633.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part
i. pp. 3, 4; 21-50; part ii. pp. 83-93.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_634" name="note_634" href="#noteref_634">634.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 44.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_635" name="note_635" href="#noteref_635">635.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part ii. pp. 10-83.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_636" name="note_636" href="#noteref_636">636.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part i.
pp. 37-44. This difficulty, first suggested by Fontenelle, is
met in the eloquent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Astronomical Discourses</span></span> (1822) of Chalmers. The
controversy has been newly opened by the brilliant essay on the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plurality of Worlds</span></span> (1853), supposed to be by Dr. Whewell, and
pursued by Dr. Brewster (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">More Worlds than One</span></span>), Professor
Baden Powell (Essays on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Order of Nature</span></span>), and
by Professor H. S. Smith in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford Essays</span></span>,
1855.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_637" name="note_637" href="#noteref_637">637.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_638" name="note_638" href="#noteref_638">638.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part i. pp. 3, 4; p. 50.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_639" name="note_639" href="#noteref_639">639.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Owen (1771-1858).
About the year 1800 he became known
in connexion with schemes of industrial reform at the Lanark mills; and
from 1813-19 conducted them as a social experiment to carry out his
views. He attempted also to spread his opinions in America. After his
return to England, by means of lectures and his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The New Moral
World</span></span>, he taught them in the manufacturing towns; and they were widely
spread about the time of the Chartist movement (1839-41). His opinions
may be learned from his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays on the Formation of Character</span></span>
(1818), which explain his Lanark system; and especially his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New
Moral World</span></span>, published about 1839. His religious opinions may be gathered from the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Debate on the Evidences and on Society with A. Campbell</span></span>, 1839. His
autobiography was published in 1857, and a review of his philosophy by
W. L. Sargeant, 1860. An article also related to him in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster
Review</span></span> for Oct. 1860. See also Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Philosophy</span></span>, i. 386 seq. Mr. R. Dale Owen, son of the above, published several deist
tracts in America, from about 1840-44.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_640" name="note_640" href="#noteref_640">640.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has
been considered unnecessary to name three other unimportant
writers, Burgh, Farmer, a writer on the subject of Demoniacs, and Carlisle,
who was prosecuted in 1830.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_641" name="note_641" href="#noteref_641">641.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Byron (1788-1824).
The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vision of Judgment</span></span>, written in 1821, has
been already referred to in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III.</a>
as a vehicle for sceptical banter. For a brief comparison
between the scepticism of Byron and Shelley, see
remarks in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, April 1841, by Mr. G. H.
Lewes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_642" name="note_642" href="#noteref_642">642.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bacon,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nov. Org.</span></span> Aph. 52, 53.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_643" name="note_643" href="#noteref_643">643.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shelley (1792-1822).
The materials are abundant for understanding
the character and works of Shelley, in biographies both friendly and
hostile. The second edition of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shelley Memorials</span></span>, by lady
Shelley, 1859, contains an essay on Christianity by him. Several important articles
in Reviews have been published in reference to him, among which it is
desirable to call attention to the one in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>,
No. 6, Oct. 1856, which contains a very instructive analysis of his mental and moral
character. It has been used in the few remarks which follow.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_644" name="note_644" href="#noteref_644">644.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The pamphlet
appears to have been an anonymous statement of the
weakness of the argument for the existence of deity; negative rather than
positive. See the account of the transaction and its results in T. J. Hogg's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Shelley</span></span>, 1858, vol. i. pp. (269-286).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_645" name="note_645" href="#noteref_645">645.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ode to Liberty</span></span> (§ 15 and 16), written in 1820.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_646" name="note_646" href="#noteref_646">646.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonais</span></span>, § 49-51. For Shelley's own cremation and burial,
see the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memorials</span></span> by lady Shelley, p. 201.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_647" name="note_647" href="#noteref_647">647.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
is well put in the Review above quoted, (p. 356).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_648" name="note_648" href="#noteref_648">648.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
Reviewer thinks that the first stage was in tone like Lucretius,
i.e. Epicureanism. The second and third are described here in the text.
The Queen Mab (end of the first division) expressed the first stage; the
first speech of Ahasuerus in the Hellas is a specimen of the second; and
the Adonais (43 and 52) of the third.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_649" name="note_649" href="#noteref_649">649.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
contrast however in the evidences, though true in a general
way, must not be pressed so as to imply an absolutely defined line of
chronological separation between the two classes of evidence.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_650" name="note_650" href="#noteref_650">650.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Boyle
died in 1692, and founded the lecture by his last will.
The lectures commenced in the same year. Bampton's were founded in
1751; but none delivered till 1780. Hulse died in 1790; but the lectures
did not commence till 1820. A list of the lectures delivered in each series
may be found in Darling's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyclopædia Bibliographica</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_651" name="note_651" href="#noteref_651">651.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
remarks on evidence in Nos. 73 and 84 of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tracts for the
Times</span></span>, and the tone assumed by the ultramontane writers of France, are
instances of the undervaluing evidences from the former causes. The deist
literature of the last century, and the writings of Carlyle in the present,
are instances of that which arises from the latter.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_652" name="note_652" href="#noteref_652">652.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I.e.
they belong essentially to the protestant stand-point in
theology.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_653" name="note_653" href="#noteref_653">653.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a>.
The view which Blunt took of the evidences is
given in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>, p. 133, reprinted
from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>, April 1828.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_654" name="note_654" href="#noteref_654">654.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The controversy
raised by the Tübingen school refers to the date of
books of the New Testament which testify to facts and doctrines. Supposing
this primary question settled in favour of our commonly received
view, then the further question follows concerning the honesty and opportunity
of information of the narrators; and it is here that the arguments
of Lyttleton, Lardner, and Paley, in the last century, find their proper
place. See below, Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_655" name="note_655" href="#noteref_655">655.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">John iv. 37, 38, 36.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_656" name="note_656" href="#noteref_656">656.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
Rationalism see Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a> at the end of this
volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_657" name="note_657" href="#noteref_657">657.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The sources
for the knowledge of this period are briefly stated in the
Preface to these lectures.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_658" name="note_658" href="#noteref_658">658.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
p. <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref">99</a>.
Hundeshagen (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Prot.</span></span> § 13) insists on
the prime importance of the spiritual element as the moving force in the
Reformation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_659" name="note_659" href="#noteref_659">659.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Melancthon
and Camerarius, Calvin and Beza, represent the union of
learning with theology; the second Scaliger, the Stephenses, Casaubon,
and others, are instances of the great lay scholars.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_660" name="note_660" href="#noteref_660">660.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The date
of the former is 1577; of the latter 1618. These are named
as the events from which the theology in the Lutheran and Calvinistic
churches respectively became fixed. Buddeus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isagoge</span></span>, p. 239)
dates it rather from the confession of Ratisbon, 1601. On this dogmatic period
see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Prot.</span></span> § 9; Hagenbach's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 216-18; Amand
Saintes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critical History of Rationalism</span></span>
(transl.) ch. v. and vi; Pusey's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical Inquiry</span></span>, part i.
pp. (1-52), part ii. ch. viii. and ix. (1830). It
was this period which produced the various books of Loci Communes
Theologici. The only exception to this scholastic spirit was Calixt. and
the school of Helmstadt, which in tone was like the school of Saumur,
(Cameron, Amyrauld, and Placæus,) or like Baxter, the controversies connected
with which prove the rule. On it see Schröckh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche
Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation</span></span> (1804), viii. 243 seq. On the
theologians of this period see Weismann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. in Memorabilia Eccles.
Hist.</span></span> (1718), p. 919 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_661" name="note_661" href="#noteref_661">661.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
view of inspiration is stated in Quenstedt's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Syst. Theol.</span></span>, and
Calov's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Syst. Theol.</span></span> i. 554 seq., about the end of the
seventeenth century. Dr. Pusey (part i. 140) refers to passages of Semler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lebens-Beschreibung</span></span>
illustrative of these opinions in the German church of that period. On the
similar controversy which existed in the French protestant church see note
above, p. <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref">113</a>. This is
only one instance among many of the close analogy
which exists in the development of thought between the reformed churches
in different lands.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_662" name="note_662" href="#noteref_662">662.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These are
the chief influences which the German writers enumerate.
See Tholuck ii. § 2-5, Kahnis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
German Protest</span></span>. (transl. 1856) i. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_663" name="note_663" href="#noteref_663">663.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Leibnitz
and his system see Tennemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span> xi. 93 seq.;
Ritter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christliche Phil.</span></span> viii. 47 seq.;
Renouvier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phil. Mod.</span></span> (278-90);
and especially Maine de Biran's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Leibnitz</span></span>
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>.
Also Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, i. 220,
and H. Rogers's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span>
(Essay on Leibnitz,) reprinted from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>,
July 1846.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_664" name="note_664" href="#noteref_664">664.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On these
canons see Sir W. Hamilton's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Logic</span></span>, vol. i. lect.
vi.; Mansel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena</span></span>, ch. vi.; and
Mills's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. ii. b. v. ch. iii.
§ 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_665" name="note_665" href="#noteref_665">665.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wolff, 1679-1754.
Professor of Philosophy at Halle; in 1723 expelled;
restored in 1741; Lange and Buddeus were his great opponents
(see Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 274). His philosophy consisted
of an attempt to deduce <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span> a system of (1) cosmology,
(2) psychology, (3) natural theology. The latter relates to God, His attributes in
Himself and in creation. See some remarks by Mr. Mansel on his scheme
(art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metaphysic. Encycl. Brit.</span></span>, 8vo. ed. p. 603).
On his philosophy see Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christ. Phil.</span></span> vii. b. x. ch. i.;
Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § (363-5); Morell, i.
228; Rosenkrantz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Kantischen Schule</span></span>, b. i.
part iii. ch. i. His religious opinions are found in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. Nat.</span></span> 1736, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philos. Moralis</span></span>,
1750, and in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vernuenftige Gedanken von Gott</span></span>. 1747 (p. 604).
See on them Henke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kirchengesch.</span></span> viii. § 3; Mangel's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>, note 3.
And on the effects of his philosophy, and the state of theology in Germany at
the time of its influence, see Tholuck's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermischte Schriften</span></span>,
ii. § 2 and 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_666" name="note_666" href="#noteref_666">666.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1723,
in consequence of the petition from the pietist professors,
Frederick I, deposed Wolff. See Kahnis (Engl. Transl.) p. 114.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_667" name="note_667" href="#noteref_667">667.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In reference
to the introduction of Wolff's philosophy, the reference
to Tholuck has been already given. See also Schröch's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch.</span></span>
viii. 26; Lechler, 448; Amand Saintes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critical History of
Rationalism</span></span>, i. ch. ix.; Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 274;
Kahnis, p. 110. Kahnis (115) names
Baumgarten, Canz, and Toellner, as Wolff's pupils. Mosheim and the
Walches were too exclusively literary to be affected by the new philosophy.
Canz of Tübingen was the first to apply the system to doctrinal theology
(1728). See Pusey, part i. 116.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_668" name="note_668" href="#noteref_668">668.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Locke's philosophy
in a distorted form was introduced by the French
philosophers who lived at the court of Frederick II.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_669" name="note_669" href="#noteref_669">669.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
introduction of English deism, see Tholuck, § 3. A few only
of the deist writings were translated, (e.g. Tindal by Schmidt in 1741,) but
very many of the replies; which proves how much attention they excited.
See the list in Lechler, p. 447. Up to 1760 no fewer than 106 answers
had been written to Tindal alone. Kortholt, in his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De
Tribus Impostoribus</span></span>, (viz. Herbert, Hobbes, Spinoza,) 1680, was the first to
notice English deism. The appeal to reason in these replies had the same effect
as that noticed in the philosophy of Wolff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_670" name="note_670" href="#noteref_670">670.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For
Maupertuis see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biographie Universelle</span></span>. The others have been
named in the notes to Lect. <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_671" name="note_671" href="#noteref_671">671.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Tholuck, § 4 and 5. He considers that the French
literature, with the exception of Bayle, did not affect the Germans, on account of its
shallowness; but doubtless it did so indirectly.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_672" name="note_672" href="#noteref_672">672.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This division
does not essentially differ from the threefold one
adopted by Kahnis, into the illumination period, that of the renovation,
and of the church renovating itself.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_673" name="note_673" href="#noteref_673">673.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We place the
limit at 1810, because it is the date of the foundation
of the university of Berlin, which was the home of the reaction.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_674" name="note_674" href="#noteref_674">674.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This date marks the spread of the Kantian philosophy, as will be
shown below.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_675" name="note_675" href="#noteref_675">675.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There
were thus three chief phases within the church; the dogmatic
at Leipsic, the critical at Göttingen, the pietistic eclecticism of Semler at
Halle. If to this we add the pietism which still reigned at Tübingen, as
seen in Pfaff, &amp;c., we have the condition of the four universities which
were at that time the chief centres of intellectual activity in Germany.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_676" name="note_676" href="#noteref_676">676.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lessing,
along with Nicholai, conducted the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allgemeine Deutsche
Bibliothek</span></span> from 1765.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_677" name="note_677" href="#noteref_677">677.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the purpose
and nature of these institutions, which arose at
Dessau about 1774, see Schlosser, i. 5, 3; ii. 3, 2; Kahnis, p. 47. On
Basedow (1724-1790), see Rose on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationalism</span></span>, p. 66,
note (second edition), and Schröch, viii. 52.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_678" name="note_678" href="#noteref_678">678.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. A. Ernesti (1707-1781),
was author of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Interpret. Nov. Test.</span></span>
1761 (translated by bishop Terrot). His chief labours were the editions of
several classical authors, among which the most valuable was Cicero. See
Schlosser, ii. 187; Kahnis, 120; Pusey, 132; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. ii.
The Rosenmüllers (the father, J. G. Rosenmüller, on the New Testament;
the son, E. F. Rosenmüller the antiquarian on the Old,) manifest much the
same spirit as Ernesti.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_679" name="note_679" href="#noteref_679">679.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joh.
Dav. Michaelis (1716-1791). His chief works were, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gruend-liche
Erklaerung des Mosaischen Rechts</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung in die
Schrift, des Neuen Bundes</span></span>. The former handled the Hebrew legislation in a free
spirit. The latter work was translated by bishop Marsh, and led to the
controversy about the composition of the Gospels, to which allusion will
be made in the notes of Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.
See Kahnis, p. 121; Henke, viii. part ii. § 2. Jerusalem and Spalding
manifest the same spirit as Michaelis.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_680" name="note_680" href="#noteref_680">680.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Semler (1725-1791),
Professor at Halle. His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lebens-beschreibung</span></span>,
published 1781, is the great source for studying his mental development
and the history of his times. His works are numerous, consisting chiefly
of Commentaries and Ecclesiastical History. He was one of the first to
open up the study of the history of doctrine (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dogmengeschichte</span></span>).
The works which exhibit his rationalism are chiefly the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Frei
Untersuchen des Canons</span></span>, 1711; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Versuch einer freiern
lehrart</span></span>, 1777; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to Baumgarten's
Dogmatik</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institutiones ad Doctrinam Christianam liberaliter
docendam</span></span>, 1774. His character is discussed at length in Tholuck. § 6;
Pusey, 138, &amp;c.; Schlosser, ii. 187; Am. Saintes, b. ii. ch. ii. and iii. On
the successors of the writers recently named, see Am. Saintes, b. ii, ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_681" name="note_681" href="#noteref_681">681.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the work on
the Canon named in the last note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_682" name="note_682" href="#noteref_682">682.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
the historic sketch of interpretation given in Planck's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction
to Sacred Philology</span></span>, (English translation, 168-186). Interesting information
is supplied in Credner's article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Interpretation</span></span> in Kitto's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Encyclopædia</span></span>;
J. J. Conybeare's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lecture</span></span> for 1824 on the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Secondary Interpretation of Scripture</span></span>;
Dr. S. Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sacred Hermeneutics</span></span> (5-7);
and an article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>
for August 1855 on the Alexandrian school.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_683" name="note_683" href="#noteref_683">683.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These
tendencies must be considered only to express the average.
Thus the school of Antioch, of which Theodore of Mopsuestia is a type,
leaned to the grammatical mode; (see some remarks on it in Neander's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, vol. iv. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">init.</span></span>
Germ. ed.; vol. iii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fin.</span></span> Engl. Tr.) In the
middle ages the Franciscans showed an inclination to the mystical or allegorical;
and the typical system of the Miracle Plays and of the Biblia
Pauperum illustrates the allegorical spirit of those times.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_684" name="note_684" href="#noteref_684">684.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The allegorical
is seen in the school of Cocceius (1603-1669) in the
Dutch church. The dogmatic has been alluded to above.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_685" name="note_685" href="#noteref_685">685.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The system is
called variously, in works of Hermeneutics, συγκατάβασις,
condescensio, demissio, obsequium. It is developed in Semler's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena</span></span> to some of St. Paul's Epistles; in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vorbereitung zur Theol. Hermeneutik</span></span>, 1762; and in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apparatus ad lib. Nov. Text. interpr.</span></span>
1767. Tholuck quotes many instances of it in reference to him (ii. 61).
Concerning the subject see Planck's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to Sacred
Philology</span></span>, (E. T.) 152-168; Wegscheider, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol.</span></span> § 25;
Bretschneider, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Dogm. Auslegung des N. T.</span></span> 1806.
A list of foreign works in reference to it is given at the end of the article
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Accommodation</span></span>, in Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical
Encyclopædia</span></span>. For a criticism on it see J. J. Conybeare's Bampton Lecture for
1824. (Lect. VII.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_686" name="note_686" href="#noteref_686">686.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mark
x. 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_687" name="note_687" href="#noteref_687">687.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. by
Kidder in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Testimony of the Messias</span></span>, 1694; Nicholls,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conference with a Theist</span></span>, 1733; and by Sykes,
in several works from about 1720-40.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_688" name="note_688" href="#noteref_688">688.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Pusey speaks
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inquiry</span></span>, p. 139, n.) of two works by Semler on
Demons, (of which I have seen only the second, 1779,) the first directed
against the belief in the occurrence of possessions in the present day; the
second to show that some of the Greek words descriptive of such phenomena
in the New Testament need not necessarily imply superhuman
agency.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_689" name="note_689" href="#noteref_689">689.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Because it
seemed to involve the notion of dissimulation on the part
of the scripture writers, or even of the divine Being.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_690" name="note_690" href="#noteref_690">690.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. ad Doctr. Christianam</span></span>,
b. i. See Am. Saintes, p. 107.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_691" name="note_691" href="#noteref_691">691.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. The Wolfenbüttel
Fragments. See Am. Saintes, p. 86, and
Niemeyer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letzte Aeusserungen ueber religioese Gegenstaende zwei Tage
vor seinem Tode</span></span>, which he quotes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_692" name="note_692" href="#noteref_692">692.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His doctrinal
views are seen in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lebens-beschreibung</span></span>, part ii. p.
220, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_693" name="note_693" href="#noteref_693">693.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lessing (1729-1781).
In 1754 he joined Nicholai and Mendelssohn in literary criticism;
in 1757, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliothek der Schönen Wissenschaften</span></span>;
and in 1765, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allgem. Deutsche Biblioth.</span></span> An account of his
life and literary character may be seen in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Foreign Quarterly
Review</span></span> (No. 50) for 1840, and an able criticism on him by C. Dollfus in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue Germanique</span></span> for 1860 (vol. ix.). Consult also Menzel's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch. Litt.</span></span> iii.
291, &amp;c.; Metcalfe's work based on Vilmar, p. 400 seq. A separate study
of his theological opinions was made by C. Schwartz in 1854, entitled
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lessing als Theolog</span></span>, especially c. iv.; see also
Bartholmess, b. ii. ch. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_694" name="note_694" href="#noteref_694">694.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Published
in 1766.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_695" name="note_695" href="#noteref_695">695.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768).
See Schlosser, ii. 26, &amp;c., and the
article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reimarus</span></span> in the Conversations Lexicon.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_696" name="note_696" href="#noteref_696">696.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Note
<a href="#Note_29" class="tei tei-ref">29</a> at the end of this volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_697" name="note_697" href="#noteref_697">697.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Fragments
are here named according to the order of their original
publication; not that in which they are usually printed, as, e.g. in
the Berlin edition, 1835.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_698" name="note_698" href="#noteref_698">698.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Strauss's
description of them in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, Introd. § 5.
Lessing's own object in their publication is expressed in the concluding
pages of his edition of them.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_699" name="note_699" href="#noteref_699">699.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The chief
opposition arose from Göze, a pastor of Hamburg, who
attacked Lessing even before the last and most obnoxious fragment was
published; but both Semler and Jerusalem also wrote against him. See
Boden's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lessing und Göze, Ein Beitrag zur Lit. und Kirchengesch. des 18
Jahrh.</span></span> 1862; also the references given at the end of Note 29 (p. 427); especially
Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengesch.</span></span> § 275, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_700" name="note_700" href="#noteref_700">700.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the note on p. <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref">87</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_701" name="note_701" href="#noteref_701">701.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Erziehung des
menschlichen Geschlechts</span></span>, lately partially translated
into English. It conveyed the thoughts suggested by the perusal of
some apologies for religion.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_702" name="note_702" href="#noteref_702">702.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The theologians Steinbart and Teller represented a similar
spirit.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_703" name="note_703" href="#noteref_703">703.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
Edelmann, who died 1767, see Kahnis, p. 126; and on Bahrdt
(1741-92), Id. pp. 136-145; and Schlosser, ii. 211. The life of Bahrdt is
a sad subject for study. Kahnis (p. 125 seq.) enumerates other deists, some
of them earlier than those whom we are now considering, e.g. Knuzen,
Dippel (1673-1734).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_704" name="note_704" href="#noteref_704">704.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the reference above, p.
<a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref">219</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_705" name="note_705" href="#noteref_705">705.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The contrast
of the English, French, and German periods of illuminism
is well drawn out by Kuno Fischer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bacon</span></span>,
ch. xi. 2, 3, and xiii. 3).
I have been unable to discover positively whether the term in its first use
meant merely <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Renaissance</span></span> (cfr.
the Italian term <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">illuminati</span></span>), or whether it
meant the philosophy which makes its appeal to common sense, being
connected with the Cartesian principle,
<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">wahr ist, was klar ist</span></span>. The former
appears almost certain; but some of the German writers seem to favour
the latter. On its nature, see Kahnis, p. 61-63.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_706" name="note_706" href="#noteref_706">706.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A very
interesting article on Weimar and its celebrities appeared in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> for April
1859. The illustration about the court of
Ferrara, just below, is taken from it. Mr. G. H.
Lewes, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of
Goethe</span></span>, gives incidentally sketches of the intellectual and moral influence
of the court of Weimar.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_707" name="note_707" href="#noteref_707">707.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alfonso d'Este
reigned from 1505-34. He was the husband of
Lucrezia Borgia.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_708" name="note_708" href="#noteref_708">708.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">i.e.
from about 1790 to 1810.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_709" name="note_709" href="#noteref_709">709.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kant's great work,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der reinen Vernunft</span></span>, appeared in 1781,
but was not known out of Königsberg until one of his disciples, Schulze
in 1784, elucidated it in a separate work. The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jenaische Litertur-Zeitung</span></span>
also favoured it. In 1786 Reinhold became Professor at Jena, and began
to teach Kant's system. See Schlosser, vol. ii. p. 182-4.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_710" name="note_710" href="#noteref_710">710.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herder did
not adopt the new philosophy of Kant. His theological
writings were rather earlier than 1790. They created a love for the
literature of young nations, and for the Hebrew religion, in a literary
rather than a spiritual point of view. On Herder's religious influence, see
Schlosser, ii. 278, &amp;c.; and the article by Hagenbach in Herzog's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real. Encyclop.</span></span>, also Hagenbach's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des 18 Jahrh.</span></span> § 4 and 5; and Quinet's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_711" name="note_711" href="#noteref_711">711.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kant lived 1724-1804.
On his philosophy see Chalybaus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of
Speculative Philosophy</span></span> (translated 1854); Am. Saintes'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philos. de Kant</span></span>, 1844; Cousin,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leçons de la Phil. de Kant</span></span>, 1843. A good account of it
also is given in Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Philosophy</span></span>,
i. 233-63, in R. Vaughan's (sen.) Essays, and in a Lecture by Professor Mansel
on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Kant</span></span>, 1860. See also the
references in Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>, § 387-94.
In reference to its theological effects, see Am. Saintes'
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Critical History of
Rationalism</span></span>, ii. 5 and 6; Bartholmess, b. V. and vi. The parts of Kant's
writings which are of special importance for ascertaining his theological
views are, his work <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion innerhalb der
Grenzen der blossen Vernunft</span></span>,
1793, and his criticism on natural theology in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der reinen
Vernunft</span></span>, b. ii. div. 3. See Strauss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>,
introd. § 7. Staüdlin, Ammon, and Tieftrunk, were Kantist theologians.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_712" name="note_712" href="#noteref_712">712.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der reinen Vernunft</span></span> above named, which was so
called because he strove to analyse the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pure</span></em> reason, before it is defiled by
contact with the world through experience.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_713" name="note_713" href="#noteref_713">713.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The categories,
the test of the existence of which is necessity and
universality.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_714" name="note_714" href="#noteref_714">714.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears
in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der practischen Vernunft</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_715" name="note_715" href="#noteref_715">715.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Illuminism
is used as the translation of
<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">Aufklaerungs-Zeit</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_716" name="note_716" href="#noteref_716">716.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The difference
between Wolff and Kant is, that while the former sought a philosophy
of religion <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ontologically</span></em>, the latter sought it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">psychologically</span></em>,
by first ascertaining the functions of the mind in reference to
religion.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_717" name="note_717" href="#noteref_717">717.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such as Schleiermacher.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_718" name="note_718" href="#noteref_718">718.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paulus,
1761-1851; Professor at Jena, and from 1811 at Heidelberg.
Some of his works are named below.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_719" name="note_719" href="#noteref_719">719.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. G. Bretschneider,
1776-1848; General Superintendent at Gotha.
A short autobiography was published after his death, which is translated in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span> for 1852-3.
His best work is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der
Dogmatik</span></span>, 1814, 1838. He was the writer of the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Probabilia</span></span> concerning
St. John's Gospel, named in Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_720" name="note_720" href="#noteref_720">720.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Reinhardt (1753-1812) of Saxony. His supernaturalism was
perhaps rather ethical than biblical. (See Kahnis, 187, Am. Saintes,
c. viii.) Storr (1746-1805) was Professor at Tübingen. The belief in the
supernatural had never died out. A philosophical supernaturalism was
seen in Flatt, Planck, Schröch and a truly biblical kind in Knapp. Along
with Reinhardt ought perhaps to be reckoned Morus and Döderlein; at a
little earlier period Seiler, and a little later Steudel: on this school see Am.
Saintes, ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_721" name="note_721" href="#noteref_721">721.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">i.e.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationalismus Vulgaris</span></span>. On Rationalism, see Note
<a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a> (p. <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref">413</a>.) On
this particular kind see Kahnis, p. 169. It is distinguished from naturalism
chiefly by being connected with the church, and by the opinion that it is
the very essence of Christianity. It was represented by Paulus in criticism,
Wegscheider in dogma, and Röhr in preaching.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_722" name="note_722" href="#noteref_722">722.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As Woolston,
Bolingbroke, and Voltaire. Cfr. Strauss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leb. Jes.</span></span>
Introd. § 5.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_723" name="note_723" href="#noteref_723">723.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eichhorn (1752-1827),
one of the most learned men of his age. For
illustrations see his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung</span></span>,
§ 435, and cfr. § 421. The instances cited
in the text, from one of his works which the writer could not consult, are
quoted from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly
Review</span></span>, No. 26; cfr. also Strauss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben
Jesu</span></span>, § 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_724" name="note_724" href="#noteref_724">724.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exeget. Handb. des Neuen Test</span></span>. The account will be found
by referring to the respective narratives. See also his commentary on the
miracle of the tribute money, and of the feeding the multitudes. See
Kahnis, pp. (171-6). Eichhorn stopped short when he came to apply his
principles to the New Testament. L. Bauer (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hebr. Mythol.</span></span>), Gabler,
Vater, Bertholdt, Von Lengerke, and Von Böhlen, though some of them
were affected by later influences, belonged in the main to this rationalist
critical school.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_725" name="note_725" href="#noteref_725">725.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The difference
of legend and myth is now well known. <span class="tei tei-q">“Myth is
the creation of a fact out of an idea; legend the seeing an idea in a fact.”</span>
Strauss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leb. Jes. Einl.</span></span> § 10.
The myth is purely the work of imagination,
the legend has a nucleus of fact.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_726" name="note_726" href="#noteref_726">726.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henke, 1752-1809,
Professor at Helmstädt, is said to have been the
first who made use of the term <span class="tei tei-q">“Bibliolatry”</span> in the preface to his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lineamenta Instit. Fidei Christianæ</span></span>.
He probably however only brought it
into use. (The writer remembers to have seen it occur somewhere earlier,
but cannot recall the reference.) He was a church historian of great learning,
whose works have been frequently used for reference in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>. Kahnis speaks with great respect
(p. 177) of his earnestness. For Henke's
position as a church historian see a note in the Preface to these Lectures.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_727" name="note_727" href="#noteref_727">727.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Concerning
Bretschneider see a preceding note on p. <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref">231</a>. Bretschneider
shows in his reply to Mr. Rose, and in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Autobiography</span></span>, that he
was much hurt at being classed with the rationalists. In truth the dogmatic
tendency which we are here describing admits, as is shown more fully
in Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, (p. <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref">413</a>), of
a twofold subdivision. (1) <span class="tei tei-q">“Rationalists”</span> proper,
who are pure Socinians, but hardly believe in the supernatural element of
revelation: such were Wegscheider and Röhr; also Echermann and C. F.
A. Fritsche may be reckoned with the same school (see Kahnis, 177 seq.;
Am. Saintes, ch. vii.); and (2) <span class="tei tei-q">“Rational Supernaturalists,”</span> like Bretschneider,
Schott of Jena (1780-1835), and Tzchirner of Leipsic (1778-1828),
who believed in a supernatural revelation, but held to the supremacy
of reason;—a position not very unlike Locke's in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reasonableness of
Christianity</span></span>. The tone of opinion changed so much in Germany after
1830, that Bretschneider, who in earlier life had been considered to lean
towards orthodoxy as opposed to rationalism, appeared in later life, though
really standing still, to side with the rationalists against the reaction which
took place in favour of supernaturalism. A volume of sermons, translated
by Baker in 1829, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The German Pulpit</span></span>, contains, along with
a few sermons of more spiritual tone, many sermons by preachers of this school.
See on this school Am. Saintes, ch. viii. Mr. Rose also has collected many
facts in reference to this part of the subject; also Staüdlin in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. des Rat. und Supernat.</span></span>, and P. A. Stapfer
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Arch. du Christianisme</span></span>, 1824),
quoted by Rose (second edition).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_728" name="note_728" href="#noteref_728">728.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. F. Röhr
(1777-1848), Superintendent at Weimar; noted as a
preacher. His Historical Geography of Palestine has been translated.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_729" name="note_729" href="#noteref_729">729.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wegscheider
(1771-1848); Professor at Halle. His chief work is
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol. Chr. Dogmat.</span></span> 1813.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_730" name="note_730" href="#noteref_730">730.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hundeshagen
calls Kant a second Moses, on account of the moral
revolution which his teaching effected.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_731" name="note_731" href="#noteref_731">731.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">i.e.
Kant, Jacobi, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel; on whom see Morell,
ii. ch. v. § 2, and Chalybaüs, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Speculative
Philosophy</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_732" name="note_732" href="#noteref_732">732.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Fichte
(1762-1814); Professor at Jena; deprived for the supposed
atheistic tendency of his philosophy (1799); afterwards Professor at
Berlin. His great work is his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wissenschafts-lehre</span></span>, 1794. He was the
author of the celebrated patriotic addresses to the German people. The
educational institutions of Pestalozzi were founded on Fichte's philosophy,
as Basedow's on Rousseau. See Kalnis, p. 216.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_733" name="note_733" href="#noteref_733">733.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jacobi
(1743-1819); President of the academy of sciences at Munich.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_734" name="note_734" href="#noteref_734">734.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Fichte
see Chalybaüs, ch, vi. and vii.; Tennemann, Manual
§ 400-5; Morell, ii. p. 89-122; Lewes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>;
Mansel's art. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">on Metaphysics</span></span> in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encycl. Britan.</span></span> p. 607. On Jacobi see Chalybaüs, ch.
iii.; Tennemann, § 415; Morell, ii. 402; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. xiii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_735" name="note_735" href="#noteref_735">735.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
atheistic corollary is not deducible from Berkeley's system, and
was not designed by Fichte.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_736" name="note_736" href="#noteref_736">736.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chalybaüs,
ch. viii.; and Morell, ii. 118.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_737" name="note_737" href="#noteref_737">737.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schelling
(1774-1854), Professor at Munich and Berlin. See Chalybaüs,
ch. ix-xii.; Tennemann, § 406-11; Morell, ii. 122-161; Bartholmess,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Crit. des Doctr. Relig.</span></span> b. ix.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_738" name="note_738" href="#noteref_738">738.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1770-1831.
See Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_739" name="note_739" href="#noteref_739">739.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See some
remarks on this point in Mr. Mansel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lecture on the Philosophy
of Kant</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_740" name="note_740" href="#noteref_740">740.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_741" name="note_741" href="#noteref_741">741.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Romantic
school included L. F. Stolberg, the Schlegels, Tieck,
Novalis (Hardenberg), Fouqué. See Kahnis, p. 202; Morell, ii. 421;
Vilmar. (English translation), p. 500 seq.; Carlyle's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essay on Novalis</span></span>
(Misc. Works, vol. ii.); and Bartholmess, ii. b. xi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_742" name="note_742" href="#noteref_742">742.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herder, 1744-1803.
See a previous note. His most interesting
works were, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spirit of Hebrew Poetry</span></span>
(translated 1802), and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy
of History</span></span> (translated 1800).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_743" name="note_743" href="#noteref_743">743.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The influence
of the movement extended into the Roman catholic
church; and Hermes, Moehler, and Goerres, were affected by it. Hermes
(1775-1831) was Professor at Bonn; and, endeavouring
to find a philosophy for Romish doctrines, was opposed by his own church. Moehler,
1796-1838, author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Symbolik</span></span>,
which revived the controversy with
Protestantism, and was answered by the most learned Protestant theologians,
has been pronounced (by Schaff) to be the ablest Romish theologian
since Bellarmine and Bossuet. Goerres (1776-1848), a mystic writer in
Bavaria. See Am. Saintes, c. xx.; and on Goerres see Quinet,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvr.</span></span> vi. ch. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_744" name="note_744" href="#noteref_744">744.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hundeshagen,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsch Prot.</span></span> § 12; Kahnis, p. 223.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_745" name="note_745" href="#noteref_745">745.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
patriotism still lives in the poetry of Koerner.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_746" name="note_746" href="#noteref_746">746.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This allusion
is used by Kahnis (p. 220). He also (p. 221) refers
the great outburst of historic study which followed, to the historic sense
then awakened.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_747" name="note_747" href="#noteref_747">747.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Harms (1778-1855).
See Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. ix; Kahnis, p.
223 seq., where some of Harms's Theses are given. They are founded on
the doctrinal spirit of the sixteenth century, and are full of force and
humour. Some of them are directed against rationalism; others are the
asseveration of high Lutheran tenets. The following are specimens: No.
3. <span class="tei tei-q">“With the idea of a progressive reformation, in the manner in which
it is at present understood, Lutheranism will be reformed back into
heathenism.”</span> No. 21. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the sixteenth century the pardon of sins cost
money after all; in the nineteenth it may be had without money, for people
help themselves to it.”</span> See Pelt in Herzog's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real. Encyclop.</span></span> sub <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">voc.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_748" name="note_748" href="#noteref_748">748.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this
second period, see Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Neuesten Theologie</span></span>,
b. i.; and for brief notices of the whole of the German movement, see
Hagenbach's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte</span></span> (period 5).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_749" name="note_749" href="#noteref_749">749.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has
been more recently, for this reason, called the Mediation-Theology
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermittellungs-Theologie</span></span>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_750" name="note_750" href="#noteref_750">750.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleiermacher
(1768-1834). His <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben in Briefen</span></span> (1858) has
been recently translated. His philosophical and religious stand-point is
well discussed, and some portions of his works analysed, in the Rev. R. A.
Vaughan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Remains</span></span> (reprinted from the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>,
No. 18). A brief explanation of his philosophy is seen in Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 433, and Julius Scheller's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vorlesungen über Schleiermacher</span></span>, 1844. His religious views
are criticised, with extracts, in Amand Saintes, part ii. ch. xiv-xvi;
Kahnis, 204 seq.; Lücke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stud. und Krit.</span></span> 1834, H. 4.
The facts of his life are given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westm. Rev.</span></span> for
July, 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_751" name="note_751" href="#noteref_751">751.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He joined
F. Schlegel in the plan of translation, and continued it
after Schlegel had retired from it. He did not however complete the
whole of Plato. The parts finished were published at intervals from 1804-27.
The introductions to the dialogues are valuable.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_752" name="note_752" href="#noteref_752">752.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Jung Stilling (1740-1817),
a distinguished oculist in Westphalia,
who employed himself in acts of religious usefulness. His works were
published in 1835. His Autobiography, written by desire of Goethe, has
been translated. See an article on him in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Foreign Quarterly
Review</span></span>; vol. xxi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_753" name="note_753" href="#noteref_753">753.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oberlin (1740-1826),
the interesting pastor of the Vosges mountains,
who united efforts for civilization with piety, and the temporal improvement
of his people with the spiritual. His memoir has been written in English.
To the same class of saintly men about the end of the last century belonged
Hamann, Lavater, and Claudius. See Kahnis, p. 80 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_754" name="note_754" href="#noteref_754">754.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. R. A. Vaughan,
in the Essay above cited, compares Schleiermacher
with Hugo St. Victor (on whom see Ritter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chr. Phil.</span></span> viii. 9. 2).
The analogy with Origen is close. Speaking technically, the difference
would be, that the Neo-Platonic school, to which Origen belonged, was
rather one of <span class="tei tei-q">“Objective Idealism”</span> like Schelling; Schleiermacher's of
<span class="tei tei-q">“Subjective Idealism”</span> like Fichte.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_755" name="note_755" href="#noteref_755">755.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
Rationalist and Socinian element was taught by Wegscheider.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_756" name="note_756" href="#noteref_756">756.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1802.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_757" name="note_757" href="#noteref_757">757.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Halle
was taken by the French in 1806; the university of Berlin was
founded in 1810.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_758" name="note_758" href="#noteref_758">758.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He died in 1834.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_759" name="note_759" href="#noteref_759">759.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See note <a href="#Note_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>
(p. <a href="#Pg428" class="tei tei-ref">428</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_760" name="note_760" href="#noteref_760">760.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Neander's witness
to the effect produced by them is quoted in Kahnis,
p. 208.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_761" name="note_761" href="#noteref_761">761.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glaubenslehre</span></span>,
§ 3-6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_762" name="note_762" href="#noteref_762">762.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Selbst
bewuszt-seyn.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_763" name="note_763" href="#noteref_763">763.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleiermacher's
views are rarely put with sharpness of form; and
as they varied in the manner shown in Note <a href="#Note_31" class="tei tei-ref">31</a>,
it is hardly possible to lay down a fixed account of his system.
The following remarks are rather the spirit of his Glaubenslehre than an
analysis of it. His psychological views are seen in § 1-4 of that treatise
(ed. 1842); but the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reden</span></span>, pp. 58,
59, and the introduction by his pupil Schweizer to the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Entwurf eines systems
der sittenlehre</span></span>, 1835, besides his posthumous philosophical works,
ought also to be consulted. His psychological views are nearly reproduced
in Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span>, ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_764" name="note_764" href="#noteref_764">764.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 7-10; and also § 11-14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_765" name="note_765" href="#noteref_765">765.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 129-131.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_766" name="note_766" href="#noteref_766">766.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His views
on sin are given § 65-85; and on the work of Christ,
§ 100-105.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_767" name="note_767" href="#noteref_767">767.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 68.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_768" name="note_768" href="#noteref_768">768.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 104.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_769" name="note_769" href="#noteref_769">769.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The mode
of reconciliation is treated in § 106-112, and indirectly in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Weihnachtsfeier</span></span>. Mr. Vaughan compares it with Osiander's view
in the sixteenth century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_770" name="note_770" href="#noteref_770">770.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His views
may be seen in § 50-56, especially § 54. His system in
earlier life almost resembled pantheism, as in his praise of Spinoza. See
Reden, p. 471.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_771" name="note_771" href="#noteref_771">771.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 170-172.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_772" name="note_772" href="#noteref_772">772.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The person
of Christ is discussed § 93-99. Vaughan compares the
view with that of Justin Martyr. See also Strauss's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, § 148.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_773" name="note_773" href="#noteref_773">773.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 121-125.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_774" name="note_774" href="#noteref_774">774.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Note
<a href="#Note_24" class="tei tei-ref">24</a> (p. <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref">421</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_775" name="note_775" href="#noteref_775">775.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His critical
is much less important than his philosophical position.
The same spirit of seriousness marks his writings in this department. Two
of his chief critical works are, his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber den sogenannten ersten
Brief des Paulus an den Timotheus</span></span>, 1807, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber die
Schriften des Lukes, ein Kritischer Versuch</span></span>, 1817, translated into English 1825.
The reasons given for his appreciation of the Gospel of St. John in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Weihnachtsfeier</span></span>, also in his posthumous work,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermeneutik und Kritik</span></span>, 1838, and his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung ins Neue Test.</span></span> 1845, ought also to be
taken into account in estimating his exegetical views.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_776" name="note_776" href="#noteref_776">776.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The above
remarks on Schleiermacher will perhaps be considered
severe by those who know his works, and will be regarded as putting the
worst face on his system. The criticism however of the late Mr. Vaughan,
who deeply appreciated Schleiermacher, and had devoted much patient
study to his works, and who viewed him from the stand-point of English
orthodoxy, coincides with the above estimate of him. A criticism on
Schleiermacher from Bretschneider's point of view may be seen in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span>, i. p. 93-115.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_777" name="note_777" href="#noteref_777">777.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Especially
at Bonn, which was founded in 1818.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_778" name="note_778" href="#noteref_778">778.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The following
theologians were influenced chiefly by the spirit of
Schleiermacher: Tholuck, professor at Halle, author of various well-known
works, (see the expression of his views in the tract, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guido and
Julius, or true Consecration of the Doubter</span></span>, in reply to De Wette's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theodor</span></span>); Twesten, successor of Schleiermacher at Berlin,
author of the well-known <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span>; H. Olshausen, the
commentator; Nitzch, author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook
of Doctrine</span></span> (translated); Julius Müller, writer of the able work on
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nature of Sin</span></span>; Ullmann, editor of the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>, the organ
of the party. Also Sach, Stier, Tittmann, Umbreit, Ebrart, Hagenbach,
Baumgarten-Crusius, Hundeshagen, Bleek, Lücke, Lange, belong to
the same party; and Gieseler also in the main. Their doctrine is called
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Theologie</span></span>. Bunsen must also
perhaps be classed with them,
though much freer and less biblical than the others. The writings of the
late archdeacon Hare are perhaps no inapt English parallel to the tone of
these teachers.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_779" name="note_779" href="#noteref_779">779.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">More especially
Moehler, named above (p. <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref">239</a>, note), was influenced.
The modern Catholic theologians are to be treated in the forthcoming (3rd)
edition of C. Schwarz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesch. der Neuesten Theologie</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_780" name="note_780" href="#noteref_780">780.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For Neander's
life and character as a theologian and church historian,
see the interesting particulars gathered in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly
Review</span></span>, No. 24, for Nov. 1850, and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span>,
vol. viii. Neander (1789-1850) was a Jew by birth. About 1805 he embraced Christianity
(his life at this period is seen in his letters to Chamisso); studied at Halle
under Schleiermacher 1806; at Göttingen under Planck; was made Professor
at Berlin 1812; author of various early monographs; of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church
History</span></span>, 1825; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Planting of the Church</span></span>,
1832; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Christ</span></span>, 1837. His opinions may be learned from
the Preface to the third edition of his Life of Christ, and the Preface to his Church
History. On his position as a church historian, see Hagenbach in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span> for 1851.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_781" name="note_781" href="#noteref_781">781.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His
views on sin and redemption are chiefly to be gathered from
criticisms on the Pauline doctrine in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
Planting of the Church</span></span> (vol. ii.); and on the Christian doctrine in vol.
ii. of his Church History.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_782" name="note_782" href="#noteref_782">782.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Introduction
to the Life of Christ, § 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_783" name="note_783" href="#noteref_783">783.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Preface to
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span> (first edition).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_784" name="note_784" href="#noteref_784">784.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Fries' philosophy
see Morell, ii. 418; Tennemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manual</span></span>,
§ 122. Accepting Kant's categories, he held the existence of an inward
faith-principle, which gives an insight into the real nature of things; but
only as subjective truths, and as tests of truth. The church historian Hase
(see Kahnis, p. 236) is moulded by this philosophy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_785" name="note_785" href="#noteref_785">785.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect. <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>. Similar discussions have arisen with regard to the
integrity and purpose of the books of Job, Zechariah, and Isaiah. Particulars
of these literary questions will be found in Hengstenberg's articles
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Job</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isaiah</span></span> in Kitto's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Cycl.</span></span>, and in Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to
the Old Testament</span></span>, in the chapters concerning these books. The classical
student need hardly be reminded of the close analogy between these
literary investigations in the Hebrew literature and those which were conducted
by F. A. Wolf in respect to Homer, and by other scholars in reference
to various classical authors.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_786" name="note_786" href="#noteref_786">786.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_787" name="note_787" href="#noteref_787">787.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps
the clearest account of the controversy will be found in
Michel Nicholas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Critiques sur la Bible</span></span>, Essay i.
1862. See also Hengstenberg's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Authentie des Pentateuches</span></span>
(Die Gottesnamen im Pentat. i. 181 seq.); Hävernick's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. to
the Pentateuch</span></span> (English translation), p. 56, &amp;c.; Keil's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch</span></span>, p. 82, &amp;c.; and Dr. S. Davidson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Old Testament</span></span> (1862), pp. 1-135.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_788" name="note_788" href="#noteref_788">788.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conjectures
sur les Memoires Originaux du livre de la Genèse</span></span>,
1753.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_789" name="note_789" href="#noteref_789">789.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Exodus
vi. 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_790" name="note_790" href="#noteref_790">790.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
older critics however think that the plural form relates to the
plurality of persons in the divine Being.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_791" name="note_791" href="#noteref_791">791.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jehovah is
translated in the English version, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Lord</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_792" name="note_792" href="#noteref_792">792.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Independently
of comparative mythology, which is still an hypothesis,
there is evidence of the fact in the very derivations constantly offered
of words in the Old Testament, as well as in the modern investigations concerning
language. Ewald has shown in an interesting manner the means
afforded by the Hebrew proper names for gaining a conception of Hebrew
life (see his article on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Names</span></span> in
Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Encycl.</span></span>); and a similar analysis
has recently been applied to the Indo-Germanic languages in Pictet's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Origines Indo-Européennes</span></span>, 1859.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_793" name="note_793" href="#noteref_793">793.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
well known that the book of Psalms is divided, in the Hebrew
and the Septuagint, into five books; viz. Psalms i-xli; xlii-lxxii; lxxiii-lxxxix;
xc-cvi; cvii-cl; each of them ending with a doxology, which is now
inserted in the text of the psalm. In the first book the name
<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Elohim</span></span>
occurs 15 times, and <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span> 272 times;
in the second, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Elohim</span></span> 164 times,
and <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Jehovah</span></span> 30 times.
This computation is stated on the authority of Dr.
Donaldson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Orthodoxy</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_794" name="note_794" href="#noteref_794">794.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are
two exceptions, viz. i. 21, xii. 9, which Hengstenberg considers
to prove the rule. On this subject see Hengstenberg's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertation
on Job</span></span> in Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Cyclop.</span></span> ii.
122, now reprinted in a volume of his
Miscellaneous Essays.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_795" name="note_795" href="#noteref_795">795.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">De Wette
tries to exhibit traces in other books than Genesis, but
unsuccessfully. It is in Genesis alone that the difference can be so clearly
seen, that, even if the peculiar use had no theological meaning, which not
even Hengstenberg denies, it must remain as a literary peculiarity. A list
of the passages in Genesis which have been considered by these critics to
represent the respective uses of the two names, is given in the learned and
reverently written article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Genesis</span></span>,
in Smith's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biblical Dictionary</span></span>, by Mr.
J. J. S. Perowne.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_796" name="note_796" href="#noteref_796">796.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
references to these various authors will be found in M. Nicholas,
Essay i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_797" name="note_797" href="#noteref_797">797.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des
Hebr. Volk.</span></span> i. 75 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_798" name="note_798" href="#noteref_798">798.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In writing
the history of this dispute, as being here viewed only in
its literary aspect, it will be seen that my object has been simply to select
it, for the purpose of exhibiting the gradual increase of taste as well as of
learning shown by the German critics in reference to questions of the
<span class="tei tei-q">“higher criticism.”</span> Concerning the theological aspect of it we can all
form an opinion, which would probably be in a great degree condemnatory;
but concerning the literary, none but a few eminent Hebrew scholars.
Some of the greatest of them, Gesenius, De Wette, Ewald, Hupfeld, Knobel,
have given in their adherence to some form of the theory above described.
The references to the works of Hengstenberg, Hävernick, and Keil,
who have written on the other side, are given above. The rashness of
some forms of criticism must not make us abandon a wholesome use of it;
and a literary peculiarity such as that described, if it really exist, demands
the reverent study of those who wish to learn the mind of the divine Spirit,
as it was communicated to the ancient chosen people, or expressed in the
written word. Compare McCaul's Essay, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, p. 195.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_799" name="note_799" href="#noteref_799">799.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tennyson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In Memoriam</span></span>, § 95.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_800" name="note_800" href="#noteref_800">800.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matt. v. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_801" name="note_801" href="#noteref_801">801.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. xix. 6</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_802" name="note_802" href="#noteref_802">802.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref">218</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_803" name="note_803" href="#noteref_803">803.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel, 1770-1831,
Professor at Berlin after 1818. The rudiments of his system are in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phenomenology</span></span>, written about 1806; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>
gives the mature form of it about 1816; the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopædia</span></span> its
completion; the two former works being embodied in the latter. For the sources for
the study of his system, &amp;c. see Note <a href="#Note_35" class="tei tei-ref">35</a> at the
end of this book.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_804" name="note_804" href="#noteref_804">804.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p.
<a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref">237</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_805" name="note_805" href="#noteref_805">805.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleiermacher sought
it in the consciousness of dependence, craving
for an infinite object; and regarded Christianity as supplying the means
for the perfect harmony of this principle with the opposing one of voluntary
power. Hence, the solution of difficulties in religion would be sought in
such a system by seeing the adaptation of the Christian scheme to human
needs, not in the solution of the mysteries themselves.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_806" name="note_806" href="#noteref_806">806.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marheinecke
(1780-1846), Professor of Theology at Berlin, the author
of many works, chiefly on dogmatic theology, of which his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Symbolik</span></span>, 1810, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span>, 1827,
are the most important. See Bretschneider's explanation
and criticism on his system (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatik</span></span>, i. 115-140). Perhaps
the name of K. Daub (1765-1836), Professor at Heidelberg, ought also to
be added. Originally Hegel's teacher, he adopted his pupil's system. See
Kahnis's remarks, p. 244 seq., and Amand Saintes, part ii. ch. xvii. It has
been usual to classify the followers of Hegel under the analogy of political
parties in foreign parliaments, thus:—in the extreme right, Heinrichs and
Goeschel; in the right, Schaller, Erdmann, and Gabler; in the centre,
Rosenkranz and Marheinecke; in the left centre, Vatke, Snellmann, and
Michelet; in the left, Strauss, Bruno Bauer, and Feuerbach. See Morell,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 199, 203. Several of these however are
philosophers rather than theologians. A simpler classification of the Hegelian
theologians is into three parties: the first, Daub and Marheinecke, and more
recently Dorner; the second, Chr. Baur and the Tübingen school; the third,
Strauss, B. Bauer, and Feuerbach.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_807" name="note_807" href="#noteref_807">807.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the
article by Scherer in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Feb. 1861,
p. 841; and on the influence of Hegel see Kahnis, p. 244 seq., and Am.
Saintes, P. II. ch. 17; and Bartholmess, b. xii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_808" name="note_808" href="#noteref_808">808.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Note
<a href="#Note_24" class="tei tei-ref">24</a> (p. <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref">412</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_809" name="note_809" href="#noteref_809">809.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, 1835.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_810" name="note_810" href="#noteref_810">810.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The account
of this controversy may be seen in bishop Marsh's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertation</span></span>,
1807; and a continuation of the history subsequently to his work
in the introduction to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Translation of Schleiermacher's Essay on St.
Luke</span></span>, 1825 (by the present Bp. Thirlwall). The controversy is also treated
with great learning and reverence by Dr. S. Davidson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. to New
Test.</span></span> i. (373-425). Important references and quotations in regard to it
are given in the Appendix to Tregelles' edition of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Horne's
Introd.</span></span> 10th ed. vol. iv.; also see Amand Saintes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span>
p. ii. 12; Renan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Hist. Relig.</span></span> (Ess. 3);
Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>; Quinet's review of Strauss
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, vol. iii). A series of studies on the subject
is in course of publication in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue Germ.</span></span> 1862, by
Michel Nicholas.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_811" name="note_811" href="#noteref_811">811.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wetstein, with
Mill, Calmet, and others, regarded St. Mark's Gospel
to be the epitome of St. Matthew's. Griesbach and Dr. Townson thought
that St. Luke as well as St. Mark had seen the one by St Matthew. A
further list may be seen in Tregelles (as above), p. 642; and Davidson (as
above).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_812" name="note_812" href="#noteref_812">812.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Michaelis regarded
the Greek translator of St. Matthew to have had
access to the same Greek document as St. Mark and St. Luke. Semler
and Lessing advocated a Hebrew or Syriac original. Eichhorn adopted
the theory of an Aramaic original, which was adopted with slight alterations
by bishop Marsh. (It was criticised by bishop Randolph, by Mr.
Veysie, and in Falconer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>, 1810.) Schleiermacher
regarded the Gospels to be pieced together out of separate documents.
Gieseler's hypothesis was put forward in 1818.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_813" name="note_813" href="#noteref_813">813.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Probabilia de
Evangel. et Epist. Joannis origine et indole</span></span>, 1820.
The theory suggested was, that it was written in the second century. It
was well answered by Schott, Stein, and others. The controversy has
been revived in more modern times; the Tübingen school denying the
authorship to St. John, Ewald and others, asserting it. The subject is
discussed in Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the New Testament</span></span>,
i. 233-313. See also two articles in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>,
No. 1, July 1855, and No. 9. July 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_814" name="note_814" href="#noteref_814">814.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
spirit of Kant's philosophy in this respect, see Strauss's own
remarks, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, Introd. § 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_815" name="note_815" href="#noteref_815">815.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
contrast of myth and legend there are some good remarks in
Strauss, who quotes George's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythus und Sage</span></span>
for the explanation; also in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>
for April 1847 (p. 149), an article which,
though written in favour of Strauss, gives an instructive account of the
object and position of his work. The history of Strauss's work, with its
antecedents and consequents, mainly based on Schwarz (b. ii.) and on
Scherer, but bearing marks of independent study, is given in Mr. F. C.
Cook's Essay on Ideology in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, 1862.
Theodore Parker has given an accurate analysis, and of course a defence, of
Strauss (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Writings</span></span>, p. 231).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_816" name="note_816" href="#noteref_816">816.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The new
view of the nature of myths is developed in Max Müller's
Essay on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comparative Mythology, Oxford Essays</span></span>,
1856. See also Note <a href="#Note_47" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>
(p. <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref">450</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_817" name="note_817" href="#noteref_817">817.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strauss,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, § 152. (ii. p. 713.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_818" name="note_818" href="#noteref_818">818.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 1-16.
It contains a history of the different explanations of sacred
legends among the Greeks; the allegorical systems of the Hebrews (Philo,)
and Christians (Origen); the system of the Deists; and the Wolfenbüttel
Fragmentist; the naturalist mode of Eichhorn and Paulus, and the moral
of Kant; lastly, the rise of the mythic, both in reference to the Old and
New Testaments. Then the discussion of the possibility of myths in the
Gospels, and a description of the evangelical mythus.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_819" name="note_819" href="#noteref_819">819.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 1-142.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_820" name="note_820" href="#noteref_820">820.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 17-43.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_821" name="note_821" href="#noteref_821">821.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 44-110.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_822" name="note_822" href="#noteref_822">822.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§ 111-142.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_823" name="note_823" href="#noteref_823">823.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">§
143-152. The author gives the dogmatic import of the life of
Jesus, criticising the Christology of Orthodoxy, of Rationalism, of Schleiermacher,
the Symbolic of Kant and De Wette, the Hegelian; and draws his
own conclusions.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_824" name="note_824" href="#noteref_824">824.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This idea
is well brought out in Renan's critique on Strauss. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes
Relig.</span></span> Essai iii.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_825" name="note_825" href="#noteref_825">825.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One passage
of this kind is quoted by Amand Saintes (p. 263) from
Lücke in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stud. und Krit.</span></span> vol. ii. p. 489.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_826" name="note_826" href="#noteref_826">826.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Edgar Quinet
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Œuvres</span></span>, iii. 316, reprinted from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux
Mondes</span></span>, Sept. 1838). His words are, <span class="tei tei-q">“Un jeune homme plein de candeur,
de douceur, de modestie, une âme presque mystique et comme attristée
lu bruit qu'elle a causé.”</span> The unaltered view which Strauss now
takes of his own work, after the interval of twenty-five years, is given in
the Vorrede to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gespräche von Hütten übersetzt und
erlaütert</span></span>, 1860. It is quoted in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>,
No. 23, art. 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_827" name="note_827" href="#noteref_827">827.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
effect which it produced is described, with details of the answers
written, in book ii. of the excellent little work of C. Schwarz already
named, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der Neuesten Theologie</span></span>, 1856. This part of
the work is translated into French, with some useful notes, in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rev. Germ</span></span>, vol. ix. parts ii. and iii. See Note
<a href="#Note_38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a>. The most useful replies are those of
Neander and Dorner. Dr. Beard also published a valuable series of papers
called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voices of the Church</span></span> (1845), containing translations of
the Essay by Quinet above quoted, of one by A. Cocquerel (père), and others. Dr.
Mill's work on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Application of Pantheistic Principles to the
Gospels</span></span> (1840) is intended also as a reply. The Life of Christ, contained in vol. i.
of Dean Milman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Christianity</span></span>, also contains important
remarks on Strauss's scheme.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_828" name="note_828" href="#noteref_828">828.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
<a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref">241</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_829" name="note_829" href="#noteref_829">829.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scherer clearly
brings out this relation of Strauss's work, in § 5 of
the article before quoted.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_830" name="note_830" href="#noteref_830">830.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Accordingly
it will be understood that the mention of <span class="tei tei-q">“the old
Tübingen school”</span> of the last century denotes a Pietist school like that of
Bengel or Pfaff; the mention of <span class="tei tei-q">“the new Tübingen school”</span> means one
of ultra-rationalism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_831" name="note_831" href="#noteref_831">831.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The materials
for the following sketch have been largely supplied by
the work of Schwarz, and partly by an article before cited
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster
Review</span></span> for April 1857. Schwarz, after devoting the first chapter
of book ii. to the Straussian contests, devotes the second and first three
chapters of book iii. to the history of these four movements.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_832" name="note_832" href="#noteref_832">832.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Amand Saintes,
book ii. ch. 18; Hase, § 450; Hundeshagen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
Deut. Prot.</span></span> § 17. Bruno Bauer, born 1809, was once Professor at Bonn,
and teacher at Berlin. In his first manner he showed himself to be a
disciple of Hegel, in works published from 1835 to 1839, such as a criticism
on Strauss, and also on the Old Testament. From 1839 to 1842 he exhibited
a destructive tendency directed against the sacred books; e.g. a
work on the Prussian church and science, and a criticism on St. John's
Gospel. The persecution which he encountered stimulating his opposition,
he showed in his next works (in 1842 and 1843) a spirit of defiance in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Eklekte Christenthum</span></span>. From 1843 to 1849 he connected himself
with questions of politics, and wrote largely on social science. Since that
period he has again written, both in theology, criticisms of the Gospels and
Epistles, and on politics. A list of his works and a sketch of his mental
character may be found in Vapereau, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dict. des Contemp.</span></span>
1858.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_833" name="note_833" href="#noteref_833">833.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this
movement see Schwarz, b. iii. ch. i.; and on the German
political socialism see the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 22, for
Aug. 1848. Feuerbach (see Vapereau) was author of many works on the history of
philosophy about 1833 to 1845. His chief works on religion were <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das
Wesen des Christenthums</span></span> (1851), and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Wesen der Religion</span></span>,
1845. The former work was translated in 1854, and contains a discussion (1) of
the true or anthropological essence of religion; (2) of the false or theological.
His collected works have been published. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hallische Jahrbücher</span></span>
was his organ. Criticisms on his school are given by Bartholmess
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Crit. des Doctr. de la Phil. Mod.</span></span> b. xiii. ch. ii.), and
by E. Renan (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Hist. Relig.</span></span> p. 405).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_834" name="note_834" href="#noteref_834">834.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ruge, once a
teacher at Halle; went into voluntary exile at Paris,
like Heine, in 1843; was mixed in the revolutionary schemes of 1848; and
in 1850 became an exile in England. See Vapereau.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_835" name="note_835" href="#noteref_835">835.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above,
note on p. <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>. Gutskow and Mundt belonged to the
same school. The former a dramatic poet, whose works against religion
were about 1835, in the Prefaces to Letters of F. Schlegel, &amp;c.; the latter,
librarian at Berlin, was noted for his political connexion with the party of
young Germany, rather than for any assault on religion. See Vapereau
for an account of his works. The spirit of this school was tinged with
bitterness against existing institutions.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_836" name="note_836" href="#noteref_836">836.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gaspard Schmidt
(1806-1856) wrote in 1845, under the pseudonym
of Max Stirner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der einzige und sein Eigenthum</span></span>.
His later works were on political economy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_837" name="note_837" href="#noteref_837">837.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As schools
of thought have been occasionally named in this narrative
in connexion with universities, it may facilitate clearness to collect together
the few hints which have been given concerning the subject. In the first
period previous to 1790, we showed the theological tendencies of the four
universities, Göttingen, Leipsic, Halle, and Tübingen: next, in the period
after 1790, the state of Jena as the home of rationalism and of the Kantian
philosophy. In our second period we pointed out the condition of Berlin
as the seat of philosophical reaction under Schleiermacher and Hegel; and
indirectly of the universities which represented the school of De Wette.
In the third period, the school of Lutheran reaction has specially existed in
Berlin, Leipsic, Erlangen, Rostock, and the Russian university of Dorpat;
the school of <span class="tei tei-q">“Mediation”</span> chiefly at Berlin, Heidelberg, Halle, and Bonn;
and the historico-critical at Tübingen. It may be useful to add, for the
completion of the account, that the Tübingen school is now almost extinct
in its original home; and that the two universities which at the present
time represent the freest criticism are supposed to be Giessen and Jena.
The latter is marked by the realistic school of philosophy described in Note
<a href="#Note_41" class="tei tei-ref">41</a>. Hilgenfeld, the best representative
of the Tübingen school, is Professor there; see Note
<a href="#Note_39" class="tei tei-ref">39</a>, at the end of this volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_838" name="note_838" href="#noteref_838">838.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Th. Mommsen.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_839" name="note_839" href="#noteref_839">839.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Viz. the Epistles
to the Romans and Galatians, and the two to
Corinth.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_840" name="note_840" href="#noteref_840">840.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An explanation and
criticism of some of these opinions are given in Davidson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the New Testament</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_841" name="note_841" href="#noteref_841">841.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermittellungs-Theologie</span></span>, and
sometimes called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Theologie</span></span>.
See Schwarz, book iii. ch. ii. The organs of this party are the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neue Evangel.
Kirchenzeitung</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_842" name="note_842" href="#noteref_842">842.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dorner,
born in 1809; successively Professor in several universities:
he has recently gone to Berlin. It is a matter of gratification that his
great work, described in the text, is now in course of translation. The
account of the successive steps through which it passed may be seen in
the American <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibliotheca Sacra</span></span> for 1849. Also an account
of it is given in Theodore Parker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Works</span></span>, p.
287. Lange, author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben Jesu</span></span>, ought perhaps to be
named along with the two in the text, as belonging to this school.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_843" name="note_843" href="#noteref_843">843.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps these two
theologians ought to be regarded apart from the
average of the members of the Mediation school, as being of a grander
type. They approach the subject from a higher stand-point, and also are
more largely moulded by philosophy. On Rothe, see. Note <a href="#Note_40" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>
(p. <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref">437</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_844" name="note_844" href="#noteref_844">844.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_845" name="note_845" href="#noteref_845">845.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_846" name="note_846" href="#noteref_846">846.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. i.
period i. ch. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_847" name="note_847" href="#noteref_847">847.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. ch. ii.
and iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_848" name="note_848" href="#noteref_848">848.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Epoche,
Abth. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_849" name="note_849" href="#noteref_849">849.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_850" name="note_850" href="#noteref_850">850.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">If the reader
follows out the pedantic but useful mode before named,
of arranging the actual schools of theology after the fashion of foreign
assemblies, he will place in the right, the friends of the confessional theology;
in the centre, those of the mediation theology; in the left, the old
critical school of De Wette; and in the extreme left, the school of Tübingen.
The first has its chief seat in Prussia, and the third probably in
Thuringia and central Germany.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_851" name="note_851" href="#noteref_851">851.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kahnis, p. 262,
&amp;c.; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. x; Hase, § 453;
Schwarz, book iii. ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_852" name="note_852" href="#noteref_852">852.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The dissenters
from the union were not recognised legally by the
state till 1845. (See the references given in the last note.) The principal
of those who dissented were Kellner, Scheibel, and Huschke.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_853" name="note_853" href="#noteref_853">853.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hengstenberg, born in
1802; professor at Berlin. His works are
well known. His work on Christology (1829), Introduction to the Pentateuch
(1831), Commentary on the Psalms (1842), and several others, are
translated.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_854" name="note_854" href="#noteref_854">854.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hävernick,
Professor at Königsberg; died a few years since. His
chief works are, a Commentary on Daniel (1838); and an Introduction to
the Old Testament, which is translated.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_855" name="note_855" href="#noteref_855">855.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelische
Kirchenzeitung</span></span>, the organ of his opinions, was
Pietist till about 1838; after which it favoured the reaction; especially
since the theological disputes of 1845 and the political revolution of 1848.
See Hase, § 451; Schwarz, book i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_856" name="note_856" href="#noteref_856">856.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stahl, who
died in 1861, was eminent for piety as well as learning. His
views may be learned from an address, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber
Christliche Toleranz</span></span>, 1855. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kreuz Zeitung</span></span>
is the journal which has supported this political reaction.
The <span class="tei tei-q">“Theology of the Confessions”</span> (i.e. of Augsburg, &amp;c.) is the name
which is given to the movement by its friends. See Kahnis, p. 311 seq.
Much interesting information in reference to it, though occasionally expressed
in a rude manner, together with references to the German authors
from which it is drawn, will be found in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British
Review</span></span>, No. 47, Feb. 1856, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly
Review</span></span>, No. 46, April 1856. The extracts there quoted are the authority
for several of the statements here made. See also Schwarz, iii. 3; Hundeshagen,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Deutsche Protestantismus</span></span>, § 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_857" name="note_857" href="#noteref_857">857.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In
enumerating a few names among those that belong to this reactionary
party, it is fair to state that some of them have not taken open
part in the political aspects of it, and do not teach all that is described in
the last few lines, which rather express the teaching of the more violent,
and mark the tendencies to which the others only approximate. Some of
the best known are, Harless, Delitzch, Keil, as biblical investigators;
Rudelbach, Guericke, Schmid, Kurtz, and Kahnis, as historical; and Kliefoth
in practical doctrine. (Kahnis has however lately adopted free views
in criticism. See Colani's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nouvelle Revue de la Theologie</span></span>,
July 1862.) Vilmar in Hesse Cassel, and Leo at Halle, belong to the most ultra section
of the school. The universities where it predominates are named at p.
<a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a>. Those however who dissent from the views of the
theologians here described ought not to forget to render a tribute to the reverent
piety and high motives of many of them. They are men who know and love Christ,
and are striving to lead men to love him.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_858" name="note_858" href="#noteref_858">858.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
a remarkable circumstance that the Oxford movement in the
church of England was at first an anticatholic movement. The Catholic
Emancipation Bill and the liberality of the parliament after the Reform
Bill created an alarm, which led to the study of the non-juring divines and
Anglo-catholics who had asserted the rights of the church, and to the reproduction
of their opinions. Deeper causes were however at work;
among which was the wish to find a more solid groundwork for church
belief: but the political circumstances contributed the stimulus, though
they were not truly the cause.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_859" name="note_859" href="#noteref_859">859.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The names of
Stilling and Oberlin have been already cited, as
instances of devoted Christians who realised the truth and tried to spread
it. A writer in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Foreign Quarterly Review</span></span>, vol. xxv.
p. 132, attests from personal experience his knowledge of the existence of earnest
faith in parishes at the time when the universities were nurseries of doubt.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_860" name="note_860" href="#noteref_860">860.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The missions existed previously,
having been commenced by the
Moravians in the last century, and carried on by several detached missionary
associations in the present. On the recent improvement in Germany,
see articles in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 31
for Nov. 1851, and No. 40 for Feb. 1854.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_861" name="note_861" href="#noteref_861">861.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
Innere Mission</span></span>, founded by Dr. Wichern.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_862" name="note_862" href="#noteref_862">862.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Kirchentag arose
out of the Kirchenbund, and met first at Wittenberg,
in the church which contains the bones of Luther and Melancthon,
in 1848, while war and revolution were raging around.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_863" name="note_863" href="#noteref_863">863.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In addition to those named in the text,
mention ought to be made
of the association of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Friends of Light,”</span> founded by Uhlich, which
represents the individual principle like the Quakers, and has resulted in
forming some free congregations in Königsberg and Magdeburg. (Consult
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Deutsche Theologie</span></span>, p. 26; Hase's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 456.) The
movement was accused of rationalism by its opponents. Also the Gustavus
Adolphus Association, begun in 1832 for the relief of all classes of protestants,
was one of the first means of promoting Christian union, and indirectly
produced the Kirchentag. An account of these two last associations
may be found in a pamphlet (1849) by C. H. Cottrell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious
Movements of Germany in the Nineteenth Century</span></span>. Kahnis notices the
great facts of this revival, but with a slight sneer (p. 276, &amp;c.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_864" name="note_864" href="#noteref_864">864.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is enough to mention
Schleiermacher's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glausbenslehre</span></span>, and the
works of Ewald; e.g. the prefaces to the poetical and prophetical books,
and his work, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des Hebr. Volkes</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_865" name="note_865" href="#noteref_865">865.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Lecture <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.
(p. <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref">194</a>.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_866" name="note_866" href="#noteref_866">866.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Damiron, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai
sur l'Histoire de la Philosophie en France au
19</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">me</span></span><span style="font-style: italic"> siècle</span></span>, 1828; and Nettement's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Litt. Franc. sous la Restoration</span></span>,
1853, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Litt. Franc. sous le Gouvernement de
Juillet</span></span>, especially b. v, vi, vii, xi; and a review of Nettement in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 37; also H. J. Rose's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Advocate's Publication</span></span> for 1832.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_867" name="note_867" href="#noteref_867">867.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Philosophy</span></span>, i. 543-72, and Damiron,
pp. (1-105).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_868" name="note_868" href="#noteref_868">868.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chateaubriand (1768-1848)
wrote his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Génie du Christianisme</span></span> in
1802. See Nettement, first work, quoted above, vol. i. b. x.; and, second
work, vol. ii. p. 330; and the criticism by Villemain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La
Tribune Moderne</span></span>, ch. v.; and Sainte-Beuve's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Portraits</span></span>,
vol. x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_869" name="note_869" href="#noteref_869">869.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Génie du Christianisme</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_870" name="note_870" href="#noteref_870">870.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The sources for
understanding the systems of Socialism, besides the
works of its founders, are Alfred Sudre's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire et Refutation
du Communisme</span></span>, 1850, (especially ch. xvi-xx,) which obtained the Monthyou
prize, and gives a history of communism in all ages; also Nettement,
second work, ii. b. vii.; Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Philosophy</span></span>,
ch. vii. § 2; an article in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>, No. 90, July
1831; and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, 1832; and two very
valuable articles in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>,
No. 18, May 1848, and No. 20, Feb. 1849. Those who are aware how
much Socialism has influenced French philosophy and literature, as well as
politics, will see that it is at once the index of certain forms of religious
thought and the cause of subsequent ones, and will pardon the space bestowed
in the text upon these visionary schools.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_871" name="note_871" href="#noteref_871">871.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1760-1825.
See Morell, as above.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_872" name="note_872" href="#noteref_872">872.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fourier, 1768-1818.
See the same sources for information, and
Nettement's second work, ii. 30. One of the chief Fourierists was Considérant.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_873" name="note_873" href="#noteref_873">873.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It was a
system in fact which has been tried in the mode of working
the Cornish mines.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_874" name="note_874" href="#noteref_874">874.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The St.
Simonians separated about 1831 into two parties; one led
by Bazard, showing a logical tendency, and including Leyroux; and the
other led by Enfantin at Menilmontant, showing an emotional, among
whose adherents was Michel Chevalier. The source of dispute was the
emancipation of the working classes and of woman; Enfantin going beyond
the other school in reference to these points. In 1832 the government
interfered, and dispersed his supporters. On the relation of French journalism
to the political movements, see two articles in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly
Review</span></span>, vols. iii. and ix.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_875" name="note_875" href="#noteref_875">875.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The novels of such writers
as George Sand, Victor Hugo, &amp;c. give
expression to these aspirations for social improvement, and the disposition to
attribute all evil to social disarrangement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_876" name="note_876" href="#noteref_876">876.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The systems of St. Simon
and Fourier did not demand the abrogation
of social inequality between man and man. Both would revolutionise the
present state of things; but the one would replace it by a graduated scale
of functionaries, the other by a more democratic and less federal system of
corporations. But communism is founded on the idea of entire social
equality as regards the material advantages of life. The old schemes of
Babœuf and the first French revolution hardly existed in 1848, but were
replaced by two forms of communism; the theoretic or <span class="tei tei-q">“Icarian”</span> of
Cabet, and the practical of Louis Blanc. On these systems, with that of
Proudhon, see the sources before described, especially Sudre and the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 20, where this new phase
is well described. Also Hase's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church History</span></span>, § 493.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_877" name="note_877" href="#noteref_877">877.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Comte's
chief work, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie Positive</span></span>, has been well translated
in an abridged form by Miss Martineau, 1853. In reference to him
see Morell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, i. 577, &amp;c. and
important criticisms on his system in the following reviews, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue
des Deux Mondes</span></span>, by E. Saisset, 1850, vol. iii; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British
Review</span></span>, No. 30, Aug. 1851; No. 41, May 1854; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly
Review</span></span>, No. 38, April 1854. Comte's later religious
views are given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catéchisme Positiviste</span></span>, 1852,
and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Culte Systématique de l'Humanité ou Calendrier
Positiviste</span></span> (1853).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_878" name="note_878" href="#noteref_878">878.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Introduction, ch.
i. (English translation.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_879" name="note_879" href="#noteref_879">879.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. ch. ii. and books
i-v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_880" name="note_880" href="#noteref_880">880.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Book vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_881" name="note_881" href="#noteref_881">881.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
note on the subject in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_882" name="note_882" href="#noteref_882">882.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Cousin,
see Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
ii. 478 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_883" name="note_883" href="#noteref_883">883.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Morell,
who was formerly a disciple of this school has brought
out this thought in his work on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of Religion</span></span>,
1849, ch. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_884" name="note_884" href="#noteref_884">884.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">During the reign
of Louis Philippe an attack was made on the university
of Paris by the Jesuits, on the ground that the views taught there
were pantheistic. The same view was adopted in an article in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fraser's
Magazine</span></span>, No. 170, Feb. 1844, which is valuable in giving quotations of
passages which indicate the tendency of this philosophy, though the writer
fails to appreciate the value of it as a reaction against the old Voltairism.
The same charge is expressed in the sketch which H. L. C. Maret gives of
the philosophy of the nineteenth century (in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur le
Panthéisme</span></span>, 1845). See also Nettement's second work, vol. i. book vi;
Saisset, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, 1850, vol. iii; and
Damiron's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai</span></span>, pp. 105-197.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_885" name="note_885" href="#noteref_885">885.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has not
been thought necessary to name Salvador the Jew, author
of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Institutions de Moses</span></span>, 1828;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jésus Christ et sa Doctrine</span></span>, 1839;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paris, Rome, et Jerusalem</span></span>. His writings were criticised
by Mr. H. J. Rose's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Advocate's Publication</span></span>, 1831,
and have been lately reviewed by the Semitic scholar A. Franck, in a series of papers
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal des Débats</span></span>, Jan. 24, Feb. 12, May 29, June 4
and 6, 1862; and by Renan in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Hist. Relig.</span></span> p.
189, &amp;c. Salvador's view is both
Jewish and sceptical. Magnifying the Jewish system, he regards Christianity
as an offshoot of it, imperfect in its kind; and looks to the spirit of
Judaism as the future hope for the world. He professes a creed which is
called by Franck <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Infinitheism</span></span>. Whatever in his opposition to
Christianity is not derived from the eclectic school is the result of his Jewish
prejudices.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_886" name="note_886" href="#noteref_886">886.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">No mention
has been made of several aggressive writers who publish
in the French language, mostly in Belgium, works on infidelity resembling
in tone those of the last century, such as Volney. There are two such
works by P. Larroque, viz. a destructive one, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examen Critique des
Doctrines de la Religion Chrétienne</span></span>, first, as they are stated in the dogmas of
the church, and secondly, in the scriptures; in which he makes a collection
of difficulties in the Bible, book by book: and another work, constructive
in tone, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Renovation Religieuse</span></span>, 1860. A work of similar
intention by P. Rénand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianisme et Paganisme, identité de
leurs origines ou nouvelle symbolique</span></span>, 1861, is a kind of reproduction of Dupuis
and Volney, modified by Feuerbach. In the preface to the last-named work, the writer
refers to works by Eenen and Proudhon, similarly directed against Christianity.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_887" name="note_887" href="#noteref_887">887.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conférences</span></span> originated with Frayssinous in a kind of public
catechising about 1802. Being changed into sermons in 1807, they were
transferred from the Carmes to St. Sulpice, but closed by the government
in 1809. They were resumed in 1815, and were transferred about 1830,
through Ozanam's intercession with the archbishop of Paris, De Quelen, to
Nôtre Dame; where Lacordaire opened his course in 1836. He, Ravignan,
and Felix, respectively made themselves distinguished. A. Pontmartin
has pointed out the adaptation of each teacher to the phase of public
thought. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Père Félix</span></span>, 1861, pp. 26-32, quoted
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Remembrancer</span></span>,
Jan. 1862). These particulars are partly taken from Nettement's
works above cited.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_888" name="note_888" href="#noteref_888">888.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The church
during the Bourbon restoration was more Gallican than
Ultramontane. See Nettement's first work, t. ii. book vii. For a survey
of French literature during the present reign, see Reymond's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes du
second Empire</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_889" name="note_889" href="#noteref_889">889.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This idea is well
expressed in the passages quoted in Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_890" name="note_890" href="#noteref_890">890.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One
of the modern young French writers most distinguished for
power of analysis, is H. Taine, who deserves mention in connexion with
the tendency which is in a different manner represented by Renan. Taine's
literary character was sketched, but not with the praise which he deserves,
in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, July 1861; and also with a special
reference to his religious opinions in Scherer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mélanges</span></span>, ch.
xi. He was supposed to be a positivist, but now declares himself to favour
Spinoza.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_891" name="note_891" href="#noteref_891">891.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Renan, born 1823.
His chief works are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale et
Systèmes Comparés des Langues Sémitiques</span></span>, 1845; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De l'Origine
du Langage</span></span>, 1849; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Averroes</span></span>, 1851;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Job</span></span>, 1859; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cantique des Cantiques</span></span>, 1860;
and Essays collected, viz. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essais de Critique et de Morale</span></span>,
1859; and especially <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes de l'Histoire Religieuse</span></span>, 1859,
which contains a remarkable preface on the office of modern criticism. A true
criticism on the last two works may be seen in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Blackwood's
Magazine</span></span>, Nov. 1861, used in these remarks; and another by Scherer,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mélanges de la Critique Religieuse</span></span>, ch.
xv. He is now writing on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Origines du Christianisme</span></span>.
See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fraser's Magazine</span></span>, October 1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_892" name="note_892" href="#noteref_892">892.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This will
be seen to be the enumeration of the essays in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes
de l'Histoire Relig.</span></span> The essay on the future prospects of Christian churches
alluded to is in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span> for Oct. 15, 1860,
where Renan examines the prospects of the centralised system of papacy, of the national
system of the English and Russian churches, and of the individual system
of free churches; and argues that the tendency of society is to adopt the
latter, both in freedom of creed and of constitution.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_893" name="note_893" href="#noteref_893">893.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">At the
close of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Chaire d'Hébreu</span></span>, 1862, he has however assumed
a view of the world and of nature, less negative and more definite.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_894" name="note_894" href="#noteref_894">894.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the
preface to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes Relig.</span></span> especially pp. 14, 15. It is hoped
that injustice is not done to M. Renan by these statements. Perhaps they
interpret his thoughts more pointedly than he himself would do, and attribute
to him as positive conclusions what rather are incipient tendencies.
They are the result however of a careful study of his various works, and
were written before his recent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discours d'Ouverture; De la part des
Peuples Sémitiques</span></span>, which seems to confirm them.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_895" name="note_895" href="#noteref_895">895.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Lect. <a href="#Lecture_V" class="tei tei-ref">V</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_896" name="note_896" href="#noteref_896">896.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some
remarks will be found a few pages farther, in reference to the
subjective spirit and stronger consciousness of the ethical element in
human nature, which are evinced in the literature of the present century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_897" name="note_897" href="#noteref_897">897.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such as Herbert and Morgan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_898" name="note_898" href="#noteref_898">898.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
influence of the Lake school of poetry, see D. M. Moir's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sketches of the Poetical Literature of the past half century</span></span>,
1851, ch. i. and ii. The Lake school being a reaction against the materialist school,
which almost degraded spirit to matter, traced a soul in nature, and was in danger
of elevating matter to spirit. Other branches of art besides poetry exhibit
a similar change of tone. This is remarkably manifest in the modern landscape
art of England, and is developed incidentally in Mr. Ruskin's work,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Modern Painters</span></span>. We have already had occasion, in Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>, to
advert to the similarity in result of the Lake school of English poetry to
the Romantic school of Germany. Both were spiritual schools; but the
former strove to learn from the freshness of nature, the latter from the
freshness of an earlier stage of civilization.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_899" name="note_899" href="#noteref_899">899.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A very able
analysis of the mental character of Wordsworth, to whom
the words in the text allude, was given in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 7, Jan. 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_900" name="note_900" href="#noteref_900">900.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Two very
valuable essays occur, on Bentham and Coleridge respectively,
in Mr. J. S. Mill's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Dissertations</span></span>, vol. i.
(reprinted from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, Aug. 1838 and
March 1840). See especially the comparison of these two philosophers at
p. 395 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_901" name="note_901" href="#noteref_901">901.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is shown
in a very striking manner in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>,
Oct. 1856, in which a comparison is instituted of the effects on the English
mind of the three teachers, J. H. Newman, Coleridge, and Carlyle.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_902" name="note_902" href="#noteref_902">902.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
is the arrangement adopted in Mr. Pearson's work on Infidelity,
named on p. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_903" name="note_903" href="#noteref_903">903.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Concerning Comte's
philosophy see the note on p. <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref">295</a>. The
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> is the periodical which at present embodies
its spirit. The works of Mr. G. H. Lewes, his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Philosophy</span></span>, and his exposition of Comte (Bohn 1853), may be noticed as books in
which the philosophical, and, to some extent, the theological spirit of positivism
prevails. The mind of Mr. J. S. Mill has been largely influenced by this philosophy, to
which his tastes for natural science disposed him; though the influence on
him of the philosophy of his father, James Mill, and of Bentham, as well
as his own originality of mind, prevents him from being a mere disciple of
Comte. These writers however have almost abstained from touching
directly on the subject of religion. The character of Positivism, as an
intellectual tendency, has been sketched by Mr. Morell, in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on the Philosophical tendencies of the Age</span></span>,
1848.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_904" name="note_904" href="#noteref_904">904.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The view
of religion as a worship of the ideal of humanity, in the
form of practical ethics and social study, which is taken by the better class
of Positivists, is stated at length in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>
for April 1858, together with an explanation of the extravagant views of Comte, in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catéchisme Positiviste</span></span>, which has been translated by one who
was formerly highly respected as an indefatigable teacher, in one of the public schools,
and afterwards in one of the universities.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_905" name="note_905" href="#noteref_905">905.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Secularism is
the name adopted a few years ago by Mr. G. J. Holyoake.
See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity and Secularism; Report of the Public Discussion
between the Rev. B. Grant and Mr. Holyoake</span></span>; also, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Atheism,
or the Pretensions of Secularism examined; a course of Four Lectures,
delivered in the Athenæum, Bradford</span></span>, by the Rev. J. Gregory, &amp;c. 1852;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Secular Tracts</span></span>, by the Rev. J. H. Hinton; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Outcast and the Poor of London</span></span>, Whitehall Sermons, by the Rev. F. Meyrick, p. 91
seq. In its social aspect it is the form of naturalism which has been borrowed from
Owen and Combe; in its religious, from Comte. The political tone of this
system is expressed in a poem, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Purgatory of Suicides; a Prison
Rhyme, by Thomas Cooper the Chartist</span></span>, 1858; and the religious in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">the Confessions of Joseph Barker, a Convert from Christianity</span></span>,
1858. Also in the tracts of Mr. Holyoake, e.g. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Logic of
Death</span></span>, written in 1849, during the cholera. These last two writers are the chief
teachers of the system. Some small magazines are devoted to its propagation. A criticism
on these tendencies among the working classes will be found, from
the Unitarian point of view, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 15,
Jan. 1859, where this class of political and religious obstacles, encountered in dealing
with the working classes, is contrasted with the mere animalism described
in Miss Marsh's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English Hearts and Hands</span></span>; and from a more
sceptical point of view, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span> for Jan.
1862, where an extract is given (p. 83) concerning Holyoake's view of Deity. The
following terrible utterance, taken from his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discussion with
Townley</span></span> (p. 68), will give an idea of his tone: <span class="tei tei-q">“Science has shown us that we
are under the dominion of general laws, and that there is no special Providence. Nature
acts with fearful uniformity: stern as fate, absolute as tyranny, merciless
as death; too vast to praise, too inexplicable to worship, too inexorable to
propitiate; it has no ear for prayer, no heart for sympathy, no arm to
save.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_906" name="note_906" href="#noteref_906">906.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The chief
points against which the objections have been taken are,
the scriptural account of the character of Christ, the doctrine of atonement,
and the necessity of faith to salvation. See the Report of the discussion
which is referred to at the commencement of the last note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_907" name="note_907" href="#noteref_907">907.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr.
Buckle's work on the History of Civilization is an instance to
which these statements apply.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_908" name="note_908" href="#noteref_908">908.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The difficulties
alluded to are, those suggested by geology, concerning
the narrative of creation, the deluge, and the date of the creation of
man; or by physiology, concerning the longevity of the patriarchs; or by
ethnology, concerning the unity of mankind.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_909" name="note_909" href="#noteref_909">909.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Carlyle.
The character of his writings and philosophy is explained
and criticised in Morell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>,
ii. 249 seq.; and in an able manner in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>,
Oct. 1839; both which sources
have been much used in the following brief account. The latter article
would be considered probably to need a slight alteration, in consequence
of the slight change of character in Carlyle's more recent works.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_910" name="note_910" href="#noteref_910">910.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Sterling</span></span>, 1850, pp. 126, 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_911" name="note_911" href="#noteref_911">911.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may
be enough to refer to such a passage as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Past and Present</span></span>,
pp. 305-9.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_912" name="note_912" href="#noteref_912">912.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Past
and Present</span></span>, pp. 193, 4.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_913" name="note_913" href="#noteref_913">913.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id. pp. 271, 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_914" name="note_914" href="#noteref_914">914.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Emerson:
it ought to be noticed however that the following
remarks are applicable mainly, if not wholly, to his earlier works; on which
there is a criticism, similar to that cited in reference to Carlyle, in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, March 1840.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_915" name="note_915" href="#noteref_915">915.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I am
nothing—I see all—the currents of the universal being circulate
through me—I am part or particle of God.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nature</span></span>,
p. 13. These were the words which this author formerly used. The same tendency can
probably be traced in the characters of Plato and Goethe in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Representative Men</span></span>. See also the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oration on the Christian Teacher</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_916" name="note_916" href="#noteref_916">916.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. W. Mackay,
whose two works are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Progress of the Intellect
as exemplified in the Religious Development of the Greeks and Hebrews</span></span>,
2 vols. 1850, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Rise and Progress of Christianity</span></span>,
1854. (No. 7 of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chapman's Quarterly Series</span></span>.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_917" name="note_917" href="#noteref_917">917.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Progress of Intellect</span></span>, vol.
i. ch. ii. on <span class="tei tei-q">“Mythical Geography and Cosmogony.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_918" name="note_918" href="#noteref_918">918.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_919" name="note_919" href="#noteref_919">919.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_920" name="note_920" href="#noteref_920">920.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. ii. ch.
v. § 3 and 9. He illustrates from natural processes; such
as the decay of nature.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_921" name="note_921" href="#noteref_921">921.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_922" name="note_922" href="#noteref_922">922.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_923" name="note_923" href="#noteref_923">923.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. viii.
The types of thought which he traces in it are, the conception
of prophet as taught by Moses; the idea of a supernatural incarnation;
the Davidic conception of a temporal sovereign; and the suffering
Messiah of the book of Daniel.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_924" name="note_924" href="#noteref_924">924.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. ix. and x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_925" name="note_925" href="#noteref_925">925.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rise
of Christianity</span></span>, parts i. and ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_926" name="note_926" href="#noteref_926">926.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_927" name="note_927" href="#noteref_927">927.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Part iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_928" name="note_928" href="#noteref_928">928.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Parts v. and vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_929" name="note_929" href="#noteref_929">929.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Creed of Christendom, its Foundation and Superstructure</span></span>, by
W. Rathbone Greg. 1851. A review of it by Mr. Martineau may be seen
in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies on Christianity</span></span> (reprinted from the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>), and
by Remusat in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Jan. 1859.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_930" name="note_930" href="#noteref_930">930.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. i. and
ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_931" name="note_931" href="#noteref_931">931.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_932" name="note_932" href="#noteref_932">932.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_933" name="note_933" href="#noteref_933">933.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_934" name="note_934" href="#noteref_934">934.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_935" name="note_935" href="#noteref_935">935.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_936" name="note_936" href="#noteref_936">936.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. viii-xii.
He adopts the view of the new Tübingen school, in
exaggerating the contrast between the description of the character and
teaching of Christ in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Synoptical”</span> evangelists, and in the fourth
Gospel.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_937" name="note_937" href="#noteref_937">937.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xiii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_938" name="note_938" href="#noteref_938">938.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xiv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_939" name="note_939" href="#noteref_939">939.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_940" name="note_940" href="#noteref_940">940.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch.
xvi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_941" name="note_941" href="#noteref_941">941.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. xvii.
He quotes the beautiful lines of Wordsworth, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ode on
Intimations of Immortality</span></span>, § 5,) <span class="tei tei-q">“Heaven lies about us in our infancy,”</span>
&amp;c. as illustrative of the instinctive feeling of man in reference to
immortality.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_942" name="note_942" href="#noteref_942">942.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
303.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_943" name="note_943" href="#noteref_943">943.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss S. Hennell,
whose chief writings are, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christianity and Infidelity</span></span>,
a prize essay, an exposition of the arguments on both sides, 1857;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Sceptical Tendency of Butler's Analogy</span></span>, 1859;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Early Christian Anticipation of the End of the World</span></span>, 1860;
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thoughts in Aid of Faith,
gathered chiefly from recent works in Theology and Philosophy</span></span>, 1860.
Her views originally were the same as those of her brother, a deceased
unitarian minister, author of a work on Theism (1852), in which the use
of miracles as an evidence was depreciated. It is hoped that it will not be
considered improper to have named a writer, whose sex might be expected
to shelter her from remark; but her writings are too able to be unproductive
of influence.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_944" name="note_944" href="#noteref_944">944.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thoughts
in Aid of Faith</span></span>, ch. i. This work was reviewed in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, July 1860, and the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span> for Nov. 1860.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_945" name="note_945" href="#noteref_945">945.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch.
ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_946" name="note_946" href="#noteref_946">946.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. ch. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_947" name="note_947" href="#noteref_947">947.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. vi. and vii.
It is a result not unlike that of positivism, but
reached from the ontological instead of the physical side.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_948" name="note_948" href="#noteref_948">948.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr.
Theodore Parker of Boston.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_949" name="note_949" href="#noteref_949">949.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. F.
Newman. The wide spread of the works of these two writers,
especially of the latter, is the reason why it is thought desirable to exhibit
their views at some length. The pathos and eloquence which belong to
their writings impart to them a fascination which makes it the more necessary
that readers should be on their guard, by understanding the position
which these authors hold in relation to faith and to unbelief.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_950" name="note_950" href="#noteref_950">950.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The particulars
are obtained from the account of Mr. Parker's ministry, prefixed to his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermons on Theism</span></span>. He was at first a unitarian
minister; but, changing from unitarianism into deism, he left that body,
and became a preacher in Boston, until he was compelled to visit Europe
on account of enfeebled health. He died at Florence, 1860. His doctrinal
views may be learned from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse on Matters pertaining to
Religion</span></span>, written in 1846, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermons on Theism, Atheism,
and the Popular Theology</span></span>, 1853; and his critical and literary views, from the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Old Testament</span></span>, based on De Wette; and from
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellaneous Writings</span></span>, 1848. A comparison of him with
Strauss, which has been here used, was given in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westm. Rev.</span></span>
for April 1847. His character and life have also been sketched in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. Rev.</span></span> Jan. 1860, and especially by A. Reville in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>, Oct. 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_951" name="note_951" href="#noteref_951">951.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Renan. See
p. <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref">303</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_952" name="note_952" href="#noteref_952">952.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse pertaining to Matters of Religion</span></span>, books ii, iii, iv.
The writer is unable to put the exact references to this work in the remarks
which follow; having omitted to note them down when he had the book at
hand.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_953" name="note_953" href="#noteref_953">953.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse</span></span>, book i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_954" name="note_954" href="#noteref_954">954.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
steps through which he considers that the idea of God is developed
into a conception are, Fetishism, Polytheism, and Monotheism;
Dualism and Pantheism being errors which lead astray from Monotheism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_955" name="note_955" href="#noteref_955">955.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermons on
Theism</span></span>, sermons i. and ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_956" name="note_956" href="#noteref_956">956.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Id.
sermons ix. and x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_957" name="note_957" href="#noteref_957">957.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse
on Religion</span></span>, books ii. and iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_958" name="note_958" href="#noteref_958">958.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Discourse</span></span>, book iii. and several
passages in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the Old
Testament</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_959" name="note_959" href="#noteref_959">959.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. F. W. Newman.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_960" name="note_960" href="#noteref_960">960.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Phases of Faith</span></span>, 1850.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_961" name="note_961" href="#noteref_961">961.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_962" name="note_962" href="#noteref_962">962.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_963" name="note_963" href="#noteref_963">963.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_964" name="note_964" href="#noteref_964">964.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_965" name="note_965" href="#noteref_965">965.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. v.
and vi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_966" name="note_966" href="#noteref_966">966.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">To complete
this account it is necessary to add, that Mr. Newman
has developed some portion of the critical investigations of his studies of
Jewish history in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Hebrew Monarchy</span></span>, 1847.
It is a treatment of the Old Testament analogous to that to which we are accustomed
in classical history; the answer to which would be by denying
that the records of the Hebrew history are amenable to criticism, inasmuch
as they do not partake of the ordinary conditions which appertain to human
literature.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_967" name="note_967" href="#noteref_967">967.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
Soul, her Sorrows and her Aspirations</span></span>, 1849. In the date of
publication this preceded the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phases</span></span>. Mr. Newman has
subsequently published, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theism, Doctrinal, Practical, or
Didactic</span></span>, 1858. The most complete view of his scheme, but of course wholly
favourable to him, is in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, Oct.
1858.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_968" name="note_968" href="#noteref_968">968.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_969" name="note_969" href="#noteref_969">969.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_970" name="note_970" href="#noteref_970">970.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch.
iii. and iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_971" name="note_971" href="#noteref_971">971.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. i. The
scheme much resembles that of Schleiermacher.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_972" name="note_972" href="#noteref_972">972.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Deism and
Unitarianism are both monotheistic; but the latter allows
the existence of a revelation, the former denies it. The modern school of
Unitarians, however, nearly approach to the position of Mr. Newman. See
end of Note <a href="#Note_6" class="tei tei-ref">6</a>, at the close of this book.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_973" name="note_973" href="#noteref_973">973.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In many respects
it resembles the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mediation school”</span> of Germany,
described in Lectures <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a> and
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>, and the modern school of the French
protestant church, described in p. <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref">304</a>,
and in Note <a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>, p. <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref">448</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_974" name="note_974" href="#noteref_974">974.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It would be more
delicate perhaps to leave to the reader the application
of these tendencies, and to omit the mention of names; but as the
practice in this work has been to give the names even in contemporary
history, fairness requires the enumeration. The tendencies in the text
however are rather a combination from the views of different modern
authors, and cannot be definitely referred as a whole to any one single
writer. Probably the reader will himself conjecture that the first tendency
is meant in the main to describe the teaching of Mr. Maurice and Mr.
Kingsley; the second, of Professor Jowett; the third, of some of the
writers in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>. But if this be approximately
true, it must not be supposed that every specific statement in the following account is
intended to be charged upon these respective authors. The description is
meant to indicate certain tendencies of free thought, of which their writings
among others seem to exhibit instances. It is always hard to judge
of a movement which is in progress, and of which we are ourselves
spectators. The view here taken is the result of the attempt which the
writer of these lectures has made in his own studies, to adjust the existing
forms of free thought into their true position in the history of speculation.
If injustice is done, it is at least not intended.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_975" name="note_975" href="#noteref_975">975.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may
be useful to draw attention to a book on the relation of Coleridge
to recent theological thought, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Modern Anglican Theology, by the
Rev. J. H. Rigg</span></span>, 1857. The book is by a Wesleyan minister, and is
written from that point of view. The tone of censure on the writers
criticised is in some parts severe, and has, it is understood, caused pain to
some of them. Apart from its tone, objection may perhaps be taken to it,
as discovering in their works as positive teaching, doctrines which probably
only exist as incipient tendencies. Nevertheless it contains material suggestive
of serious thought; and certainly gives the clue to the interpretation
of many points which are usually felt to be obscure in the systems of
several of the writers described. The author does not however appear to
have distinguished sufficiently between the two forms of modern historical
inquiry (see Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>
of these lectures, at the end of the book). He consequently
makes the last of the list of writers whom he criticises (ch. xiii.) to
be a disciple of Coleridge; whereas he rather belongs to the other form
of the historico-philosophical school.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_976" name="note_976" href="#noteref_976">976.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_977" name="note_977" href="#noteref_977">977.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The reference to Mr. J. S. Mill's dissertation
on Coleridge has been already given (p. <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>.) See also
the Essay by Mr. Hort in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge Essays</span></span>, 1856; the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British Quarterly Review</span></span>, Jan. 1854; Morell's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span>, ii. 343 seq.; and Remusat in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des Deux Mondes</span></span>,
Oct. 1856. Coleridge's philosophy of religion is especially to be found in
his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Reflection</span></span>; and his critical views
of inspiration in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confessions
of an Inquiring Spirit</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_978" name="note_978" href="#noteref_978">978.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The distinctness
of the <span class="tei tei-q">“reason”</span> (νοῦς) from the <span class="tei tei-q">“understanding”</span>
(λόγος or διάνοια) has been allowed in these lectures; but only as guaranteeing
the reality of the objects of intuition, not as allowing the mind to
create a religion <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à priori</span></span>. The objection in the text is
accordingly not so much directed against the psychological theory as its theological
application.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_979" name="note_979" href="#noteref_979">979.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The sources for studying
Neo-Platonism have been given in Note <a href="#Note_10" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>
(p. <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref">399</a>). Among writers influenced by Coleridge, the
element of thought
which is derived from Neo-Platonism is stronger in the writings of Mr. Kingsley
than in those of Mr. Maurice; but it is sufficiently observable in both to
form a separation, by marked philosophical features, between their teaching
and the system of Schleiermacher.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_980" name="note_980" href="#noteref_980">980.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Λόγος of
Philo and of the Neo-Platonists is not to be contrasted
with the faculty called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">reason</span></em> by Coleridge, and νοῦς by other authors, but
to be identified with it. For Philo's views, see Gfrörer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philo</span></span>,
and Dähne's article <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philo</span></span> in Ersch and Grueber's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopædia</span></span>: see also Jowett's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on St Paul's Epistles</span></span>,
vol. i. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essay on Philo</span></span>, § 1).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_981" name="note_981" href="#noteref_981">981.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The existence
of a divine teacher in the human mind in the faculty
of conscience would be generally allowed; especially by those who adopt
the theory of the distinctness of the faculty of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">reason</span></em> from that of
<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">understanding</span></em>; but the idea implied in the hypothesis referred to in the
text is the existence of a faculty which is supreme over revelation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_982" name="note_982" href="#noteref_982">982.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr.
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biogr. Lit.</span></span> p. 321,
and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Reflection</span></span>, vol. i. 204 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_983" name="note_983" href="#noteref_983">983.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
school of the Alexandrian fathers, see note on p. <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref">59</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_984" name="note_984" href="#noteref_984">984.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. the
note on p. <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref">29</a>, where we have conceded the probability that
inspiration is, if analysed psychologically, a form of the <span class="tei tei-q">“reason;”</span> but
considered it, if viewed theologically, to be an elevated state of this faculty,
brought about by the miraculous and direct operation of God's Spirit: so
that in this view it differs in kind, and not merely in degree, from human
genius.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_985" name="note_985" href="#noteref_985">985.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect. <a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.
pp. <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245-48</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_986" name="note_986" href="#noteref_986">986.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. note (80) on p.
<a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref">329</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_987" name="note_987" href="#noteref_987">987.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>,
at the end of the book, and the remarks in the Preface
on the historic method of study.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_988" name="note_988" href="#noteref_988">988.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
a truth indeed to which all will assent, that we must learn from
scripture what is meant by inspiration: but the difference between the
view here described and the view of the church of Christ is this: the
Church discovers in scripture the statements of the writers concerning the
reality and nature and authority of their own inspiration; and considers
henceforth that the character of the revelation is in its substance removed
beyond the limits of critical investigation; and can only admit that an
empirical inquiry can be useful in settling the limits to which inspiration
extends, and determining the question as to the writings to be accounted
the subject of it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_989" name="note_989" href="#noteref_989">989.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pages <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>
and <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_990" name="note_990" href="#noteref_990">990.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
existence of this movement in foreign churches is stated in Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>, and also in Notes <a href="#Note_43" class="tei tei-ref">43</a>
and <a href="#Note_46" class="tei tei-ref">46</a>, pp. <a href="#Pg444" class="tei tei-ref">444</a>,
<a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref">448</a>. In America, besides those
instances which have occurred in this lecture, the writings of Mr. Bushnell
are thought to exhibit a free spirit. They however deviate very slightly
from traditional dogmas, and may be compared with the writings of the
late archdeacon Hare. In England, in the established church, there have
been several works, besides those referred to in p. <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref">330</a>.
They chiefly belong to the first and third classes of the three named in the text. The
sermons of the late F. W. Robertson of Brighton, matchless in freshness,
but most unsound in questions of vital doctrine; the sermons, &amp;c. of the
Rev. J. L. Davies; bishop Colenso's Commentary on the Epistle to the
Romans (1861); and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tracts for Priests and People</span></span> (1861, 62),
may be considered to be examples of the first type of thought; but, if breathing
the same spirit as Coleridge, they express his thoughts with a clearness
which was wanting in him. The doubts of Blanco White and Sterling;
and of Mr. Macnaught, in his work on Inspiration (1856); Mr. Foxton's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Christianity</span></span> (1849); bishop Colenso's work on the
Pentateuch (1862); and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Orthodoxy</span></span> (1857) of Dr.
Donaldson, a name honoured by the philological student; are instances of the third
tendency named in the text. A tribute of acknowledgment is nevertheless due to
many of these writers, for the earnest and truth-seeking tone which pervades
their works. The movement of free thought exists also outside the
national church. The recent work of Dr. S. Davidson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the
Old Testament</span></span> (second edition) is an instance. The views however of this
eminent biblical scholar met with so little sympathy in his own denomination,
that he was made to suffer for an earlier edition (1856) of the same
work, which deviated in a much slighter degree from received opinions.
In the Unitarian body also free thought has wrought a change. (See Note
<a href="#Note_7" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>, at the end of this book.) The influence of Cousin has
expelled the old utilitarianism. Mr. Martineau and Mr. W. J. Fox (see his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religious Ideas</span></span>, 1849,) are illustrations of the new spirit.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_991" name="note_991" href="#noteref_991">991.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. p.
<a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref">312</a>, and the note to it. Positivism only differs from Naturalism
(see Note <a href="#Note_21" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>, at the end of this book), in that it expresses
a particular theory concerning the limits and method of science, as well as the
disbelief in the supernatural implied by the latter term.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_992" name="note_992" href="#noteref_992">992.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. p. <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref">317</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_993" name="note_993" href="#noteref_993">993.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An instructive
sketch of the tendencies of modern thought was given
by principal Tullock, in his Inaugural Lecture at St. Andrew's, 1845.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_994" name="note_994" href="#noteref_994">994.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref">10</a>.
This crisis has occupied our attention since the middle
of Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>, p. <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref">105</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_995" name="note_995" href="#noteref_995">995.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>. page <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref">1</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_996" name="note_996" href="#noteref_996">996.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_997" name="note_997" href="#noteref_997">997.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref">7</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_998" name="note_998" href="#noteref_998">998.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This
was treated in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_II" class="tei tei-ref">II</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_999" name="note_999" href="#noteref_999">999.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>,
page <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref">76</a> seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1000" name="note_1000" href="#noteref_1000">1000.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lecture
<a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. page <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref">92</a> seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1001" name="note_1001" href="#noteref_1001">1001.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lectures
<a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>. to
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1002" name="note_1002" href="#noteref_1002">1002.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref">2</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1003" name="note_1003" href="#noteref_1003">1003.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
<a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref">13</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1004" name="note_1004" href="#noteref_1004">1004.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pages <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref">16</a>,
<a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1005" name="note_1005" href="#noteref_1005">1005.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pages
<a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref">14-17</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1006" name="note_1006" href="#noteref_1006">1006.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref">20</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1007" name="note_1007" href="#noteref_1007">1007.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
<a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref">21</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1008" name="note_1008" href="#noteref_1008">1008.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr.
remarks in Note <a href="#Note_9" class="tei tei-ref">9</a>, at the end of this volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1009" name="note_1009" href="#noteref_1009">1009.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This remark
does not apply to the principal writers (named in Note
<a href="#Note_49" class="tei tei-ref">49</a>), nor to the literature called out
by the <span class="tei tei-q">“Essays and Reviews”</span> controversy; but it applies to many of the popular
manuals which are directed against old deist literature, and are not adapted to
modern critical doubts.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1010" name="note_1010" href="#noteref_1010">1010.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See note on p.
<a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1011" name="note_1011" href="#noteref_1011">1011.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Van Mildert so exclusively adopted this latter view in his Boyle
Lectures, that his opponents charged him with Manichæism. See remarks
on him in the Preface to this volume.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1012" name="note_1012" href="#noteref_1012">1012.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. the notes on pp.
<a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref">26</a> and <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1013" name="note_1013" href="#noteref_1013">1013.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pages
<a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref">71</a>, &amp;c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1014" name="note_1014" href="#noteref_1014">1014.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref">3</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1015" name="note_1015" href="#noteref_1015">1015.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is
seen in their scrupulous care against heresy, and is attested
by the very complaint of their opponent Celsus.
(Orig. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contr. Cels.</span></span> i. 9,
iii. 44.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1016" name="note_1016" href="#noteref_1016">1016.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. T. Buckle,
the news of whose death, at the end of May 1862, had
just reached England when this lecture was delivered.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1017" name="note_1017" href="#noteref_1017">1017.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History
of Civilisation</span></span>, vol. i. ch. iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1018" name="note_1018" href="#noteref_1018">1018.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
Civilisation</span></span>, ch. xii and xiii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1019" name="note_1019" href="#noteref_1019">1019.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An article
by a distinguished scientific writer appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North
British Review</span></span> for Nov. 1860; in which the question of Galileo's trial was
discussed in reference to the recent re-examination of the subject.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1020" name="note_1020" href="#noteref_1020">1020.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Grote's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Greece</span></span>, vol. viii. ch. lxvii; Lewes,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Philosophy</span></span> (chapter on Sophists); Grant,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aristotle's Ethics</span></span>, vol. i; essay ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1021" name="note_1021" href="#noteref_1021">1021.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, Lecture <a href="#Lecture_IV" class="tei tei-ref">IV</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1022" name="note_1022" href="#noteref_1022">1022.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Mill's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, vol. i. book iii. ch. xiii.
§ 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1023" name="note_1023" href="#noteref_1023">1023.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The allusion
is to the discoveries, such as that of Kirchoff, of the
existence of some of the material elements in the solar atmosphere, which
exist in our own; also of the connexion between the periodic recurrence
of the solar spots, and terrestrial magnetism; and especially to the discussion
on <span class="tei tei-q">“the correlation of physical forces,”</span> contained in Mr. Grove's
work, and in Sir H. Holland's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays</span></span> (essays i. and ii.),
reprinted from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span>, July 1858 and Jan.
1859.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1024" name="note_1024" href="#noteref_1024">1024.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The discoveries
of the distinction between the sensational and motor
nerves, by Sir C. Bell; of the phenomena of reflex action, by Dr. M. Hall;
of the connexion of the same phenomena with those of sensation, by Dr.
Carpenter; and the identification of the centres of conscious activity with
separate departments of the cerebral organism, by Dr. Laycock; are instances
of hints toward the solution of this problem. Many continental
physiologists, such as Müller, Carus, Wagner, and Brown-Séquard, have
worked toward the same end. J. F. Herbart in Germany, and Mr. H.
Spencer in England, are writers who have approached the psychological
problem from the physiological side.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1025" name="note_1025" href="#noteref_1025">1025.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bayn's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Senses and Intellect</span></span>, 1855; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emotions and
Will</span></span>, 1859; and Spencer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Principles of Psychology</span></span>, 1855,
are works in which analysis of this character is carried farther than in former works.
A popular view of past attempts of this kind is given in an article on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mental Association</span></span>, in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh Review</span></span> for Oct. 1859.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1026" name="note_1026" href="#noteref_1026">1026.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An example is seen in Strauss. No one can be more inimical to the
dogmatic and historical Christianity of the church than he; yet he asserts
firmly that Christ and Christianity is the highest moral ideal to which the
world can ever expect to attain. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Soliloquies</span></span>, E. T. 1845,
part ii. § 27-30.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1027" name="note_1027" href="#noteref_1027">1027.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. de Pressensé. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire</span></span>
2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> Série, ii. 524.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1028" name="note_1028" href="#noteref_1028">1028.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pressensé
has devoted attention to this point. (vol. iv. book iv.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1029" name="note_1029" href="#noteref_1029">1029.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Pressensé, vol. iv. book
iv. 161, 521.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1030" name="note_1030" href="#noteref_1030">1030.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the
view at which Guizot arrives; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Civil.</span></span> leçon v,
vi, x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1031" name="note_1031" href="#noteref_1031">1031.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. in Kant,
Jacobi, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. See Lectures
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>. and <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1032" name="note_1032" href="#noteref_1032">1032.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">References for
the study of Neander's life are given in a note on
page <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref">250</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1033" name="note_1033" href="#noteref_1033">1033.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
Acts xvii. 22-31.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1034" name="note_1034" href="#noteref_1034">1034.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr.
Pressensé on Clement and Origen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> iv. pp. 203, 360, and
the references there given.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1035" name="note_1035" href="#noteref_1035">1035.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
<a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref">73</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1036" name="note_1036" href="#noteref_1036">1036.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g.
Justin Martyr, who gives the account of his own conversion to
Christianity in the introduction to the Dialogue with Trypho; and Clement
of Alexandria.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1037" name="note_1037" href="#noteref_1037">1037.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Lect. <a href="#Lecture_I" class="tei tei-ref">I</a>.
p. <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref">28</a>. Suggestions on this point are given in Miller's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>, 1817. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Divine Authority of Holy
Scripture asserted from its adaptation to Human Nature.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1038" name="note_1038" href="#noteref_1038">1038.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p.
<a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref">277</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1039" name="note_1039" href="#noteref_1039">1039.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The question
of the attacks made on the historic character of the
Acts was not noticed in Lecture <a href="#Lecture_VII" class="tei tei-ref">VII</a>.
The statement of the difficulties which have given rise to them may be seen in
Baur's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paulus, der Apostel
Jesu Christi</span></span>, 1845, and in an article in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span>, No. 20, for
April 1860; and a refutation of them in Dr. S. Davidson's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the New Testament</span></span>, vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1040" name="note_1040" href="#noteref_1040">1040.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Observations
on the Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul</span></span>, by
Lord Lyttleton, 1747. Cfr. also the note above, on p.
<a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref">209</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1041" name="note_1041" href="#noteref_1041">1041.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The history of the doctrine of
the atonement is given in Bp. Thomson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span>,
1853 (lectures vi. and vii.), and in the essay on the Atonement in
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, 1862; also in Hagenbach's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Doqmengeschichte</span></span>,
§ 68, 134, 180, 268, and 300. The two chief works on the subject
are, Chr. Baur's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehre von der Versöhnung</span></span>, 1838, and
Dorner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehre von der Person Christi</span></span>. The fair conclusion
in respect to the doctrine of the early church on the subject seems to be the one
stated in the text.
The doctrine of the atonement was believed and taught; but for the reason
here named it was not drawn out into such explicit statement as in modern
times. Anselm developed it by eliciting what was already contained in it,
not by superadding any human elements which did not exist there before.
It is Baur, to whom allusion is made in the text, who implies the contrary;
and some English writers have followed him.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1042" name="note_1042" href="#noteref_1042">1042.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The work of the
late Professor Blunt on the right use of the Fathers
may be consulted for a true and right view of their value.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1043" name="note_1043" href="#noteref_1043">1043.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">apprehend</span></em>
a fact when we recognise its existence; we <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">comprehend</span></em>
it when we can refer it to the cause which produces it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1044" name="note_1044" href="#noteref_1044">1044.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. the remarks in Dr.
Whewell's preface to his edition of Butler's
first three sermons for some suggestions on the nature of conscience. His
object is to show that Butler taught only its psychological supremacy, not
its moral infallibility. Cfr. also his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lecture
on Moral Philosophy in England</span></span>, p. 129 seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1045" name="note_1045" href="#noteref_1045">1045.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page 84.
Cfr. also bishop Thomson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures</span></span> (lect. v.
p. 125).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1046" name="note_1046" href="#noteref_1046">1046.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Page
<a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref">245</a> seq.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1047" name="note_1047" href="#noteref_1047">1047.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Similarly,
an innate law of thought is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">logically</span></em> prior as a condition
in attaining knowledge; but experience is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chronologically</span></em> prior.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1048" name="note_1048" href="#noteref_1048">1048.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has been shown
above (p. <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref">310</a>) that this very reaction is itself indirectly
a result of the subjective tendency.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1049" name="note_1049" href="#noteref_1049">1049.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. in R. E. H.
Greyson (H. Rogers) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Correspondence</span></span>. Cfr. the
remarks on it in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">National Review</span></span> for Oct. 1857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1050" name="note_1050" href="#noteref_1050">1050.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matt. xxviii. 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1051" name="note_1051" href="#noteref_1051">1051.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. Augustin, Anselm,
and in modern times such men as Bengel
and Neander.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1052" name="note_1052" href="#noteref_1052">1052.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. xii. 11.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1053" name="note_1053" href="#noteref_1053">1053.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Cor. iii. 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1054" name="note_1054" href="#noteref_1054">1054.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the able work on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tite Live</span></span> by H. Taine, (Couronné, 1856,) will be found a
study of Livy as a critic and as a philosopher; which illustrates not only the scientific
aspect of history, but the influence of science in the special determination of the
facts, which has frequently been attributed to art.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1055" name="note_1055" href="#noteref_1055">1055.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans
l'Inde par C. Fakian, traduit par A. Remusat</span></span>, 1837. and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.
de la Vie de Hiouen Thsang</span></span>, being vol. i. of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires sur
les Contrées Occidentales</span></span>,
1858. by Stan. Julien. The former travelled about A.D. 400: the latter in the seventh
century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1056" name="note_1056" href="#noteref_1056">1056.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
abbé Migne is publishing in French, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Livres Sacrés de toutes les
Religions sauf la Religion Chrétienne</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1057" name="note_1057" href="#noteref_1057">1057.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the work
quoted above, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Science in Theology</span></span>, the date of this Rabbin was
erroneously given as the seventeenth century (p. 123). This was the date when
Wagenseil by great good fortune obtained a copy of his work, and first made it public.
The writer avails himself of this opportunity, in which he has occasion to name his
own volume, to correct a few mistakes, and make a few alterations where subsequent
study has convinced him that he was in error. E.g. In Sermon IV. the illustration
from Indian history (p. 111) is based on the view, now known to be wrong, that
Buddhism preceded Brahminism in origin. Also the view (p. 109) of the date of the
introduction of the Chaldee character has been rendered doubtful by the arguments
which Hupfeld has directed to the subject (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ausführliche Hebraische
Grammatik</span></span>), in which he shows that the corruption of the language was gradual, and
that the adoption of the square Chaldee character did not take place till after Christ.
(See a brief account of his views in Davidson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. to Old
Test.</span></span> 1856, ch. ii.) Also, p. 121, the use of the word <span class="tei tei-q">“surnamed”</span> for Jarchi
disguises the origin of the name. In
Sermon I. (2d div.) the order of chronology is not sufficiently observed in the quotations
from the Old Testament. In Serm. VIII. (p. 244) the apologetic worth of
miracles (suggested by a remarkable speech of Bp. Wilberforce in the Town Hall,
Oxford, Nov. 28, 1846. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford Herald</span></span> of Dec. 5) is perhaps
hardly sufficient. In Serm. VI. the view that the early church held the doctrine of
atonement implicitly rather than explicitly, in life rather than dogma, till Anselm's
time, is insufficient and liable to convey an erroneous impression. (See Bp. Thomson's
restatement of the historic question in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aids to Faith</span></span>, pp.
339-352.) The revelation of God in the
New Testament is most express on the subject of substitutional atonement. Of
this the writer of these Sermons never had any doubt; but he now thinks that there
are clearer evidences of it in the fathers than he had stated. Reasons are perceivable
in the circumstance of the constant struggle against heathen religions, in which the
fathers were involved, which led them to dwell on the incarnation rather than on the
atonement. Anselm only gave expression to the doctrine which the apostles had
clearly taught.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1058" name="note_1058" href="#noteref_1058">1058.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There
are congregations of reformed Jews in some countries who reject the
Talmud as a system of interpretation. They are Jewish protestants. Their standpoint
only differs from that of the old Jews in laying stress on the ethical aspect of
religion. Sermons by one of them, the Rabbin Marks, have lately been published in
England. It will be understood from the above account that the modern Jews include
three parties; the orthodox Jews, the reformed, and the rationalistic.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1059" name="note_1059" href="#noteref_1059">1059.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Hävernick's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introd. to Old Test.</span></span> (E. T.) § 23, 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1060" name="note_1060" href="#noteref_1060">1060.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Bp. Horsley's
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letters against Priestley</span></span>, Lett. xvi, p. 264.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1061" name="note_1061" href="#noteref_1061">1061.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The nearest
English parallel to the teaching of Arminius personally (as distinct
from that of his successors), on the quinquarticular controversy, is the doctrine of
John Wesley. The nearest parallel to the general views of Episcopius and Limborch
was Hey of Cambridge at the close of the last century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1062" name="note_1062" href="#noteref_1062">1062.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A sketch
of Priestley is given in Mr. Martineau's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Miscellanies</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1063" name="note_1063" href="#noteref_1063">1063.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">But
see Pressensé, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de l'Eglise</span></span>,
2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">e</span></span> Ser. t. ii. p. 154.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1064" name="note_1064" href="#noteref_1064">1064.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The transition
of the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">miscreant</span></em> from its original meaning of misbeliever
(mécroyant, miscredente), to its modern use as a mark of opprobrium, is a similar
instance. This change is a proof of the instinctive association of the dependence
of right conduct on right belief. It is about the time of Shakspeare that the change
of meaning begins to appear. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richardson's Dictionary,</span></span>
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sub voc.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1065" name="note_1065" href="#noteref_1065">1065.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is
hardly necessary to state, that when the tone of the English theological
writers of the eighteenth century is described as rationalism, it is used in a good
sense. (E.g. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays and Reviews</span></span>, Ess. vi.) The writers of that
century would be classified under the school of supernaturalists here named.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1066" name="note_1066" href="#noteref_1066">1066.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the time
of Napoleon I. the circumstance that the ideological philosophers
sympathised with the Revolution, in opposition to his regime, led to an application
of the term as synonymous with Republican.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1067" name="note_1067" href="#noteref_1067">1067.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These references
to Guhrauer were kindly suggested by the Rev. E. H. Hansell,
Prælector of Theology in Magdalen College, who studied the Fragments a few
years ago for lectures which he delivered on Lessing.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1068" name="note_1068" href="#noteref_1068">1068.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a description of the
division of Theological study implied by this term, see Credner's Introduction
to Kitto's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibl. Cyclop.</span></span>; and the translation of Tholuck's
Lectures, given in the American <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bibloith. Sacra</span></span>, 1844.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1069" name="note_1069" href="#noteref_1069">1069.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel used
to claim that his doctrine was merely giving expression to the ancient
speculations of Heracleitus concerning the union of opposites. It is probable
that the fundamental idea was the same, but Hegel supplied an interpretation and
application of the principle which the ancient philosopher could not contemplate.
Both in truth committed the same fundamental mistake, of making the mind the
measure of things. The union of opposites is an act of thought, not a fact relating
to things.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1070" name="note_1070" href="#noteref_1070">1070.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This statement
is taken from a paper on the history of German Theology, in
the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spectator</span></span>, May 24, 1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1071" name="note_1071" href="#noteref_1071">1071.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His work on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dogmatique</span></span> is in his earlier manner.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1072" name="note_1072" href="#noteref_1072">1072.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The strict difference
would be, that analogy is the resemblance of ratios, where the objects, in which the
ratios are perceived, are not known to be referable to the same general class;
παράδειγμα on the contrary where they are so.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1073" name="note_1073" href="#noteref_1073">1073.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A plan of
arrangement of this kind is used by Mr. Bolton in the Hulsean Prize
Essay for 1852, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Evidences of Christianity, as exhibited in the
writings of the Apologists down to Augustine</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1074" name="note_1074" href="#noteref_1074">1074.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cfr. Gerard,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Compendium of Evidences</span></span>, 1828, part ii. ch. i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1075" name="note_1075" href="#noteref_1075">1075.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Notes
<a href="#Note_14" class="tei tei-ref">14</a>, <a href="#Note_15" class="tei tei-ref">15</a>,
<a href="#Note_17" class="tei tei-ref">17</a>, <a href="#Note_19" class="tei tei-ref">19</a>,
afford illustrations bearing upon the same subject.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1076" name="note_1076" href="#noteref_1076">1076.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This remark
is only intended to apply to the apologetic writings, which are
not the best works, of the fathers. In the fourth century we meet with a group of
fathers of a higher type of mind than those of the first three; e.g. Eusebius
Athanasius, Basil, the Gregories, Ambrose, and Jerome. Speaking generally,
however, the three writers, Origen, Chrysostom, and Augustin, are probably the
only ones who had minds of the highest class, and who thoroughly exceed the contemporary
heathen writers of their day in mental penetration, freshness, and compass,
respectively. If we have compared Origen in mind with Hugo St. Victor,
and Schleiermacher, as a Christian philosopher (Lect.
<a href="#Lecture_VI" class="tei tei-ref">VI</a>.), we might also venture
to compare Augustin with Aquinas or Calvin, in power to grasp systematic truth;
and Chrysostom with Bernard, and in some respects with Bossuet, in eloquence,
learning, and vigour. Eusebius perhaps almost demands a place with these three,
but he was a man of knowledge rather than originality.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1077" name="note_1077" href="#noteref_1077">1077.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Démonstrations Evangeliques</span></span>: (tome
1.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Tertullien, Orígène, Eusèbe</span></span> (Præp. Ev.); (2.)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eusèbe</span></span> (Dem. Ev.), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">S. Augustin, Montaigne,
Bacon, Grotius, Descartes</span></span>; (3.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richelieu, Arnauld, De Choiseul
du Plessis-Praslin, Pascal, Pélisson, Nicole</span></span>; (4.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle,
Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Locke, Lami, Burnet, Malebranche, Lesley, Leibnitz,
La Bruyére, Fenelon</span></span>; (5.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Huet, Clarke</span></span>; (6.)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Duguet, Stanhope, Bayle, Leclerc, Du Pin</span></span>; (7.)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jacquelot, Tillotson, De Haller, Sherlock, Le Moine, Pope,
Leland</span></span>; (8.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L. Racine, Massillon, Ditton, Derham, D'Aguesseau,
De Polignac</span></span>; (9.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saurin, Buffier, Warburton, Tournemine,
Bentley, Littleton, Seed, Fabricius, Addison, De Bernis, J. J. Rousseau</span></span>; (10.)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pard du Phanjas, Le roi Stanislas, Turgot, Stattler, West,
Beauzée</span></span>; (11.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bergíer; Gerdil, Thomas, Bonnet, De Crillon,
Euler, Delamarre, Caraccioli, Jennings</span></span>; (12.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Duhamel, S.
Liguori, Butler, Bullet, Vauvenargues, Guenard, Blair, De Pompignan, De Luc, Porteus,
Gérard</span></span>; (13.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diessbach, Jacques, Lamourette, Laharpe, Le Coz,
Du Voisin, De la Luzerne, Schmitt, Pointer</span></span>; (14) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moore, Silvio
Pellico, Lingard, Brunati, Manzoni, Paley, Perrone, Lambruschini, Dorléans, Campien,
Fr. Pérennès</span></span>; (15.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wiseman, Buckland, Marcel de Serres, Keith,
Chalmers</span></span>; (16.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dupin Aíné, Grégoire XVI</span></span>; (17.)
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cattet, Milner, Sabatier</span></span>; (18.) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bolgeni,
Morris, Chassay, Lombroso et Consoni—contenant les apologies de 117 auteurs,
répandues dans</span></span> 180 vol.; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">traduites pour la
plupart des diverses langues dans lesquelles elles avaient été écrites; reproduites
integraiement non par extraits. Ouvrage également nécessaire à ceux qui ne
croient pas, à ceux qui doutent, et a ceux qui croient</span></span>, 20 vol. in 4to. Prix: 120
fr. Chaque volume se vend séparément, 7 fr. The references in the above title are to
the volumes of the work.
</p>
<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
There is an important article on the literature of Apologetics in the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">North British Review</span></span>, No. 30, August 1851, the writer of which
says that the claim that the above works are translated <span class="tei tei-q">“integralement”</span> is not
literally correct; passages which assault the church of Rome being omitted. He
considers that among the works of the above-named series which are not known in
England, the most important are, Stattler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Certitude de la Religion
révèlée par Jesus Christ</span></span>; Beauzée, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exposition des Preuves
Historiques de la Religion Chrétienne</span></span>; Abbè Para du Phanjas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les
Principes de la Sainte Philosophie conciliés avec ceux de la Religion</span></span>;
Cardinal de Vernis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Religion Vengée</span></span>; Cardinal Polignac,
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anti-Lucretius</span></span>.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1078" name="note_1078" href="#noteref_1078">1078.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In naming the
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boyle Lectures</span></span>, it may be permitted to the writer of these
lectures to express the regret which he has often felt, that there is no history written
of the various apologetic Lectures, and of the works which they called forth,
such, e.g. as the Boyle (1692), Lady Moyer (1719), Warburton (1772), Bampton
(1760), Donnellan (1794), and Hulsean Lectures (1820), in the Church; and the Lime
Street (1730), Berry Street (1733), Coward (1739), and Congregational Lectures
(1833), among the Dissenters; and more generally that there is no history of English
theology and of English theological literature. Much as we need a fair account
of the English Church, viewed in its external and its constitutional history, we still
more need a history which would enter into the inner life, and give its intellectual
and spiritual history. Such a work would not only give a detailed account of the
various works on evidence and of the other literature, but would enter into the
causes and character of the various schools of thought which have existed in each
age,—e.g. of the struggle of semi-Romanist and Calvinistic principles in
Elizabeth's reign:—in the next age, the reproduction of the teaching of the
Greek as distinct from the Latin Fathers in Andrewes and Laud; the Arminianism of Hales
and Chillingworth; the Calvinism of the Puritans: again, later, the rise of the
philosophical latitudinarianism of Whichcote, More, and Cudworth; the theological
position of the non-jurors; the Arian tendencies of Clarke and Whiston; the
cold want of spirituality of divines of the type of Hoadley; the reasoning school of
Butler, the evangelical revival of Wesley and Simeon; and, in the nineteenth
century, the philosophical revival under Coleridge, and the ecclesiastical in the
Tracts for the Times. Subjects like these, if treated not only in a literary manner,
but in connection with their philosophical relations, would lift the history above a
merely national purpose, and make it a lasting contribution to the history of the
human mind. If executed worthily, such a work might take a rank along with
the grand works on literature of Hallam. Much as the present taste for documentary
history is to be commended, and the publication of ancient historic documents
to be desired, it is to be hoped that it will not lead to the divorce of history from
philosophy. History becomes mere antiquarianism, if the philosopher is not at
hand to build its parts into the general history of humanity. Philosophy becomes
an hypothesis, if it is disconnected from the actual exemplification of its principles
on the theatre of the world.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1079" name="note_1079" href="#noteref_1079">1079.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paley's
argument has been extended to the Gospels and other parts of Scripture
by the lamented Professor Blunt. (Cfr. also his Essay on Paley, reprinted
from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly Review</span></span>, Oct. 1828.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1080" name="note_1080" href="#noteref_1080">1080.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The course
for 1849, on the Evidences, by Mr. Michell, marked the commencement
of the consciousness of the spread of free thought; but was not directed to
the novel foreign forms of it.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1081" name="note_1081" href="#noteref_1081">1081.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Lectures
however of Dr. Hessey in 1860, though directed to a different
subject, evince a knowledge of the literary studies of foreign theologians.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1082" name="note_1082" href="#noteref_1082">1082.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The writer hopes that the
note on p. <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref">374</a> will not be considered an ungenerous
censure of Mr. Rogers, who is selected because he is the ablest and wisest of those
writers who have used this argument.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1083" name="note_1083" href="#noteref_1083">1083.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is hardly
necessary to state, that Mr. Maurice and Mr. Goldwin Smith, besides
others, have criticised this work in distinct publications.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1084" name="note_1084" href="#noteref_1084">1084.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ellis's work on
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Knowledge of Divine Things</span></span>, 1811, breathes a similar
spirit in modern times. Cfr. Note <a href="#Note_44" class="tei tei-ref">44</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1085" name="note_1085" href="#noteref_1085">1085.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The anti-Straussian
Literature described in Note <a href="#Note_38" class="tei tei-ref">38</a> is an illustration of the
German apologetic.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1086" name="note_1086" href="#noteref_1086">1086.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Pusey also, in his
<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Inq. on German Theol.</span></span> p. 2. ch. v, quoted many
passages illustrative of the history of the same fact. He has, however, subsequently
disavowed all concurrence in the opinions of the writers cited.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1087" name="note_1087" href="#noteref_1087">1087.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among writers
who lived earlier than the periods alluded to in the passages
of Lectures <a href="#Lecture_III" class="tei tei-ref">III</a>. and
<a href="#Lecture_VIII" class="tei tei-ref">VIII</a>., the following are also cited in the works before
named: Origen (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comm. in Joan.</span></span> ii. 151. ed. Huet), Jerome
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comm. in Gal.</span></span> iii. vol. iv); Augustin
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in Joan</span></span>, iv. 1); Zuinglius
(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schrift.-von Usteri</span></span>, ii. 247); Calvin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comm.
on Hebr.</span></span> ii. 21. Rom. iii. 4. Rom. ii. 8); Bullinger (on 1 Cor. x. 8).
Castellio (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> ii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Elect.</span></span> on Rom.
ix), Erasmus (on Matt. ii); Grotius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vot pro Pac. art. de
Can. Script.</span></span>); Episcoplus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. Theol.</span></span> iv. § 1). Passages
of Hooker and Chillingworth were also cited by Mr. Stephen.</dd></dl>
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