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decisive_battles_of_america [2020/10/04 01:18] (current) – created briancarnell
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 +<html>
  
 +<div id="i_frontis" class="p4 figcenter" style="max-width: 20.875em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_001.jpg" width="334" height="482" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption floatl">From a drawing by Howard Pyle</div>
 +  <div class="caption floatr">[See p. <a href="#Page_105">105</a></div>
 +  <div class="caption floatc">WATCHING THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL</div></div>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<h1 class="gesperrt">
 +DECISIVE BATTLES<br />
 +OF AMERICA</h1>
 +
 +<p class="p2 center">BY</p>
 +
 +<p class="center">ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON,<br />
 +CLAUDE HALSTEAD VAN TYNE, GEORGE PIERCE GARRISON,<br />
 +<span class="smcap">Rear-Admiral</span> FRENCH ENSOR CHADWICK, U.S.N. (<span class="smcap">Retired</span>),<br />
 +JAMES K. HOSMER, J. H. LATANÉ, RICHARD HILDRETH,<br />
 +BENSON J. LOSSING</p>
 +
 +<p class="center">AND OTHERS</p>
 +
 +<p class="p2 center vspace">EDITED BY<br />
 +<span class="larger gesperrt">RIPLEY HITCHCOCK</span></p>
 +
 +<p class="p2 center">ILLUSTRATED</p>
 +
 +<div id="if_i_003" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 3.8125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_003.jpg" width="61" height="78" alt="" /></div>
 +
 +<p class="p2 center vspace gesperrt larger">NEW YORK AND LONDON<br />
 +HARPER &amp; BROTHERS PUBLISHERS<br />
 +MCMIX</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p class="newpage p4 center smaller vspace">
 +Copyright, 1909, by <span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers</span>.<br />
 +<i>All rights reserved.</i><br />
 +Published October, 1909.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<table id="toc" summary="Contents">
 +  <tr class="small">
 +    <td class="tdr" colspan="2">PAGE</td></tr>
 +  <tr class="notpad">
 +    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">xi</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#I">CHAPTER I</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Territorial Concepts</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">European Contests Affecting America and a Summary of American Expansion</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_1">1</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Albert Bushnell Hart, LL.D.</i>, Professor of History in Harvard University. Author of “National Ideals Historically Traced” and Editor of “The American Nation.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, in the history of Colonial America, between the Landing of Columbus, 1492, and Champlain’s Battle with the Iroquois, 1609.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#II">CHAPTER II</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">A Fight for Life</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">The Hundred Years’ War Between Early Colonists and the Indians</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_2">14</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Thomas Wentworth Higginson</i>. Author of “A History of the United States.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">Champlain’s Battle with the Iroquois, 1609</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_3">27</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL.D.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between Champlain’s Battle with the Iroquois, 1609, and the Conquest of the Pequots, 1637.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#III">CHAPTER III</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Conquest of the Pequots, 1637</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_4">32</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Richard Hildreth</i>. Author of “The History of the United States of America.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Conquest of the Pequots, 1637, and the Defeat of King Philip, 1676.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#IV">CHAPTER IV</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Defeat of King Philip, 1676</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_5">44</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Richard Hildreth</i>.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Defeat of King Philip, 1676, and the Capture of Quebec, 1759.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#V">CHAPTER V</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Fall of Quebec, 1759</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_6">63</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL.D.</i>, Librarian of the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Author of “France in America.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Capture of Quebec, 1759, and the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#VI">CHAPTER VI</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub">I. <span class="smcap">Causes of the American Revolution, 1775–1783</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_7">79</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">The Outbreak of War, 1775</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Claude Halstead Van Tyne, Ph.D.</i>, Assistant Professor of American History in the University of Michigan. Author of “The American Revolution.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#VII">CHAPTER VII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_8">102</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Benson J. Lossing</i>. Author of “The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775, and the Battle of Saratoga, 1777.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Saratoga, 1777</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_9">120</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Richard Hildreth</i>.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Battle of Saratoga, 1777, and the Battle of Yorktown, 1781.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#IX">CHAPTER IX</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub">I. <span class="smcap">Yorktown and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_10">145</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">The Results of Yorktown</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Claude Halstead Van Tyne, Ph.D.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Battle of Yorktown, 1781, and the Battles on the Lakes, 1813, 1814.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#X">CHAPTER X</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Lake Erie, 1813</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_11">157</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Barnes</i>. Author of “Naval Actions of the War of 1812.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XI">CHAPTER XI</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Lake Champlain, 1814</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_12">173</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Barnes</i>.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, in the history of the United States, between the Battle of Lake Champlain, 1814, and the War with Mexico, 1846–1847.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XII">CHAPTER XII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Rupture with Mexico, 1843–1846</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_13">183</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">I. <span class="smcap">The Approach of War</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">Conquering a Peace, 1846–1848</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>George Pierce Garrison, Ph.D.</i>, Professor of History in the University of Texas. Author of “Westward Extension.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Buena Vista, 1847</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_14">198</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>John Bonner</i>.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Scott’s Conquest of Mexico, 1847</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_15">208</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino Del Rey, Chapultepec, the Occupation Of the City of Mexico</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>John Bonner</i>.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Conquest of Mexico, 1847, and the Bombardment of Fort Sumter, 1861.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XV">CHAPTER XV</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Fort Sumter, 1861</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_16">232</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">I. <span class="smcap">Drift toward Southern Nationalization</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">Status of the Forts</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">III. <span class="smcap">The Fort Sumter Crisis</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">IV. <span class="smcap">The Fall of Fort Sumter</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>French Ensor Chadwick</i>, Rear-Admiral U. S. N. (Retired). Author of “Causes of the Civil War.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Bombardment of Fort Sumter, 1861, and the Battle of the <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Merrimac</i>, 1862.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of the “Monitor” and the “Merrimac”</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_17">274</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">I. <span class="smcap">A Prelude to the Peninsular Campaign of April to June, 1862</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Kendall Hosmer, LL.D.</i> Author of “The Appeal to Arms” and “The Outcome of the Civil War.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">The Story told by Captain Worden and Lieutenant Greene of the “Monitor”</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_18">279</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Lucius E. Chittenden</i>. Author of “Recollections of Lincoln.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Farragut’s Capture of New Orleans, 1862</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_19">288</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">With some Notes on the Blockade</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Kendall Hosmer, LL.D.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between Farragut’s Capture of New Orleans, 1862, and the Battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, 1863.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Vicksburg, January–July, 1863</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_20">295</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Kendall Hosmer, LL.D.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_21">306</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>James Kendall Hosmer, LL.D.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between the Battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, 1863, and Appomattox, 1865.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XX">CHAPTER XX</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Last Scene—Appomattox, 1865</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_22">329</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec"><span class="smcap">Told by One Who Was Present</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>Gen. G. A. Forsyth, U. S. A.</i> (Retired). Author of “Thrilling Days in Army Life.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">Synopsis of the principal events, chiefly military, between Appomattox, 1865, and the Battles of Manila Bay and Santiago de Cuba, 1898.</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Manila Bay, 1898</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_23">347</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><a href="#XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl chapsub"><span class="smcap">The Battles of Santiago, 1898</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#t_24">357</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">I. <span class="smcap">The First Period of the Spanish-American War in the West Indies</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">II. <span class="smcap">The Land Campaign</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">III. <span class="smcap">The Destruction of Cervera’s Fleet</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">IV. <span class="smcap">The Spanish Surrender</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl sec">V. <span class="smcap">Controversies Caused by the War</span></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl by">By <i>John Halladay Latané, Ph.D.</i>, Professor of History, Washington and Lee University. Author of “America as a World Power.”</td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">379</a></td></tr>
 +</table>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<table id="loi" summary="Illustrations">
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl">WATCHING THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL</td>
 +    <td class="tdr smaller" colspan="2"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
 +  <tr class="smaller">
 +    <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><i>Facing p.</i></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">INDIANS ON THE WARPATH</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_20">20</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">CHAMPLAIN’S ATTACK ON AN IROQUOIS FORT</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_28">28</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM ON THE MORNING OF THE BATTLE</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_70">70</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_167">166</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">GENERAL SCOTT’S ENTRY INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_194">194</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_202">202</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">CHARGE OF THE “PALMETTOS” AT CHURUBUSCO</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_218">218</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">BATTLE OF MOLINO DEL REY</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_222">222</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">SERGEANT HART NAILING THE COLORS TO THE FLAG-STAFF, FORT SUMTER</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_254">254</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">FIRST CORPS, SEMINARY RIDGE, 3.30 P.M., JULY 1, 1863</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_317">316</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">ATTACK OF PICKETT’S AND ANDERSON’S DIVISION</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_325">324</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">DEPARTURE OF GENERAL LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_340">340</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">BATTLE OF MANILA BAY</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_354">354</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">THE CAPTURE OF THE BLOCK-HOUSE AT SAN JUAN</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_366">366</a></td></tr>
 +  <tr>
 +    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">THE LAST OF CERVERA’S FLEET</td>
 +    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_373">372</a></td></tr>
 +</table>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">America</span> was discovered in a search for trade routes,
 +but our country has been in larger part maintained
 +and transmitted to us directly or indirectly as the result
 +of war. Almost from the outset there were conflicting
 +claims on the part of Spain, France, and England, and
 +also Holland. The struggles against hostile native tribes
 +along the Atlantic seaboard were followed by war against
 +the aggressions of the French, who would have kept the
 +English-speaking colonies east of the Alleghanies. That
 +long period of strife was followed by two conflicts with England,
 +the first gaining America for Americans as an independent
 +nation, the second confirming it as an independent
 +nationality. While the great Louisiana Purchase was a
 +peaceful acquisition, Napoleon’s willingness to cede this
 +territory was intermingled with his military plans. California
 +and the extreme Southwest came out of conflict
 +with Mexico. The Civil War preserved the integrity
 +of the country which Americans had gained. Hawaii was
 +added through a revolution fortunately bloodless. As a
 +result of the war with Spain, Porto Rico and the Philippines
 +were included within the limits of our authority.</p>
 +
 +<p>Since war is a last resort, a brutal expression of failure
 +to arrive at an agreement, the series of political events
 +which have preceded war and the manifold aspects of
 +civil life have seemed very justly to modern historians
 +more important than the descriptions of war itself. The
 +older writers were fond of dwelling upon all the pomp
 +and circumstances and all the dramatic accompaniments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span>
 +of battle. Modern history is written differently, so differently,
 +in fact, that we are apt to find battles summarized
 +in paragraphs by scientific historians. Thus the pendulum
 +has swung from one extreme to another, until it has become
 +a difficult matter to find in the newest shorter histories
 +accounts of significant military events which approach
 +completeness. Take, for example, the battle of
 +Bunker Hill. No name in our own military history is
 +more familiar, and yet in many of the books most readily
 +available for older as well as younger readers this battle
 +appears as a brief summary of facts. As to the Mexican
 +War, such remarkable military events as Taylor’s victory
 +at Buena Vista over a force five times as large, or the
 +series of desperate battles which won the City of Mexico
 +for Scott, are practically little more than obscure names
 +for readers of to-day. It is not strange that Mr. Charles
 +Francis Adams once inaugurated his presidency of the
 +American Historical Association with an earnest plea for
 +military history.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the present volume, which is a companion to
 +Harper &amp; Brothers’ new edition of Sir Edward Creasy’s
 +<cite>Decisive Battles of the World</cite>, the editor has kept in mind
 +the importance of preserving historical relations and
 +continuity. The concise chronology of leading events in
 +American history which runs through from beginning to
 +end is not entirely limited to the military side of history.
 +The introductory chapter sketches world relations from the
 +fifteenth century. The second chapter affords a broad
 +view of the relations of the early colonists to the Indians,
 +and there is also specific reference to Champlain’s alliance
 +with the Algonquins and the consequent hostility of the
 +Iroquois. For the rest, the conditions and causes leading
 +up to conflict are set forth wherever necessary in
 +order to furnish a perspective, and to afford a narrative
 +in some degree consecutive. As to the question of selection,
 +there is obvious justice in Creasy’s dictum that the
 +importance of battles is to be measured by their significance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span>
 +and not by the number of men engaged or by
 +carnage. To New Englanders in the seventeenth century
 +the struggles with the Pequots and with King Philip were
 +for the time being a fight for existence as well as for
 +possession of the country. They were but small affairs,
 +measured by modern standards; but much history would
 +have been written differently had the early New England
 +settlers encountered the fate of the lost colony of Roanoke.</p>
 +
 +<p>The battle on the Plains of Abraham, which ended French
 +rule on this continent, was fought by Englishmen with
 +only slight American aid, but its consequences to Americans
 +were assuredly momentous. As compared with
 +Gettysburg, or Sedan, or Mukden, Bunker Hill was a mere
 +skirmish, yet its fame is well founded, for it was the first
 +formal stand against the British by an organized American
 +soldiery, and in this and in the fact of American initiative
 +in seizing and fortifying Breed’s Hill, it differed from the
 +hasty gathering of patriots at Lexington and from the
 +brief conflict at Concord Bridge. In the light of modern
 +experience, again, the naval battles of Lake Erie and Lake
 +Champlain seem small engagements, but the one safe-guarded
 +our northern frontier and the other repelled an
 +invasion aimed at the very vitals of our country. On the
 +other hand, the dramatic battle of New Orleans, fought
 +after peace was made, would have had but slight political
 +consequences had the outcome been different.</p>
 +
 +<p>As to the war with Mexico, a certain chastening of the
 +American conscience has perhaps led us to forget the
 +extraordinary gallantry of a volunteer as well as a regular
 +soldiery in a foreign country, repeatedly pitted against
 +great odds. The story of the more significant battles
 +in those campaigns is entitled to better acquaintance, and
 +Taylor’s final victory on the north and the series of desperate
 +attacks by which Scott reached the heart of Mexico
 +are therefore set forth in some detail.</p>
 +
 +<p>Mention of our Civil War calls up a long roll of hard-fought
 +battles, but Sir Edward Creasy’s point may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span>
 +reiterated that it is not numbers or bloodshed that constitute
 +the significance of a battle. Fort Sumter was a
 +small affair; Antietam, Shiloh, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville,
 +Chickamauga, and other hard-fought battles were
 +great conflicts. Yet influential as they were, they were
 +not decisive; while Sumter represented the first open
 +attack on the Flag and the instant call to arms.</p>
 +
 +<p>The fight of the <i>Monitor</i> brought a revolution in naval
 +warfare. The blockade of the South, which can be only
 +touched upon here, represented that decisive influence of
 +sea power which has been so eloquently expounded by
 +Captain Mahan. This influence was illustrated more
 +concretely in Farragut’s capture of New Orleans, which
 +was as necessary as Grant’s conquest of Vicksburg to clear
 +the Mississippi and cut the Confederacy in two. In spite
 +of the military importance of Sherman’s march to the sea,
 +the fact that, like Grant’s ceaseless battering in Virginia,
 +it was a campaign rather than an event, renders any
 +adequate description impossible in the limits of a book
 +dealing, for the most part, with crises or facts of immediately
 +significant consequence. On the other hand,
 +Gettysburg, which destroyed once and for all the possibility
 +of a successful invasion of the North, is a historical
 +landmark in concrete form. It is described in this volume
 +by a historian who is also a veteran of the Civil War.</p>
 +
 +<p>Insignificant as was the war with Spain in comparison
 +with the great struggle of 1861–65, it is assuredly of historical
 +consequence that the battles of Santiago de Cuba
 +destroyed the last vestiges of a Spanish rule in the Western
 +Hemisphere which had lasted nearly four hundred years.
 +Out of this came freedom at last for Cuba, and its grave
 +responsibilities. Earlier in the same year Dewey’s guns
 +drove the Spanish flag from the Pacific, and gave us a not
 +wholly welcome partnership in the vexed questions of the
 +Orient.</p>
 +
 +<p>Fortunately, our Temple of Janus is closed—let us trust,
 +never to be reopened. But there are momentous lessons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span>
 +of patriotism and self-sacrifice to be read in these accounts
 +of deeds which have preserved our country and helped
 +to make it great. The eminent historians whose works
 +have furnished these chapters have been moved by no
 +desire to glorify war in itself—rather the reverse; but
 +they have dealt with phases of history so vital and of
 +such supreme interest that this story of these events
 +will help general readers, old and young, to an ampler
 +knowledge of our history.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="DECISIVE_BATTLES_OF_AMERICA"><span class="large vspace gesperrt">DECISIVE BATTLES OF AMERICA</span></h2>
 +
 +<h2 id="I" class="nobreak p2 vspace">I<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_1" class="subhead">TERRITORIAL CONCEPTS</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3><i>European Contests Affecting America, and a Summary
 +of American Expansion</i></h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> settlers’ task of conquering the wilderness might
 +have been simpler had they not spent so much
 +energy in conquering one another; for side by side with
 +the advance of the frontier goes a process of territorial
 +rivalry of which the end is not yet. Along with a contest
 +with the aborigines for the face of the country went a
 +nominal subdivision of the continent among the occupying
 +European powers, a process made more difficult by
 +the slow development of knowledge about the interior:
 +as late as 1660 people thought that the upper Mississippi
 +emptied into the Gulf of California.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the very beginning came an effort to settle the prime
 +problem of European title by religious authority. Three
 +papal bulls of 1493 attempted to draw a meridian through
 +the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, west of which Spain
 +should have the whole occupancy of newly discovered
 +lands, and, east of it, Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
 +Spain was first to see the New World, first to coast the
 +continents, first to explore the interior, first to conquer
 +tribes of the natives, and first to set up organized colonies.
 +Except in Brazil, which was east of the demarcation line,
 +for a century after discovery Spain was the only American
 +power. A war for the mastery of North America between
 +the Anglo-Saxon and the Spaniard continued for more
 +than two centuries. After the defeat of the Spanish
 +Armada by the English, in 1588, it became possible to
 +break in upon the monopoly of American territory; as
 +soon as the war with Spain was over, England gave the
 +first charter, which resulted in the founding of a lasting
 +English colony in America—the Virginia grant of 1606.</p>
 +
 +<p>The claim of Spain would have been more effective
 +had it not included the whole continent of North America,
 +hardly an eighth of which was occupied by Spanish colonies.
 +International law as to the occupation of new countries
 +was in a formative state: everybody admitted that
 +you might seize the territory of pagans, but how did you
 +know when you had seized it? Was the state of which
 +an accredited vessel first followed a coast thereby possessed
 +of all the back country draining into that coast? Did
 +actual exploration of the interior create presumptive
 +title to the surrounding region? Was a trading-post
 +proof that occupation was meant to be permanent?
 +Did actual colonies of settlers, who expected to spend their
 +lives there, make a complete evidence of rightful title?</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_023.jpg" width="800" height="502" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">TERRITORIAL GROWTH
 +  <span class="browser center small"><a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_023f.jpg">(FULL SIZE)</a></span>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<div class="epub">
 +<div id="ip_2b" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_023l.jpg" width="800" height="1000" alt="" /></div>
 +
 +<div id="ip_2c" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_023r.jpg" width="800" height="1000" alt="" /></div>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p>These various sorts of claims were singularly tangled
 +and contorted in America. Who had the best title to
 +the Chesapeake—the English, who believed Sebastian
 +Cabot had followed that part of the coast in 1498, or the
 +French, whose commander Verrazzano undoubtedly was
 +there in 1524, or the Spaniards, for whom De Ayllon made
 +a voyage in 1526? Spanish explorers had crossed and
 +followed the Mississippi River, but it is doubtful whether
 +in 1600 they could easily have found its mouth. The
 +French, in like manner, had explored the St. Lawrence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3<a class="hidep" id="Page_4">4</a></span>
 +but without permanent results. Therefore, the territorial
 +history of the United States may be said to begin with the
 +almost simultaneous planting of settlements in the New
 +World by France, England, and Holland, between 1600
 +and 1615. The French happened first on the St. Lawrence,
 +which was the gateway into the interior, with its
 +valuable fur-trade; and they set up their first permanent
 +establishment at Quebec in 1608. The English, after
 +thirty years of attempts on the Virginia coast, finally
 +planted the colony of Jamestown in 1607. The Dutch
 +rediscovered the Hudson River in 1609, and founded New
 +Amsterdam in 1614. The next great river south, the
 +Delaware, was occupied by the Swedes in 1638. It is one
 +of the misfortunes of civilization that Germany, then the
 +richest and most intellectual nation in Europe, and well
 +suited for taking a share in the development of the New
 +World, was in this critical epoch absorbed in the fearful
 +Thirty Years’ War, which in 1648 left the country ruined
 +and helpless, so that no attempt could be made to link
 +the destinies of Germany with those of America.</p>
 +
 +<p>Soon began seizures of undoubted Spanish territory:
 +the English first picked up various small islands in the
 +West Indies, in 1655 wrested away the Spanish island of
 +Jamaica, and thereupon made a little settlement on the
 +coast of Honduras. The next step was a determined onset
 +against the nearer neighbors in North America. Quebec
 +was taken and held from 1629 to 1632; the Dutch, who
 +had absorbed the Swedish colonies, were dispossessed in
 +1664;<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and the English proceeded to contest Hudson Bay
 +with the French. These conflicts marked a deliberate
 +intention to seize points of vantage like Belize and
 +Jamaica, and to uproot the colonies of other European
 +powers in North America; it was part of a process of
 +English expansion which was going on also on the opposite
 +side of the globe.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
 +As the eighteenth century began, France, England,
 +and Spain were still in antagonism for the possession of
 +North America; and the French, in 1699, succeeded in
 +planting a colony on the Gulf in the side of the Spanish
 +colonial empire. These international rivalries were soon
 +altered by the struggle of England against the attempt
 +of Louis XIV. to bring about the practical consolidation
 +of Spain and France, which would have made an immense
 +Latin colonial empire. To some degree on religious
 +grounds, partly to protect their commerce, and partly from
 +inscrutable international jealousies, the nations of Europe
 +were plunged into a series of five land and naval wars
 +between 1689 and 1783, in each of which North American
 +territory was attacked, and in several of which great
 +changes were made in the map.</p>
 +
 +<p>In these wars the colonies formed an ideal as to the
 +duty of a mother-country to protect daughter colonies,
 +and aided in developing a policy which has been described
 +by one of the most brilliant of modern writers
 +as that of “sea power.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> The illustration of that theory
 +was a succession of fleet engagements in the West Indies,
 +always followed by a picking up of enemy’s islands; and
 +also the repeated efforts of the colonists in separate or
 +joint expeditions to conquer the neighboring French
 +or Spanish territory. The final result was the destruction
 +of the French-American power and the serious weakening
 +of the Spanish.</p>
 +
 +<p>In 1732 the charter of Georgia was a denial of the
 +Spanish claims to Florida. By the treaty of 1763 France
 +was pressed altogether out of the continent, yielding up
 +to England that splendid region of the eastern part of
 +the Mississippi Valley which the English coveted, and
 +with it the St. Lawrence Valley. For the first time since
 +the capture of Jamaica, a considerable area of Spanish
 +territory was transferred to England by the cession of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>
 +the Floridas. Louisiana to the west of the Mississippi,
 +together with New Orleans, on the east bank, were allowed
 +to pass to Spain. From that time to the Revolution
 +the only two North American powers were England
 +and Spain, who substantially divided the continent between
 +them by the line of the Mississippi River.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
 +
 +<p>During this period the English were not only acquiring
 +but were parcelling out their new territory. It was
 +always a serious question how far west the coast colonies
 +extended; some of them—Massachusetts, Connecticut,
 +Virginia, the Carolinas—had bounds nominally reaching
 +to the Pacific Ocean. To silence this controversy, in
 +1763 a royal proclamation directed that the colonial
 +governors should not exercise jurisdiction west of the
 +heads of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic, leaving in
 +a kind of territorial limbo the region between the summit
 +of the Appalachians and the Mississippi.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> These numerous
 +territorial grants gave rise to many internal controversies;
 +but by the time of the Revolution most of the
 +lines starting at the sea-coast and leading inward had been
 +adjusted.</p>
 +
 +<p>The idea of territorial solidarity among the English
 +colonies was disturbed by the addition of Nova Scotia
 +and Quebec on the north, and East and West Florida
 +on the south. Intercolonial jealousy was heightened in
 +1774 by the Quebec act, under which the almost unpeopled
 +region north of the Ohio River was added to the
 +French-speaking province. When the Revolution broke
 +out in 1775, that jealousy was reflected in the refusal of
 +Quebec and Nova Scotia and the distant Floridas to join
 +in it. Almost the first campaign of the war, however,
 +showed the purpose of territorial enlargement, for in
 +1775 the Arnold-Montgomery expedition to Canada vainly
 +attempted to persuade the Frenchmen by force to enter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
 +the union. Two years later George Rogers Clark lopped
 +off the southern half of the British western country. The
 +Southwest, into which settlers had begun to penetrate in
 +1769, was, during the Revolution, laid hold of by the adventurous
 +frontiersman; and in 1782 the negotiators of
 +Paris thought best to leave that, as well as the whole
 +Northwest, in the hands of the new United States.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The result of the Revolutionary War was the entrance
 +into the American continent of a third territorial power,
 +the United States, which was divided into two nearly
 +equal portions: between the sea and the mountains lay the
 +original thirteen states; between the mountains and the
 +Mississippi was an area destined to be organized into
 +separate states and immediately opened for settlement.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a>
 +This destiny was solemnly announced by votes of Congress
 +in 1780, and by the territorial ordinance of 1784,
 +the land ordinance of 1785, and the Northwest Ordinance
 +of 1787, which, taken together, were virtually a charter
 +for the western country, very similar in import to the
 +old colonial charters.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
 +
 +<p>In this sketch of territorial development up to 1787
 +may be seen the elements of a national policy and a
 +national system: the territories were practically colonies
 +and inchoate states, soon to be admitted into the Union;
 +while the expansion of the national boundary during the
 +war was a presage of future conquest and enlargement;
 +and, considering the military and naval strength of Great
 +Britain, the only direction in which annexation was likely
 +was the southwest. Although the Federal Constitution
 +of 1787 acknowledged the difference between states and
 +territories only in general terms, and made no provision
 +for the annexation of territory, the spirit and the reasonable
 +implication of that instrument was that the Union<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
 +might be and probably would be enlarged; some writers
 +at the time felt sure that republican government was
 +applicable to large areas.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Hence it was neither unnatural nor unsuitable that the
 +new nation should at once show a spirit of expansion:
 +in 1795 and 1796 its boundaries were finally acknowledged
 +by its southern and northern neighbors. Various
 +wild schemes of invading Spanish territory were broached,
 +but not till 1803 was the question of the Mississippi fairly
 +faced. Repeating the bold policy of Louis XIV., Napoleon
 +attempted to combine the military and colonial forces of
 +Spain with those of France, in order to make head against
 +Great Britain. As a preliminary, in 1800 he practically
 +compelled the cession of the former French province of
 +Louisiana, and thereby revealed to the American people
 +that it would be a menace to national prosperity to permit
 +a powerful military nation to block the commercial
 +outlet of the interior. Hence, when Napoleon changed his
 +mind and offered the province to the United States in
 +1803, there was nothing for the envoys, the President, the
 +Senate, the House, and the people to do but to accept it
 +as a piece of manifest destiny. The boundaries of the
 +Union were thus extended to the Gulf and to the distant
 +Rocky Mountains.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
 +
 +<p>With a refinement of assurance the United States also
 +claimed, and in 1814 forcibly occupied West Florida. In
 +the same period began a purposeful movement for extending
 +the territory of the United States to the Pacific.
 +Taking advantage of the discovery of the mouth of the
 +Columbia River by an American ship in 1792, President
 +Jefferson sent out a transcontinental expedition, under
 +Lewis and Clark, which reached the Pacific in 1805, and
 +thereby forged a second link in the American claims to
 +Oregon. By this time the Spanish empire was in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
 +throes of colonial revolution, and in 1819 the Spanish
 +government ceded East Florida and withdrew any claims
 +to Oregon, Texas being left to Spain.</p>
 +
 +<p>This is a stirring decade, and it completely changed the
 +territorial status of the United States. By 1819 the
 +Atlantic coast all belonged to the United States, from the
 +St. Croix River around Florida to the Sabine; the country
 +was reaching out toward Mexico, and was building a
 +bridge of solid territory across the continent, where, as
 +all the world knew, far to the south of Oregon lay the
 +harbor of San Francisco, the best haven on the Pacific
 +coast. The bold conceptions of Jefferson and John
 +Quincy Adams and their compeers included the commercial
 +and political advantages of a Pacific front;
 +and they were consciously preparing the way for the
 +homes of unborn generations under the American
 +flag.</p>
 +
 +<p>One result of the new position of the United States was
 +to bring out sharply a territorial rivalry with Great
 +Britain. The War of 1812 had been an attempt to annex
 +Canada, and after it was over a controversy as to the
 +boundary between Maine and Nova Scotia kept the two
 +countries harassed until its settlement in 1842.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> After
 +that the rivalry for Oregon, which had been held in joint
 +occupation since 1818, was intensified. About 1832
 +immigration began in which the Americans outran the
 +English; and it was fortunate for both countries that in
 +1846 the disputed territory was divided by a fair compromise
 +line, the forty-ninth parallel.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> A third territorial
 +controversy was fought out within the limits of the Union
 +itself, between the friends and opponents of the annexation
 +of Texas, in 1845.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> This was the first instance of an
 +American colony planting itself within the acknowledged
 +limits of another power, until it was strong enough to set<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
 +up for itself as an independent state and to ask for admission
 +to the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>The annexation of Texas inevitably led to a movement
 +on California, which could be obtained only by aggressive
 +war upon Mexico, and for connection with which
 +the possession of New Mexico was also thought necessary.
 +Ever since 1820 explorers had been opening up the region
 +between the Mississippi and the Pacific,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> and it was known
 +that there were several practicable roads to that distant
 +coast.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> The annexation of California almost led the
 +United States into a serious territorial adventure; for
 +apparently nothing but the hasty treaty negotiated by
 +Trist in 1848 stopped a movement for the annexation of
 +the whole of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The Gadsden Purchase of 1853
 +conveniently rounded out the cession of New Mexico and
 +closed this second era of territorial expansion.</p>
 +
 +<p>The annexation of Texas was logical, and delayed only
 +by the accidental connection with slavery; but the annexation
 +of Oregon and California added to the Union
 +very distant possessions, the settlement of which must
 +have been slow but for the discovery of gold in California
 +in 1848. At once a new set of territorial questions arose:
 +the necessity of reaching California across the plains led
 +to the organization of Nebraska and Kansas territories in
 +1854, which convulsed the parties of the time; the movement
 +across the Isthmus to California brought up the
 +question of an interoceanic canal in a new light; the
 +commercial footing on the Pacific led to a pressure which
 +broke the shell of Japanese exclusion in 1854. Above all,
 +these annexations brought before the nation two questions
 +of constitutional law, which proved both difficult
 +and disturbing: the issue of slavery in the territories,
 +which precipitated, if it did not cause, the Civil War, and
 +the eventual status of territories which, from their situation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
 +or their population, were not likely to become
 +states.</p>
 +
 +<p>The third era of national expansion began in 1867 with
 +the purchase of Alaska,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> which was wholly a personal plan
 +of Secretary Seward, in which the nation took very little
 +interest; nor was the public aroused by Seward’s more
 +important scheme for annexing the Danish West India
 +Islands and a part of Santo Domingo; when the latter
 +project was taken up in 1870 and pushed with unaccountable
 +energy by President Grant,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> popular sentiment
 +showed itself plainly averse to annexing a country with
 +a population wholly negro and little in accord with the
 +American spirit. For twenty-five years thereafter there
 +was the same indisposition to annex territory that brought
 +problems with it; and then the movement for the annexation
 +of Hawaii was headed off by President Cleveland
 +in 1893.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> The Spanish War of 1898 swept all these barriers
 +away, and left the United States in possession of the
 +Philippine Islands, a distant archipelago containing seven
 +and a half millions of Catholic Malays; of the island of
 +Porto Rico, in the West Indies; of the Hawaiian group;
 +of a responsible protectorate over Cuba; and, four years
 +later, of the Panama strip, which may include the future
 +Constantinople of the western world.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the whole territorial history of the country, never
 +has there been such a transition. The Philippines, which
 +“Mr. Dooley” in 1898 thought might be canned goods,
 +are now, according to the Supreme Court, in one sense
 +“a part of the United States,” yet not an organic part
 +in financial or governmental or legal relations. The
 +country, which from 1850 to 1902 divided with Great
 +Britain the responsibility for a future Isthmian canal, is
 +now “making the dirt fly” in a canal strip which is virtually
 +Federal territory. China, which a few years ago was one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
 +of the remotest parts of the earth, now lies but a few
 +hundred miles from American possessions. The romantic
 +era of annexations has gone by: the automobile trundles
 +across the Great American Desert and stops for lunch at
 +a railroad restaurant, and the South Sea Islands have lost
 +their mystery since the trade-winds straighten out the
 +American flag above some of those tiny land-spots.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, IN THE HISTORY OF COLONIAL<br />
 +AMERICA BETWEEN THE LANDING<br />
 +OF COLUMBUS, 1492, AND<br />
 +CHAMPLAIN’S BATTLE<br />
 +WITH THE IROQUOIS,<br />
 +1609</h3>
 +
 +<p>1492. Columbus discovers the western world.</p>
 +
 +<p>1497. John Cabot reaches the mainland of North
 +America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1498. Columbus discovers the mainland of South
 +America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1512. Ponce de Leon lands in Florida.</p>
 +
 +<p>1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean.</p>
 +
 +<p>1519. Entry of Cortez into the City of Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<p>1521. Conquest of Mexico by Cortez.</p>
 +
 +<p>1531–33. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.</p>
 +
 +<p>1534. Cartier’s first voyage to the St. Lawrence.</p>
 +
 +<p>1535–36. Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca crosses the
 +continent from near the mouth of the Mississippi to
 +Sinaloa in Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<p>1541. The expedition of De Soto reaches the Mississippi
 +River. Coronado, coming from Mexico, reaches the
 +interior, probably northeastern Kansas.</p>
 +
 +<p>1562. The Huguenots attempt a settlement on the coast
 +of South Carolina.</p>
 +
 +<p>1564. Huguenot settlement on the St. John’s River in
 +Florida.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
 +1565. Founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish.</p>
 +
 +<p>1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of Newfoundland
 +in the name of Queen Elizabeth.</p>
 +
 +<p>1584. Raleigh’s expedition to North Carolina. The
 +region is named Virginia in honor of Queen Elizabeth.</p>
 +
 +<p>1585. Unsuccessful settlement by the English on
 +Roanoke Island.</p>
 +
 +<p>1602. Bartholomew Gosnold attempts a settlement on
 +the coast of Massachusetts.</p>
 +
 +<p>1606. James I. grants a patent to the London and
 +Plymouth Companies.</p>
 +
 +<p>1607. Foundation of Jamestown.</p>
 +
 +<p>1608. Foundation of Quebec by the French.</p>
 +
 +<p>1609. Champlain, with Algonquin Indians, defeats
 +Mohawks, of the Iroquois Confederacy, near Ticonderoga.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="II" class="vspace">II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">A FIGHT FOR LIFE</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3 id="t_2"><i>The Hundred Years’ War Between Early Colonists and
 +the Indians</i></h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">European</span> history makes much of the “Seven Years’
 +War” and the “Thirty Years’ War”; and when we
 +think of a continuous national contest for even the least of
 +those periods, there is something terrible in the picture.
 +But the feeble English colonies in America, besides all
 +the difficulties of pioneer life, had to sustain a warfare
 +that lasted, with few intermissions, for about a hundred
 +years. It was, moreover, a warfare against the most
 +savage and stealthy enemies, gradually trained and reinforced
 +by the most formidable military skill of Europe.
 +Without counting the early feuds, such as the Pequot
 +War, there elapsed almost precisely a century from the
 +accession of King Philip, in 1662, to the Peace of Paris,
 +which nominally ended the last French and Indian War
 +in 1763. During this whole period, with pacific intervals
 +that sometimes lasted for years, the same essential contest
 +went on; the real question being, for the greater part
 +of the time, whether France or England should control
 +the continent. The description of this prolonged war
 +may, therefore, well precede any general account of the
 +colonial or provincial life in America.</p>
 +
 +<p>The early explorers of the Atlantic coast usually testify
 +that they found the Indians a gentle, not a ferocious,
 +people. They were as ready as could be expected to
 +accept the friendship of the white race. In almost every
 +case of quarrel the white men were the immediate aggressors,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
 +and where they were attacked without seeming
 +cause—as when Smith’s Virginian colony was assailed by
 +the Indians in the first fortnight of its existence—there is
 +good reason to think that the act of the Indians was in
 +revenge for wrongs elsewhere. One of the first impulses
 +of the early explorers was to kidnap natives for exhibition
 +in Europe, in order to excite the curiosity of kings or the
 +zeal of priests; and even where these captives were restored
 +unharmed, the distrust could not be removed. Add
 +to this the acts of plunder, lust, or violence, and there
 +was plenty of provocation given from the very outset.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_036.jpg" width="800" height="512" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">DISTRIBUTION OF
 +AMERICAN INDIANS
 +ABOUT 1500
 +BY LINGUISTIC STOCKS
 +  <span class="browser center small"><a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_036f.jpg">(FULL SIZE)</a></span>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<div class="epub">
 +<div id="ip_15b" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_036l.jpg" width="800" height="1024" alt="" /></div>
 +
 +<div id="ip_15c" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_036r.jpg" width="800" height="1024" alt="" /></div>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p>The disposition to cheat and defraud the Indians has
 +been much exaggerated, at least as regards the English
 +settlers. The early Spanish invaders made no pretence
 +of buying one foot of land from the Indians, whereas the
 +English often went through the form of purchase, and
 +very commonly put in practice the reality. The Pilgrims,
 +at the very beginning, took baskets of corn from an Indian
 +grave to be used as seed, and paid for it afterward. The
 +year after the Massachusetts colony was founded the court
 +decreed: “It is ordered that Josias Plastowe shall (for
 +stealing four baskets of corne from the Indians) returne
 +them eight baskets againe, be fined five pounds, and hereafter
 +called by the name of Josias, and not Mr., as formerly
 +he used to be.” As a mere matter of policy, it was
 +the general disposition of the English settlers to obtain
 +lands by honest purchase; indeed, Governor Josiah Winslow,
 +of Plymouth, declared, in reference to King Philip’s
 +War, that “before these present troubles broke out the
 +English did not possess one foot of land in this colony but
 +what was fairly obtained by honest purchase of the Indian
 +proprietors.” This policy was quite general. Captain
 +West, in 1610, bought the site of what is now Richmond,
 +Virginia, for some copper. The Dutch Governor
 +Minuit bought the island of Manhattan, in 1626, for sixty
 +gilders. Lord Baltimore’s company purchased land for
 +cloth, tools, and trinkets; the Swedes obtained the site of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16<a class="hidep" id="Page_17">17</a></span>
 +Christiania for a kettle; Roger Williams bought the island
 +of Rhode Island for forty fathoms of white beads; and
 +New Haven was sold to the whites, in 1638, for “twelve
 +coats of English cloth, twelve alchemy spoons, twelve
 +hoes, twelve hatchets, twelve porringers, twenty-four
 +knives, and twenty-four cases of French knives and
 +spoons.” Many other such purchases will be found recorded
 +by Doctor Ellis. And though the price paid
 +might often seem ludicrously small, yet we must remember
 +that a knife or a hatchet was really worth more to
 +an Indian than many square miles of wild land; while
 +even the beads were a substitute for wampum, or wompom,
 +which was their circulating medium in dealing with
 +each other and with the whites, and was worth, in 1660,
 +five shillings a fathom.</p>
 +
 +<p>So far as the mere bargaining went, the Indians were not
 +individually the sufferers in the early days; but we must remember
 +that behind all these transactions there often lay a
 +theory which was as merciless as that of the Spanish “Requisition,”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a>
 +and which would, if logically carried out, have made
 +all these bargainings quite superfluous. Increase Mather
 +begins his history of King Philip’s War with this phrase,
 +“That the Heathen People amongst whom we live, and
 +whose Land the Lord God of our Fathers hath given to us
 +for a rightful Possession”; and it was this attitude of hostile
 +superiority that gave the sting to all the relations of the
 +two races. If a quarrel rose, it was apt to be the white
 +man’s fault; and after it had arisen, even the humaner
 +Englishmen usually sided with their race, as when the
 +peaceful Plymouth men went to war in defence of the
 +Weymouth reprobates. This fact, and the vague feeling
 +that an irresistible pressure was displacing them, caused
 +most of the early Indian outbreaks. And when hostilities
 +had once arisen, it was very rare for a white man of English
 +birth to be found fighting against his own people,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
 +although it grew more and more common to find Indians
 +on both sides.</p>
 +
 +<p>As time went on each party learned from the other. In
 +the early explorations, as of Champlain and Smith, we
 +see the Indians terrified by their first sight of firearms,
 +but soon becoming skilled in the use of them. “The
 +King, with fortie Bowmen to guard me,” says Capt. John
 +Smith, in 1608, “entreated me to discharge my Pistoll,
 +which they there presented to me, with a mark at six-score
 +to strike therewith; but to spoil the practise I broke
 +the cocke, whereat they were much discontented.” But
 +writing more than twenty years later, in 1631, he says of
 +the Virginia settlers, “The loving Salvages their kinde
 +friends they trained up so well to shoot in a Peace [fowling-piece]
 +to hunt and kill them fowle, they became more
 +expert than our own countrymen.” La Hontan, writing
 +in 1703, says of the successors of those against whom
 +Champlain had first used firearms, “The Strength of the
 +Iroquese lies in engaging with Fire Arms in a Forrest, for
 +they shoot very dexterously.” They learned also to make
 +more skilful fortifications, and to keep a regular watch at
 +night, which in the time of the early explorers they had
 +omitted. The same La Hontan says of the Iroquois,
 +“They are as negligent in the night-time as they are vigilant
 +in the day.”</p>
 +
 +<p>But it is equally true that the English colonists learned
 +much in the way of forest warfare from the Indians. The
 +French carried their imitation so far that they often disguised
 +themselves to resemble their allies, with paint,
 +feathers, and all; it was sometimes impossible to tell in
 +an attacking party which warriors were French and which
 +were Indians. Without often going so far as this, the
 +English colonists still modified their tactics. At first they
 +seemed almost irresistible because of their armor and
 +weapons. In the very first year of the Plymouth settlement,
 +when report was brought that their friend Massasoit
 +had been attacked by the Narrangansets, and a friendly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
 +Indian had been killed, the colony sent ten armed men,
 +including Miles Standish, to the Indian town of Namasket
 +(now Middleborough) to rescue or revenge their friend;
 +and they succeeded in their enterprise, surrounding the
 +chief’s house and frightening every one in a large Indian
 +village by two discharges of their muskets.</p>
 +
 +<p>But the heavy armor gradually proved a doubtful advantage
 +against a stealthy and light-footed foe. In spite
 +of the superior physical strength of the Englishman, he
 +could not travel long distances through the woods or
 +along the sands without lightening his weight. He
 +learned also to fight from behind a tree, to follow a trail,
 +to cover his body with hemlock boughs for disguise when
 +scouting. Captain Church states in his own narrative
 +that he learned from his Indian soldiers to march his
 +men “thin and scattering” through the woods; that the
 +English had previously, according to the Indians, “kept
 +in a heap together, so that it was as easy to hit them as
 +to hit a house.” Even the advantage of firearms involved
 +the risk of being without ammunition, so that the
 +Rhode Island colony, by the code of laws adopted in 1647,
 +required that every man between seventeen and seventy
 +should have a bow with four arrows, and exercise with
 +them; and that each father should furnish every son
 +from seven to seventeen years old with a bow, two arrows,
 +and shafts, and should bring them up to shooting. If this
 +statute was violated a fine was imposed, which the father
 +must pay for the son, the master for the servant, deducting
 +it in the latter case from his wages.</p>
 +
 +<p>Less satisfactory was the change by which the taking
 +of scalps came to be a recognized part of colonial warfare.
 +Hannah Dustin, who escaped from Indian captivity in
 +1698, took ten scalps with her own hand, and was paid
 +for them. Captain Church, undertaking his expedition
 +against the eastern Indians, in 1705, after the Deerfield
 +massacre, announced that he had not hitherto permitted
 +the scalping of “Canada men,” but should thenceforth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
 +allow it. In 1722, when the Massachusetts colony sent
 +an expedition against the village of “praying Indians,”
 +founded by Father Rasle, they offered for each scalp a
 +bounty of £15, afterward increased to £100; and this
 +inhumanity was so far carried out that the French priest
 +himself was one of the victims. Jeremiah Bumstead, of
 +Boston, made this entry in his almanac in the same year:
 +“Aug. 22, 28 Indian scalps brought to Boston, one of
 +which was Bombazen’s [an Indian chief] and one fryer
 +Raile’s.” Two years after, the celebrated but inappropriately
 +named Captain Lovewell, the foremost Indian
 +fighter of his region, came upon ten Indians asleep round
 +a pond. He and his men killed and scalped them all, and
 +entered Dover, New Hampshire, bearing the ten scalps
 +stretched on hoops and elevated on poles. After receiving
 +an ovation in Dover they went by water to Boston, and
 +were paid a thousand pounds for their scalps. Yet Lovewell’s
 +party was always accompanied by a chaplain, and
 +had prayers every morning and evening.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_20" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_041.jpg" width="324" height="498" alt="" />
 +  <div class="captionl b03">From a drawing by Howard Pyle</div>
 +  <div class="caption">INDIANS ON THE WARPATH</div></div>
 +
 +<p>The most painful aspect of the whole practice lies in
 +the fact that it was not confined to those actually engaged
 +in fighting, but that the colonial authorities actually
 +established a tariff of prices for scalps, including even
 +non-combatants—so much for a man’s, so much for a
 +woman’s, so much for a child’s. Doctor Ellis has lately
 +pointed out the striking circumstance that whereas
 +William Penn had declared the person of an Indian to
 +be “sacred,” his grandson, in 1764, offered $134 for the
 +scalp of an Indian man, $130 for that of a boy under ten,
 +and $50 for that of a woman or girl. The habit doubtless
 +began in the fury of retaliation, and was continued in
 +order to conciliate Indian allies; and when bounties were
 +offered to them, the white volunteers naturally claimed
 +a share. But there is no doubt that Puritan theology
 +helped the adoption of the practice. It was partly because
 +the Indian was held to be something worse than
 +a beast that he was treated with very little mercy. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
 +truth is that he was viewed as a fiend, and there could
 +not be much scruple about using inhumanities against a
 +demon. Cotton Mather calls Satan “the old landlord”
 +of the American wilderness, and says in his <cite>Magnalia</cite>:
 +“These Parts were then covered with Nations of Barbarous
 +Indians and Infidels, in whom the Prince of the
 +Power of the Air did work as a Spirit; nor could it be expected
 +that Nations of Wretches whose whole religion was
 +the most Explicit sort of Devil-Worship should not be
 +acted by the devil to engage in some early and bloody
 +Action for the Extinction of a Plantation so contrary to
 +his Interests as that of New England was.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Before the French influence began to be felt there was
 +very little union on the part of the Indians, and each
 +colony adjusted its own relations with them. At the time
 +of the frightful Indian massacre in the Virginia colony
 +(March 22, 1622), when three hundred and forty-seven
 +men, women, and children were murdered, the Plymouth
 +colony was living in entire peace with its savage neighbors.
 +“We have found the Indians,” wrote Governor
 +Winslow, “very faithful to their covenants of peace with
 +us, very loving and willing to pleasure us. We go with
 +them in some cases fifty miles into the country, and walk
 +as safely and peacefully in the woods as in the highways
 +of England.” The treaty with Massasoit lasted for more
 +than fifty years, and the first bloodshed between the Plymouth
 +men and the Indians was incurred in the protection
 +of the colony of Weymouth, which had brought trouble
 +on itself in 1623. The Connecticut settlements had far
 +more difficulty with the Indians than those in Massachusetts,
 +but the severe punishment inflicted on the
 +Pequots in 1637 quieted the savages for a long time. In
 +that fight a village of seventy wigwams was destroyed by
 +a force of ninety white men and several hundred friendly
 +Indians; and Captain Underhill, the second in command,
 +has left a quaint delineation of the attack.</p>
 +
 +<p>There was a period resembling peace in the eastern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
 +colonies for nearly forty years after the Pequot War,
 +while in Virginia there were renewed massacres in 1644
 +and 1656. But the first organized Indian outbreak began
 +with the conspiracy of King Philip in 1675, although
 +the seeds had been sown before that chief succeeded to
 +power in 1662. In that year Wamsutta, or Alexander,
 +Philip’s brother—both being sons of Massasoit—having
 +fallen under some suspicion, was either compelled or persuaded
 +by Major Josiah Winslow, afterwards the first
 +native-born Governor of Plymouth, to visit that settlement.
 +The Indian came with his whole train of warriors
 +and women, including his queen, the celebrated “squaw
 +sachem” Weetamo, and they stayed at Winslow’s house.
 +Here the chief fell ill. The day was very hot, and though
 +Winslow offered his horse to the chief, it was refused,
 +because there was none for his squaw or the other women.
 +He was sent home because of illness, and died before he
 +got half-way there. This is the story as told by Hubbard,
 +but not altogether confirmed by other authorities. If
 +true, it is interesting as confirming the theory of that
 +careful student, Lucien Carr, that the early position of
 +women among the Indians was higher than has been generally
 +believed. It is pretty certain, at any rate, that
 +Alexander’s widow, Weetamo, believed her husband to
 +have been poisoned by the English, and she ultimately
 +sided with Philip when the war broke out, and apparently
 +led him and other Indians to the same view as to the
 +poisoning. It is evident that from the time of Philip’s
 +accession to authority, whatever he may have claimed,
 +his mind was turned more and more against the English.</p>
 +
 +<p>It is now doubted whether the war known as King
 +Philip’s War was the result of such deliberate and organized
 +action as was formerly supposed, but about the
 +formidable strength of the outbreak there can be no question.
 +It began in June, 1675; Philip was killed August
 +12, 1676, and the war was prolonged at the eastward for
 +nearly two years after his death. Ten or twelve Puritan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
 +towns were utterly destroyed, many more damaged, and
 +five or six hundred men were killed or missing. The war
 +cost the colonists £100,000, and the Plymouth colony
 +was left under a debt exceeding the whole valuation of its
 +property—a debt ultimately paid, both principal and interest.
 +On the other hand, the war tested and cemented
 +the league founded in 1643 between four colonies—Massachusetts,
 +Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut—against
 +the Indians and Dutch, while this prepared the
 +way more and more for the extensive combinations that
 +came after. In this early war, as the Indians had no
 +French allies, so the English had few Indian allies, and
 +it was less complex than the later contests, and so far less
 +formidable. But it was the first real experience on the
 +part of the eastern colonists of all the peculiar horrors of
 +Indian warfare—the stealthy approach, the abused hospitality,
 +the early morning assault, the maimed cattle,
 +tortured prisoners, slain infants. All the terrors that
 +lately attached to a frontier attack of Apaches or Comanches
 +belonged to the daily life of settlers in New
 +England and Virginia for many years, with one vast difference,
 +arising from the total absence in those early days
 +of any personal violence or insult to women. By the
 +general agreement of witnesses from all nations, including
 +the women captives themselves, this crowning crime
 +was then wholly absent. The once famous “white
 +woman,” Mary Jemison, who was taken prisoner by the
 +Senecas at ten years old, in 1743—who lived in that tribe
 +all her life, survived two Indian husbands, and at last
 +died at ninety—always testified that she had never received
 +an insult from an Indian, and had never known
 +of a captive’s receiving any. She added that she had
 +known few instances in the tribe of conjugal immorality,
 +although she lived to see it demoralized and ruined by
 +strong drink.</p>
 +
 +<p>The English colonists seem never to have inflicted on
 +the Indians any cruelty resulting from sensual vices, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
 +of barbarity of another kind there was plenty, for it was
 +a cruel age. When the Narraganset fort was taken by
 +the English, December 19, 1675, the wigwams within the
 +fort were all set on fire, against the earnest entreaty of
 +Captain Church; and it was thought that more than one-half
 +the English loss—which amounted to several hundred—might
 +have been saved had there been any shelter
 +for their own wounded on that cold night. This, however,
 +was a question of military necessity; but the true
 +spirit of the age was seen in the punishments inflicted
 +after the war was over. The heads of Philip’s chief followers
 +were cut off, though Captain Church, their captor,
 +had promised to spare their lives; and Philip himself was
 +beheaded and quartered by Church’s order, since he was
 +regarded, curiously enough, as a rebel against Charles the
 +Second, and this was the state punishment for treason.
 +Another avowed reason was, that “as he had caused many
 +an Englishman’s body to lye unburied,” not one of his
 +bones should be placed under ground. The head was set
 +upon a pole in Plymouth, where it remained for more
 +than twenty-four years. Yet when we remember that
 +the heads of alleged traitors were exposed in London at
 +Temple Bar for nearly a century longer—till 1772 at
 +least—it is unjust to infer from this course any such
 +fiendish cruelty as it would now imply. It is necessary
 +to extend the same charity, however hard it may be, to
 +the selling of Philip’s wife and little son into slavery at
 +the Bermudas; and here, as has been seen, the clergy were
 +consulted and the Old Testament called into requisition.</p>
 +
 +<p>While these events were passing in the eastern settlements
 +there were Indian outbreaks in Virginia, resulting
 +in war among the white settlers themselves. The colony
 +was, for various reasons, discontented; it was greatly
 +oppressed, and a series of Indian murders brought the
 +troubles to a climax. The policy pursued against the
 +Indians was severe, and yet there was no proper protection
 +afforded by the government; war was declared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
 +against them in 1676, and then the forces sent out were
 +suddenly disbanded by the governor, Berkeley. At last
 +there was a popular rebellion, which included almost
 +all the civil and military officers of the colony, and the
 +rebellious party put Nathaniel Bacon, Jr., a recently
 +arrived but very popular planter, at their head. He
 +marched with five hundred men against the Indians, but
 +was proclaimed a traitor by the governor, whom Bacon
 +proclaimed a traitor in return. The war with the savages
 +became by degrees quite secondary to the internal contests
 +among the English, in the course of which Bacon
 +took and burned Jamestown, beginning, it is said, with
 +his own house; but he died soon after. The insurrection
 +was suppressed, and the Indians were finally quieted by
 +a treaty.</p>
 +
 +<p>Into all the Indian wars after King Philip’s death two
 +nationalities besides the Indian and English entered in
 +an important way. These were the Dutch and the French.
 +It was the Dutch who, soon after 1614, first sold firearms
 +to the Indians in defiance of their own laws, and by this
 +means greatly increased the horrors of the Indian warfare.
 +On the other hand, the Dutch, because of the close
 +friendship they established with the Five Nations, commonly
 +called the Iroquois, did to the English colonists,
 +though unintentionally, a service so great that the whole
 +issue of the prolonged war may have turned upon it.
 +These tribes, the Cayugas, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas,
 +and Senecas—afterward joined by the Tuscaroras—held
 +the key to the continent. Occupying the greater part of
 +what is now the State of New York, they virtually ruled
 +the country from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from
 +the Great Lakes to the Savannah River. They were from
 +the first treated with great consideration by the Dutch,
 +and they remained, with brief intervals of war, their firm
 +friends. One war, indeed, there was under the injudicious
 +management of Governor Kieft, lasting from 1640 to
 +1643; and this came near involving the English colonies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
 +while it caused the death of sixteen hundred Indians, first
 +or last, seven hundred of these being massacred under
 +the borrowed Puritan leader Captain Underhill. But
 +this made no permanent interruption to the alliance between
 +the Iroquois and the Dutch.</p>
 +
 +<p>When New Netherlands yielded to the English, the same
 +alliance was retained, and to this we probably owe the
 +preservation of the colonies, their union against England,
 +and the very existence of the present American nation.
 +Yet the first English governor, Colden, has left on record
 +the complaint of an Indian chief, who said that they very
 +soon felt the difference between the two alliances.
 +“When the Dutch held this country,” he said, “we lay
 +in our houses, but the English have always made us lie
 +out-of-doors.”</p>
 +
 +<p>But if the Dutch were thus an important factor in the
 +Indian wars, the French became almost the controlling
 +influence on the other side. Except for the strip of English
 +colonies along the sea-shore, the North American continent
 +north of Mexico was French. This was not the
 +result of accident or of the greater energy of that nation,
 +but of a systematic policy, beginning with Champlain
 +and never abandoned by his successors. This plan was,
 +as admirably stated by Parkman, “to influence Indian
 +counsels, to hold the balance of power between adverse
 +tribes, to envelop in the net-work of French power and
 +diplomacy the remotest hordes of the wilderness.” With
 +this was combined a love of exploration so great that it
 +was hard to say which assisted the most in spreading their
 +dominion—religion, the love of adventure, diplomatic
 +skill, or military talent. These between them gave the
 +interior of the continent to the French. One of the New
 +York governors wrote home that if the French were to
 +hold all that they had discovered, England would not
 +have a hundred miles from the sea anywhere.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p>
 +
 +<h3 id="t_3">CHAMPLAIN’S BATTLE WITH THE IROQUOIS</h3>
 +
 +<p class="p1 b2 center"><i>By Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL.D.</i></p>
 +
 +<p>From the time of the restoration of New France (1632)
 +till the final catastrophe of 1759, Canada remained uninterruptedly
 +French; and from the tide-water of the St.
 +Lawrence as a base, French traders, soldiers, and settlers
 +(<em>habitants</em>) spread westward, northward, and eventually
 +southward. In the year of the restoration probably not
 +over a hundred and eighty of its inhabitants might properly
 +be called settlers, with perhaps a few score military
 +men, seafarers, and visiting commercial adventurers.
 +The majority of residents, of course, centred at Quebec,
 +with a few at the outlying trading-posts of Tadoussac
 +on the east, Three Rivers on the west, and the intervening
 +hamlets of Beaupré, Beauport, and Isle d’Orleans.
 +At the same time the English and Dutch settlements in
 +Virginia, the Middle Colonies, and Massachusetts had
 +probably amassed an aggregate population of twenty-five
 +thousand—for between the years 1627 and 1637 upward
 +of twenty thousand settlers emigrated thither from
 +Europe. While the English government was engaged in
 +efforts to repress the migration toward its own colonies,
 +the utmost endeavors of the powerful French companies,
 +their arguments reinforced by bounties, could not induce
 +more than a few home-loving Frenchmen to try their
 +fortunes amid the rigors of the New World.</p>
 +
 +<p>With all his tact, Champlain had committed one act
 +of indiscretion, the effects of which were left as an ill-fated
 +legacy to the little colony which he otherwise
 +nursed so well. Seeking to please his Algonquian neighbors
 +upon the St. Lawrence, and at the time eager to
 +explore the country, the commandant, with two of his
 +men-at-arms, accompanied (1609) one of their frequent
 +war-parties against the confederated Iroquois, who lived,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
 +for the most part, in New York state and northeastern
 +Pennsylvania. Meeting a hostile band of two hundred
 +and fifty warriors near where Fort Ticonderoga was afterward
 +constructed, Champlain and his white attendants
 +easily routed the enemy by means of firearms, with which
 +the interior savages were as yet unacquainted.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> His
 +success in this direction was, through the unfortunate
 +importunity of his allies, repeated in 1610; but five years
 +later, when he invaded the Iroquois cantonments in the
 +company of a large body of Huron, whose country to the
 +east of Lake Huron he had been visiting that summer,
 +the tribesmen to the southeast of Lake Ontario were
 +found to have lost much of their fear for white men’s
 +weapons, and the invaders retreated in some disorder.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_28" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.3125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_051.jpg" width="469" height="312" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption"><p>CHAMPLAIN’S ATTACK ON AN IROQUOIS FORT<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From an old print)</span></p></div></div>
 +
 +<p>The results were highly disastrous both to the Huron
 +and the French. The former were year by year mercilessly
 +harried by the bloodthirsty Iroquois, until in 1649<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
 +they were driven from their homes, and in the frenzy of
 +fear fled first to the islands of Lake Huron, then to
 +Mackinac and Sault Ste. Marie, finally to the southern
 +shores of Lake Superior, and deep within the dark pine
 +forests of northern Wisconsin. In the destruction of
 +Huronia, several Jesuit missionaries suffered torture and
 +death.</p>
 +
 +<p>As for the squalid little French settlements at Three
 +Rivers, Quebec, and Tadoussac, they soon felt the wrath
 +of the Iroquois, who were the fiercest and best-trained
 +fighters among the savages of North America. Almost
 +annually the war-parties of this dread foe raided the
 +lands of the king, not infrequently appearing in force
 +before the sharp-pointed palisades of New France, over
 +which were waged bloody battles for supremacy. Fortunately
 +logs could turn back a primitive enemy unarmed
 +with cannon; but not infrequently outlying parties of
 +Frenchmen had sorry experiences with the stealthy foe,
 +of whose approach through the tangled forest they had
 +no warning. Champlain’s closing years were much saddened
 +by these merciless assaults which he had unwittingly
 +invited; in the decade after his death the operations
 +of his successors were largely hampered thereby.
 +Montreal, founded by religious enthusiasts in 1642, during
 +its earliest years served as a buffer colony, in the
 +direction of the avenging tribesmen, and supped to the
 +dregs the cup of border turmoil.</p>
 +
 +<p>Not only were Frenchmen obliged to huddle within
 +their defences, but far and near their Indian allies were
 +swept from the earth. The Iroquois practically destroyed
 +the Algonquin tribes between Quebec and the Saguenay,
 +as well as the Algonquins of the Ottawa, the Huron, and
 +the Petun and Neutrals of the Niagara district. The fur-trade
 +of New France was for a long period almost wholly
 +destroyed; English and Dutch rivals to the south were
 +friendly to the Iroquois, furnished them cheap goods and
 +abundant firearms and ammunition, and egged them on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
 +in their northern forays; while toward the Mississippi,
 +and south of the Great Lakes, Iroquois raiders terrorized
 +those tribes which dared to entertain trade relations with
 +the French.</p>
 +
 +<p>In 1646, however, the blood-stained confederates, after
 +nearly a half-century of opposition, consented to a peace
 +which lasted spasmodically for almost twenty years;
 +until in 1665 the French government found itself strong
 +enough to threaten the chastisement of the New York
 +tribesmen, and thereafter the Iroquois opposition, while
 +not altogether quelled, was of a far less threatening
 +character.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN CHAMPLAIN’S BATTLE<br />
 +WITH THE IROQUOIS, 1609, AND<br />
 +THE CONQUEST OF THE<br />
 +PEQUOTS, 1637</h3>
 +
 +<p>1609. Henry Hudson ascends the Hudson River.</p>
 +
 +<p>1610. Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay.</p>
 +
 +<p>1614. The Dutch erect a Fort on Manhattan Island.</p>
 +
 +<p>1619. A colonial assembly is convened at Jamestown.
 +Negro slavery is introduced into Virginia.</p>
 +
 +<p>1620. Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth.</p>
 +
 +<p>1622. The Dutch West India Company take possession
 +of New Netherlands. Indian massacre in Virginia.</p>
 +
 +<p>1623. Settlement of New Hampshire.</p>
 +
 +<p>1624. Dissolution of the London Company. Virginia
 +becomes a Crown Colony.</p>
 +
 +<p>1626. The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island from the
 +Indians.</p>
 +
 +<p>1628. Settlement of Salem by the Massachusetts Bay
 +Company.</p>
 +
 +<p>1629. The English take Quebec.</p>
 +
 +<p>1630. Foundation of Boston.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
 +1631. Settlement of Maryland by Clayborne.</p>
 +
 +<p>1632. Canada is restored to France by England. Lord
 +Baltimore receives a charter for a colony in Maryland.</p>
 +
 +<p>1634. Settlement of St. Mary’s, Maryland, by Calvert.</p>
 +
 +<p>1634–36. Settlement of Connecticut by the English.
 +Settlement of Rhode Island by Roger Williams.</p>
 +
 +<p>1636. Foundation of Harvard College.</p>
 +
 +<p>1637. Conquest of the Pequots by the New England
 +colonists.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="III" class="vspace">III<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_4" class="subhead">THE CONQUEST OF THE PEQUOTS, 1637</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1636 the Massachusetts colony, under Vane’s administration,
 +became involved in new troubles—a violent
 +internal controversy and a dangerous Indian war.
 +The most powerful native tribes of New England were
 +concentrated in the neighborhood of Narragansett Bay.
 +The Wampanoags, or Pocanokets, were on the east side of
 +that bay within the limits of the Plymouth patent, and the
 +Narragansets, a more powerful confederacy, on the west
 +side. Still more numerous and more powerful were the
 +Pequots, whose chief seats were on or near Pequot River,
 +now the Thames, but whose authority extended over
 +twenty-six petty tribes, along both shores of the Sound to
 +the Connecticut River, and even beyond it, almost or quite
 +to the Hudson. In what is now the northeast corner of the
 +State of Connecticut dwelt a smaller tribe, the enemies,
 +perhaps the revolted subjects, of the Pequots, known to
 +the colonists as Mohegans—an appropriation of a general
 +name properly including all the Indians along the shores
 +of Long Island Sound as far west as the Hudson, and even
 +the tribes beyond that river, known afterward to the English
 +as the Delawares. The Indians about Massachusetts
 +Bay, supposed to have been formerly quite numerous,
 +had almost died out before the arrival of the colonists, and
 +the smallpox had since proved very fatal among the few
 +that remained. Some tribes of no great consideration—the
 +Nipmucks, the Wachusetts, the Nashaways—dwelt
 +among the interior hills, and others, known collectively
 +to the colonists as the River Indians, fished at the falls of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
 +the Connecticut, and cultivated little patches of its rich
 +alluvial meadows. The lower Merrimac, the Piscataqua,
 +and their branches were occupied by the tribes of a considerable
 +confederacy, that of Penacook, or Pawtucket,
 +whose chief sachem, Passaconaway, was reported to be
 +a great magician. The interior of New Hampshire and
 +of what is now Vermont seems to have been an uninhabited
 +wilderness. The tribes eastward of the Piscataqua,
 +known to the English by the general name of Tarenteens,
 +and reputed to be numerous and powerful, were distinguished
 +by the rivers on which they dwelt. They seem
 +to have constituted two principal confederacies, those
 +east of the Kennebec being known to the French of Acadie
 +as the Abenakis. All the New England Indians spoke
 +substantially the same language, the Algonquin, in various
 +dialects. From the nature of the country, they were
 +more stationary than some other tribes, being fixed principally
 +at the falls of the rivers. They seem to have entertained
 +very decided ideas of the hereditary descent of
 +authority, and of personal devotion to their chiefs. What
 +might have been at this time the total Indian population
 +of New England it is not very easy to conjecture; but it
 +was certainly much less than is commonly stated. Fifteen
 +or twenty thousand would seem to be a sufficient allowance
 +for the region south of the Piscataqua, and as many
 +more, perhaps, for the more easterly district. The Pequots,
 +esteemed the most powerful tribe in New England,
 +were totally ruined, as we shall presently see, by the
 +destruction or capture of hardly more than a thousand
 +persons.</p>
 +
 +<p>The provocation for this exterminating war was extremely
 +small. Previous to the Massachusetts migration
 +to the Connecticut, one Captain Stone, the drunken
 +and dissolute master of a small trading vessel from Virginia,
 +whom the Plymouth people charged with having
 +been engaged at Manhattan in a piratical plot to seize
 +one of their vessels, having been sent away from Boston<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
 +with orders not to return without leave, under pain of
 +death, on his way homeward to Virginia, in 1634, had entered
 +the Connecticut River, where he was cut off, with
 +his whole company, seven in number, by a band of
 +Pequots. There were various stories, none of them authentic,
 +as to the precise manner of his death, but the
 +Pequots insisted that he had been the aggressor—a thing
 +in itself sufficiently probable. As Stone belonged to Virginia,
 +the magistrates of Massachusetts wrote to Governor
 +Harvey to move him to stir in the matter. Van Cuyler,
 +the Dutch commissary at Fort Good Hope, in fact revenged
 +Stone’s death by the execution of a sachem and
 +several others. This offended the Pequots, who renounced
 +any further traffic with the Dutch, and sent
 +messengers to Boston desiring an intercourse of trade, and
 +assistance to settle their pending difficulties with the
 +Narragansets, who intervened between them and the
 +English settlements. They even promised to give up—at
 +least so the magistrates understood them—the only two
 +survivors, as they alleged, of those concerned in the death
 +of Stone. These offers were accepted; for the convenience
 +of this traffic a peace was negotiated between the
 +Pequots and the Narragansets, and a vessel was presently
 +sent to open a trade. But this traffic disappointed the
 +adventurers; nor were the promised culprits given up.
 +The Pequots, according to the Indian custom, tendered,
 +instead, a present of furs and wampum. But this was
 +refused, the colonists seeming to think themselves under
 +a religious obligation to avenge blood with blood.</p>
 +
 +<p>Thus matters remained for a year or two, when, in
 +July, 1636, the crew of a small bark, returning from Connecticut,
 +saw close to Block Island a pinnace at anchor,
 +and full of Indians. This pinnace was recognized as belonging
 +to Oldham, the Indian trader, the old settler at
 +Nantasket, and explorer of the Connecticut. Conjecturing
 +that something must be wrong, the bark approached
 +the pinnace and hailed, whereupon the Indians on board<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
 +slipped the cable and made sail. The bark gave chase,
 +and soon overtook the pinnace; some of the Indians
 +jumped overboard in their fright, and were drowned;
 +several were killed, and one was made prisoner. The
 +dead body of Oldham was found on board, covered with
 +an old seine. This murder, as appeared from the testimony
 +of the prisoner, who was presently sentenced by the
 +Massachusetts magistrates to be a slave for life, was
 +committed at the instigation of some Narraganset chiefs,
 +upon whom Block Island was dependent, in revenge
 +for the trade which Oldham had commenced under the
 +late treaty with the Pequots, their enemies. Indeed, all
 +the Narraganset chiefs, except the head sachem, Canonicus,
 +and his nephew and colleague, Miantonimoh, were
 +believed to have had a hand in this matter, especially the
 +chieftain of the Niantics, a branch of the Narragansets,
 +inhabiting the continent opposite Block Island.</p>
 +
 +<p>Canonicus, in great alarm, sent to his friend and neighbor,
 +Roger Williams, by whose aid he wrote a letter to
 +the Massachusetts magistrates, expressing his grief at
 +what had happened, and stating that Miantonimoh had
 +sailed already with seventeen canoes and two hundred
 +warriors to punish the Block Islanders. With this letter
 +were sent two Indians, late sailors on board Oldham’s
 +pinnace, and presently after two English boys, the remainder
 +of his crew. In the recapture of Oldham’s pinnace
 +eleven Indians had been killed, several of them
 +chiefs; and that, with the restoration of the crew, seems
 +to have been esteemed by Canonicus a sufficient atonement
 +for Oldham’s death. But the magistrates and ministers
 +of Massachusetts, assembled to take this matter
 +into consideration, thought otherwise. Volunteers were
 +called for in August, 1636; and four companies, ninety
 +men in all, commanded by Endicott, whose submissiveness
 +in Williams’ affair had restored him to favor, were
 +embarked in three pinnaces, with orders to put to death
 +all the men of Block Island, and to make the women and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
 +children prisoners. The old affair of the death of Stone
 +was now also called to mind, though the murder of Oldham
 +had no connection with it, except in some distant
 +similarity of circumstances. Endicott was instructed, on
 +his return from Block Island, to go to the Pequots, and to
 +demand of them the murderers of Stone, and a thousand
 +fathoms of wampum for damages—equivalent to from
 +three to five thousand dollars—also, some of their children
 +as hostages; and, if they refused, to employ force.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Block Islanders fled inland, hid themselves, and
 +escaped; but Endicott burned their wigwams, staved
 +their canoes, and destroyed their standing corn. He
 +then sailed to Fort Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut,
 +and marched thence to Pequot River. After some
 +parley, the Indians refused his demands, when he burned
 +their village and killed one of their warriors. Marching
 +back to the Connecticut River, he inflicted like vengeance
 +on the Pequot village there, whence he returned to Boston,
 +after a three weeks’ absence and without the loss of a
 +man.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Pequots, enraged at what they esteemed a treacherous
 +and unprovoked attack, lurked about Fort Saybrook,
 +killed or took several persons, and did considerable
 +mischief. They sent, also, to the Narragansets to
 +engage their alliance against the colonists, whom they
 +represented as the common enemy of all the Indians.
 +Williams, informed of this negotiation, sent word of it to
 +the Massachusetts magistrates, and, at their request, he
 +visited Canonicus, to dissuade him from joining the Pequots.
 +This mission was not without danger. In the
 +wigwam of Canonicus, Williams encountered the Pequot
 +messengers, full of rage and fury. He succeeded, however,
 +in his object, and, in October, Miantonimoh was induced
 +to visit Boston, where, being received with much
 +ceremony by the governor and magistrates, he agreed to
 +act with them as a faithful ally. Canonicus thought it
 +would be necessary to attack the Pequots with a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
 +large force; but he recommended, as a thing likely to be
 +agreeable to all the Indians—so Williams informs us—that
 +the women and children should be spared, a humane
 +piece of advice which received in the end but little
 +attention.</p>
 +
 +<p>The policy of this war, or, at least, the wisdom of Endicott’s
 +conduct, was not universally conceded. A letter
 +from Plymouth reproached the Massachusetts magistrates
 +with the dangers likely to arise from so inefficient an attack
 +upon the Pequots. Gardiner, the commandant at
 +Fort Saybrook, who lost several men during the winter,
 +was equally dissatisfied. The new settlers up the Connecticut
 +complained bitterly of the dangers to which they
 +were exposed. Sequeen, the same Indian chief at whose
 +invitation the Plymouth people had first established a
 +trading-house on the Connecticut River, had granted land
 +to the planters at Wethersfield on condition that he might
 +settle near them, and be protected; but when he came
 +and built his wigwam, they had driven him away. He
 +took this opportunity for revenge by calling in the Pequots,
 +who attacked the town, and killed nine of the inhabitants.
 +The whole number killed by the Pequots
 +during the winter was about thirty.</p>
 +
 +<p>In December a special session of the General Court of
 +Massachusetts organized the militia into three regiments,
 +the magistrates to appoint the field officers—called sergeant-majors—and
 +to select the captains and lieutenants
 +out of a nomination to be made by the companies respectively.
 +Watches were ordered to be kept, and
 +travellers were to go armed....</p>
 +
 +<p>The new towns on the Connecticut had continued to
 +suffer during the winter. The attack on Wethersfield
 +has been mentioned already. Fort Saybrook was beleaguered;
 +several colonists were killed, and two young
 +girls were taken prisoners, but were presently redeemed
 +and sent home by some Dutch traders. It had been resolved
 +in Massachusetts to raise a hundred and sixty men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
 +for the war, and already Underhill had been sent, with
 +twenty men, to reinforce Fort Saybrook; but, during
 +Vane’s administration, these preparations had been retarded—not
 +from any misgivings as to the justice of the
 +war, but because the army “was too much under a
 +covenant of works.” The expedition was now got ready,
 +and, by a “solemn public invocation of the word of
 +God,” a leader was designated by lot from among three
 +of the magistrates set apart for that purpose. The lot
 +fell on Stoughton, whose adherence to the orthodox party
 +during the late dissensions had restored him to favor, and
 +obtained for him, at the late election, one of the vacant
 +magistrates’ seats. Wilson was also designated by lot
 +as chaplain to the expedition. The people of Plymouth
 +agreed to furnish forty-five men.</p>
 +
 +<p>The decisive battle, however, had been already fought.
 +The Connecticut towns, impatient of delay, having obtained
 +the alliance of Uncas, sachem of the Mohegans,
 +had marched, to the number of ninety men, almost their
 +entire effective force, under the command of John Mason,
 +bred a soldier in the Netherlands, whom Hooker, on May
 +10, with prayers and religious ceremonies, solemnly invested
 +with the staff of command. After a night spent
 +in prayer, this little army, joined by Uncas with sixty
 +Indians, and accompanied by Stone, Hooker’s colleague,
 +as chaplain, embarked at Hartford. They were not without
 +great doubts as to their Indian allies, but were reassured
 +at Fort Saybrook. While Stone was praying “for
 +one pledge of love, that may confirm us of the fidelity of
 +the Indians,” these allies came in with five Pequot scalps
 +and a prisoner. Underhill joined with his twenty men,
 +and the united forces proceeded by water to Narragansett
 +Bay, where they spent Sunday, May 21, in religious
 +exercises. They were further strengthened by Miantonimoh
 +and two hundred Narraganset warriors; but the
 +English force seemed so inadequate that many of the
 +Narragansets became discouraged and returned home.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
 +The Pequots were principally collected a few miles
 +east of Pequot River, now the Thames, in two forts, or
 +villages, fortified with trees and brushwood. After a fatiguing
 +march of two days, Mason reached one of these
 +strongholds, situated on a high hill, at no great distance
 +from the sea-shore. He encamped a few hours to rest
 +his men, but marched again before daybreak, and at
 +early dawn approached the fort. The Pequots had seen
 +the vessels pass along the sea-shore toward the bay of
 +Narragansett, and, supposing the hostile forces afraid to
 +attack them, they had spent the night in feasting and
 +dancing, and Mason could hear their shoutings in his
 +camp. Toward morning they sunk into a deep sleep,
 +from which they were roused by the barking of their
 +dogs, as the colonists, in two parties, approached the fort,
 +one led by Mason, the other by Underhill, both of whom
 +have left us narratives of the battle. The assailants
 +poured in a fire of musketry, and, after a moment’s hesitation,
 +forced their way into the fort. Within were
 +thickly clustered wigwams containing the families of the
 +Indians, and what remained of their winter stores. The
 +astonished Pequots seized their weapons and fought with
 +desperation; but what could their clubs and arrows avail
 +against the muskets and plate-armor of the colonists?
 +Yet there was danger in the great superiority of their
 +numbers, and Mason, crying out “we must burn them,”
 +thrust a firebrand among the mats with which the wigwams
 +were covered. Almost in a moment the fort was
 +in a blaze. The colonists, “bereaved of pity and without
 +compassion,” so Underhill himself declares, kept up
 +the fight within the fort, while their Indian allies, forming
 +a circle around, struck down every Pequot who attempted
 +to escape. No quarter was given, no mercy
 +was shown; some hundreds, not warriors only, but old
 +men, women, and children, perished by the weapons of the
 +colonists, or in the flames of the burning fort. “Great
 +and doleful,” says Underhill, “was the bloody sight to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
 +the view of young soldiers, to see so many souls lie gasping
 +on the ground, so thick you could hardly pass along.”
 +The fact that only seven prisoners were taken, while
 +Mason boasts that only seven others escaped, evinces the
 +unrelenting character of this massacre, which was accomplished
 +with but trifling loss, only two of the colonists
 +being killed, and sixteen or twenty wounded. Yet the
 +victors were not without embarrassments. The morning
 +was hot, there was no water to be had, and the men,
 +exhausted by their long march the two days before, the
 +weight of their armor, want of sleep, and the sharpness
 +of the late action, must now encounter a new body of
 +Pequots from the other village, who had taken the alarm,
 +and were fast approaching. Mason, with a select party,
 +kept this new enemy at bay, and thus gave time to the
 +main body to push on for Pequot River, into which some
 +vessels had just been seen to enter. When the Indians
 +approached the hill where their fort had stood, at sight
 +of their ruined habitations and slaughtered companions
 +they burst out into a transport of rage, stamped on the
 +ground, tore their hair, and, regardless of everything
 +save revenge, rushed furious in pursuit. But the dreaded
 +firearms soon checked them, and Mason easily made
 +good his retreat to Pequot harbor, now New London,
 +where he found not only his own vessels, but Captain Patrick
 +also, just arrived in a bark from Boston, with forty
 +men. Mason sent the wounded and most of his forces
 +by water, but, in consequence of Patrick’s refusal to lend
 +his ship, was obliged to march himself, with twenty men,
 +followed by Patrick, to Fort Saybrook, where his victory
 +was greeted by a salvo of cannon.</p>
 +
 +<p>In about a fortnight Stoughton arrived at Saybrook
 +with the main body of the Massachusetts forces. Mason,
 +with forty Connecticut soldiers and a large body of Narragansets,
 +joined also in pursuing the remnants of the
 +enemy. The Pequots had abandoned their country, or
 +concealed themselves in the swamps. In July one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
 +these fortresses was attacked by night, and about a hundred
 +Indians captured. The men, twenty-two in number,
 +were put to death; thirty women and children were
 +given to the Narraganset allies; some fifty others were
 +sent to Boston, and distributed as slaves among the principal
 +colonists. The flying Pequots were pursued as far
 +as Quinapiack, now New Haven. A swamp in that
 +neighborhood, where a large party had taken refuge, being
 +surrounded and attacked, a parley was had, and life was
 +offered to “all whose hands were not in English blood.”
 +About two hundred, old men, women, and children, reluctantly
 +came out and gave themselves up. Daylight
 +was exhausted in this surrender; and as night set in,
 +the warriors who remained renewed their defiances.
 +Toward morning, favored by a thick fog, they broke
 +through and escaped. Many of the surviving Pequots
 +put themselves under the protection of Canonicus and
 +other Narraganset chiefs. Sassacus, the head sachem,
 +fled to the Mohawks; but they were instigated by their
 +allies, the Narragansets, to put him to death. His scalp
 +was sent to Boston, and many heads and hands of Pequot
 +warriors were also brought in by the neighboring
 +tribes. The adult male prisoners who remained in the
 +hands of the colonists were sent to the West Indies to be
 +sold into slavery; the women and children experienced
 +a similar fate at home. It was reckoned that between
 +eight and nine hundred of the Pequots had been killed
 +or taken. Such of the survivors as had escaped, forbidden
 +any longer to call themselves Pequots, were distributed
 +between the Narragansets and Mohegans, and
 +subjected to an annual tribute. A like tribute was imposed,
 +also, on the inhabitants of Block Island. The
 +colonists regarded their success as ample proof of Divine
 +approbation, and justified all they had done to these
 +“bloody heathen” by abundant quotations from the Old
 +Testament. Having referred to “the wars of David,”
 +Underhill adds, “We had sufficient light from the word<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
 +of God for our proceedings”; and Mason, after some exulting
 +quotations from the Psalms, concludes: “Thus
 +the Lord was pleased to smite our enemies in the hinder
 +parts, and to give us their land for an inheritance!”
 +The Indian allies admired the courage of the colonists,
 +but they thought their method of war “too furious, and
 +to slay too many.”</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE CONQUEST OF<br />
 +THE PEQUOTS, 1637, AND THE DEFEAT<br />
 +OF KING PHILIP, 1676</h3>
 +
 +<p>1638. Settlement of Rhode Island. Establishment of
 +the Colony of New Haven. Swedes and Finns settle
 +in Delaware.</p>
 +
 +<p>1639. Adoption of the Connecticut Constitution.</p>
 +
 +<p>1642. War between Charles I. and Parliament. Indecisive
 +Battle of Edgehill.</p>
 +
 +<p>1643. The Colonies of New England form a confederacy.</p>
 +
 +<p>1644. Battle of Marston Moor, in which the English
 +Royalists are defeated. Roger Williams obtains a patent
 +from Parliament for the United Government of the
 +Rhode Island Settlements.</p>
 +
 +<p>1645. Defeat of the English Royalists at the Battle of
 +Naseby.</p>
 +
 +<p>1649. Execution of Charles I.</p>
 +
 +<p>1653. Cromwell is made Lord Protector of England.</p>
 +
 +<p>1655. Peter Stuyvesant, Director-General of New
 +Netherlands, dispossesses the Swedish settlers at the
 +mouth of the Delaware.</p>
 +
 +<p>1660. Restoration of the Stuarts in England.</p>
 +
 +<p>1662. The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies receive
 +a charter from Charles II.</p>
 +
 +<p>1664. Charles II. grants the region between the Connecticut
 +and Delaware rivers to his brother James, Duke<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
 +of York. The English occupy New Amsterdam and take
 +possession of the province of New Netherland. The
 +Colony of New Jersey is established.</p>
 +
 +<p>1665. The union of the Connecticut and New Haven
 +Colonies is completed.</p>
 +
 +<p>1668. Father Marquette founds the Mission of Sault
 +Ste. Marie.</p>
 +
 +<p>1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company.</p>
 +
 +<p>1673. The Dutch occupy New York and New Jersey.</p>
 +
 +<p>1674. New York and New Jersey are restored to the
 +English.</p>
 +
 +<p>1675. King Philip’s War.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="IV" class="vspace">IV<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_5" class="subhead">THE DEFEAT OF KING PHILIP, 1676</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Except</span> in the destruction of the Pequots, the native
 +tribes of New England had, in 1673, undergone no
 +very material diminution. The Pocanokets, or Wampanoags,
 +though somewhat curtailed in their limits, still
 +occupied the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay. The
 +Narragansets still possessed the western shore. There
 +were several scattered tribes in various parts of Connecticut;
 +though, with the exception of some small
 +reservations, they had already ceded all their lands.
 +Uncas, the Mohegan chief, was now an old man. The
 +Pawtucket, or Penacook, confederacy continued to occupy
 +the falls of the Merrimac and the heads of the Piscataqua.
 +Their old sachem, Passaconaway, regarded
 +the colonists with awe and veneration. In the interior of
 +Massachusetts and along the Connecticut were several
 +other less noted tribes. The Indians of Maine and the
 +region eastward possessed their ancient haunts undisturbed;
 +but their intercourse was principally with the
 +French, to whom, since the late peace with France, Acadie
 +had been again yielded up. The New England Indians
 +were occasionally annoyed by war parties of Mohawks;
 +but, by the intervention of Massachusetts, a peace had
 +recently been concluded.</p>
 +
 +<p>Efforts for the conversion and civilization of the Indians
 +were still continued by Eliot and his coadjutors,
 +supported by the funds of the English society. In Massachusetts
 +there were fourteen feeble villages of these
 +praying Indians, and a few more in Plymouth colony.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
 +The whole number in New England was about thirty-six
 +hundred, but of these near one-half inhabited the
 +islands of Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard.</p>
 +
 +<p>Massachusetts held a strict hand over the Narragansets
 +and other subject tribes, and their limits had been contracted
 +by repeated cessions, not always entirely voluntary.
 +The Wampanoags, within the jurisdiction of
 +Plymouth, experienced similar treatment. By successive
 +sales of parts of their territory, they were now shut up,
 +as it were, in the necks or peninsulas formed by the
 +northern and eastern branches of Narragansett Bay, the
 +same territory now constituting the continental eastern
 +portion of Rhode Island. Though always at peace with
 +the colonists, the Wampanoags had not always escaped
 +suspicion. The increase of the settlements around
 +them, and the progressive curtailment of their limits,
 +aroused their jealousy. They were galled, also, by the
 +feudal superiority, similar to that of Massachusetts over
 +her dependent tribes, claimed by Plymouth on the
 +strength of certain alleged former submissions. None
 +felt this assumption more keenly than Pometacom, head
 +chief of the Wampanoags, better known among the
 +colonists as King Philip of Mount Hope, nephew and successor
 +of that Massasoit who had welcomed the Pilgrims
 +to Plymouth. Suspected of hostile designs, he had been
 +compelled to deliver up his firearms, and to enter into
 +certain stipulations. These stipulations he was accused
 +of not fulfilling; and nothing but the interposition of the
 +Massachusetts magistrates, to whom Philip appealed,
 +prevented Plymouth from making war upon him. He
 +was sentenced instead to pay a heavy fine, and to acknowledge
 +the unconditional supremacy of that colony.</p>
 +
 +<p>A praying Indian, who had been educated at Cambridge
 +and employed as a teacher, upon some misdemeanor had
 +fled to Philip, who took him into service as a sort of secretary.
 +Being persuaded to return again to his former
 +employment, this Indian accused Philip anew of being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
 +engaged in a secret hostile plot. In accordance with
 +Indian ideas, the treacherous informer was waylaid and
 +killed. Three of Philip’s men, suspected of having killed
 +him, were arrested by the Plymouth authorities, and, in
 +accordance with English ideas, were tried for murder by
 +a jury half English, half Indians, convicted upon very
 +slender evidence, and hanged. Philip retaliated by plundering
 +the houses nearest Mount Hope. Presently he
 +attacked Swanzey, and killed several of the inhabitants.
 +Plymouth took measures for raising a military force.
 +The neighboring colonies were sent to for assistance.
 +Thus, by the impulse of suspicion on the one side and
 +passion on the other, New England became suddenly engaged
 +in a war very disastrous to the colonists, and utterly
 +ruinous to the native tribes. The lust of gain, in
 +spite of all laws to prevent it, had partially furnished the
 +Indians with firearms, and they were now far more formidable
 +enemies than they had been in the days of the
 +Pequots. Of this the colonists hardly seem to have
 +thought. Now, as then, confident of their superiority,
 +and comparing themselves to the Lord’s chosen people
 +driving the heathen out of the land, they rushed eagerly
 +into the contest, without a single effort at the preservation
 +of peace. Indeed, their pretensions hardly admitted
 +of it. Philip was denounced as a rebel in arms against
 +his lawful superiors, with whom it would be folly and weakness
 +to treat on any terms short of absolute submission.</p>
 +
 +<p>A body of volunteers, horse and foot, raised in Massachusetts,
 +marched under Major Savage, in June, 1675,
 +four days after the attack on Swanzey, to join the Plymouth
 +forces. After one or two slight skirmishes, they
 +penetrated to the Wampanoag villages at Mount Hope,
 +but found them empty and deserted. Philip and his
 +warriors, conscious of their inferiority, had abandoned
 +their homes. If the Narragansets, on the opposite side
 +of the bay, did not openly join the Wampanoags, they
 +would, at least, be likely to afford shelter to their women<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
 +and children. The troops were therefore ordered into
 +the Narraganset country, accompanied by commissioners
 +to demand assurances of peaceful intentions, and a promise
 +to deliver up all fugitive enemies of the colonists—pledges
 +which the Narragansets felt themselves constrained
 +to give.</p>
 +
 +<p>Arrived at Taunton on their return from the Narraganset
 +country, news came that Philip and his warriors
 +had been discovered by Church, of Plymouth colony, collected
 +in a great swamp at Pocasset, now Tiverton, the
 +southern district of the Wampanoag country, whence
 +small parties sallied forth to burn and plunder the neighboring
 +settlements. After a march of eighteen miles,
 +having reached the designated spot, the soldiers found
 +there a hundred wigwams lately built, but empty and deserted,
 +the Indians having retired deep into the swamp.
 +The colonists followed; but the ground was soft; the
 +thicket was difficult to penetrate; the companies were
 +soon thrown into disorder. Each man fired at every
 +bush he saw shake, thinking an Indian might lay concealed
 +behind it, and several were thus wounded by their
 +own friends. When night came on, the assailants retired
 +with the loss of sixteen men. The swamp continued to
 +be watched and guarded, but Philip broke through, not
 +without some loss, and escaped into the country of the
 +Nipmucks, in the interior of Massachusetts. That tribe
 +had already commenced hostilities by attacking Mendon.
 +They waylaid and killed Captain Hutchinson, a son of
 +the famous Mrs. Hutchinson, and sixteen out of a party
 +of twenty sent from Boston to Brookfield to parley with
 +them. Attacking Brookfield itself, they burned it, except
 +one fortified house. The inhabitants were saved
 +by Major Willard, who, on information of their danger,
 +came with a troop of horse from Lancaster, thirty miles
 +through the woods, to their rescue. A body of troops
 +presently arrived from the eastward, and were stationed
 +for some time at Brookfield.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
 +The colonists now found that by driving Philip to extremity
 +they had roused a host of unexpected enemies.
 +The River Indians, anticipating an intended attack upon
 +them, joined the assailants. Deerfield and Northfield,
 +the northernmost towns on the Connecticut River, settled
 +within a few years past, were attacked, and several
 +of the inhabitants killed and wounded. Captain
 +Beers, sent from Hadley to their relief with a convoy of
 +provisions, was surprised near Northfield in September,
 +and slain, with twenty of his men. Northfield was abandoned,
 +and burned by the Indians.</p>
 +
 +<p>“The English at first,” says Gookin, “thought easily
 +to chastise the insolent doings and murderous practice
 +of the heathen; but it was found another manner of
 +thing than was expected; for our men could see no enemy
 +to shoot at, but yet felt their bullets out of the thick
 +bushes where they lay in ambush. The English wanted
 +not courage or resolution, but could not discover nor find
 +an enemy to fight with, yet were galled by the enemy.”
 +In the arts of ambush and surprise, with which the Indians
 +were so familiar, the colonists were without practice.
 +It is to the want of this experience, purchased at
 +a very dear rate in the course of the war, that we must
 +ascribe the numerous surprises and defeats from which
 +the colonists suffered at its commencement.</p>
 +
 +<p>Driven to the necessity of defensive warfare, those in
 +command on the river determined to establish a magazine
 +and garrison at Hadley. Captain Lathrop, who
 +had been dispatched from the eastward to the assistance
 +of the river towns, was sent with eighty men, the flower
 +of the youth of Essex County, to guard the wagons intended
 +to convey to Hadley three thousand bushels of
 +unthreshed wheat, the produce of the fertile Deerfield
 +meadows. Just before arriving at Deerfield, near a small
 +stream still known as Bloody Brook, under the shadow
 +of the abrupt conical Sugar Loaf, the southern termination
 +of the Deerfield mountain, Lathrop, on September<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
 +18, fell into an ambush, and, after a brave resistance,
 +perished there with all his company. Captain Moseley,
 +stationed at Deerfield, marched to his assistance, but arrived
 +too late to help him. Deerfield was abandoned,
 +and burned by the Indians. Springfield, about the same
 +time, was set on fire, but was partially saved by the
 +arrival, with troops from Connecticut, of Major Treat,
 +successor to the lately deceased Mason in the chief command
 +of the Connecticut forces. An attack on Hatfield
 +was vigorously repelled by the garrison.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile, hostilities were spreading; the Indians on
 +the Merrimac began to attack the towns in their vicinity,
 +and the whole of Massachusetts was soon in the utmost
 +alarm. Except in the immediate neighborhood of Boston,
 +the country still remained an immense forest dotted
 +by a few openings. The frontier settlements could not be
 +defended against a foe familiar with localities, scattered
 +in small parties, skilful in concealment, and watching
 +with patience for some unguarded or favorable moment.
 +Those settlements were mostly broken up, and the inhabitants,
 +retiring toward Boston, spread everywhere
 +dread and intense hatred of “the bloody heathen.” Even
 +the praying Indians, and the small dependent and tributary
 +tribes, became objects of suspicion and terror. They
 +had been employed at first as scouts and auxiliaries, and
 +to good advantage; but some few, less confirmed in the
 +faith, having deserted to the enemy, the whole body of
 +them were denounced as traitors. Eliot the apostle, and
 +Gookin, superintendent of the subject Indians, exposed
 +themselves to insults, and even to danger, by their efforts
 +to stem this headlong fury, to which several of the magistrates
 +opposed but a feeble resistance. Troops were sent
 +to break up the praying villages at Mendon, Grafton, and
 +others in that quarter. The Natick Indians, “those poor
 +despised sheep of Christ,” as Gookin affectionately calls
 +them, were hurried off to Deer Island, in Boston harbor,
 +where they suffered excessively from a severe winter. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
 +part of the praying Indians of Plymouth colony were
 +confined, in like manner, on the islands in Plymouth
 +harbor.</p>
 +
 +<p>Not content with realities sufficiently frightful, superstition,
 +as usual, added bugbears of her own. Indian
 +bows were seen in the sky, and scalps in the moon. The
 +northern lights became an object of terror. Phantom
 +horsemen careered among the clouds or were heard to
 +gallop invisible through the air. The howling of wolves
 +was turned into a terrible omen. The war was regarded
 +as a special judgment in punishment of prevailing sins.
 +Among these sins, the General Court of Massachusetts,
 +after consultation with the elders, enumerated neglect
 +in the training of the children of church-members; pride,
 +in men’s wearing long and curled hair; excess in apparel;
 +naked breasts and arms, and superfluous ribbons; the
 +toleration of Quakers; hurry to leave meeting before
 +blessing asked; profane cursing and swearing; tippling-houses;
 +want of respect for parents; idleness; extortion
 +in shopkeepers and mechanics; and the riding from
 +town to town of unmarried men and women, under pretence
 +of attending lectures—“a sinful custom, tending
 +to lewdness.” Penalties were denounced against all these
 +offences; and the persecution of the Quakers was again
 +renewed. A Quaker woman had recently frightened the
 +Old South congregation in Boston by entering that meeting-house
 +clothed in sackcloth, with ashes on her head,
 +her feet bare, and her face blackened, intending to personify
 +the smallpox, with which she threatened the
 +colony, in punishment for its sins.</p>
 +
 +<p>About the time of the first collision with Philip, the
 +Tarenteens, or Eastern Indians, had attacked the settlements
 +in Maine and New Hampshire, plundering and
 +burning the houses, and massacring such of the inhabitants
 +as fell into their hands. This sudden diffusion of
 +hostilities and vigor of attack from opposite quarters
 +made the colonists believe that Philip had long been plotting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>
 +and had gradually matured an extensive conspiracy,
 +into which most of the tribes had deliberately entered,
 +for the extermination of the whites. This belief infuriated
 +the colonists, and suggested some very questionable
 +proceedings. It seems, however, to have originated, like
 +the war itself, from mere suspicions. The same griefs
 +pressed upon all the tribes; and the struggle once commenced,
 +the awe which the colonists inspired thrown off,
 +the greater part were ready to join in the contest. But
 +there is no evidence of any deliberate concert; nor, in
 +fact, were the Indians united. Had they been so, the
 +war would have been far more serious. The Connecticut
 +tribes proved faithful, and that colony remained untouched.
 +Uncas and Ninigret continued friendly; even
 +the Narragansets, in spite of so many former provocations,
 +had not yet taken up arms. But they were
 +strongly suspected of intention to do so, and were accused
 +by Uncas of giving, notwithstanding their recent
 +assurances, aid and shelter to the hostile tribes.</p>
 +
 +<p>An attempt had lately been made to revive the union
 +of the New England colonies. At a meeting of commissioners,
 +on September 9, 1675, those from Plymouth presented
 +a narrative of the origin and progress of the present
 +hostilities. Upon the strength of this narrative the
 +war was pronounced “just and necessary,” and a resolution
 +was passed to carry it on at the joint expense, and
 +to raise for that purpose a thousand men, one-half to be
 +mounted dragoons. If the Narragansets were not crushed
 +during the winter, it was feared they might break out
 +openly hostile in the spring; and at a subsequent meeting
 +a thousand men were ordered to be levied to co-operate
 +in an expedition specially against them.</p>
 +
 +<p>The winter was unfavorable to the Indians; the leafless
 +woods no longer concealed their lurking attacks.
 +The frozen surface of the swamps made the Indian fastnesses
 +accessible to the colonists. The forces destined to
 +act against the Narragansets—six companies from Massachusetts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
 +under Major Appleton; two from Plymouth,
 +under Major Bradford; and five from Connecticut, under
 +Major Treat—were placed under the command of
 +Josiah Winslow, Governor of Plymouth since Prince’s
 +death—son of that Edward Winslow so conspicuous in
 +the earlier history of the colony. In December the
 +Massachusetts and Plymouth forces marched to Petasquamscot,
 +on the west shore of Narragansett Bay, where
 +they made some forty prisoners. Being joined by the
 +troops from Connecticut, and guided by an Indian deserter,
 +after a march of fifteen miles through a deep snow,
 +they approached a swamp in what is now the town of
 +South Kingston, one of the ancient strongholds of the
 +Narragansets. Driving the Indian scouts before them,
 +and penetrating the swamp, the colonial soldiers soon
 +came in sight of the Indian fort, built on a rising ground
 +in the morass, a sort of island of two or three acres, fortified
 +by a palisade, and surrounded by a close hedge a
 +rod thick. There was but one entrance, quite narrow,
 +defended by a tree thrown across it, with a block-house
 +of logs in front and another on the flank. It was the
 +“Lord’s day,” but that did not hinder the attack. As
 +the captains advanced at the heads of their companies,
 +the Indians opened a galling fire, under which many fell.
 +But the assailants pressed on, and forced the entrance.
 +A desperate struggle ensued. The colonists were once
 +driven back, but they rallied and returned to the charge,
 +and, after a two hours’ fight, became masters of the fort.
 +Fire was put to the wigwams, near six hundred in number,
 +and all the horrors of the Pequot massacre were renewed.
 +The corn and other winter stores of the Indians were
 +consumed, and not a few of the old men, women, and children
 +perished in the flames. In this bloody contest, long
 +remembered as the “Swamp Fight,” the colonial loss was
 +terribly severe. Six captains, with two hundred and
 +thirty men, were killed or wounded; and at night, in the
 +midst of a snow-storm; with a fifteen miles’ march before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
 +them, the colonial soldiers abandoned the fort, of which
 +the Indians resumed possession. But their wigwams were
 +burned; their provisions destroyed; they had no supplies
 +for the winter; their loss was irreparable. Of those who
 +survived the fight, many perished of hunger.</p>
 +
 +<p>Even as a question of policy, this attack on the Narragansets
 +was more than doubtful. The starving and infuriated
 +warriors, scattered through the woods, revenged
 +themselves by attacks on the frontier settlements. On
 +February 10, 1676, Lancaster was burned, and forty of
 +the inhabitants killed or taken; among the rest, Mrs.
 +Rolandson, wife of the minister, the narrative of whose
 +captivity is still preserved. Groton, Chelmsford, and
 +other towns in that vicinity were repeatedly attacked.
 +Medfield, twenty miles from Boston, was furiously assaulted,
 +and, though defended by three hundred men,
 +half the houses were burned. Weymouth, within eighteen
 +miles of Boston, was attacked a few days after. These
 +were the nearest approaches which the Indians made to
 +that capital. For a time the neighborhood of the Narraganset
 +country was abandoned. The Rhode Island
 +towns, though they had no part in undertaking the war,
 +yet suffered the consequences of it. In March, Warwick
 +was burned, and Providence was partially destroyed.
 +Most of the inhabitants sought refuge in the islands,
 +but the aged Roger Williams accepted a commission as
 +captain for the defence of the town he had founded.
 +Walter Clarke was presently chosen governor in Coddington’s
 +place, the times not suiting a Quaker chief
 +magistrate.</p>
 +
 +<p>The whole colony of Plymouth was overrun. Houses
 +were burned in almost every town, but the inhabitants,
 +for the most part, saved themselves in their garrisons, a
 +shelter with which all the towns now found it necessary
 +to be provided. On March 26 Captain Pierce, with
 +fifty men and some friendly Indians, while endeavoring
 +to cover the Plymouth towns, fell into an ambush and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
 +was cut off. That same day, Marlborough was set on fire;
 +two days after Rehoboth was burned. The Indians seemed
 +to be everywhere. On April 18 Captain Wadsworth,
 +marching to the relief of Sudbury, fell into an ambush,
 +and perished with fifty men. The alarm and terror of
 +the colonists reached again a great height. But affairs
 +were about to take a turn. The resources of the Indians
 +were exhausted; they were now making their last efforts.</p>
 +
 +<p>A body of Connecticut volunteers, under Captain Denison,
 +and of Mohegan and other friendly Indians, Pequots
 +and Niantics, swept the entire country of the Narragansets,
 +who suffered, as spring advanced, the last extremities
 +of famine. Canonchet, the chief sachem, said
 +to have been a son of Miantonimoh, but probably his
 +nephew, had ventured to his old haunts to procure seed-corn
 +with which to plant the rich intervals on the Connecticut,
 +abandoned by the colonists. Taken prisoner,
 +he conducted himself with all that haughty firmness esteemed
 +by the Indians the height of magnanimity. Being
 +offered his life on condition of bringing about a peace,
 +he scorned the proposal. His tribe would perish to the
 +last man rather than become servants to the English.
 +When ordered to prepare for death, he replied, “I like
 +it well; I shall die before my heart is soft, or I shall
 +have spoken anything unworthy of myself.” Two Indians
 +were appointed to shoot him, and his head was cut
 +off and sent to Hartford.</p>
 +
 +<p>The colonists had suffered severely. Men, women,
 +and children had perished by the bullets of the Indians,
 +or fled naked through the wintry woods by the light of
 +their blazing houses, leaving their goods and cattle a
 +spoil to the assailants. Several settlements had been destroyed,
 +and many more had been abandoned; but the
 +oldest and wealthiest remained untouched. The Indians,
 +on the other hand, had neither provisions nor ammunition.
 +On May 12, while attempting to plant corn and
 +catch fish at Montague Falls, on the Connecticut River,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>
 +they were attacked with great slaughter by the garrison
 +of the lower towns, led by Captain Turner, a Boston Baptist,
 +and at first refused a commission on that account,
 +but as danger increased, pressed to accept it. Yet this
 +enterprise was not without its drawbacks. As the troops
 +returned, Captain Turner fell into an ambush and was
 +slain, with thirty-eight men. Hadley was attacked on a
 +lecture day, June 12, while the people were at meeting;
 +but the Indians were repulsed by the bravery of Goffe,
 +one of the fugitive regicides, long concealed in that town.
 +Seeing this venerable unknown man come to their rescue,
 +and then suddenly disappear, the inhabitants took him
 +for an angel.</p>
 +
 +<p>Major Church, at the head of a body of two hundred
 +volunteers, English and Indians, energetically hunted
 +down the hostile bands in Plymouth colony. The interior
 +tribes about Mount Wachusett were invaded and subdued
 +by a force of six hundred men, raised for that purpose.
 +Many fled to the north to find refuge in Canada—guides
 +and leaders, in after years, of those French and
 +Indian war parties by which the frontiers of New England
 +were so terribly harassed. Just a year after the fast
 +at the commencement of the war, a thanksgiving was
 +observed for success in it.</p>
 +
 +<p>No longer sheltered by the River Indians, who now began
 +to make their peace, and even attacked by bands of
 +the Mohawks, Philip returned to his own country, about
 +Mount Hope, where he was still faithfully supported by
 +his female confederate and relative, Witamo, squaw sachem
 +of Pocasset. Punham, also, the Shawomet vassal
 +of Massachusetts, still zealously carried on the war, but
 +was presently killed. Philip was watched and followed
 +by Church, who surprised his camp on August 1st, killed
 +upward of a hundred of his people, and took prisoners his
 +wife and boy. The disposal of this child was a subject
 +of much deliberation. Several of the elders were urgent
 +for putting him to death. It was finally resolved to send<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
 +him to Bermuda, to be sold into slavery—a fate to which
 +many other of the Indian captives were subjected. Witamo
 +shared the disasters of Philip. Most of her people
 +were killed or taken. She herself was drowned while
 +crossing a river in her flight; but her body was recovered,
 +and the head, cut off, was stuck upon a pole at Taunton,
 +amid the jeers and scoffs of the colonial soldiers, and the
 +tears and lamentations of the Indian prisoners.</p>
 +
 +<p>Philip still lurked in the swamps, but was now reduced
 +to extremity. Again attacked by Church, he was
 +killed by one of his own people, a deserter to the colonists.
 +His dead body was beheaded and quartered, the sentence
 +of the English law upon traitors. One of his hands was
 +given to the Indian who had shot him, and on August 17,
 +the day appointed for a public thanksgiving, his head
 +was carried in triumph to Plymouth.</p>
 +
 +<p>The popular rage against the Indians was excessive.
 +Death or slavery was the penalty for all known or suspected
 +to have been concerned in shedding English blood.
 +Merely having been present at the “Swamp Fight” was
 +adjudged by the authorities of Rhode Island sufficient
 +foundation for sentence of death, and that, too, notwithstanding
 +they had intimated an opinion that the origin
 +of the war would not bear examination. The other captives
 +who fell into the hands of the colonists were distributed
 +among them as ten-year servants. Roger Williams
 +received a boy for his share. Many chiefs were
 +executed at Boston and Plymouth on the charge of rebellion;
 +among others, Captain Tom, chief of the Christian
 +Indians at Natick, and Tispiquin, a noted warrior,
 +reputed to be invulnerable, who had surrendered to
 +Church on an implied promise of safety. A large body
 +of Indians, assembled at Dover to treat of peace, were
 +treacherously made prisoners by Major Waldron, who
 +commanded there. Some two hundred of these Indians,
 +claimed as fugitives from Massachusetts, were sent by
 +water to Boston, where some were hanged, and the rest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
 +shipped off to be sold as slaves. Some fishermen of
 +Marblehead having been killed by the Indians at the
 +eastward, the women of that town, as they came out of
 +meeting on a Sunday, fell upon two Indian prisoners
 +who had just been brought in, and murdered them on
 +the spot. The same ferocious spirit of revenge which
 +governed the contemporaneous conduct of Berkeley in
 +Virginia toward those concerned in Bacon’s rebellion,
 +swayed the authorities of New England in their treatment
 +of the conquered Indians. By the end of the year
 +the contest was over in the South, upward of two thousand
 +Indians having been killed or taken. But some
 +time elapsed before a peace could be arranged with the
 +Eastern tribes, whose haunts it was not so easy to reach.</p>
 +
 +<p>In this short war of hardly a year’s duration the
 +Wampanoags and Narragansets had suffered the fate of
 +the Pequots. The Niantics alone, under the guidance
 +of their aged sachem, Ninigret, had escaped destruction.
 +Philip’s country was annexed to Plymouth, though sixty
 +years afterward, under a royal order in council, it was
 +transferred to Rhode Island. The Narraganset territory
 +remained as before, under the name of King’s Province,
 +a bone of contention between Connecticut, Rhode Island,
 +the Marquis of Hamilton, and the Atherton claimants.
 +The Niantics still retained their ancient seats along the
 +southern shores of Narragansett Bay. Most of the surviving
 +Narragansets, the Nipmucks, and the River Indians,
 +abandoned their country, and migrated to the
 +North and West. Such as remained, along with the
 +Mohegans and other subject tribes, became more than
 +ever abject and subservient.</p>
 +
 +<p>The work of conversion was now again renewed, and,
 +after such overwhelming proofs of Christian superiority,
 +with somewhat greater success. A second edition of the
 +Indian Old Testament, which seems to have been more
 +in demand than the New, was published in 1683, revised
 +by Eliot, with the assistance of John Cotton, son of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
 +“great Cotton,” and minister of Plymouth. But not an
 +individual exists in our day by whom it can be understood.
 +The fragments of the subject tribes, broken in
 +spirit, lost the savage freedom and rude virtues of their
 +fathers, without acquiring the laborious industry of the
 +whites. Lands were assigned them in various places,
 +which they were prohibited by law from alienating. But
 +this very provision, though humanely intended, operated
 +to perpetuate their indolence and incapacity. Some
 +sought a more congenial occupation in the whale fishery,
 +which presently began to be carried on from the islands
 +of Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. Many perished
 +by enlisting in the military expeditions undertaken in
 +future years against Acadie and the West Indies. The
 +Indians intermarried with the blacks, and thus confirmed
 +their degradation by associating themselves with another
 +oppressed and unfortunate race. Gradually they dwindled
 +away. A few sailors and petty farmers, of mixed blood,
 +as much African as Indian, are now the sole surviving
 +representatives of the aboriginal possessors of southern
 +New England.</p>
 +
 +<p>On the side of the colonists the contest had also been
 +very disastrous. Twelve or thirteen towns had been entirely
 +ruined, and many others partially destroyed. Six
 +hundred houses had been burned, near a tenth part of
 +all in New England. Twelve captains and more than
 +six hundred men in the prime of life had fallen in battle.
 +There was hardly a family not in mourning. The pecuniary
 +losses and expenses of the war were estimated
 +at near a million of dollars. Massachusetts was burdened
 +with a heavy debt. No aid nor relief seems to have come
 +from abroad, except a contribution from Ireland of £500
 +for the benefit of the sufferers by the war, chiefly collected
 +by the efforts of Nathaniel Mather, lately successor to his
 +brother Samuel as minister of the non-conformist congregation
 +at Dublin.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE DEFEAT OF KING<br />
 +PHILIP, 1676, AND THE CAPTURE<br />
 +OF QUEBEC, 1759</h3>
 +
 +<p>1676. Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia against the government
 +of Sir William Berkeley.</p>
 +
 +<p>1679. The Scottish Covenanters are defeated by the
 +Duke of Monmouth at Bothwell Bridge.</p>
 +
 +<p>1681. William Penn obtains his patent from the English
 +Crown.</p>
 +
 +<p>1682. Purchase of East Jersey by William Penn. He
 +takes possession of New Castle (Delaware) and founds
 +the Colony of Pennsylvania. La Salle descends the
 +Mississippi to its mouth.</p>
 +
 +<p>1684. The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company
 +is declared forfeited to the English Crown.</p>
 +
 +<p>1685. James II. succeeds his brother, Charles II., as
 +King of England. Insurrection of the Earl of Argyll and
 +the Duke of Monmouth. Defeat of Monmouth at Sedgemoor;
 +his execution.</p>
 +
 +<p>1686. Sir Edmund Andros is made Governor of New
 +England.</p>
 +
 +<p>1688. William of Orange lands in England; flight of
 +James II.</p>
 +
 +<p>1689. William and Mary are proclaimed King and
 +Queen of England. England declares war against France.
 +Victory of the Scottish Jacobites at Killiecrankie. Overthrow
 +of Andros in New England. Beginning of King
 +William’s War in America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1690. The Orangemen in Ireland win the battle of the
 +Boyne. Destruction of Schenectady by the French and
 +Indians. Sir William Phips, commanding a New England
 +expedition, captures Port Royal, and later makes a fruitless
 +demonstration against Quebec.</p>
 +
 +<p>1691. The Jacobites are overcome in Scotland. Surrender<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
 +of Limerick, the last stronghold of James II. in
 +Ireland.</p>
 +
 +<p>1692. Union of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies.
 +Witchcraft delusion at Salem.</p>
 +
 +<p>1693. The French Admiral Tourville defeats the English
 +fleet off Cape St. Vincent.</p>
 +
 +<p>1697. France makes peace at Ryswick with Holland,
 +Spain, and England. Close of King William’s War in
 +America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1699. The French begin the settlement of Louisiana.</p>
 +
 +<p>1701. Beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession.</p>
 +
 +<p>1702. Death of William III. and accession of Queen
 +Anne. Successful campaign of Churchill (Marlborough)
 +in the Netherlands. Naval triumph of the English and
 +Dutch over the Spanish and French at Vigo. Queen
 +Anne’s War in America. French settlement in Alabama.</p>
 +
 +<p>1704. The English are victorious over the French at
 +the battle of Blenheim. Capture of Gibraltar by the English.
 +Massacre of white settlers by the Indians at Deerfield,
 +Massachusetts.</p>
 +
 +<p>1706. Marlborough defeats the French and Bavarians
 +at the battle of Ramillies.</p>
 +
 +<p>1708. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, at
 +Oudenarde, over the Dukes of Burgundy and Vendôme.</p>
 +
 +<p>1711. Unsuccessful expedition of the English and New
 +England forces under Walker against Canada.</p>
 +
 +<p>1713. Treaty of Utrecht. Close of Queen Anne’s War in
 +America. Acadia (Nova Scotia, etc.) ceded to England by
 +France, which also restores the Hudson Bay region. The
 +power of the Tuscarora Indians broken by the Carolinians.</p>
 +
 +<p>1714. George I., Elector of Hanover, succeeds to the
 +English Crown.</p>
 +
 +<p>1715. Rebellion in Scotland and in the North of England
 +in favor of James Edward Stuart, the Jacobite pretender.</p>
 +
 +<p>1718. French settlement of New Orleans.</p>
 +
 +<p>1720. Failure of Law’s Mississippi scheme in France.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
 +1722. Establishment of the Moravian settlement in
 +Pennsylvania under Count Zinzendorf.</p>
 +
 +<p>1727. Accession of George II.</p>
 +
 +<p>1728. Discovery of Behring’s Strait.</p>
 +
 +<p>1729. Carolina, purchased by the English Crown, is
 +divided into the royal provinces of North and South
 +Carolina.</p>
 +
 +<p>1730. Baltimore is laid out.</p>
 +
 +<p>1732. Oglethorpe embarks from England to establish
 +a settlement in Georgia.</p>
 +
 +<p>1733. Founding of Savannah.</p>
 +
 +<p>1741. New Hampshire is finally separated from Massachusetts.</p>
 +
 +<p>1744. Beginning of King George’s War in America. The
 +French capture Canseau (afterward Canso), and are repulsed
 +at Annapolis.</p>
 +
 +<p>1745. Jacobite rising in Scotland. Charles Edward,
 +the young Pretender, is victorious at Prestonpans. The
 +New England troops, under Sir William Pepperell, reduce
 +the French fortress of Louisburg.</p>
 +
 +<p>1746. Jacobite defeat at Culloden.</p>
 +
 +<p>1748. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle terminates the
 +War of the Austrian Succession and King George’s War
 +in America. Louisburg restored to France.</p>
 +
 +<p>1749. The Ohio Company receives its grant from
 +George II.</p>
 +
 +<p>1753. Friction between French and Americans on
 +tributaries of the Alleghany, along American western
 +frontier. Washington’s vain protest against the French
 +seizure of Venango.</p>
 +
 +<p>1754. Beginning of the French and Indian War in
 +America. Washington’s attack upon Jumonville, near
 +Great Meadows, the first action. The French compel
 +Washington to capitulate at Fort Necessity.</p>
 +
 +<p>1755. Braddock’s expedition against Fort Duquesne
 +and his disastrous defeat. Abortive expeditions by the
 +English against Niagara and Crown Point.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
 +1756. Formal declaration of hostilities between France
 +and England, and beginning of the Seven Years’ War.
 +Capture of Oswego by the French.</p>
 +
 +<p>1757. Montcalm takes Fort William Henry on Lake
 +George.</p>
 +
 +<p>1758. Victory of Montcalm at Ticonderoga. Reduction
 +of Louisburg, and capture of Forts Frontenac and
 +Duquesne by the English.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="V" class="vspace">V<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_6" class="subhead">THE FALL OF QUEBEC, 1759</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +
 +<p>[The visits of Breton fishermen to Newfoundland in the early
 +sixteenth century, the voyages of Cartier to the St. Lawrence in
 +1534 and 1541–43, the foundation of Port Royal in Acadia in 1605,
 +and of Quebec by Champlain in 1608, were the beginnings of a
 +French occupancy of the northern and central portions of North
 +America which led inevitably to conflict with England and the
 +American colonists. The title based upon Marquette’s discovery
 +of the Mississippi in 1673, and La Salle’s exploration and claim to
 +the whole vast valley in 1682, would have confined the English to
 +the Atlantic seaboard. The contact between the wholly different
 +types represented in English and French colonization caused friction
 +which became acute when King William’s War broke out in
 +1689. The eight years of that war, with its profitless capture of
 +Port Royal, Nova Scotia, were followed by Queen Anne’s War,
 +1702–13, and King George’s War, 1744–48, and the interval after
 +the Treaty of Utrecht was a truce rather than peace. The French
 +were strengthening their hold along the western frontier of the
 +English colonists, at Fort Duquesne, and elsewhere. Braddock’s
 +defeat in 1755, and attacks upon Crown Point and Niagara, preceded
 +the formal declaration of hostilities between France and
 +England in 1756, the beginning of the Seven Years’ War, involving
 +nearly all Europe, with England and Prussia facing Russia,
 +France, Austria, Sweden, and Saxony. In America, in 1756–57,
 +the incompetency of Loudon and Abercrombie, the dilatory preparations
 +to attack Louisburg, and Montcalm’s capture of Fort
 +William Henry, made the first stage of the war a gloomy one. But
 +Pitt’s entrance into the British cabinet as Secretary of State
 +brought an intelligent and active prosecution of the war. The
 +next year, 1758, witnessed the capture of Fort Frontenac on
 +Ontario, Fort Duquesne, and Louisburg by the English and
 +American forces.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></blockquote>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> British Parliament met late in November, 1758,
 +at a time when the nation was aglow with enthusiasm
 +over the successes of the year—Louisburg and Frontenac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
 +in North America, and the driving of the French from the
 +Guinea coast as the result of battles at Sénégal (May) and
 +Gorée (November).<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> The war was proving far more
 +costly than had been anticipated, yet Pitt rigidly held the
 +country to the task; but not against its will, and the
 +necessary funds were freely voted. Walpole wrote to a
 +friend: “Our unanimity is prodigious. You would as
 +soon hear ‘No’ from an old maid as from the House of
 +Commons.” The preparations for the new year were on
 +a much larger scale than before; both by land and sea
 +France was to be pushed to the uttermost, and the warlike
 +spirit of Great Britain seemed wrought to the highest
 +pitch.</p>
 +
 +<p>The new French premier, Choiseul, was himself not
 +lacking in activity. He renewed with vigor the project
 +of invading Great Britain, preparations therefor being
 +evident quite early in the year 1759. Fifty thousand men
 +were to land in England, and twelve thousand in Scotland,
 +where the Stuart cause still lingered. But as usual
 +the effort came to naught. The Toulon squadron was to
 +co-operate with one from Brest; Boscawen, who now
 +commanded the Mediterranean fleet, apprehended the
 +former while trying to escape through the Straits of
 +Gibraltar in a thick haze (August 17), and after destroying
 +several of the ships dispersed the others; while
 +Sir Edward Hawke annihilated the Brest fleet in a brilliant
 +sea-fight off Quiberon Bay (November 20).<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> Relieved
 +of the possibility of insular invasion, the Channel and
 +Mediterranean squadrons were now free to raid French
 +commerce, patrol French ports, and thus intercept communication
 +with New France, and to harry French—and,
 +later, Spanish—colonies overseas.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_64" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_089.jpg" width="800" height="509" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption"><p>PROGRESS OF FRENCH DISCOVERY IN THE INTERIOR 1600–1762</p>
 +  <span class="browser center small"><a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_089f.jpg">(FULL SIZE)</a></span>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<div class="epub">
 +<div id="ip_64b" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_089l.jpg" width="800" height="1000" alt="" /></div>
 +
 +<div id="ip_64c" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_089r.jpg" width="800" height="1000" alt="" /></div>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p>In 1757 Clive had regained Calcutta and won Bengal
 +at the famous battle of Plassey. Two years thereafter
 +the East Indian seas were abandoned by the French after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65<a class="hidep" id="Page_66">66</a></span>
 +three decisive actions won by Pitt’s valiant seamen, and
 +India thus became a permanent possession of the British
 +empire.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> In January, 1759, also, the British captured
 +Guadeloupe, in the West Indies.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> Lacking sea power, it
 +was impossible for France much longer to hold her colonies;
 +it was but a question of time when the remainder
 +should fall into the clutches of the mistress of the
 +ocean.</p>
 +
 +<p>Notwithstanding all this naval activity, Pitt’s principal
 +operations were really centred against Canada. The
 +movement thither was to be along two lines, which eventually
 +were to meet in co-operation. First, a direct attack
 +was to be made upon Quebec, headed by Wolfe, who was
 +to be convoyed and assisted by a fleet under the command
 +of Admiral Saunders; second, Amherst—now commander-in-chief
 +in America, Abercrombie having been
 +recalled—was to penetrate Canada by way of Lakes
 +George and Champlain. He was to join Wolfe at Quebec,
 +but was authorized to make such diversions as he found
 +practicable—principally to re-establish Oswego and to
 +relieve Pittsburg (Fort Duquesne) with reinforcements
 +and supplies.</p>
 +
 +<p>Wolfe’s selection as leader of the Quebec expedition
 +occasioned general surprise in England. Yet it was in
 +the natural course of events. He had been the life of the
 +Louisburg campaign of the year before, and when Amherst
 +was expressing the desire of attacking Quebec after
 +the reduction of Cape Breton he wrote to the latter: “An
 +offensive, daring kind of war will awe the Indians and
 +ruin the French. Block-houses and a trembling defensive
 +encourage the meanest scoundrels to attack us. If you
 +will attempt to cut up New France by the roots, I will
 +come with pleasure to assist.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Wolfe, whose family enjoyed some influence, had attained
 +a captaincy at the age of seventeen and became a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
 +major at twenty. He was now thirty-two, a major-general,
 +and with an excellent fighting record both in Flanders
 +and America. Quiet and modest in demeanor, although
 +occasionally using excitable and ill-guarded language, he
 +was a refined and educated gentleman; careful of and
 +beloved by his troops, yet a stern disciplinarian; and
 +although frail in body, and often overcome by rheumatism
 +and other ailments, capable of great strain when
 +buoyed by the zeal which was one of his characteristics.
 +The majority of his portraits represent a tall, lank, ungainly
 +form, with a singularly weak facial profile; but it
 +is likely that these belie him, for he had an indubitable
 +spirit, a profound mind, quick intuition, a charming manner,
 +and was much thought of by women. Indeed, just
 +before sailing, he had become engaged to the beautiful
 +and charming Katharine Lowther, sister of Lord Lonsdale,
 +and afterward the Duchess of Bolton.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p>
 +
 +<p>On February 17 Wolfe departed with Saunders’ fleet
 +of twenty-one sail, bearing the king’s secret instructions
 +to “carry into execution the said important operation
 +with the utmost application and vigor.”<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> The voyage
 +was protracted, and after arrival at Louisburg he was
 +obliged to wait long before the promised troops appeared.
 +He had expected regiments from Guadeloupe, but these
 +could not yet be spared, owing to their wretched condition;
 +and the Nova Scotia garrisons had also been weakened
 +by disease, so that of the twelve thousand agreed
 +upon he finally could muster somewhat under nine
 +thousand.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> These were of the best quality of their kind;
 +although the general still entertained a low opinion of
 +the value of the provincials, who, it must be admitted,
 +were, however serviceable in bush-ranging, far below the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
 +efficiency of the regulars in a campaign of this character.
 +The force was divided into three brigades, under Monckton,
 +Townsend, and Murray, young men of ability; although
 +Townsend’s supercilious manner—the fruit of a
 +superior social connection—did not endear him either to
 +his men or his colleagues.</p>
 +
 +<p>On June 1 the fleet began to leave Louisburg. There
 +were thirty-nine men-of-war, ten auxiliaries, seventy-six
 +transports, and a hundred and sixty-two miscellaneous
 +craft, which were manned by thirteen thousand naval
 +seamen and five thousand of the mercantile marine—an
 +aggregate of eighteen thousand, or twice as many as the
 +landsmen under Wolfe.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> While to the latter is commonly
 +given credit for the result, it must not be forgotten that
 +the victory was quite as much due to the skilful management
 +of the navy as to that of the army, the expedition
 +being in all respects a joint enterprise, into which the
 +men of both branches of the service entered with intense
 +enthusiasm.</p>
 +
 +<p>The French had placed much reliance on the supposed
 +impossibility of great battle-ships being successfully navigated
 +up the St. Lawrence above the mouth of the
 +Saguenay without the most careful piloting. This portion
 +of the river, a hundred and twenty miles in length,
 +certainly is intricate water, being streaked with perplexing
 +currents created by the mingling of the river’s strong
 +flow with the flood and ebb of the tide; the great stream
 +is diverted into two parallel channels by reefs and islands,
 +and there are numerous shoals—moreover, the French
 +had removed all lights and other aids to navigation. But
 +British sailors laughed at difficulties such as these, and,
 +while they managed to capture a pilot, had small use for
 +him, preferring their own cautious methods. Preceded
 +by a crescent of sounding-boats, officered by Captain
 +James Cook, afterward of glorious memory as a pathfinder,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
 +the fleet advanced slowly but safely, its approach
 +heralded by beacons gleaming nightly to the fore, upon
 +the rounded hill-tops overlooking the long thin line of
 +riverside settlement which extended eastward from Quebec
 +to the Saguenay.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The French had at first expected attacks only from
 +Lake Ontario and from the south. But receiving early
 +tidings of Wolfe’s expedition, through convoys with supplies
 +from France that had escaped Saunders’ patrol of
 +the gulf, general alarm prevailed, and Montcalm decided
 +to make his stand at Quebec. To the last he appears to
 +have shared in the popular delusion that British men-of-war
 +could not ascend the river; nevertheless, he promptly
 +summoned to the capital the greater part of the militia
 +from all sections of Canada, save that a thousand whites
 +and savages were left with Pouchot to defend Niagara,
 +twelve hundred men under De la Corne to guard Lake
 +Ontario, and Bourlamaque, with upward of three thousand,
 +was ordered to delay Amherst’s advance and thus
 +prevent him from joining Wolfe. The population of
 +Canada at the time was about eighty-five thousand souls,
 +and of these perhaps twenty-two thousand were capable
 +of bearing arms.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> The force now gathered in and about
 +Quebec aggregated about seventeen thousand, of whom
 +some ten thousand were militia, four thousand regulars
 +of the line, and a thousand each of colonial regulars, seamen,
 +and Indians; of these two thousand were reserved
 +for the garrison of Quebec, under De Ramezay, while the
 +remainder were at the disposal of Montcalm for the
 +general defence.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The “rock of Quebec” is the northeast end of a long,
 +narrow triangular promontory, to the north of which lies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
 +the valley of the St. Charles and to the south that of the
 +St. Lawrence. The acclivity on the St. Charles side is
 +lower and less steep than the cliffs fringing the St. Lawrence,
 +which rise almost precipitously from two to three
 +hundred feet above the river—the citadel cliff being three
 +hundred and forty-five feet, almost sheer. Either side
 +of the promontory was easily defensible from assault, the
 +table-land being only reached by steep and narrow paths.
 +Surmounting the cliffs, at the apex of the triangle, was
 +Upper Town, the capital of New France. Batteries, largely
 +manned by sailors, lined the cliff-tops within the town,
 +and the western base, fronting the Plains of Abraham,
 +was protected by fifteen hundred yards of insecure wall—for,
 +after all, Quebec had, despite the money spent
 +upon it, never been scientifically fortified, its commanders
 +having from the first relied chiefly upon its natural position
 +as a stronghold.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the base of the promontory, on the St. Lawrence
 +side, is a wide beach occupied by Lower Town, where were
 +the market, the commercial warehouses, a large share of
 +the business establishments, and the homes of the trading
 +and laboring classes. A narrow strand, little more than
 +the width of a roadway, extended along the base of the
 +cliffs westward, communicating with the up-river country;
 +another road led westward along the table-land above.
 +Thus the city obtained its supplies from the interior both
 +by highway and by river.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_70" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.6875em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_095.jpg" width="507" height="337" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM ON THE MORNING OF THE BATTLE</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Entrance to the St. Charles side of the promontory had
 +been blocked by booms at the mouth of that river, protected
 +by strong redoubts; and off Lower Town was a
 +line of floating batteries. Beyond the St. Charles, for
 +a distance of seven miles eastward to the gorge of the
 +Montmorenci, Montcalm disposed the greater part of his
 +forces, his position being a plain naturally protected by
 +a steep slope descending to the meadow and tidal flats
 +which here margin the St. Lawrence. This plain rises
 +gradually from the St. Charles, until at the Montmorenci<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
 +cataract it attains a height of three hundred feet, and
 +along the summit of the slope were well-devised trenches.
 +The gorge furnished a strong natural defence to the left
 +wing, for it could be forded only in the dense forest at a
 +considerable distance above the falls, and to force this
 +approach would have been to invite an ambuscade.
 +Wolfe contented himself, therefore, with intrenching a
 +considerable force along the eastern bank of the gorge,
 +and thence issuing for frontal attacks on the Beauport
 +Flats—so called from the name of the village midway.
 +Montcalm had chosen this as the chief line of defence,
 +on the theory that the approach by the St. Charles would
 +be the one selected by the invaders; as, indeed, it long
 +seemed to Wolfe the only possible path to the works of
 +Upper Town.</p>
 +
 +<p>Westward of the city, upon the table-land, Bougainville
 +headed a corps of observation, supposed continually
 +to patrol the St. Lawrence cliff-tops and keep communications
 +open with the interior; but this precaution failed
 +in the hour of need. The height of Point Lévis, across
 +the river from the town, on the south bank, was unoccupied.
 +Montcalm had wished to fortify this vantage-point,
 +and thus block the river from both sides, but Vaudreuil
 +had overruled him, and the result was fatal. Other weak
 +points in the defence were divided command and the
 +scarcity of food and ammunition, occasioned largely by
 +Bigot’s rapacious knavery.</p>
 +
 +<p>On June 26 the British fleet anchored off the Isle of
 +Orleans, thus dissipating the fond hopes of the French
 +that some disaster might prevent its approach. Three
 +days later Wolfe’s men, now encamped on the island at
 +a safe distance from Montcalm’s guns, made an easy capture
 +of Point Lévis, and there erected batteries which
 +commanded the town. British ships were, in consequence,
 +soon able to pass Quebec, under cover of the
 +Point Lévis guns, and destroy some of the French shipping
 +anchored in the upper basin; while landing parties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
 +harried the country to the west, forcing <em>habitants</em> to
 +neutrality and intercepting supplies. Frequently the
 +British forces were, upon these various enterprises, divided
 +into three or four isolated divisions, which might
 +have been roughly handled by a venturesome foe. But
 +Montcalm rigidly maintained the policy of defence, his
 +only offensive operations being the unsuccessful dispatch
 +of fire-ships against the invading fleet.</p>
 +
 +<p>On his part, Wolfe made several futile attacks upon
 +the Beauport redoubts. The position was, however, too
 +strong for him to master, and in one assault (July 31) he
 +lost half of his landing party—nearly five hundred killed,
 +wounded, and missing.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> This continued ill-success fretted
 +Wolfe and at last quite disheartened him, for the season
 +was rapidly wearing on, and winter sets in early at Quebec;
 +moreover, nothing had yet been heard of Amherst. There
 +was, indeed, some talk of waiting until another season.
 +However, more and more British ships worked their way
 +past the fort, and, by making frequent feints of landing
 +at widely separated points, caused Bougainville great
 +annoyance. Montcalm was accordingly obliged to weaken
 +his lower forces by sending reinforcements to the plains
 +west of the city. Thus, while Wolfe was pining, French
 +uneasiness was growing, for the British were now intercepting
 +supplies and reinforcements from both above and
 +below, and Bougainville’s men were growing weary of
 +constantly patrolling fifteen or twenty miles of cliffs.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile, let us see how Amherst was faring. At the
 +end of June the general assembled five thousand provincials
 +and sixty-five hundred regulars at the head of Lake
 +George. He had previously dispatched Brigadier Prideaux
 +with five thousand regulars and provincials to reduce<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
 +Niagara, and Brigadier Stanwix, who had been of
 +Bradstreet’s party the year before, to succor Pittsburg,
 +now in imminent danger from French bush-rangers and
 +Indians who were swarming at Presque Isle, Le Bœuf,
 +and Venango.</p>
 +
 +<p>Amherst himself moved slowly, it being July 21 before
 +the army started northward upon the lake. Bourlamaque,
 +whose sole purpose was to delay the British
 +advance, lay at Ticonderoga with thirty-five hundred
 +men, but on the twenty-sixth he blew up the fort and
 +retreated in good order to Crown Point. On the British
 +approaching that post he again fell back, this time to a
 +strong position at Isle aux Noix, at the outlet of Lake
 +Champlain, where, wrote Bourlamaque to a friend, “we
 +are entrenched to the teeth, and armed with a hundred
 +pieces of cannon.”<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Amherst now deeming vessels essential,
 +yet lacking ship-carpenters, it was the middle of
 +September before his little navy was ready, and then he
 +thought the season too far advanced for further operations.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a>
 +Amherst’s advance had, however, induced Montcalm
 +to defend Montreal, Lévis having been dispatched
 +thither for this purpose.</p>
 +
 +<p>Prideaux, advancing up the Mohawk, proceeded to
 +Oswego, where he left half of his men to cover his retreat,
 +and then sailed to Niagara. Slain by accident during the
 +siege, his place was taken by Sir William Johnson, the
 +Indian commander, who pushed the work with vigor.
 +Suddenly confronted by a French force of thirteen hundred
 +rangers and savages from the West, who had been
 +deflected thither from a proposed attack on Pittsburg,
 +with the view of recovering that fort, Johnson completely
 +vanquished them (July 24). The discomfited crew
 +burned their posts in that region and retreated precipitately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>
 +to Detroit. The following day Niagara surrendered,
 +and thus, with Pittsburg also saved, the West was
 +entirely cut off from Canada, and the upper Ohio Valley
 +was placed in British hands. The work of Stanwix having
 +been accomplished by Johnson, the former, who had
 +been greatly delayed by transport difficulties, advanced
 +as promptly as possible to the Forks of the Ohio, and in
 +the place of the old French works built the modernized
 +stronghold of Fort Pitt.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p>
 +
 +<p>On August 20, Wolfe fell seriously ill. Both he and
 +the army were discouraged. The casualties had thus far
 +been over eight hundred men, and disease had cut a wide
 +swath through the ranks. Desperate, he at last accepted
 +the counsel of his officers, that a landing be attempted
 +above the town, supplies definitively cut off from Montreal,
 +and Montcalm forced to fight or surrender. From
 +September 3 to 12, Wolfe, arisen from his bed but still
 +weak, quietly withdrew his troops from the Montmorenci
 +camp and transported them in vessels which successfully
 +passed through a heavy cannonading from the
 +fort to safe anchorage in the upper basin. Reinforcements
 +marching along the southern bank, from Point
 +Lévis, soon joined their comrades aboard the ships. For
 +several days this portion of the fleet regularly floated up
 +and down the river above Quebec, with the changing tide,
 +thus wearing out Bougainville’s men, who in great perplexity
 +followed the enemy along the cliff-tops, through
 +a beat of several leagues, until from sheer exhaustion they
 +at last became careless.</p>
 +
 +<p>On the evening of September 12, Saunders—whose admirable
 +handling of the fleet deserves equal recognition
 +with the services of Wolfe—commenced a heavy bombardment
 +of the Beauport lines, and feigned a general
 +landing at that place. Montcalm, not knowing that the
 +majority of the British were by this time above the town,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
 +and deceived as to his enemy’s real intent, hurried to
 +Beauport the bulk of his troops, save those necessary for
 +Bougainville’s rear guard. Meanwhile, however, Wolfe
 +was preparing for his desperate attempt several miles up
 +the river.</p>
 +
 +<p>Before daylight the following morning (September
 +13), thirty boats containing seventeen hundred picked
 +men, with Wolfe at their head, floated down the stream
 +under the dark shadow of the apparently insurmountable
 +cliffs. They were challenged by sentinels along the
 +shore; but, by pretending to be a provision convoy which
 +had been expected from up-country, suspicion was disarmed.
 +About two miles above Quebec they landed at
 +an indentation then known as Anse du Foulon, but
 +now called Wolfe’s
 +Cove. From the
 +narrow beach a
 +small, winding
 +path, sighted by
 +Wolfe two days
 +before, led up
 +through the trees
 +and underbrush to
 +the Plains of Abraham.
 +The climbing
 +party of twenty-four
 +infantrymen
 +found the path obstructed by an abatis and trenches;
 +but, nothing daunted, they clambered up the height of
 +two hundred feet by the aid of stunted shrubs, reached
 +the top, overcame the weak and cowardly guard of a
 +hundred men, made way for their comrades, and by sunrise
 +forty-five hundred men of the British army were
 +drawn up across the plateau before the walls of Quebec.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_75" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_101.jpg" width="400" height="245" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">SIEGE OF QUEBEC</div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
 +Montcalm, ten miles away on the other side of the St.
 +Charles, was amazed at the daring feat, but by nine
 +o’clock had massed his troops and confronted his enemy.
 +The battle was brief but desperate. The intrepid Wolfe
 +fell on the field—“the only British general,” declared
 +Horace Walpole, “belonging to the reign of George the
 +Second who can be said to have earned a lasting reputation.”<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a>
 +Montcalm, mortally wounded, was carried by
 +his fleeing comrades within the city, where he died before
 +morning. During the seven hours’ battle the British
 +had lost forty-eight killed and five hundred and ninety-seven
 +wounded, about twenty per cent. of the firing-line;
 +the French lost about twelve hundred killed, wounded,
 +and prisoners, of whom perhaps a fourth were killed.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Tom by disorder, the militia mutinous, the walls in
 +ruins from the cannonading of the British fleet, and Vaudreuil
 +and his fellows fleeing to the interior, the helpless
 +garrison of Quebec surrendered, September 17, the British
 +troops entering the following day. The English flag now
 +floated over the citadel, and soon there was great rejoicing
 +throughout Great Britain and her American colonies;
 +and well there might be, for the affair on the Plains
 +of Abraham was one of the most heroic and far-reaching
 +achievements ever wrought by Englishmen in any land
 +or sea.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE CAPTURE OF<br />
 +QUEBEC, 1759, AND THE BATTLE<br />
 +OF BUNKER HILL, 1775</h3>
 +
 +<p>1760. Accession of George III. to throne of England.
 +The English capture Montreal.</p>
 +
 +<p>1761. American commerce and industry closely restricted
 +by enforcement of navigation laws, acts of trade,
 +and writs of assistance. Protests of James Otis and
 +Patrick Henry.</p>
 +
 +<p>1762. England declares war against Spain and captures
 +Havana.</p>
 +
 +<p>1763. Treaty of Paris, and cession of Canada to England.</p>
 +
 +<p>1765. Passage of the Stamp Act by the British Parliament,
 +followed by American protests.</p>
 +
 +<p>1766. Repeal of the Stamp Act.</p>
 +
 +<p>1767. The British Parliament, by the Townshend Acts,
 +imposes duties on paper, glass, tea, etc., imported into
 +America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1769. Massachusetts House of Representatives refuses
 +to pay for quartering British troops. Defeat of Paoli
 +and subjection of Corsica by the French.</p>
 +
 +<p>1770. “Boston Massacre”—British soldiers, provoked
 +by citizens, kill three and wound several.</p>
 +
 +<p>1772. First partition of Poland between Russia, Austria,
 +and Prussia. Samuel Adams actively advocates independence
 +in Boston. British ship, the <i>Gaspee</i>, burned
 +by Rhode Islanders. Virginia Assembly appoints Committee
 +of Correspondence to keep in touch with other
 +colonies.</p>
 +
 +<p>1773. “Boston Tea-party”—taxed tea from England
 +thrown overboard in Boston harbor by disguised Americans.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
 +1774. Five oppressive Acts, including Boston Port
 +Bill, passed by British Parliament. General Gage, commissioned
 +as Governor, comes to Boston with additional
 +British troops. A Congress meets in Philadelphia, with
 +delegates from all colonies except Georgia, and issues a
 +“Declaration of Rights,” frames Articles of Association,
 +and indorses opposition of Massachusetts to the Oppressive
 +Acts of Parliament.</p>
 +
 +<p>1775. General Gage sends troops to destroy supplies
 +gathered at Concord. Battles of Lexington and Concord.
 +North Carolina the first to instruct delegates to Congress
 +for independence. Battle of Bunker Hill. Seizure of
 +Ticonderoga and occupation of Crown Point by Americans.
 +Washington takes command of the army at Cambridge.
 +The Americans capture Montreal. Arnold repulsed
 +at Quebec and Montgomery killed.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="VI" class="vspace">VI<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_7" class="subhead">CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3>I</h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Not</span> a clause in the Declaration of Independence sets
 +forth the real and underlying cause of the American
 +Revolution. The attention of its writer was bent upon
 +recent events, and he dwelt only upon the immediate
 +reasons for throwing off allegiance to the British government.
 +In the dark of the storm already upon them, the
 +men of the time could hardly look with clear vision back
 +to ultimate causes. They could not see that the English
 +kings had planted the seeds of the Revolution when, in
 +their zeal to get America colonized, they had granted such
 +political and religious privileges as tempted the radicals
 +and dissenters of the time to migrate to America. Only
 +historical research could reveal the fact that from the
 +year 1620 the English government had been systematically
 +stocking the colonies with dissenters and retaining
 +in England the conformers. The tendency of colonization
 +was to leave the conservatives in England, thus
 +relatively increasing the conservative force at home, while
 +the radicals went to America to fortify the radical political
 +philosophy there. Thus England lost part of her potentiality
 +for political development.</p>
 +
 +<p>Not only were radicals constantly settling in the colonies,
 +because of the privileges granted them there, but
 +the Crown neglected to enforce in the colonies the same
 +regulations that it enforced at home. The Act of Uniformity
 +was not extended to the colonies, though rigidly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
 +enforced in England; the viceregal officers, the governors,
 +permitted themselves again and again to be browbeaten
 +and disobeyed by the colonial legislatures;<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> and even the
 +king himself had allowed Massachusetts (1635) to overreach
 +him by not giving up her charter.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p>
 +
 +<p>After a century of great laxity toward the colonies—a
 +century in which the colonists were favored by political
 +privileges shared by no other people of that age; after the
 +environment had established new social conditions, and
 +remoteness and isolation had created a local and individual
 +hatred of restraint; after the absence of traditions
 +had made possible the institution of representation by
 +population, and self-government had taken on a new
 +meaning in the world; after a great gulf had been fixed
 +between the social, political, and economic institutions
 +of the two parts of the British empire—only then did the
 +British government enter upon a policy intended to make
 +the empire a unity.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Independence had long existed in spirit in most of the
 +essential matters of colonial life, and the British government
 +had only to seek to establish its power over the
 +colonies in order to arouse a desire for formal independence.
 +The transition in England, therefore, to an imperial
 +ideal, about the middle of the eighteenth century,
 +doubtless caused the rending of the empire. Walpole and
 +Newcastle, whose administrations had just preceded the
 +reign of George III., had let the colonies alone, and thus
 +aided the colonial at the expense of the imperial idea;
 +while their successors, Grenville and Townshend, ruling
 +not wisely but too well, forced the colonists to realize that
 +they cared more for America than for England.</p>
 +
 +<p>The time had come, though these ministers failed to
 +see it, when the union of Great Britain with her colonies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
 +depended on the offspring’s disposition toward the
 +mother-country. Good feeling would preserve the union,
 +but dissatisfaction would make even forcible control impossible.
 +Social and political and economic ties still
 +bound the colonists to the home land, but these were
 +weak ties as compared with an irrepressible desire for
 +self-growth. The expression of their political ideals unrestrained
 +by the conservatism of the parent was a desired
 +end to which they strove, almost unconscious of
 +their object.</p>
 +
 +<p>To understand the American Revolution, therefore,
 +several facts must be clearly in mind—first, that Great
 +Britain had for one hundred and fifty years been growing
 +to the dignity of an empire, and that the thirteen
 +colonies were a considerable part of that empire; second,
 +the colonies had interests of their own which were not
 +favored by the growing size and strength of the empire.
 +They were advancing to new political ideals faster than
 +the mother-country. Their economic interests were becoming
 +differentiated from those of England. They were
 +coming to have wants and ambitions and hopes of their
 +own quite distinct from those of Great Britain.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the fatal time when the independent spirit of America
 +had grown assertive, the politically active part of the
 +British people began unconsciously to favor an imperial
 +policy, which their ministers suggested, and which to
 +them seemed the very essence of sound reasoning and
 +good government. They approved of the proposed creation
 +of executives who should be independent of the dictation
 +of the colonial assemblies. There were also to be
 +new administrative organs having power to enforce the
 +colonial trade regulations; and the defensive system of
 +the colonies was to be improved by a force of regular
 +troops, which was in part to be supported by colonial
 +taxes.</p>
 +
 +<p>In order to accomplish these objects, the king’s new
 +minister, the assiduous Grenville, who knew the law better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
 +than the maxims of statesmanship, induced Parliament,
 +in March, 1764, to resolve upon “certain stamp
 +duties” for the colonies. A year later the “Gentle Shepherd,
 +as Pitt had dubbed him, proved his watchfulness
 +by getting a stamp act passed,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> which, though nearly a
 +duplicate of one in force in England, and like one of
 +Massachusetts’ own laws, nevertheless aroused every
 +colony to violent wrath.</p>
 +
 +<p>This sudden flame of colonial passion rose from the
 +embers of discontent with Grenville’s policy of enforcing
 +the trade or navigation laws—those restrictions upon
 +colonial industries and commerce which were the outgrowth
 +of a protective commercial policy which England
 +had begun even before the discovery of America.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> As
 +the colonies grew they began to be regarded as a source
 +of wealth to the mother-country; and, at the same time
 +that bounties were given them for raising commodities
 +desired by England, restrictions were placed upon American
 +trade.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> When the settlers of the northern and middle
 +colonies began manufacturing for themselves, their
 +industry no sooner interfered with English manufactures
 +than a law was passed to prevent the exportation of the
 +production and to limit the industry itself. This system
 +of restrictions, though it necessarily established a real
 +opposition of interest between America and England,
 +does not seem on the whole to have been to the disadvantage
 +of the colonies;<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> nor was the English colonial
 +system a whit more severe than that of other European
 +countries.</p>
 +
 +<p>In 1733, however, the Molasses Act went into effect,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
 +and, had it been enforced, would have been a serious
 +detriment to American interests. It not only aimed to
 +stop the thriving colonial trade with the Dutch, French,
 +and Spanish West Indies, but was intended to aid English
 +planters in the British West Indies by laying a prohibitive
 +duty on imported foreign sugar and molasses. It was not
 +enforced, however, for the customs officials, by giving
 +fraudulent clearances, acted in collusion with the colonial
 +importers in evading the law; but, in 1761, during the war
 +with France, the thrifty colonists carried on an illegal
 +trade with the enemy, and Pitt demanded that the restrictive
 +laws be enforced.</p>
 +
 +<p>The difficulty of enforcing was great, for it was hard
 +to seize the smuggled goods, and harder still to convict
 +the smuggler in the colonial courts. Search-warrants
 +were impracticable, because the legal manner of using
 +them made the informer’s name public, and the law was
 +unable to protect him from the anger of a community
 +fully in sympathy with the smugglers. The only feasible
 +way to put down this unpatriotic trade with the enemy
 +was to resort to “writs of assistance,” which would give
 +the customs officers a right to search for smuggled goods
 +in any house they pleased.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> Such warrants were legal,
 +had been used in America, and were frequently used in
 +England;<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> yet so highly developed was the American love
 +of personal liberty that when James Otis, a Boston lawyer,
 +resisted by an impassioned speech the issue of such
 +writs his arguments met universal approval.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> In perfect
 +good faith he argued, after the manner of the ancient
 +law-writers, that Parliament could not legalize tyranny,
 +ignoring the historical fact that since the revolution of
 +1688 an act of Parliament was the highest guarantee of
 +right, and Parliament the sovereign and supreme power.
 +Nevertheless, the popularity of Otis’ argument showed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
 +what America believed, and pointed very plainly the
 +path of wise statesmanship.</p>
 +
 +<p>When, in 1763, the Pontiac Indian rebellion endangered
 +the whole West and made necessary a force of soldiers
 +in Canada, Grenville, in spite of the recent warning,
 +determined that the colonies should share the burden
 +which was rapidly increasing in England. He lowered
 +the sugar and molasses duties,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> and set out to enforce
 +their collection by every lawful means. The trouble
 +which resulted developed more quickly in Massachusetts,
 +because its harsh climate and sterile soil drove it to a
 +carrying-trade, and the enforced navigation laws were
 +thought to threaten its ruin. It was while American
 +economic affairs were in this condition that Grenville
 +rashly aggravated the discontent by the passage of his
 +Stamp Act.</p>
 +
 +<p>As the resistance of the colonies to this taxation led
 +straight to open war and final independence, it will be
 +worth while to look rather closely at the stamp tax, and
 +at the subject of representation, which was at once linked
 +with it. The terms of the Stamp Act are not of great
 +importance, because, though it did have at least one bad
 +feature as a law, the whole opposition was on the ground
 +that there should be no taxation whatever without representation.
 +It made no difference to its enemies that the
 +money obtained by the sale of stamps was to stay in
 +America to support the soldiers needed for colonial protection.
 +Nothing would appease them while the taxing
 +body contained no representatives of their own choosing.</p>
 +
 +<p>To attain this right, they made their fight upon legal
 +and historical grounds—the least favorable they could
 +have chosen. They declared that, under the British
 +constitution, there could be no taxation except by persons
 +known and voted for by the persons taxed. The
 +wisest men seemed not to see the kernel of the dispute.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
 +A very real danger threatened the colonies—subject as
 +they were to a body unsympathetic with the political and
 +economic conditions in which they were living—but they
 +had no legal safeguard.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> They must either sever the
 +existing constitutional bond or get Parliament of its
 +own will to limit its power over the colonies. All unwittingly
 +the opponents of the Stamp Act were struggling
 +with a problem that could be solved only by revolution.</p>
 +
 +<p>Two great fundamental questions were at issue: Should
 +there be a British empire ruled by Parliament in all its
 +parts, either in England or oversea? or should Parliament
 +govern at home, and the colonial assemblies in America,
 +with only a federal bond to unite them? Should the English
 +understanding of representation be imposed upon
 +the colonies? or should America’s institution triumph in
 +its own home? If there was to be a successful imperial
 +system, Parliament must have the power to tax all parts
 +of the empire. It was of no use to plead that Parliament
 +had never taxed the colonies before, for, as Doctor Johnson
 +wrote, “We do not put a calf into the plough: we
 +wait till it is an ox.”<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> The colonies were strong enough
 +to stand taxation now, and the reasonable dispute must
 +be as to the manner of it. To understand the widely different
 +points of view of Englishmen and Americans, we
 +must examine their systems of representative government.</p>
 +
 +<p>In electing members to the House of Commons in England
 +certain ancient counties and boroughs were entitled
 +to representation, each sending two members, regardless
 +of the number of people within its territory. For a century
 +and a half before the American Revolution only four
 +new members were added to the fixed number in Parliament.
 +Meanwhile, great cities had grown up which had
 +no representation, though certain boroughs, once very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
 +properly represented, had become uninhabited, and the
 +lord who owned the ground elected the members to Parliament,
 +taking them, not from the district represented, but
 +from any part of the kingdom. The franchise was usually
 +possessed either by the owners of the favored pieces
 +of land or in the boroughs chiefly by persons who inherited
 +certain rights which marked them as freemen.
 +A man had as many votes as there were constituencies in
 +which he possessed the qualifications.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the colonial assemblies there was a more distinct
 +territorial basis for representation, and changes of population
 +brought changes of representation. New towns
 +sent new members to the provincial assembly, and held
 +the right to be of great value. All adult men—even
 +negroes in New England—owning a certain small amount
 +of property could vote for these members. In the South
 +only the landholders voted, but the supply of land was
 +not limited, as in England, and it was easily acquired.
 +Finally, the voter and the representative voted for must,
 +as a rule, be residents of the same district. From the
 +first the colonial political ideals were affected by new
 +conditions. When they established representative government
 +they had no historic places sanctified by tradition
 +to be the sole breeding-places of members of Parliament.</p>
 +
 +<p>Backed by such divergent traditions as these, the two
 +parts of the British empire, or, more accurately, the
 +dominant party in each section of the empire, faced each
 +other upon a question of principle. Neither could believe
 +in the honesty of the other, for each argued out of a different
 +past. The opponents of the Stamp Act could not
 +understand the political thinking which held them to be
 +represented in the British Parliament. “No taxation
 +without representation” meant for the colonist that
 +taxes ought to be levied by a legislative body in which
 +was seated a person known and voted for by the person
 +taxed. An Englishman only asked that there be “no
 +taxation except that voted by the House of Commons.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
 +He was not concerned with the mode of election to that
 +house or the interests of the persons composing it. The
 +colonists called the Stamp Act tyranny, but the British
 +government certainly intended none, for it acted upon
 +the theory of virtual representation, the only kind of
 +representation enjoyed by the great mass of Englishmen
 +either at home or in the colonies. On that theory nothing
 +was taxed except by the consent of the virtual representatives
 +of those taxed. But, replied an American, in
 +England the interests of electors and non-electors are the
 +same. Security against any oppression of non-electors
 +lies in the fact that it would be oppressive to electors
 +also; but Americans have no such safeguard, for acts
 +oppressive to them might be popular with English
 +electors.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p>
 +
 +<p>When the news of the Stamp Act first came oversea
 +there was apparent apathy. The day of enforcement was
 +six months away, and there was nothing to oppose but a
 +law. It was the fitting time for an agitator. Patrick
 +Henry, a gay, unprosperous, and unknown country lawyer,
 +had been carried into the Virginia House of Burgesses
 +on the public approval of his impassioned denial, in the
 +“Parson’s Cause” (1763), of the king’s right to veto a
 +needed law passed by the colonial legislature. He now
 +offered some resolutions against the stamp tax, denying
 +the right of Parliament to legislate in the internal affairs
 +of the colony.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> This “alarum bell to the disaffected,
 +and the fiery speech which secured its adoption by an
 +irresolute assembly, were applauded everywhere. Jefferson
 +said of Henry, that he “spoke as Homer wrote.”</p>
 +
 +<p>As soon as the names of the appointed stamp-distributers
 +were made known (August 1, 1765) the masses expressed
 +their displeasure in a way unfortunately too common
 +in America. Throughout the land there was rifling
 +of stamp-collectors’ houses, threatening their lives, burning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
 +their records and documents, and even their houses.
 +Their offices were demolished and their resignations compelled—in
 +one case under a hanging effigy, suggestive
 +of the result of refusal. The more moderate patriots cancelled
 +their orders with British merchants, agreed not to
 +remit their English debts, and dressed in homespun to
 +avoid wearing imported clothes.</p>
 +
 +<p>On the morning that the act went into effect (November
 +1, 1765) bells tolled the death of the nation. Shops were
 +shut, flags hung at half-mast, and newspapers appeared
 +with a death’s-head where the stamp should have been.
 +Mobs burned the stamps, and none were to be had to
 +legalize even the most solemn and important papers.
 +The courts ignored them and the governors sanctioned
 +their omission. None could be used, because none could
 +be obtained. All America endorsed the declaration of
 +rights of the Stamp-Act Congress, which met in New
 +York, October, 1765. It asserted that the colonists
 +had the same liberties as British subjects. Circumstances,
 +they declared, prevented the colonists from being
 +represented in the House of Commons, therefore
 +no taxes could be levied except by their respective
 +legislatures.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
 +
 +<p>This great ado was a complete surprise to the British
 +government. On the passage of the Stamp Act, Walpole
 +had written,<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> “There has been nothing of note in
 +Parliament but one slight day on the American taxes.”
 +That expressed the common conception of its importance;
 +and when the Grenville ministry fell (July, 1765), and
 +was succeeded by that of Rockingham, the American situation
 +had absolutely nothing to do with the change.
 +The new ministry was some months in deciding its policy.
 +The king was one of the first to realize the situation,
 +which he declared “the most serious that ever came before
 +Parliament” (December 5, 1765). Weak and unwilling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
 +to act as the new ministry was, the situation compelled
 +attention. The king at first favored coercion of
 +the rebellious colonies, but the English merchants, suffering
 +from the suspended trade, urged Parliament to
 +repeal the act. Their demand decided the ministry to
 +favor retraction, just as formerly their influence had
 +forced the navigation laws and the restrictions on colonial
 +manufactures. If the king and landed gentry were responsible
 +for the immediate causes of the Revolution,
 +the influence of the English commercial classes on legislation
 +was the more ultimate cause.</p>
 +
 +<p>After one of the longest and most heated debates in
 +the history of Parliament, under the advice of Benjamin
 +Franklin, given at the bar of the House of Commons,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a>
 +and with the powerful aid of Pitt and Camden, the Stamp
 +Act was repealed. Another act passed at the same time
 +asserted Parliament’s power to legislate for the colonies
 +in all cases whatsoever.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> Thus the firebrand was left
 +smouldering amid the inflammable colonial affairs; and
 +Burke was quick to point out that the right to tax, or
 +any other right insisted upon after it ceased to harmonize
 +with prudence and expediency, would lead to disaster.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p>
 +
 +<p>It is plain to-day that the only way to keep up the
 +nominal union between Great Britain and her colonies
 +was to let them alone. The colonies felt strongly the
 +ties of blood, interest, and affection which bound them
 +to England.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> They would all have vowed, after the repeal
 +of the Stamp Act, that they loved their parent much
 +more than they loved one another. They felt only the
 +normal adult instinct to act independently. Could the
 +British government have given up the imperial idea to
 +which it so tenaciously clung, a federal union might have
 +been preserved.</p>
 +
 +<p>The genius of dissolution, however, gained control of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
 +the ministry which next came into power. When illness
 +withdrew Pitt from the “Mosaic Ministry,” which he and
 +Grafton had formed, Townshend’s brilliant talents gave him
 +the unquestioned lead. This man, who is said to have
 +surpassed Burke in wit and Chatham in solid sense, determined
 +to try again to tax the colonies for imperial
 +purposes.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> He ridiculed the distinction between external
 +and internal tax; but since the colonists had put stress
 +on the illegality of the latter he laid the new tax on imported
 +articles, and prepared to collect at the customhouses.
 +The income was to pay the salaries of colonial
 +governors and judges, and thus render them independent
 +of the tyrannical and contentious assemblies. Writs of
 +assistance, so effective in enforcing the revenue laws but
 +so hated by the colonists, were legalized. The collection
 +of the revenue was further aided by admiralty courts,
 +which should try the cases without juries, thus preventing
 +local sympathy from shielding the violators of the law.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p>
 +
 +<p>All the indifference into which America had relapsed,
 +and which the agitators so much deplored, at once disappeared.
 +The right of trial by jury was held to be inalienable.
 +The control of the judiciary and executive
 +by the people was necessary to free government, asserted
 +the pamphleteers. Parliament could not legalize “writs
 +of assistance,” they rashly cried. The former stickling
 +at an internal tax was forgotten, and they objected to
 +any tax whatever—a more logical position, which John
 +Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, supported by the assertion
 +“that any law, in so far as it creates expense, is in reality
 +a tax.” Samuel Adams drew up a circular letter, which
 +the Massachusetts assembly dispatched to the other colonial
 +assemblies, urging concerted action against this new
 +attack on colonial liberties.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> The British government,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
 +through the colonial governors, attempted to squelch this
 +letter, but the Massachusetts assembly refused to rescind,
 +and the other colonies were quick to embrace its
 +cause.</p>
 +
 +<p>Signs were not wanting that the people as well as the
 +political leaders were aroused. When the customs officials,
 +in 1768, seized John Hancock’s sloop <i>Liberty</i> for
 +alleged evasion of the customs duties, there was a riot
 +which so frightened the officers that they fled to the fort
 +and wrote to England for soldiers.</p>
 +
 +<p>This and other acts of resistance to the government led
 +Parliament to urge the king to exercise a right given him
 +by an ancient act to cause persons charged with treason
 +to be brought to England for trial. The Virginia assembly
 +protested against this, and sent their protest to the
 +other colonies for approval.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> The governor dissolved the
 +assembly, but it met and voted a non-importation agreement,
 +which also met favor in the other colonies. This
 +economic argument again proved effective, and the
 +Townshend measures were repealed, except the tax on
 +tea; Parliament thus doing everything but remove the
 +offence—“fixing a badge of slavery upon the Americans
 +without service to their masters.”<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> The old trade regulations
 +also remained to vex the colonists.</p>
 +
 +<p>In order that no disproportionate blame may be attached
 +to the king or his ministry for the bringing on of
 +the Revolution, it must be noted that the English nation,
 +the Parliament, and the king were all agreed when the
 +sugar and stamp acts were passed; and though Parliament
 +mustered a good-sized minority against the Townshend
 +acts, nevertheless no unaccustomed influence in its
 +favor was used by the king. Thus the elements of the
 +cloud were all gathered before the king’s personality began
 +to intensify the oncoming storm. The later acts of
 +Parliament and the conduct of the king had the sole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
 +purpose of overcoming resistance to established government.
 +Most of these coercive acts, though no part of
 +the original policy, were perfectly constitutional even
 +in times of peace. They must be considered in their
 +historical setting, however, just as President Lincoln’s
 +extraordinary acts in a time of like national peril. Henceforth
 +we are dealing with the natural, though perhaps
 +ill-judged, efforts of a government to repress a rebellion.</p>
 +
 +<p>After the riot which followed the seizure of the <i>Liberty</i>
 +(June, 1768), two regiments of British soldiers were stationed
 +in Boston. The very inadequacy of the force
 +made its relations with the citizens strained, for they
 +resented without fearing it. After enduring months of
 +jeering and vilification, the soldiers at last (March 5, 1770)
 +fired upon a threatening mob, and four men were killed.
 +Much was made of the “massacre,” as it was called, because
 +it symbolized for the people the substitution of
 +military for civil government. A Boston jury acquitted
 +the soldiers, and, after a town-meeting, the removal of
 +the two regiments was secured.</p>
 +
 +<p>A period of quiet followed until the assembly and the
 +governor got into a debate over the theoretical rights of
 +the colonists. To spread the results of this debate,
 +Samuel Adams devised the “committees of correspondence,”<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a>
 +which kept the towns of Massachusetts informed
 +of the controversy in Boston. This furnished a model
 +for the colonial committees of correspondence, which became
 +the most efficient means for revolutionary organization.
 +They created public opinion, set war itself in
 +motion, and were the embryos of new governments when
 +the old were destroyed.</p>
 +
 +<p>The first provincial committee that met with general
 +response from the other colonies was appointed by Virginia,
 +March 12, 1773, to keep its assembly informed of
 +the “<i>Gaspee</i> Commission.”<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> The <i>Gaspee</i> was a sort of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
 +revenue-cutter which, while too zealously enforcing the
 +Navigation Acts, ran aground (June 9, 1772) in Narragansett
 +Bay. Some Providence men seized and burned
 +the vessel, and the British government appointed a commission
 +to inquire into the affair.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> The commission met
 +with universal opposition and had to report failure.</p>
 +
 +<p>From this time on the chain of events that led to open
 +rebellion consists of a series of links so plainly joined
 +and so well known that they need only the barest mention
 +in this brief introduction to the actual war. The British
 +government tried to give temporary aid to the East
 +India Company by permitting the heavy revenue on tea
 +entering English ports, through which it must pass before
 +being shipped to America, and by licensing the company
 +itself to sell tea in America.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> To avoid yielding the
 +principle for which they had been contending, they retained
 +at colonial ports the threepenny duty, which was
 +all that remained of the Townshend revenue scheme.
 +Ships loaded with this cheap tea came into the several
 +American ports and were received with different marks
 +of odium at different places. In Boston, after peaceful
 +attempts to prevent the landing proved of no avail, an
 +impromptu band of Indians threw the tea overboard, so
 +that the next morning saw it lying like seaweed on
 +Dorchester beach.</p>
 +
 +<p>This outrage, as it was viewed in England, caused a
 +general demand for repressive measures, and the five
 +“intolerable acts” were passed and sent oversea to do the
 +last irremediable mischief.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> Boston’s port was closed
 +until the town should pay for the tea. Massachusetts’
 +charter was annulled, its town-meetings irksomely restrained,
 +and its government so changed that its executive
 +officers would all be under the king’s control. Two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
 +other acts provided for the care and judicial privileges of
 +the soldiers who soon came to enforce the acts. Finally,
 +great offence was given the Protestant colonies by granting
 +religious freedom to the Catholics of Quebec, and the
 +bounds of that colony were extended to the Ohio River,<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a>
 +thus arousing all the colonies claiming Western lands.
 +Except in the case of Virginia, there was no real attack
 +on their territorial integrity, but in the excitement there
 +seemed to be.</p>
 +
 +<p>Some strong incentive for the colonies to act together
 +had long been the only thing needed to send the flame of
 +rebellion along the whole sea-coast. When the British
 +soldiers began the enforcement of the punishment meted
 +to Boston, sympathy and fear furnished the common
 +bond. After several proposals of an intercolonial congress,
 +the step was actually taken on a call from oppressed
 +Massachusetts (June 17, 1774).<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> Delegates from every
 +colony except Georgia met in Philadelphia in September,
 +1774. Seven of the twelve delegations were chosen not
 +by the regular assemblies, but by revolutionary conventions
 +called by local committees; while in Massachusetts,
 +Rhode Island, and Connecticut, three of the remaining
 +five states, the assemblies that sent the delegates were
 +wholly dominated by the revolutionary element. Local
 +committees may therefore be said to have created the
 +congress, and they would now stand ready to enforce its
 +will.</p>
 +
 +<p>The assembled congress adopted a declaration of rights,
 +but their great work was the forming an American association
 +to enforce a non-importation and non-consumption
 +agreement.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> Local committees were to see that all who
 +traded with England or refused to associate were held up
 +as enemies of their country. The delegates provided for
 +a new congress in the following May, and adjourned.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>
 +Meanwhile, General Gage and his “pretorian guard”
 +in Boston were administering the government of Massachusetts
 +with noteworthy results. A general court of
 +the colony was summoned by Gage, who, repenting, tried
 +to put it off; but it met, formed a provincial congress, and,
 +settling down at Cambridge, governed the whole colony
 +outside of Boston. It held the new royal government
 +to be illegal, ordered the taxes paid to its own receiver
 +instead of Gage’s, and organized a militia. Gage at last
 +determined to disarm the provincials. His raid to destroy
 +the stores at Concord (April 19, 1775) resulted in
 +an ignominious retreat and the loss of two hundred and
 +seventy-three men, to say nothing of bringing sixteen
 +thousand patriots swarming about Boston.</p>
 +
 +<h3>II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE OUTBREAK OF WAR, 1775</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>Though mainly social and economic forces brought the
 +revolution to the stage of open warfare, a Massachusetts
 +politician had so used these forces that both his friends
 +and enemies thought the blame or the honor to be his.
 +Samuel Adams began to desire independence as early as
 +1768. From that time it was his unwearying effort to
 +keep alive the opposition to the British ministry. For
 +years he sought to instil in the minds of rising youths the
 +notion of independence. His adroit mind, always awake
 +and tireless, toiled for but one end; and he was narrow-minded
 +enough to be a perfect politician. Two opposing
 +views could never occupy his mind at the same time. For
 +sharp practices he had no aversion, but he used them for
 +public good, as he saw it, and not for private gain. He
 +was a public servant, great or small, from his earliest
 +manhood—as inspector of chimneys, tax-collector, or
 +moderator of town-meetings. He was ever a failure in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
 +business; in politics, shrewd and able. The New England
 +town-meeting was the theatre of his action;<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> he directed
 +the Boston meetings, and the other towns followed.
 +His tools were men. He was intimate with all
 +classes, from the ship-yard roustabouts to the ministers
 +of the gospel. In the canvass and caucus he was supreme.
 +Others were always in the foreground, thinking that theirs
 +was the glory. An enemy said that he had an unrivalled
 +“talent for artfully and fallaciously insinuating” malice
 +into the public mind. A friend dubbed him the “Colossus
 +of debate.” He was ready in tact and cool in moments
 +of excitement; his reasoning and eloquence had a nervous
 +simplicity, though there was little of fire, and he was sincere
 +rather than rhetorical.</p>
 +
 +<p>Adams was of medium stature, but in his most intense
 +moments he attained to a dignity of figure and gesture.
 +His views were clear and his good sense abundant, so that
 +he always received profound attention. Prematurely
 +gray, palsied in hand, and trembling in voice, yet he had
 +a mental audacity unparalleled. He was dauntless himself,
 +and thus roused and fortified the people. Nor were
 +his efforts confined to the town-meeting, for he was also a
 +voluminous newspaper writer. He showed no tolerance
 +for an opponent, and his attacks were keenly felt. “Damn
 +that Adams. Every dip of his pen stings like a horned
 +snake,” cried an enemy. Thus he went on canvassing,
 +caucusing, haranguing, and writing until the maddened
 +Gage attempted to seize him and the munitions of war
 +which he and his fellow-politicians had induced the colony
 +to collect. Concord and Lexington and the pursuit into
 +Boston were the results.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the close of that long day of fighting (April 19, 1775)
 +it was plain that war had begun, and the Massachusetts
 +politicians who had pushed matters to that stage may well
 +have had misgivings. A single colony could have no hope<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
 +of success, and there was little in the past to make one
 +believe that the thirteen colonies would unite even to defend
 +their political liberties. Franklin gave a vivid picture
 +of their different forms of government, different
 +laws, different interests, and, in some instances, different
 +religious persuasions and different manners.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a>
 +Their jealousy of one another was, he declared, “so great
 +that, however necessary a union of the colonies has long
 +been for their common defence, ... yet they have never
 +been able to effect such a union among themselves.”
 +They were more jealous of each other than of England, and
 +though plans for union had been proposed by their ablest
 +statesmen, they had refused to consider them.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> There
 +were long-standing disputes between neighboring colonies
 +over boundaries, over relations with the Indians, and over
 +matters of trade.</p>
 +
 +<p>The greatest danger, however, that confronted the
 +American cause was political division on the subject of
 +the relations with England. As the quarrel with the
 +mother-country grew more bitter, it was seen that the
 +British government had many friends in America who,
 +if they did not defend the action of the ministry, at least
 +frowned upon the violent opposition to it. They believed
 +that America’s best interests lay in the union with Great
 +Britain. The aristocracy of culture, of dignified professions
 +and callings, of official rank and hereditary wealth
 +tended to side with the central government.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> The more
 +prosperous and contented men had no grievances, and
 +conservatism was the character one would expect in them.
 +They denounced the agitators as demagogues and their
 +followers as “the mob.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Through the long ten years of unrest preceding the
 +Revolution, these Tories, as they were called, had suffered
 +at the hands of mobs, and now, when Gage was powerless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
 +outside of Boston, an active persecution of them began.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a>
 +Millers refused to grind their corn, labor would not serve
 +them, and they could neither buy nor sell. Men refused
 +to worship in the same church with them. They were denounced
 +as “infamous betrayers of their country.” Committees
 +published their names, “sending them down to
 +posterity with the infamy they deserve.” After the siege
 +of Boston had begun, those who were even suspected of
 +Toryism, as their support of the king was called, were
 +regarded as enemies in the camp. The Massachusetts
 +committees compelled them to sign recantations or confined
 +them in jails for refusal. If they escaped they were
 +pursued with hue and cry.</p>
 +
 +<p>Some fled to other colonies, but found that, “like Cain,
 +they had some discouraging mark upon them.” In exile
 +they learned that the patriot wrath visited their property:
 +their private coaches were burned or pulled in pieces. A
 +rich importer’s goods were destroyed or stolen, and his
 +effigy was hung up in sight of his house during the day
 +and burned at night. Beautiful estates, where was
 +“every beauty of art or nature, every elegance, which it
 +cost years of care and toil in bringing to perfection,” were
 +laid waste. Looking upon this work of ruin, a despairing
 +loyalist cried that the Americans were “as blind and mad
 +as Samson, bent upon pulling the edifice down upon their
 +heads to perish in the ruins.”</p>
 +
 +<p>The violence of the patriots’ attack upon the loyalists
 +seemed for a time to eliminate the latter from the struggle.
 +The friends of royal power in America expected too much,
 +and while the king’s enemies were organizing they waited
 +for him to crush the rising rebellion. They looked on with
 +wonder as the signal flew from one local committee to another
 +over thirteen colonies, who now needed only a glowing
 +fact like Lexington to fuse them into one defensive
 +whole. The news reached Putnam’s Connecticut farm in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
 +a day; Arnold, at New Haven, had it the next day, and in
 +four days it had reached New York.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> Unknown messengers
 +carried it through Philadelphia, past the Chesapeake, on to
 +Charleston, and within twenty days the news in many
 +garbled forms was evoking a common spirit of patriotism
 +from Maine to Georgia. It was commonly believed that
 +America must be saved from “abject slavery” by the
 +bands of patriots encompassing Boston.</p>
 +
 +<p>The farmers and mechanics who had hurried from their
 +work to drive the British from Concord into Boston were
 +not an army. They settled down in a great half-circle
 +around the port with a common purpose of compelling
 +Gage to take to his ships, but with no definite plan. Confusion
 +was everywhere. Men were coming and going, and
 +there were no regular enlistments.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> A few natural leaders
 +were doing wonders in holding them together.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Among
 +them the brave and courteous Joseph Warren, the warm
 +friend of Samuel Adams and zealous comrade in the recent
 +work of agitation, was conquering insubordination by the
 +manly modesty and gentleness of his character. Others
 +who were old campaigners of the French and Indian wars
 +worked ceaselessly to bring order out of chaos.</p>
 +
 +<p>Yet not even the fanatic zeal of the siege could banish
 +provincial jealousies. There were as many leaders as there
 +were colonies represented. New Hampshire men were led
 +by John Stark, a hero of the French war; Connecticut men
 +were under Israel Putnam, more picturesque as a wolf-slayer
 +than able as a leader. Nathanael Greene, the philosophic
 +and literary blacksmith, commanded the Rhode
 +Island militia.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> It was with difficulty that “the grand
 +American army,” as the Massachusetts congress called it,
 +finally intrusted the chief command to General Artemas
 +Ward, who, in turn, was controlled by the Massachusetts
 +committee of safety.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
 +Even with some organization and a leader there was
 +little outward semblance of an army. In the irregular
 +dress, brown and green hues were the rule. Uniforms like
 +those of the British regulars, the hunting-shirt of the backwoodsman,
 +and even the blankets of savages were seen
 +side by side in the ranks of the first patriot armies. There
 +was little distinction between officer and private.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> Each
 +company chose its own officers out of the ranks,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> and the
 +private could not understand why he should salute his
 +erstwhile friend and neighbor or ask his permission to go
 +home. The principle of social democracy was carried into
 +military life to the great detriment of the service. Difference
 +in rank was ignored by the officers themselves, who
 +in some cases did menial work about camp to curry favor
 +with their men.</p>
 +
 +<p>Fortunately, there was in this raw militia a good leaven
 +of soldiers seasoned and trained in the war with France.
 +These men led expeditions to the islands of Boston Harbor
 +in the effort to get the stock before it should be seized by
 +the British.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> Numerous slight engagements resulted, turning
 +favorably, as a rule, for the patriots, and the new recruits
 +gained courage with experience. Thus nearly two
 +months passed away, and an elated patriot wrote that
 +“danger and war are become pleasing, and injured virtue
 +is now aroused to avenge herself.”</p>
 +
 +<p>The only way to drive Gage out of Boston was to seize
 +one of the commanding hill-tops either in Dorchester or
 +Charlestown, whence they might open a cannonade on the
 +city. Gage saw this danger, and with the arrival of reinforcements
 +under Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne a plan
 +was made to get control of the dangerous hill-tops. With
 +ten thousand well-equipped soldiers to pit against an ill-trained
 +and poorly commanded multitude of farmers the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
 +task seemed easy. After trying to terrify the rebels by
 +threatening with the gallows all who should be taken with
 +arms, and offering to pardon those who would lay them
 +down, Gage prepared to execute this plan. The patriots
 +forestalled him by sending twelve hundred men under the
 +veteran Colonel Prescott to seize Bunker Hill, in Charlestown.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="VII" class="vspace">VII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_8" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, 1775.</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> May, 1775, the British force in Boston had increased
 +by fresh arrivals from England and Ireland to ten
 +thousand men. The man-of-war <i>Cerberus</i> arrived on the
 +25th with Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne—three
 +officers experienced in the military tactics of Europe, but
 +little prepared for service here. They were surprised at
 +the aspect of affairs, and Gage was reproached for his
 +apparent supineness. However, unity of action was necessary,
 +and the new-comers heartily co-operated with Gage
 +in his plans, such as they were, for dispersing the rebel host
 +that hemmed him in. He issued a proclamation on June
 +12 insulting in words and menacing in tone. It declared
 +martial law; pronounced those in arms and their abettors
 +“rebels, parricides of the Constitution,” and offered a free
 +pardon to all who would forthwith return to their allegiance,
 +except John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were outlawed,
 +and for whose apprehension as traitors a reward
 +was offered. This proclamation, so arrogant and insulting,
 +served only to exasperate the people. In the mean
 +while several skirmishes had occurred between parties of
 +the British regulars and the provincials, upon some of the
 +cultivated islands that dot the harbor of Boston.</p>
 +
 +<p>At this time (May, 1775) but little progress had been
 +made by the Americans in erecting fortifications. Some
 +breastworks had been thrown up at Cambridge, near the
 +foot of Prospect Hill, and a small redoubt had been formed
 +at Roxbury. The right wing of the besieging army, under
 +General Thomas, was at Roxbury, consisting of four thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
 +Massachusetts troops, including four artillery companies,
 +with field-pieces and a few heavy cannon. The Rhode
 +Island forces, under Greene, were at Jamaica Plains, and
 +near there was a greater part of General Spencer’s Connecticut
 +regiment. General Ward commanded the left
 +wing at Cambridge, which consisted of fifteen Massachusetts
 +regiments, the battalion of artillery under Gridley,
 +and Putnam’s regiment, with other Connecticut troops.
 +Most of the Connecticut forces were at Inman’s farm.
 +Paterson’s regiment was at the breastwork on Prospect
 +Hill, and a large guard was stationed at Lechmere’s Point.
 +Three companies of Gerrish’s regiment were at Chelsea;
 +Stark’s regiment was at Medford, and Reid’s at Charlestown
 +Neck, with sentinels reaching to Penny Ferry and
 +Bunker Hill.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was made known to the Committee of Safety that
 +General Gage had fixed upon the night of June 18 to
 +take possession of and fortify Bunker Hill and Dorchester
 +Heights. This brought matters to a crisis, and measures
 +were taken to perfect the blockade of Boston. The Committee
 +of Safety ordered Colonel Prescott, with a detachment
 +of one thousand men, including a company of artillery,
 +with two field-pieces, to march at night and throw up
 +intrenchments upon Bunker Hill, an eminence just within
 +the peninsula of Charlestown, and commanding the great
 +northern road from Boston, as well as a considerable portion
 +of the town. Bunker Hill begins at the isthmus, and
 +rises gradually for about three hundred yards, forming a
 +round, smooth hill, sloping on two sides toward the water,
 +and connected by a ridge of ground on the south with the
 +heights now known as Breed’s Hill. This was a well-known
 +public place, the name, “Bunker Hill,” being found
 +in the town records and in deeds from an early period.
 +Not so with “Breed’s Hill,” for it was not named in any
 +description of streets previous to 1775, and appears to
 +have been called after the owners of the pastures into
 +which it was divided, rather than by the common name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
 +of Breed’s Hill. Thus, Monument Square was called
 +Russell’s Pasture; Breed’s Pasture lay farther south, and
 +Green’s Pasture was at the head of Green Street. The
 +easterly and westerly sides of this height were steep. On
 +the east, at its base, were brick-kilns, clay-pits, and
 +much sloughy land. On the west side, at the base, was the
 +most settled part of the town. Moulton’s Point, a name
 +coeval with the settlement of the town, constituted the
 +southeastern corner of the peninsula. A part of this tract
 +formed what is called Morton’s Hill. Bunker Hill was
 +one hundred and ten feet high, Breed’s Hill sixty-two feet,
 +and Moulton’s Hill thirty-five feet. The principal street of
 +the peninsula was Main Street, which extended from the
 +Neck to the ferry. A road ran over Bunker Hill, around
 +Breed’s Hill, to Moulton’s Point. The westerly portions
 +of these eminences contained fine orchards.</p>
 +
 +<p>A portion of the regiments of Prescott, Frye, and Bridge,
 +and a fatigue party of two hundred Connecticut troops
 +with intrenching tools, paraded in the Cambridge camp
 +at six o’clock in the evening. They were furnished with
 +packs and blankets, and ordered to take provisions for
 +twenty-four hours. Samuel Gridley’s company of artillery
 +joined them, and the Connecticut troops were placed
 +under the command of Thomas Knowlton, a captain in
 +Putnam’s regiment, who was afterward killed in the battle
 +on Harlem Heights. After an impressive prayer from the
 +lips of President Langdon, of Harvard College, Colonel
 +Prescott and Richard Gridley, preceded by two servants
 +with dark lanterns, commenced their march, at the head
 +of the troops, for Charlestown. It was about nine o’clock
 +at night, the sky clear and starry, and the weather very
 +warm. Strict silence was enjoined, and the object of the
 +expedition was not known to the troops until they arrived
 +at Charlestown Neck, where they were joined by Major
 +Brooks, of Bridge’s regiment, and General Putnam. A
 +guard of ten men was placed in Charlestown, and the main
 +body marched over Bunker Hill. A council was held, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
 +select the best place for the proposed fortification. The
 +order was explicit, to fortify Bunker Hill; but Breed’s Hill
 +being nearer Boston, and appearing to be a more eligible
 +place, it was concluded to proceed to fortify it, and to
 +throw up works, also, on Bunker Hill, to cover a retreat,
 +if necessary, across Charlestown Neck. Colonel Gridley
 +marked out the lines of the proposed fortifications, and, at
 +about midnight, the men, having thrown off their packs
 +and stacked their arms, began their perilous work—perilous,
 +because British sentinels and British ships-of-war
 +were almost within sound of their picks.</p>
 +
 +<p>Officers and men labored together with all their might,
 +with pickaxes and spades, and were cheered on in their
 +work by the distant signals of safety—“All’s well!”—that
 +came from the shipping and the sentinels at the foot of
 +Copp’s Hill. It proclaimed that they were still undiscovered;
 +and at every cry of “All’s well!” they plied their
 +tools with increased vigor. When the day dawned, at
 +about four o’clock, they had thrown up intrenchments six
 +feet high; and a strong redoubt, which was afterward the
 +admiration of the enemy, loomed up on the green height
 +before the wondering eyes of the astonished Britons like
 +a work of magic. The British officers could hardly be
 +convinced that it was the result of a few hours’ labor only,
 +but deemed it the work of days. Gage saw at once how
 +foolish he had been in not taking possession of this strong
 +point, as advised, while it was in his power to do so.</p>
 +
 +<p>The fortification was first discovered at dawn, by the
 +watchmen on board the British man-of-war <i>Lively</i>. Without
 +waiting for orders, the captain put springs upon his
 +cables, and opened a fire on the American works. The noise
 +of the cannon aroused the sleepers in Boston, and when the
 +sun arose on that bright morning, every eminence and roof
 +in the city swarmed with people, astonished at the strange
 +apparition upon Breed’s Hill. The shots from the <i>Lively</i>
 +did no harm, and, defended by their intrenchments, the
 +Americans plied their tools in strengthening their works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
 +within, until called to lay aside the pick and shovel for
 +gun and knapsack.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_106" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 17.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_132.jpg" width="276" height="276" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">PLAN OF THE REDOUBT ON BREED’S HILL</div></div>
 +
 +<p>On June 17 Admiral Graves, the naval commander at
 +Boston, ordered the firing to cease; but it was soon renewed,
 +not only by the shipping, but from a battery of six
 +guns upon Copp’s Hill in the city. Gage summoned a
 +council of war early
 +in the morning. As
 +it was evident that the
 +Americans were rapidly
 +gaining strength,
 +and that the safety of
 +the town was endangered,
 +it was unanimously
 +resolved to
 +send out a force to
 +drive them from the
 +peninsula of Charlestown
 +and destroy their
 +works on the heights.
 +It was decided, also,
 +to make the attack
 +in front, and preparations were made accordingly. The
 +drums beat to arms, and Boston was soon in a tumult.
 +Dragoons galloping, artillery trains rumbling, and the
 +marching and countermarching of the regulars and loyalists,
 +together with the clangor of the church bells, struck
 +dismay into many a heart before stout in the presence of
 +British protectors. It is said that the danger which surrounded
 +the city converted many Tories into patriots; and
 +the selectmen, in the midst of that fearful commotion, received
 +large accessions to their list of professed friends
 +from the ranks of the timid loyalists.</p>
 +
 +<p>Toward noon between two and three thousand picked
 +men from the British army, under the command of General
 +Sir William Howe and General Pigot, embarked in
 +twenty-eight barges, part from the Long Wharf and some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
 +from the North Battery, in Boston, and landed at Morton’s,
 +or Moulton’s Point, beyond the eastern foot of Breed’s Hill,
 +covered by the guns of the <i>Falcon</i> and other vessels.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Americans had worked faithfully on their intrenchments
 +all the morning, and were greatly encouraged by the
 +voice and example of Prescott, who exposed himself, without
 +care, to the random shots of the battery on Copp’s
 +Hill. He supposed, at first, that the enemy would not
 +attack him, but, seeing the movements in the city, he was
 +convinced to the contrary, and comforted his toiling troops
 +with assurances of certain victory. Confident of such a
 +result himself, he would not at first send to General Ward
 +for a reinforcement; but between nine and ten o’clock, by
 +advice of his officers, Major Brooks was dispatched to headquarters
 +for that purpose. General Putnam had urged
 +Ward early in the morning to send fresh troops to relieve
 +those on duty; but only a portion of Stark’s regiment was
 +allowed to go, as the general apprehended that Cambridge
 +would be the principal point of attack. Convinced otherwise,
 +by certain intelligence, the remainder of Stark’s regiment,
 +and the whole of Reed’s corps, on the Neck, were
 +ordered to reinforce Prescott. At twelve o’clock the men
 +in the redoubt ceased work, sent off their intrenching tools,
 +took some refreshments, hoisted the New England flag, and
 +prepared to fight. The intrenching tools were sent to
 +Bunker Hill, where, under the directions of General Putnam,
 +the men began to throw up a breastwork. Some of
 +the more timid soldiers made the removal of the tools a
 +pretext for leaving the redoubt, and never returned.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was between twelve and one o’clock when the British
 +troops, consisting of the fifth, thirty-eighth, forty-third,
 +and fifty-second battalions of infantry, two companies of
 +grenadiers, and two of light infantry, landed, their rich
 +uniforms and arms flashing and glittering in the noonday
 +sun, making an imposing and formidable display. General
 +Howe reconnoitred the American works, and, while waiting
 +for reinforcements, which he had solicited from Gage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
 +allowed his troops to dine. When the intelligence of the
 +landing of the enemy reached Cambridge, two miles distant,
 +there was great excitement in the camp and throughout
 +the town. The drums beat to arms, the bells were
 +rung, and the people and military were speedily hurrying
 +in every direction. General Ward used his own regiment,
 +and those of Paterson and Gardner and a part of Bridge’s,
 +for the defence of Cambridge. The remainder of the
 +Massachusetts troops were ordered to Charlestown, and
 +thither General Putnam conducted those of Connecticut.</p>
 +
 +<p>At about two o’clock the reinforcement for Howe arrived,
 +and landed at the present navy-yard. It consisted
 +of the Forty-seventh battalion of infantry, a battalion of
 +marines, and some grenadiers and light infantry. The
 +whole force (about four thousand men) was commanded
 +and directed by the most skilful British officers then in
 +Boston; and every man preparing to attack the undisciplined
 +provincials was a drilled soldier, and quite perfect
 +in the art of war. It was an hour of the deepest anxiety
 +among the patriots on Breed’s Hill. They had observed
 +the whole martial display, from the time of the embarkation
 +until the forming of the enemy’s line for battle. For
 +the Americans, as yet, very little succor had arrived.
 +Hunger and thirst annoyed them, while the labors of the
 +night and morning weighed them down with excessive
 +fatigue. Added to this was the dreadful suspicion that
 +took possession of their minds, when only feeble reinforcements
 +arrived, that treachery had placed them there for
 +the purpose of sacrifice. Yet they could not doubt the
 +patriotism of their principal officers, and before the action
 +commenced their suspicions were scattered to the winds
 +by the arrival of their beloved Doctor Warren and General
 +Pomeroy. Warren, who was president of the Provincial
 +Congress, then sitting at Watertown, seven miles distant,
 +informed of the landing of the enemy, hastened toward
 +Charlestown, though suffering from sickness and exhaustion.
 +He had been commissioned a major-general four<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
 +days before. Putnam, who was at Cambridge, forwarding
 +provisions and reinforcements to Charlestown, tried to
 +dissuade him from going into the battle. Warren was not
 +to be diverted from his purpose, and, mounting a horse, he
 +sped across the Neck and entered the redoubt, amid the
 +loud cheers of the provincials, just as Howe gave orders
 +to advance. Colonel Prescott offered the command to
 +Warren, as his superior, when the latter replied, “I am
 +come to fight as a volunteer, and feel honored in being
 +allowed to serve under so brave an officer.”</p>
 +
 +<p>While the British troops were forming, and preparing
 +to march along the Mystic River for the purpose of flanking
 +the Americans and gaining their rear, the artillery,
 +with two field-pieces, and Captain Knowlton, with the
 +Connecticut troops, left the redoubt, took a position near
 +Bunker Hill, and formed a breastwork seven hundred feet
 +in length, which served an excellent purpose. A little in
 +front of a strong stone and rail fence, Knowlton built another,
 +and between the two was placed a quantity of new-mown
 +grass. This apparently slight breastwork formed
 +a valuable defence to the provincials.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was now three in the afternoon. The provincial
 +troops were placed in an attitude of defence as the British
 +column moved slowly forward to the attack. Colonel
 +Prescott and the original constructors of the redoubt, except
 +the Connecticut troops, were within the works. General
 +Warren also took post in the redoubt. Gridley and
 +Callender’s artillery companies were between the breastworks
 +and rail fence on the eastern side. A few troops,
 +recalled from Charlestown after the British landed, and
 +a part of Warner’s company, lined the cart-way on the
 +right of the redoubt. The Connecticut and New Hampshire
 +forces were at the rail fence on the west of the redoubt,
 +and three companies were stationed in the main
 +street at the foot of Breed’s Hill.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_109" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_136.jpg" width="800" height="550" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">GENERAL PLAN OF THE BATTLE</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Before General Howe moved from his first position he
 +sent out strong flank guards, and directed his heavy artillery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
 +to play upon the American line. At the same time a
 +blue flag was displayed as a signal, and the guns upon
 +Copp’s Hill and the ships and floating batteries in the
 +river poured a storm of round-shot upon the redoubt. A
 +furious cannonade was opened at the same moment upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
 +the right wing of the provincial army at Roxbury, to
 +prevent reinforcements being sent by General Thomas
 +to Charlestown. Gridley and Callender, with their field-pieces,
 +returned a feeble response to the heavy guns of the
 +enemy. Gridley’s guns were soon disabled; while Callender,
 +who alleged that his cartridges were too large,
 +withdrew to Bunker Hill. Putnam was there, and ordered
 +him back to his first position. He disobeyed, and nearly
 +all his men, more courageous than he, deserted him. In
 +the meanwhile, Captain Walker, of Chelmsford, with fifty
 +resolute men, marched down the hill near Charlestown and
 +greatly annoyed the enemy’s left flank. Finding their position
 +very perilous, they marched over to the Mystic, and
 +did great execution upon the right flank. Walker was
 +there wounded and made prisoner, but the greater part of
 +his men succeeded in gaining the redoubt.</p>
 +
 +<p>Under cover of the discharges of artillery the British
 +army moved up the slope of Breed’s Hill toward the American
 +works in two divisions, General Howe with the right
 +wing, and General Pigot with the left. The former was
 +to penetrate the American lines at the rail fence; the latter
 +to storm the redoubt. They had not proceeded far before
 +the firing of their artillery ceased, in consequence of discovering
 +that balls too large for the field-pieces had been
 +sent over from Boston. Howe ordered the pieces to be
 +loaded with grape; but they soon became useless, on account
 +of the miry ground at the base of the hill. Small
 +arms and bayonets now became their reliance.</p>
 +
 +<p>Silently the British troops, burdened with heavy knapsacks,
 +toiled up the ascent toward the redoubt in the heat
 +of a bright summer’s sun. All was silent within the American
 +intrenchments, and very few provincials were to be
 +seen by the approaching battalions; but within those breastworks,
 +and in reserve behind the hills, crouched fifteen
 +hundred determined men, ready, at a prescribed signal, to
 +fall upon the foe. The provincials had but a scanty supply
 +of ammunition, and, to avoid wasting it by ineffectual shots,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
 +Prescott gave orders not to fire until the enemy were so
 +near that the whites of their eyes could be seen. “Then,”
 +he said, “aim at their waistbands; and be sure to pick off
 +the commanders, known by their handsome coats!” The
 +enemy were not so sparing of their powder and ball, but
 +when within gunshot of the apparently deserted works
 +commenced a random firing. Prescott could hardly restrain
 +his men from responding, and a few did disobey his
 +orders and returned the fire. Putnam hastened to the
 +spot, and threatened to cut down the first man who should
 +again disobey orders, and quiet was restored. At length
 +the enemy reached the prescribed distance, when, waving
 +his sword over his head, Prescott shouted, “Fire!” Terrible
 +was the effect of the volley that ensued. Whole
 +platoons of the British regulars were laid upon the earth
 +like grass by the mower’s scythe. Other deadly volleys
 +succeeded, and the enemy, disconcerted, broke and fled
 +toward the water. The provincials, joyed at seeing the
 +regulars fly, wished to pursue them, and many leaped the
 +rail fence for the purpose; but the prudence of the American
 +officers kept them in check, and in a few minutes they
 +were again within their works, prepared to receive a second
 +attack from the British troops, that were quickly rallied
 +by Howe. Colonel Prescott praised and encouraged his
 +men, while General Putnam rode to Bunker Hill to urge
 +on reinforcements. Many had arrived at Charlestown
 +Neck, but were deterred from crossing by the enfilading
 +fire of the <i>Glasgow</i> and two armed gondolas near the
 +causeway. Portions of regiments were scattered upon
 +Bunker Hill and its vicinity, and these General Putnam,
 +by entreaties and commands, endeavored to rally. Colonel
 +Gerrish, who was very corpulent, became completely exhausted
 +by fatigue; and other officers, wholly unused to
 +warfare, coward-like kept at a respectful distance from danger.
 +Few additional troops could be brought to Breed’s
 +Hill before the second attack was made.</p>
 +
 +<p>The British troops, reinforced by four hundred marines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
 +from Boston, under Major Small, accompanied by Doctor
 +Jeffries, the army surgeon, advanced toward the redoubt
 +in the same order as at first, General Howe boldly leading
 +the van, as he had promised. It was a mournful march
 +over the dead bodies of scores of their fellow soldiers; but
 +with true English courage they pressed onward, their
 +artillery doing more damage to the Americans than at
 +the first assault. It had moved along the narrow road
 +between the tongue of land and Breed’s Hill, and when
 +within a hundred yards of the rail fence, and on a line
 +with the breastworks, opened a galling fire, to cover the
 +advance of the other assailants. In the meanwhile, a
 +carcass and some hot shot were thrown from Copp’s Hill
 +into Charlestown, which set the village on fire. The houses
 +were chiefly of wood, and in a short time nearly two hundred
 +buildings were in flames, shrouding in dense smoke
 +the heights in the rear whereon the provincials were posted.
 +Beneath this veil the British hoped to rush unobserved up
 +to the breastworks, scale them, and drive the Americans
 +out at the point of the bayonet. At that moment a gentle
 +breeze, which appeared to the provincials like the breath
 +of a guardian angel—the first zephyr that had been felt
 +on that sultry day—came from the west and swept the
 +smoke away seaward, exposing to the full view of the
 +Americans the advancing columns of the enemy, who
 +fired as they approached, but with little execution. Colonels
 +Brener, Nixon, and Buckminster were wounded,
 +and Major Moore was killed. As before, the Americans
 +reserved their fire until the British were within the prescribed
 +distance, when they poured forth their leaden hail
 +with such sure aim and terrible effect that whole ranks of
 +officers and men were slain. General Howe was at the
 +head, and once he was left entirely alone, his aids and all
 +about him having perished. The British line recoiled, and
 +gave way in several parts, and it required the utmost
 +exertion in all the remaining officers, from the generals
 +down to the subalterns, to repair the disorder which this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
 +hot and unexpected fire had produced. All their efforts
 +were at first fruitless, and the troops retreated in great
 +disorder to the shore.</p>
 +
 +<p>General Clinton, who had beheld the progress of the
 +battle with mortified pride, seeing the regulars repulsed a
 +second time, crossed over in a boat, followed by a small
 +reinforcement, and joined the broken army as a volunteer.
 +Some of the British officers remonstrated against leading
 +the men a third time to certain destruction; but others,
 +who had ridiculed American valor, and boasted loudly of
 +British invincibility, resolved on victory or death. The
 +incautious loudness of speech of a provincial, during the
 +second attack, declaring that the ammunition was nearly
 +exhausted, gave the enemy encouraging and important
 +information. Howe immediately rallied his troops and
 +formed them for a third attack, but in a different way.
 +The weakness of the point between the breastwork and the
 +rail fence had been discovered by Howe, and thitherward
 +he determined to lead the left wing with the artillery, while
 +a show of attack should be made at the rail fence on the
 +other side. His men were ordered to stand the fire of the
 +provincials, and then make a furious charge with bayonets.</p>
 +
 +<p>So long were the enemy making preparations for a third
 +attack that the provincials began to imagine that the
 +second repulse was to be final. They had time to refresh
 +themselves a little and recover from that complete exhaustion
 +which the labor of the day had produced. It was
 +too true that their ammunition was almost exhausted,
 +and, being obliged to rely upon that for defence, as comparatively
 +few of the muskets were furnished with bayonets,
 +they began to despair. The few remaining cartridges
 +within the redoubt were distributed by Prescott, and those
 +soldiers who were destitute of bayonets resolved to club
 +their arms and use the breeches of their guns when their
 +powder should be gone. The loose stones in the redoubt
 +were collected for use as missiles if necessary, and all resolved
 +to fight as long as a ray of hope appeared.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>
 +During this preparation on Breed’s Hill, all was confusion
 +elsewhere. General Ward was at Cambridge, without
 +sufficient staff-officers to convey his orders. Henry
 +(afterward General) Knox was in the reconnoitring service,
 +as a volunteer, during the day, and upon his reports Ward
 +issued his orders. Late in the afternoon, the commanding
 +general despatched his own, with Paterson and Gardner’s
 +regiments, to the field of action; but to the raw recruits
 +the aspect of the narrow Neck was terrible, swept as it
 +was by the British cannon. Colonel Gardner succeeded in
 +leading three hundred men to Bunker Hill, where Putnam
 +set them intrenching, but soon ordered them to the lines.
 +Gardner was advancing boldly at their head, when a
 +musket-ball entered his groin and wounded him mortally.
 +His men were thrown into confusion, and very few of them
 +engaged in the combat that followed, until the retreat
 +commenced. Other regiments failed to reach the lines.
 +A part of Gerrish’s regiment, led by Adjutant Christian
 +Febiger, a Danish officer, who afterward accompanied
 +Arnold to Quebec and was distinguished at Stony Point,
 +reached the lines just as the action commenced, and
 +effectually galled the British left wing. Putnam, in the
 +mean time, was using his utmost exertions to form the
 +confused troops on Bunker Hill and get fresh corps with
 +bayonets across the Neck.</p>
 +
 +<p>All was order and firmness at the redoubt on Breed’s
 +Hill as the enemy advanced. The artillery of the British
 +swept the interior of the breastwork from end to end,
 +destroying many of the provincials, among whom was
 +Lieutenant Prescott, a nephew of the colonel commanding.
 +The remainder were driven within the redoubt, and
 +the breastwork was abandoned. Each shot of the provincials
 +was true to its aim, and Colonel Abercrombie
 +and Majors Williams and Speedlove fell. Howe was
 +wounded in the foot, but continued fighting at the head
 +of his men. His boats were at Boston, and retreat he
 +could not. His troops pressed forward to the redoubt,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
 +now nearly silent, for the provincials’ last grains of powder
 +were in their guns. Only a ridge of earth separated the
 +combatants, and the assailants scaled it. The first that
 +reached the parapet were repulsed by a shower of stones.
 +Major Pitcairn, who led the troops at Lexington, ascending
 +the parapet, cried out, “Now for the glory of the
 +marines!” and was immediately shot by a negro soldier.
 +Again numbers of the enemy leaped upon the parapet,
 +while others assailed the redoubt on three sides. Hand
 +to hand the belligerents struggled, and the gun-stocks of
 +many of the provincials were shivered to pieces by the
 +heavy blows they were made to give. The enemy poured
 +into the redoubt in such numbers that Prescott, perceiving
 +the folly of longer resistance, ordered a retreat. Through
 +the enemy’s ranks the Americans hewed their way, many
 +of them walking backward and dealing deadly blows with
 +their musket-stocks. Prescott and Warren were the last
 +to leave the redoubt. Colonel Gridley, the engineer, was
 +wounded, and borne off safely. Prescott received several
 +thrusts from bayonets and rapiers in his clothing, but
 +escaped unhurt. Warren was the last man that left the
 +works. He was a short distance from the redoubt, on his
 +way toward Bunker Hill, when a musket-ball passed
 +through his head, killing him instantly. He was left on
 +the field, for all were flying in the greatest confusion, pursued
 +by the victors, who remorselessly bayoneted those who
 +fell in their way.</p>
 +
 +<p>Major Jackson had rallied Gardner’s men upon Bunker
 +Hill, and, pressing forward with three companies of Ward’s,
 +and Febiger’s party from Gerrish’s regiment, poured a destructive
 +fire upon the enemy between Breed’s and Bunker
 +Hill, and bravely covered the retreat from the redoubt.
 +The Americans at the rail fence, under Stark, Reed, and
 +Knowlton, reinforced by Clark, Coit, and Chester’s Connecticut
 +companies and a few other troops, maintained
 +their ground, in the meanwhile, with great firmness, and
 +successfully resisted every attempt of the enemy to turn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
 +their flank. This service was very valuable, for it saved
 +the main body, retreating from the redoubt, from being
 +cut off. But when these saw their brethren, with the
 +chief commander, flying before the enemy, they too fled.
 +Putnam used every exertion to keep them firm. He
 +commanded, pleaded, cursed and swore like a madman,
 +and was seen at every point in the van trying to rally the
 +scattered corps, swearing that victory should crown the
 +Americans. “Make a stand here!” he exclaimed; “we
 +can stop them yet! In God s name, fire and give them
 +one shot more!” The gallant old Pomeroy, also, with his
 +shattered musket in his hand, implored them to rally, but
 +in vain. The whole body retreated across the Neck, where
 +the fire from the <i>Glasgow</i> and gondolas slew many of them.
 +They left five of their six field-pieces and all their intrenching
 +tools upon Bunker Hill, and they retreated to
 +Winter Hill, Prospect Hill, and to Cambridge. The British,
 +greatly exhausted, and properly cautious, did not
 +follow, but contented themselves with taking possession
 +of the peninsula. Clinton advised an immediate attack
 +upon Cambridge, but Howe was too cautious or too timid
 +to make the attempt. His troops lay upon their arms
 +all night on Bunker Hill, and the Americans did the same
 +on Prospect Hill, a mile distant. Two British field-pieces
 +played upon them, but without effect, and, both sides feeling
 +unwilling to renew the action, hostilities ceased. The
 +loss of the Americans in this engagement was one hundred
 +and fifteen killed and missing, three hundred and five
 +wounded, and thirty who were taken prisoners; in all, four
 +hundred and fifty. The British loss is not positively known.
 +Gage reported two hundred and twenty-six killed, and
 +eight hundred and twenty-eight wounded; in all, ten
 +hundred and fifty-four. In this number are included
 +eighty-nine officers. The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts,
 +from the best information they could obtain, reported
 +the British loss at about fifteen hundred. The
 +number of buildings consumed in Charlestown, before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
 +midnight, was about four hundred; and the estimated
 +loss of property (most of the families, with their effects,
 +having moved out) was nearly six hundred thousand
 +dollars.</p>
 +
 +<p>The number engaged in this battle was small, yet contemporary
 +writers and eye-witnesses represent it as one
 +of the most determined and severe on record. There was
 +absolutely no victory in the case. The most indomitable
 +courage was displayed on both sides; and when the provincials
 +had retired but a short distance, so wearied and
 +exhausted were all that neither party desired more fighting,
 +if we except Colonel Prescott, who earnestly petitioned to
 +be allowed to lead a fresh corps that evening and retake
 +Breed’s Hill. It was a terrible day for Boston and its
 +vicinity, for almost every family had a representative in
 +one of the two armies. Fathers, husbands, sons, and
 +brothers were in the affray, and deep was the mental anguish
 +of the women of the city, who, from roofs and steeples
 +and every elevation, gazed with streaming eyes upon the
 +carnage, for the battle raged in full view of thousands of
 +interested spectators in the town and upon the adjoining
 +hills. In contrast with the terrible scene were the cloudless
 +sky and brilliant sun.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF<br />
 +BUNKER HILL, 1775, AND THE<br />
 +BATTLE OF SARATOGA, 1777</h3>
 +
 +<p>1775. Washington conducts the siege of Boston. The
 +Americans take Montreal. Unsuccessful assaults on
 +Quebec. Settlement of Kentucky by Daniel Boone.</p>
 +
 +<p>1776. The British evacuate Boston. The British repulsed
 +at Charleston, S. C. The Continental Congress
 +adopts the Declaration of Independence. The British,
 +under Howe and Clinton, defeat the Americans, under
 +Putnam and Sullivan, in the battle of Long Island. The
 +British occupy New York. The Americans defeated at
 +White Plains. Washington surprises the Hessians at
 +Trenton.</p>
 +
 +<p>1777. Washington is victorious at Princeton. Burgoyne
 +takes Ticonderoga. The Americans are victorious at
 +Bennington. Washington defeated by Howe in the battle
 +of the Brandywine. Battle of Stillwater. The British
 +enter Philadelphia. Repulse of Washington at Germantown.
 +Battle of Saratoga.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="VIII" class="vspace">VIII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_9" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF SARATOGA, 1777.</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1777 the British ministry had planned, in addition to
 +the operations of the main army against Philadelphia,
 +an invasion from Canada, apprehensions of which had led
 +the Americans into their late unsuccessful attempt to conquer
 +that province. Such supplies of men or money as
 +they asked for were readily voted; but in England, as
 +well as in America, enlistments were a matter of difficulty.
 +Lord George Germaine was possessed with an idea, of
 +which Sir William Howe found it very difficult to disabuse
 +him, that recruits might be largely obtained among the
 +American loyalists. In spite, however, of all the efforts
 +of Tryon, Delancey, and Skinner, the troops of that description
 +hardly amounted as yet to twelve hundred men;
 +and Howe complained, not without reason, of the tardiness
 +of the ministers in filling up his army.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The American Northern Department, again placed under
 +the sole command of Schuyler, had been so bare of troops
 +during the winter that serious apprehensions had been felt
 +lest Ticonderoga might be taken by a sudden movement
 +from Canada over the ice. The Northern army was still
 +very feeble; and the regiments designed to reinforce it
 +filled up so slowly, notwithstanding the offer of large additional
 +bounties, that Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
 +New Hampshire were obliged to resort to a kind of conscription,
 +a draft of militia men to serve for twelve months
 +as substitutes till the regiments could be filled. In forming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
 +the first New England army, the enlistment of negro
 +slaves had been specially prohibited; but recruits of any
 +color were now gladly accepted, and many negroes obtained
 +their freedom by enlistment.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Middle and Southern colonies, whence Washington’s
 +recruits were principally to come, were still more behind-hand.
 +Of the men enlisted in those states, many were
 +foreign-born, redemptioners, or indented servants, whose
 +attachment to the cause could not fully be relied upon.
 +Congress had offered bounties in land to such Germans as
 +might desert from the British, and Howe now retorted by
 +promising rewards in money to foreigners deserting the
 +American service. Congress, as a countervailing measure,
 +at Washington’s earnest request relinquished a plan they
 +had adopted of stopping a portion of the pay of the indented
 +servants in the army as a compensation to their
 +masters for loss of service. That compensation was left
 +to be provided for at the public expense, and the enlisted
 +servants were all declared freemen.</p>
 +
 +<p>Washington was still at Morristown, waiting with no little
 +anxiety the movements of the British. The expected
 +reinforcements and supplies, especially tents, the want of
 +which had kept Howe from moving, had at last arrived.
 +Burgoyne had assumed the command in Canada; but what
 +his intentions were Washington did not know—whether
 +he would advance by way of Lake Champlain, or, what
 +seemed more probable, would take shipping in the St.
 +Lawrence and join Howe in New York. Nor could he tell
 +whether Howe would move up the Hudson to co-operate
 +with Burgoyne, or whether he would attempt Philadelphia;
 +and if so, whether by land or water.</p>
 +
 +<p>Philadelphia, however, seemed the most probable object
 +of attack; and the more effectually to cover that city,
 +leaving Putnam in the Highlands with a division of Eastern
 +troops, Washington, on May 28th, moved to a piece of
 +strong ground at Middlebrook, about twelve miles from
 +Princeton. He had with him forty-three battalions, arranged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
 +in ten brigades and five divisions; but these battalions
 +were so far from being full that the whole amounted
 +to only eight thousand men.</p>
 +
 +<p>On June 13th Howe marched out of New Brunswick
 +with a powerful army, designing apparently to force his
 +way to Philadelphia. Washington called to his aid a large
 +part of the troops in the Highlands; the New Jersey militia
 +turned out in force; Arnold, to whom had been assigned
 +the command at Philadelphia, was busy with Mifflin in
 +preparing defences for the Delaware. It was Howe’s real
 +object, not so much to penetrate to Philadelphia as to draw
 +Washington out of his intrenchments and to bring on a
 +general engagement, in which, upon anything like equal
 +ground, the British general felt certain of victory. With
 +that intent he made a sudden and rapid retreat, evacuated
 +New Brunswick even, and fell back to Amboy. The bait
 +seemed to take; the American van, under Stirling, descended
 +to the low grounds, and Washington moved with
 +the main body to Quibbletown. But when Howe turned
 +suddenly about and attempted to gain the passes and
 +heights on the American left, Washington, ever on the
 +alert, fell rapidly back to the strong ground at Middlebrook.
 +In this retrograde movement Stirling’s division lost a few
 +men and three pieces of artillery; but the American army
 +was soon in a position in which Howe did not choose to
 +attack it.</p>
 +
 +<p>Defeated in this attempt to bring on a general action,
 +and having made up his mind to approach Philadelphia
 +by water, the British commander, on June 30th, withdrew
 +into Staten Island, where he embarked the main body of
 +his army, not less than sixteen thousand strong, leaving
 +Clinton, who had been lately honored with the Order of
 +the Bath, to hold New York with five thousand men, and,
 +by expeditions up the Hudson and into New Jersey, to
 +co-operate as well with Burgoyne as with the attack upon
 +Philadelphia.</p>
 +
 +<p>Washington knew from spies, of whom he always had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
 +a number in New York, that a fleet of transports was fitting
 +out there, but its destination was kept secret. Perhaps
 +Howe meant to proceed up the Hudson to co-operate
 +with Burgoyne; and the probability of such a movement
 +seemed to be increased by the arrival of news that Burgoyne
 +was advancing up Lake Champlain. Perhaps, with
 +the same object of aiding Burgoyne, Howe might make an
 +attempt upon Boston, thus finding employment at home
 +for the New England militia and preventing any reinforcements
 +to Schuyler’s army. Under these impressions,
 +Washington moved slowly toward the Hudson; but when
 +the British fleet went to sea, he retraced his steps toward
 +the Delaware; and news arriving that the ships had been
 +seen off Cape May, he advanced to Germantown. Instead
 +of entering the Delaware, the British fleet was presently
 +seen steering to the eastward, and all calculations were
 +thus again baffled. It was thought that Howe was returning
 +to New York or had sailed for New England, and
 +the army was kept ready to march at a moment’s notice.
 +Washington, in the interval, proceeded to Philadelphia and
 +there had an interview with Congress.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The force in Canada at Burgoyne’s disposal had been a
 +good deal underrated by Washington and by Congress;
 +nor could they be induced to believe that anything was
 +intended in that quarter beyond a feigned attack upon
 +Ticonderoga, in order to distract attention from Philadelphia.
 +Hence the less pains had been taken to fill up
 +the ranks of the Northern army, which, indeed, was much
 +weaker than Congress had supposed. At least ten thousand
 +men were necessary for the defence of Ticonderoga
 +alone; but St. Clair, who commanded there, had only
 +three thousand, very insufficiently armed and equipped.
 +The posts in the rear were equally weak.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was a part of Burgoyne’s plan not merely to take
 +Ticonderoga, but to advance thence upon Albany, and,
 +with the co-operation of the troops at New York, to get<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
 +possession also of the posts in the Highlands. The British
 +would then command the Hudson through its whole
 +extent, and New England, the head of the rebellion, would
 +be completely cut off from the Middle and Southern
 +colonies.</p>
 +
 +<p>Burgoyne started on this expedition with a brilliant
 +army of eight thousand men, partly British and partly
 +Germans, besides a large number of Canadian boatmen,
 +laborers, and skirmishers. On the western shore of Lake
 +Champlain, near Crown Point, he met the Six Nations in
 +council, and, after a feast and a speech, some four hundred
 +of their warriors joined his army. His next step, on
 +June 29th, was to issue a proclamation, in a very grandiloquent
 +style, setting forth his own and the British power,
 +painting in vivid colors the rage and fury of the Indians,
 +so difficult to be restrained, and threatening with all the
 +extremities of war all who should presume to resist his
 +arms.</p>
 +
 +<p>Two days after the issue of this proclamation, Burgoyne
 +appeared before Ticonderoga. He occupied a steep
 +hill which overlooked the fort, and which the Americans
 +had neglected because they thought it inaccessible to
 +artillery. Preparations for attack were rapidly making,
 +and St. Clair saw there was no chance for his troops except
 +in instant retreat. The baggage and stores, placed
 +in bateaux, under convoy of five armed galleys, the last
 +remains of the American flotilla, were despatched, on
 +July 6th, up the narrow southern extremity of the lake
 +to Skenesborough, now Whitehall, toward which point the
 +troops retired by land, in a southeasterly direction, through
 +the New Hampshire Grants.</p>
 +
 +<p>While General Fraser pursued the retreating troops,
 +followed by General Riedesel with a corps of Germans,
 +Burgoyne forced the obstructions opposite Ticonderoga,
 +and, embarking several regiments, he speedily overtook
 +the American stores and baggage, all of which fell into
 +his hands.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_125" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.875em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_151.jpg" width="510" height="1200" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BURGOYNE’S ROUTE</div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
 +The garrison of Skenesborough, informed of Burgoyne’s
 +approach, set fire to the works and retreated up Wood
 +Creek to Fort Anne, a post about half-way to the Hudson.
 +They had a sharp skirmish with a British regiment which
 +followed them; but, other troops coming up, they set fire
 +to the buildings at Fort Anne and retired to Fort Edward.</p>
 +
 +<p>The van of St. Clair’s troops, at the end of their first
 +day’s march, had reached Castleton, a distance of thirty
 +miles from Ticonderoga; but the rear, which included
 +many stragglers, and amounted to twelve hundred men,
 +contrary to St. Clair’s express orders, stopped short at
 +Hubberton, six miles behind, where they were overtaken
 +on the morning of July 7th and attacked by Fraser. One
 +of the regiments fled disgracefully, leaving most of their
 +officers to be taken prisoners. The two other regiments,
 +under Francis and Warner, made a stout resistance, but
 +when Riedesel came up with his Germans they too gave
 +way. Francis was killed, and many with him; some two
 +hundred were taken prisoners. Those who escaped, though
 +dispersed for the moment, reached St. Clair in detached
 +parties. Warner, with some ninety men, came up two
 +days after the battle. This was at Rutland, to which place
 +St. Clair, having heard of the fall of Skenesborough had
 +continued his retreat. For some time his whereabouts
 +was unknown, but, after a seven days’ march, he joined
 +Schuyler at Fort Edward, on the Hudson. Here was
 +assembled the whole force of the Northern army, amounting
 +to about five thousand men; but a considerable part
 +were militia hastily called in, many were without arms,
 +there was a great deficiency of ammunition and provisions,
 +and the whole force was quite disorganized.</p>
 +
 +<p>The region between Skenesborough and the Hudson was
 +an almost unbroken wilderness. Wood Creek was navigable
 +as far as Fort Anne; from Fort Anne to the Hudson,
 +over an exceedingly rough country, covered with thick
 +woods and intersected by numerous streams and morasses,
 +extended a single military road. While Burgoyne halted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
 +a few days at Skenesborough to put his forces in order
 +and to bring up the necessary supplies, Schuyler hastened
 +to destroy the navigation of Wood Creek by sinking impediments
 +in its channel, and to break up the bridges and
 +causeways, of which there were fifty or more on the road
 +from Fort Anne to Fort Edward. At all those points
 +where the construction of a side passage would be difficult
 +he ordered trees to be felled across the road with their
 +branches interlocking. All the stock in the neighborhood
 +was driven off, and the militia of New England was summoned
 +to the rescue.</p>
 +
 +<p>The loss of Ticonderoga, with its numerous artillery, and
 +the subsequent rapid disasters came like a thunderbolt on
 +Congress and the Northern States. “We shall never be
 +able to defend a post,” wrote John Adams, President of
 +the Board of War, in a private letter, “till we shoot a
 +general.” Disasters, the unavoidable result of weakness,
 +were ascribed to the incapacity or cowardice of the officers.
 +Suggestions of treachery even were whispered, and the
 +prejudices of the New-Englanders against Schuyler broke
 +out with new violence. In the anger and vexation of the
 +moment, all the Northern generals were recalled, and an
 +inquiry was ordered into their conduct; but the execution
 +of this order was suspended on the representation of
 +Washington that the Northern army could not be left
 +without officers. Washington shared the general surprise
 +and vexation, but he had confidence in Schuyler, and he
 +did all in his power to reinforce the Northern army. Two
 +brigades from the Highlands, Morgan with his rifle corps,
 +the impetuous Arnold, and Lincoln, a great favorite with
 +the Massachusetts militia, were ordered to the Northern
 +Department. Washington declined the selection of a new
 +commander tendered to him by Congress, and that selection,
 +guided by the New England members, fell upon Gates.</p>
 +
 +<p>Burgoyne meanwhile issued a new proclamation for a
 +convention of ten deputies from each township, to assemble
 +at Castleton, to confer with Governor Skene, and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
 +take measures for the re-establishment of the royal authority.
 +Schuyler, in a counter-proclamation, threatened
 +the utmost rigor of the law of treason against all who complied
 +with Burgoyne’s propositions. Subsequently to the
 +Declaration of Independence, the inhabitants of Vermont
 +had organized themselves into an independent state, had
 +applied to Congress for admission into the Union, and had
 +adopted a constitution. A Continental regiment had been
 +raised and officered in Vermont, of which Warner had been
 +commissioned as colonel. But Congress, through the influence
 +of New York, disclaimed any intention to countenance
 +the pretensions of Vermont to independence; and
 +the Vermont petition for admission into the Union had
 +been lately dismissed with some asperity. If Burgoyne,
 +however, founded any hopes of defection upon this circumstance,
 +he found himself quite mistaken.</p>
 +
 +<p>The advance from Skenesborough cost the British infinite
 +labor and fatigue; but, beyond breaking up the
 +roads and placing obstacles in their way, Schuyler was
 +not strong enough to annoy them. These impediments
 +were at length overcome; and Burgoyne, with his troops,
 +artillery, and baggage, presently appeared on the banks
 +of the Hudson. The British army hailed with enthusiasm
 +the sight of that river, object of their toil, which they
 +had reached on July 29th with great efforts indeed, but
 +with an uninterrupted career of success and a loss of not
 +above two hundred men.</p>
 +
 +<p>It now only remained for the British to force their way
 +to Albany; nor did it seem likely that Schuyler could
 +offer any serious resistance. His army, not yet materially
 +increased, was principally composed of militia without discipline,
 +the troops from the eastward being very little inclined
 +to serve under his orders and constantly deserting. Fort
 +Edward was untenable. As the British approached, the
 +Americans crossed the river, and retired, first to Saratoga,
 +and then to Stillwater, a short distance above the mouth
 +of the Mohawk.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
 +Hardly had Schuyler taken up this position when news
 +arrived of another disaster and a new danger. While
 +moving up Lake Champlain, Burgoyne had detached
 +Colonel St. Leger, with two hundred regulars, Sir John
 +Johnson’s Royal Greens, some Canadian Rangers, and a
 +body of Indians under Brant, to harass the New York
 +frontier from the west. On August 3d St. Leger laid siege
 +to Fort Schuyler, late Fort Stanwix, near the head of the
 +Mohawk, then the extreme western post of the State of
 +New York. General Herkimer raised the militia of Tryon
 +County, and advanced to the relief of this important post,
 +which was held by Gansevoort and Willett, with two New
 +York regiments. About six miles from the fort, owing to
 +want of proper precaution, Herkimer, on August 6th, fell
 +into an ambush. Mortally wounded, he supported himself
 +against a stump and encouraged his men to the fight.
 +By the aid of a successful sally by Willett, they succeeded
 +at last in repulsing the assailants, but not without a loss
 +of four hundred, including many of the leading patriots of
 +that region, who met with no mercy at the hands of the
 +Indians and refugees.</p>
 +
 +<p>Tryon County, which included the whole district west
 +of Albany, abounded with Tories. It was absolutely necessary
 +to relieve Fort Schuyler, lest its surrender should be
 +the signal for a general insurrection. Arnold volunteered
 +for that service, and was despatched by Schuyler with
 +three regiments; with the rest of his army he withdrew
 +into the islands at the confluence of the Mohawk and the
 +Hudson, a more defensible station than the camp at Stillwater.</p>
 +
 +<p>The command of Lake George, as well as of Lake Champlain,
 +had passed into the hands of the British. That lake
 +furnished a convenient means of transportation; a large
 +quantity of provisions and stores for the British army had
 +arrived at Fort George, and Burgoyne was exerting every
 +effort for their transportation to his camp on the Hudson.
 +The land carriage was only eighteen miles, but the roads<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
 +were so bad and the supply of draught cattle so small that,
 +after a fortnight’s hard labor, the British army had only
 +four days’ provisions in advance.</p>
 +
 +<p>“To try the affections of the country, to mount Riedesel’s
 +Dragoons, to complete Peter’s Corps of Loyalists,
 +and to obtain a large supply of cattle, horses, and carriages,
 +so Burgoyne expressed himself in his instructions,
 +it was resolved to send a strong detachment into the settlements
 +on the left. Colonel Baum was sent on this
 +errand, with two pieces of artillery and eight hundred
 +men, dismounted German dragoons and British marksmen,
 +with a body of Canadians and Indians, and Skene
 +and a party of Loyalists for guides.</p>
 +
 +<p>Langdon, the principal merchant at Portsmouth, and
 +a member of the New Hampshire council, having patriotically
 +volunteered the means to put them in motion,
 +a corps of New Hampshire militia, called out upon news
 +of the loss of Ticonderoga, had lately arrived at Bennington
 +under the command of Stark. Disgusted at not
 +having been made a brigadier, Stark had resigned his
 +Continental commission as colonel, and, in agreeing to
 +take the leadership of the militia, had expressly stipulated
 +for an independent command. On that ground he had
 +just declined to obey an order from Lincoln to join the
 +main army—a piece of insubordination which might have
 +proved fatal, but which, in the present case, turned out
 +otherwise. Informed of Baum’s approach, Stark sent off
 +expresses for militia and for Warner’s regiment, encamped
 +at Manchester, and joined by many fugitives since the
 +battle of Hubberton. Six miles from Bennington, on the
 +appearance of Stark’s forces (August 14th), Baum began to
 +intrench himself, and sent back to Burgoyne for reinforcements.
 +The next day was rainy, and Stark, also expecting
 +reinforcements, delayed the attack. Baum improved
 +the interval in throwing up intrenchments. Breyman
 +marched to his assistance, but was delayed by the rain and
 +the badness of the roads, which also kept back Warner’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
 +regiment. Having been joined on August 16th by some
 +Berkshire militia under Colonel Simmons, Stark drew out
 +his forces, and about noon approached the enemy. “There
 +they are!” exclaimed the rustic general—“we beat to-day,
 +or Molly Stark’s a widow!” The assault was made in
 +four columns, in front and rear at the same time, and after
 +a hot action of two hours the intrenchments were carried.
 +The Indians and provincials escaped to the woods; the
 +Germans were mostly taken or slain. The battle was
 +hardly over, and Stark’s men were in a good deal of confusion,
 +when, about four in the afternoon, Breyman was
 +seen coming up. Warner’s regiment luckily arrived at
 +the same time. The battle was renewed and kept up till
 +dark, when Breyman abandoned his baggage and artillery,
 +and made the best retreat he could. Besides the killed,
 +about two hundred in number, the Americans took near
 +six hundred prisoners, a thousand stand of arms, as many
 +swords, and four pieces of artillery—a seasonable supply
 +for the militia now flocking in from all quarters. The
 +American loss was only fourteen killed and forty-two
 +wounded.</p>
 +
 +<p>Just at the moment when a turn in the affairs of the
 +Northern Department became fully apparent, the two brigades
 +from the Highlands having arrived, and the militia
 +fast pouring in, Schuyler, much to his mortification, was
 +superseded by Gates on August 22d. He still remained,
 +however, at Albany, and gave his assistance toward carrying
 +on the campaign. The day after Gates assumed the
 +command, Morgan arrived with his rifle corps, five hundred
 +strong, to which were presently added two hundred and
 +fifty picked men under Major Dearborn, of Scammell’s
 +New Hampshire regiment.</p>
 +
 +<p>The victory of Stark had a magical effect in reviving the
 +spirits of the people and the courage of the soldiers. Indignation
 +was also aroused by the cruelties reported of
 +Burgoyne’s Indian allies. A most pathetic story was
 +told of one Jenny McRea, murdered by Indians near Fort<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
 +Edward. Her family were Loyalists; she herself was
 +engaged to be married to a Loyalist officer. She was
 +dressed to receive her lover, when a party of Indians burst
 +into the house, carried off the whole family to the woods,
 +and there murdered, scalped, and mangled them in the
 +most horrible manner. Such, at least, was the story as
 +told in a letter of remonstrance from Gates to Burgoyne.
 +Burgoyne, in his reply, gave, however, a different account.
 +According to his version, the murder was committed by
 +two Indians sent by the young lady’s lover to conduct her
 +for safety to the British camp. They quarrelled on the
 +way respecting the division of the promised reward, and
 +settled the dispute by killing the girl. Even this correction
 +hardly lessened the effect of the story or diminished
 +the detestation so naturally felt at the employment of such
 +barbarous allies.</p>
 +
 +<p>The artful Arnold, while on his march for the relief of
 +Fort Schuyler, had sent into St. Leger’s camp a very
 +exaggerated account of his numbers. The Indians, who
 +had suffered severely in the battle with Herkimer, and
 +who had glutted their vengeance by the murder of prisoners,
 +seized with a sudden panic, deserted in large numbers.
 +On August 22d, two days before Arnold’s arrival,
 +St. Leger himself precipitately retired, leaving his tents
 +standing and the greater part of his stores and baggage
 +to fall into Arnold’s hands. On returning to Gates’ camp,
 +Arnold received the command of the left wing.</p>
 +
 +<p>These checks were not without their effect on the Six
 +Nations. Burgoyne’s Indians began to desert him—an
 +example which the Canadians soon followed. The Onondagas
 +and some of the Mohawks joined the Americans.
 +Through the influence of the missionary Kirkland, the
 +Oneidas had all along been favorably disposed. It was
 +only the more western clans, the Cayugas, Tuscaroras,
 +and Senecas, which adhered firmly during the war to the
 +British side.</p>
 +
 +<p>The American army being now about six thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>
 +strong, besides detached parties of militia under General
 +Lincoln, which hung upon the British rear, Gates left his
 +island camp, and presently occupied Behmus’ Heights,
 +a spur from the hills on the west side of the Hudson, jutting
 +close upon the river. By untiring efforts, Burgoyne
 +had brought forward thirty days’ provisions, and, having
 +thrown a bridge of boats over the Hudson, he crossed to
 +Saratoga. With advanced parties in front to repair the
 +roads and bridges, his army slowly descended the Hudson—the
 +Germans on the left, by a road close along the
 +river; the British, covered by light infantry, provincials,
 +and Indians, by the high ground on the right.</p>
 +
 +<p>Gates’ camp on the brow of Behmus’<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Heights formed
 +a segment of a circle, convex toward the enemy. A deep
 +intrenchment extended to the river on the right, covered
 +not only by strong batteries, but by an abrupt and thickly
 +wooded ravine descending to the river. From the head
 +of this ravine, toward the left, the ground was level and
 +partially cleared, some trees being felled and others girdled.
 +The defences here consisted of a breastwork of logs. On
 +the extreme left, a distance of three-quarters of a mile from
 +the river, was a knoll, a little in the rear, crowned by
 +strong batteries, and there was another battery to the left
 +of the centre. Between the two armies were two more
 +deep ravines, both wooded. An alarm being given about
 +noon of September 19th that the enemy was approaching
 +the left of the encampment, Morgan was sent forward with
 +his riflemen. Having forced a picket, his men, in the
 +ardor of pursuit, fell unexpectedly upon a strong British
 +column, and were thrown into temporary confusion.
 +Cilley’s and Scammell’s New Hampshire regiments were
 +ordered out to reinforce him. Hale’s regiment of New
 +Hampshire, Van Courtlandt’s and Henry Livingston’s of
 +New York, and two regiments of Connecticut militia were
 +successively led to the field, with orders to extend to the
 +left and support the points where they perceived the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
 +greatest pressure. About three o’clock the action became
 +general, and till nightfall the fire of musketry was incessant.
 +The British had four field-pieces; the ground occupied
 +by the Americans, a thick wood on the borders of
 +an open field, did not admit the use of artillery. On the
 +opposite side of this field, on a rising ground, in a thin
 +pine wood, the British troops were drawn up. Whenever
 +they advanced into the open field, the fire of the American
 +marksmen drove them back in disorder; but when the
 +Americans followed into the open ground the British
 +would rally, charge, and force them to fall back. The
 +field was thus lost and won a dozen times in the course of
 +the day. At every charge the British artillery fell into
 +possession of the Americans, but the ground would not
 +allow them to carry off the pieces, nor could they be kept
 +long enough to be turned on the enemy. Late in the
 +afternoon, the British left being reinforced from the German
 +column, General Learned was ordered out with four
 +regiments of Massachusetts and another of New York.
 +Something decisive might now have occurred, but the
 +approach of night broke off the contest, and the Americans
 +withdrew to their camp, leaving the field in possession of
 +the British. They encamped upon it, and claimed the
 +victory; but, if not a drawn battle, it was one of those
 +victories equivalent to a defeat. The British loss was upward
 +of five hundred, the American less than three hundred.
 +To have held their ground in the circumstances in
 +which the armies stood was justly esteemed by the Americans
 +a decided triumph.</p>
 +
 +<p>In anticipation of an action, Gates had ordered the
 +detached corps to join him. Stark, with the victors of
 +Bennington, had arrived in camp the day before. Their
 +term of service, however, expired that day; and satisfied
 +with laurels already won, in spite of all attempts to detain
 +them, they marched off the very morning of the battle.
 +In consideration of his courage and good conduct at
 +Bennington, Congress overlooked the insubordination of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
 +Stark, which, in a resolution just before, they had pointedly
 +condemned, and he was presently elected a brigadier.
 +Howe and McDougall about the same time were chosen
 +major-generals.</p>
 +
 +<p>Before receiving Gates’ orders to join the main body, a
 +party of Lincoln’s militia, led by Colonel Brown, had
 +surprised the posts at the outlet of Lake George on September
 +17th, and had taken three hundred prisoners, also
 +several armed vessels and a fleet of bateaux employed in
 +transporting provisions up the lake. Uniting with another
 +party under Colonel Johnson, they approached Ticonderoga
 +and beleaguered it for four days. Burgoyne’s
 +communications thus entirely cut off, his situation became
 +very alarming, and he began to intrench. His difficulties increased
 +every moment. Provisions were diminishing, forage
 +was exhausted, the horses were perishing. To retreat with
 +the enemy in his rear was as difficult as to advance.</p>
 +
 +<p>A change of circumstances not less remarkable had
 +taken place in the American camp. Gates’ army was increasing
 +every day. The battle of Behmus’ Heights was
 +sounded through the country as a great victory, and, the
 +harvest being now over, the militia marched in from all
 +sides to complete the overthrow of the invaders. Lincoln,
 +with the greater part of his militia, having joined the army
 +on September 22d, he received the command of the right
 +wing. Arnold, on some quarrel or jealousy on the part
 +of Gates, had been deprived, since the late battle, of his
 +command of the left wing, which Gates assumed in person.
 +Gates was neither more able nor more trustworthy than
 +Schuyler; but the soldiers believed him so, and zeal,
 +alacrity, and obedience had succeeded to doubts, distrust,
 +and insubordination. Yet Gates was not without his difficulties.
 +The supply of ammunition was very short, and
 +the late change in the commissariat department, taking
 +place in the midst of the campaign, made the feeding of
 +the troops a matter of no little anxiety.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_135" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_162.jpg" width="600" height="699" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BEHMUS’ OR BEMIS’ HEIGHTS<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">Disposition of troops, October 7th</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>There was still one hope for Burgoyne. A letter in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
 +cipher, brought by a trusty messenger from Clinton, at
 +New York, informed him of an intended diversion up the
 +Hudson; and, could he maintain his present position, he
 +might yet be relieved. But his troops, on short allowance
 +of provisions, were already suffering severely, and it was
 +necessary either to retreat or to find relief in another
 +battle. To make a reconnaissance of the American lines,
 +he drew out fifteen hundred picked men on October 7th
 +and formed them less than a mile from the American
 +camp. The two camps, indeed, were hardly cannon-shot
 +apart. As soon as Burgoyne’s position was discovered
 +his left was furiously assailed by Poor’s New Hampshire
 +brigade. The attack extended rapidly to the right, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>
 +Morgan’s riflemen manœuvred to cut off the British from
 +their camp. Gates did not appear on the field any more
 +than in the former battle; but Arnold, though without any
 +regular command, took, as usual, a leading part. He
 +seemed under the impulse of some extraordinary excitement,
 +riding at full speed, issuing orders, and cheering on
 +the men. To avoid being cut off from the camp, the
 +British right was already retreating, when the left, pressed
 +and overwhelmed by superior numbers, began to give way.
 +The gallant Fraser was mortally wounded, picked off by
 +the American marksmen; six pieces of artillery were
 +abandoned; and only by the greatest efforts did the British
 +troops regain their camp. The Americans followed
 +close upon them, and, through a shower of grape and
 +musketry, assaulted the right of the British works. Arnold
 +forced an entrance; but he was wounded, his horse was
 +shot under him as he rode into one of the sally-ports, and
 +his column was driven back. Colonel Brooks, at the head
 +of Jackson’s regiment of Massachusetts, was more successful.
 +He turned the intrenchments of a German brigade,
 +forced them from the ground at the point of the bayonet,
 +captured their camp equipage and artillery, and, what was
 +of still more importance, and a great relief to the American
 +army, an ample supply of ammunition. The repeated
 +attempts of the British to dislodge him all failed, and he
 +remained at night in possession of the works. Darkness
 +at length put an end to the fighting; but the Americans
 +slept on their arms, prepared to renew it the next morning.
 +The advantages they had gained were decisive. The
 +British had lost four hundred men in killed, wounded, and
 +prisoners; artillery, ammunition, and tents had been captured;
 +and the possession of a part of the works by the
 +Americans would enable them to renew the attack the
 +next day with every chance of success. For the safety
 +of the British army a change of position was indispensable;
 +and, while the Americans slept, the British general, with
 +skill and intrepidity, order and silence, drew back his discomfited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
 +troops to some high grounds in the rear, where
 +the British army appeared the next morning (October 8th)
 +drawn up in order of battle. That day was spent in skirmishes.
 +While attempting to reconnoitre, General Lincoln
 +was severely wounded and disabled from further service.
 +Fraser was buried on a hill he had designated, amid
 +showers of balls from the American lines. The Baroness
 +de Riedesel, who followed the camp with her young children,
 +and whose quarters were turned into a sort of hospital
 +for the wounded officers, has left a pathetic account
 +of the horrors of that day and of the retreat that followed.</p>
 +
 +<p>To avoid being surrounded, Burgoyne was obliged to abandon
 +his new position, and, with the loss of his hospitals
 +and numerous sick and wounded, to fall back to Saratoga
 +on October 9th. The distance was only six miles;
 +but the rain fell in torrents, the roads were almost impassable,
 +the bridge over the Fishkill had been broken down by
 +the Americans, and this retrograde movement consumed
 +an entire day. The same obstacles prevented, however,
 +any serious annoyance from the American troops. During
 +this retreat, the better to cover the movements of the
 +army, General Schuyler’s house at Saratoga and extensive
 +saw-mills were set on fire and destroyed. A body
 +of artificers, sent forward under a strong escort to repair
 +the bridge toward Fort Edward, found that road and the
 +ford across the Hudson already occupied by the Americans.
 +The fleet of bateaux, loaded with the British supplies
 +and provisions, was assailed from the left bank of
 +the river, and many of the boats were taken. The lading
 +of the others was only saved by a most laborious and difficult
 +transportation, under a sharp American fire, up the
 +steep river-bank to the heights occupied by the British
 +army. Even the camp itself was not safe; grape and
 +rifle balls fell in the midst of it.</p>
 +
 +<p>Burgoyne’s situation was truly deplorable. He had
 +heard nothing further from New York, and his effective
 +force was now reduced to four thousand men, surrounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
 +by an enemy three times as numerous, flushed with success,
 +and rapidly increasing. All the fords and passes
 +toward Lake George were occupied and covered by intrenchments,
 +and, even should the baggage and artillery
 +be abandoned, there was no hope of forcing a passage.
 +An account of the provisions on hand (October 13th)
 +showed only three days’ supply. The troops, exhausted
 +with hunger and fatigue, and conscious of their hopeless
 +situation, could not be depended on, especially should the
 +camp be attacked. A council of war, to which not field
 +officers only, but all the captains commandant were summoned,
 +advised to open a treaty of capitulation.</p>
 +
 +<p>Gates demanded, at first, an unconditional surrender;
 +but to that Burgoyne would not submit. The American
 +commander was the less precise about terms, and very
 +eager to hasten matters, lest he too might be attacked in the
 +rear. He knew, though Burgoyne did not, that the intended
 +diversion from New York, delayed for some time
 +to await the arrival of forces from Europe, had at length
 +been successfully made, and that all the American posts
 +in the Highlands had fallen into the hands of the British.
 +Should Burgoyne continue to hold out, this new enemy
 +might even make a push on Albany.</p>
 +
 +<p>The main defences of the Highlands, Forts Clinton and
 +Montgomery, on the west bank of the Hudson, separated
 +from each other by a small stream, and too high to be battered
 +from the water, were surrounded by steep and rugged
 +hills which made the approach to them on the land side
 +very difficult. To stop the ascent of the enemy’s ships,
 +frames of timber, with projecting beams shod with iron,
 +had been sunk in the channel. A boom, formed of great
 +trees fastened together, extended from bank to bank,
 +and in front of this boom was stretched a huge iron chain.
 +Above these impediments several armed vessels were
 +moored. On an island a few miles higher up, and near
 +the eastern bank of the river, was Fort Constitution, with
 +another boom and chain. Near the entrance of the Highlands,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
 +and below the other posts, Fort Independence
 +occupied a high point of land on the east bank of the river.
 +It was at Peekskill, just below Fort Independence, that the
 +commanding officer in the Highlands usually had his
 +headquarters. The two brigades sent to the Northern
 +army, and other detachments which Washington had himself
 +been obliged to draw from the Highlands, had so
 +weakened the regular garrison that Washington became
 +much alarmed for the safety of that important post. The
 +remainder of the New York militia, not under arms in the
 +Northern Department, had been called out by Governor
 +Clinton to supply the place of the detached regulars;
 +other militia had been sent from Connecticut; but, as no
 +signs of immediate attack appeared, and as the harvest
 +demanded their services at home, Putnam allowed most of
 +them to return. Half the New York militia were ordered
 +back again by Clinton, but before they had mustered the
 +posts were lost. Putnam was at Peekskill with the main
 +body of the garrison, which amounted in the whole to not
 +more than two thousand men. While a party of the
 +enemy amused him with the idea that Fort Independence
 +was their object, a stronger party landed lower down, on
 +the other side of the river, and, pushing inland through
 +the defiles of the Highlands, approached Forts Clinton and
 +Montgomery, of which the entire garrison did not exceed
 +six hundred men. Before assistance could be sent by
 +Putnam—indeed, before he knew of the attack—the forts,
 +much too extensive to be defended by so small a force,
 +were both taken on October 5th. Governor Clinton, who
 +commanded, his brother, General James Clinton, and a
 +part of the garrison availed themselves of the knowledge of
 +the ground and escaped across the river, but the Americans
 +suffered a loss of two hundred and fifty in killed and prisoners.
 +Fort Constitution was immediately evacuated by
 +the few troops that held it, and two new Continental
 +frigates, with some other vessels, were set on fire to prevent
 +their falling into the hands of the enemy. Even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
 +Peekskill and Fort Independence were abandoned, the
 +stores being conveyed to Fishkill, whither Putnam retired
 +with his forces. The booms and chains were removed,
 +so that ships could pass up; and a British detachment
 +under Tryon burned Continental Village, a new settlement
 +on the east side of the river, where many public stores
 +were deposited.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_141" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_167.jpg" width="600" height="1135" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">DISPOSITION OF TROOPS FROM OCTOBER 11TH TILL THE SURRENDER, OCTOBER 17TH</div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
 +Informed of these movements, and very anxious to
 +have Burgoyne’s army out of the way, Gates agreed, on
 +October 16th, that the British troops should march out
 +of their camp with the honors of war, should lay down
 +their arms, and be conducted to Boston, there to embark
 +for England, under an engagement not to serve against
 +the United States till exchanged. Having heard from a
 +deserter of the advance of Clinton, Burgoyne hesitated to
 +ratify the treaty; but, on consideration and consultation
 +with his officers, he did not choose to run the risk of breaking
 +it. The prisoners included in this capitulation were five
 +thousand six hundred and forty-two; the previous losses
 +of the army amounted to near four thousand more. The
 +arms, artillery, baggage, and camp equipage became the
 +property of the captors. The German regiments contrived
 +to save their colors by cutting them from the
 +staves, rolling them up, and packing them away with
 +Madame de Riedesel’s baggage.</p>
 +
 +<p>As soon as the garrison of Ticonderoga heard of the
 +surrender, they hastily destroyed what they could and
 +retired to Canada. Putnam no sooner heard of it than
 +he sent pressing despatches for assistance. The British
 +had proceeded as high up as Esopus, which they burned
 +about the very time that Burgoyne was capitulating.
 +Putnam had been already joined by some three thousand
 +militia, to which a large detachment from Gates’ army
 +was soon added. As it was now too late to succor Burgoyne,
 +having dismantled the forts in the Highlands, the
 +British returned to New York, carrying with them sixty-seven
 +pieces of heavy artillery and a large quantity of
 +provisions and ammunition. Before their departure they
 +burned every house within their reach—a piece of malice
 +ascribed to Tryon and his Tories.</p>
 +
 +<p>The capture of a whole British army,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> lately the object<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
 +of so much terror, produced, especially in New England,
 +an exultation proportionate to the recent alarm. The
 +military reputation of Gates, elevated to a very high
 +pitch, rivalled even the fame of Washington, dimmed as
 +it was by the loss of Philadelphia, which, meanwhile, had
 +fallen into the enemy’s hands. The youthful Wilkinson,
 +who had acted during the campaign as deputy adjutant-general
 +of the American army, and whose <cite>Memoirs</cite> contain
 +the best account of its movements, being sent to Congress
 +with news of the surrender, was henceforth honored
 +with a brevet commission as brigadier-general; which,
 +however, he speedily resigned when he found a remonstrance
 +against this irregular advancement sent to Congress
 +by forty-seven colonels of the line. The investigation
 +into Schuyler’s conduct resulted, a year afterward, in his
 +acquittal with the highest honor. He insisted, however,
 +on resigning his commission, though strongly urged by
 +Congress to retain it. But he did not relinquish the service
 +of his country, in which he continued as active as
 +ever, being presently chosen a member of Congress.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF<br />
 +SARATOGA, 1777, AND THE BATTLE<br />
 +OF YORKTOWN, 1781</h3>
 +
 +<p>1777. Congress adopts the Articles of Confederation.
 +Stars and Stripes adopted. British evacuate New York.
 +British occupy Philadelphia. American winter-quarters at
 +Valley Forge, in December.</p>
 +
 +<p>1778. France recognizes the independence of the United
 +States. The British evacuate Philadelphia. The battle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
 +Monmouth. France declares war against England. The
 +Wyoming Valley Massacre. Battle of Rhode Island. The
 +British enter Savannah. General George Rogers Clark
 +conquers the “Old Northwest.”</p>
 +
 +<p>1779. Storming of Stony Point by the Americans.
 +Paul Jones, in the <i>Bon Homme Richard</i>, is victorious over
 +the British frigate <i>Serapis</i>. The British win the engagement
 +of Brier Creek. Spain declares war against Great
 +Britain. Congress guaranties the Floridas to Spain if she
 +takes them from Great Britain, provided the United
 +States should have free navigation on the Mississippi.</p>
 +
 +<p>1780. Lincoln surrenders to Clinton at Charleston.
 +Defeat of Gates by Cornwallis in the first battle of Camden.
 +Treason of Benedict Arnold. Capture and execution
 +of André. The British are defeated at King’s Mountain.</p>
 +
 +<p>1781. American victory at Cowpens. The ratification
 +of the Articles of Confederation by the several states completed.
 +Greene is defeated by Cornwallis at Guilford
 +Court-House. The British are victorious at Hobkirk’s
 +Hill (second battle of Camden). New London burned by
 +Arnold. Battle of Eutaw Springs. Washington and
 +Rochambeau, aided by the French fleet under Count de
 +Grasse, besiege Cornwallis in Yorktown. Surrender of
 +Cornwallis.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="IX" class="vspace">IX<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_10" class="subhead">YORKTOWN AND THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS
 +(1781)</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +
 +<p>The year 1781 opened with small promise of a speedy ending of
 +the American struggle for independence. New York remained in
 +the hands of the English. Cornwallis was confident of success in
 +the South. But Greene’s brilliant campaigning and Lafayette’s
 +strategy left Cornwallis with a wearied army devoid of any fruits
 +of victory, and, finally returning to the seaboard, he settled himself
 +at Yorktown. Washington, before New York, had watched
 +the Southern campaigns closely. Word came from the Count de
 +Grasse that the French fleet under his command was ready to
 +leave the West Indies and join in operations in Virginia. Washington
 +at once planned a new campaign, destined to prove of
 +peculiar brilliancy. He was joined by Rochambeau’s French
 +army from Newport. Clinton, the British commander in New
 +York, was tricked into believing that the city was to be closely
 +besieged. But the American and French armies, six thousand
 +strong, passed by New York in a race through Princeton and
 +Philadelphia to Chesapeake Bay, which they reached on September
 +5th, the day that De Grasse entered with his fleet to join the
 +other French fleet which had been set free from Newport. De
 +Grasse maintained his command of Chesapeake Bay in spite of
 +the futile attack of Admiral Graves and the British fleet. If
 +Rodney, who had sailed for England, had been in Graves’ place
 +the outcome might have been different. A defeat of De Grasse
 +would have meant British control of the water and a support for
 +Cornwallis, which would have saved his army and ruined Washington’s
 +plans. Yorktown affords one of the striking illustrations
 +in Captain Mahan’s <cite>Influence of Sea Power upon History</cite>.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span></p></blockquote>
 +
 +<h3>I</h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> allied American and French armies joined Lafayette
 +at Williamsburg, Virginia, September 25, 1781,
 +and on the 27th there was a besieging army there of sixteen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
 +thousand men, under the chief command of Washington,
 +assisted by Rochambeau. The British force,
 +about half as numerous, were mostly behind intrenchments
 +at Yorktown. On the arrival of Washington and Rochambeau
 +at Williamsburg, they proceeded to the <i>Ville de Paris</i>,
 +De Grasse’s flag-ship, to congratulate the admiral on his
 +victory over the British admiral Graves on the 5th, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
 +had prevented British relief of Yorktown by sea, and to
 +make specific arrangements for the future. Preparations
 +for the siege were immediately begun. The allied armies
 +marched from Williamsburg (September 28th), driving in
 +the British outposts as they approached Yorktown, and
 +taking possession of abandoned works. The allies formed
 +a semicircular line about two miles from the British intrenchments,
 +each wing resting on the York River, and on
 +the 30th the place was completely invested. The British
 +at Gloucester, opposite, were imprisoned by French dragoons
 +under the Duke de Lauzun, Virginia militia, led
 +by General Weedon, and eight hundred French marines.
 +Only once did the imprisoned troops attempt to escape
 +from that point. Tarleton’s legion sallied out, but were
 +soon driven back by De Lauzun’s cavalry, who made
 +Tarleton’s horse a prisoner and came near capturing his
 +owner.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_147" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_172.jpg" width="700" height="574" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">SIEGE OF YORKTOWN</div></div>
 +
 +<p>In the besieging lines before Yorktown the French troops
 +occupied the left, the West India troops of St. Simon being
 +on the extreme flank. The Americans were on the right;
 +and the French artillery, with the quarters of the two commanders,
 +occupied the centre. The American artillery,
 +commanded by General Knox, was with the right. The
 +fleet of De Grasse was in Lynn Haven Bay to beat off any
 +vessels that might attempt to relieve Cornwallis. On the
 +night of October 6th heavy ordnance was brought up from
 +the French ships, and trenches were begun at six hundred
 +yards from the British works. The first parallel was completed
 +before the morning of the 7th, under the direction
 +of General Lincoln; and on the afternoon of the 9th several
 +batteries and redoubts were finished, and a general
 +discharge of heavy guns was opened by the Americans on
 +the right. Early on the morning of the 10th the French
 +opened several batteries on the left. That evening the
 +same troops hurled red-hot balls upon British vessels in
 +the river, which caused the destruction by fire of several
 +of them—one a forty-four-gun ship.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
 +The allies began the second parallel on the night of the
 +11th, which the British did not discover until daylight
 +came, when they brought several heavy guns to bear upon
 +the diggers. On the 14th it was determined to storm two
 +of the redoubts which were most annoying, as they commanded
 +the trenches. One on the right, near the York
 +River, was garrisoned by forty-five men; the other, on
 +the left, was manned by about one hundred and twenty
 +men. The capture of the former was intrusted to Americans
 +led by Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Hamilton, and
 +that of the latter to French grenadiers led by Count Deuxponts.
 +At a given signal Hamilton advanced in two columns—one
 +led by Major Fish, the other by Lieutenant-Colonel
 +Gimat, Lafayette’s aide, while Lieutenant-Colonel
 +John Laurens, with eighty men, proceeded to turn the redoubt
 +to intercept a retreat of the garrison. So agile
 +and furious was the assault that the redoubt was carried
 +in a few minutes, with little loss on either side. Laurens
 +was among the first to enter the redoubt and make the
 +commander, Major Campbell, a prisoner. The life of every
 +man who ceased to resist was spared.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile the French, after a severe struggle, in which
 +they lost about one hundred men in killed and wounded,
 +captured the other redoubt. Washington, with Knox and
 +some others, had watched the movements with intense
 +anxiety, and when the commander-in-chief saw both redoubts
 +in possession of his troops he turned and said to
 +Knox, “The work is done, and well done.” That night
 +both redoubts were included in the second parallel. The
 +situation of Cornwallis was now critical. He was surrounded
 +by a superior force, his works were crumbling, and
 +he saw that when the second parallel of the besiegers should
 +be completed and the cannon on their batteries mounted
 +his post at Yorktown would become untenable, and he
 +resolved to attempt an escape by abandoning the place,
 +his baggage, and his sick, cross the York River, disperse
 +the allies who environed Gloucester, and by rapid marches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
 +gain the forks of the Rappahannock and Potomac, and,
 +forcing his way by weight of numbers through Maryland
 +and Pennsylvania, join Clinton at New York.</p>
 +
 +<p>Boats for the passage of the river were prepared and a
 +part of the troops passed over, when a furious storm suddenly
 +arose and made any further attempts to cross too
 +hazardous to be undertaken. The troops were brought
 +back, and Cornwallis lost hope. After that the bombardment
 +of his lines was continuous, severe, and destructive,
 +and on the 17th he offered to make terms for surrender.
 +On the following day Lieutenant-Colonel de Laurens and
 +Viscount de Noailles (a kinsman of Madame Lafayette),
 +as commissioners of the allies, met Lieutenant-Colonel
 +Dundas and Major Ross, of the British army, at the house
 +of the Widow Moore to arrange terms for capitulation.
 +They were made similar to those demanded of Lincoln at
 +Charleston eighteen months before. The capitulation
 +was duly signed, October 19, 1781, and late on the afternoon
 +of the same day Cornwallis, his army, and public
 +property were surrendered to the allies.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a></p>
 +
 +<p>For the siege of Yorktown the French provided thirty-seven
 +ships of the line, and the Americans nine. The
 +Americans furnished nine thousand land troops (of whom
 +fifty-five hundred were regulars), and the French seven
 +thousand. Among the prisoners were two battalions of
 +Anspachers, amounting to ten hundred and twenty-seven
 +men, and two regiments of Hessians, numbering eight
 +hundred and seventy-five. The flag of the Anspachers
 +was given to Washington by the Congress.</p>
 +
 +<p>The news of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown
 +spread great joy throughout the colonies, especially at
 +Philadelphia, the seat of the national government. Washington
 +sent Lieutenant-Colonel Tilghman to Congress with
 +the news. He rode express to Philadelphia to carry the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>
 +despatches of the chief announcing the joyful event. He
 +entered the city at midnight, October 23d, and knocked
 +so violently at the door of Thomas McKean, the president
 +of Congress, that a watchman was disposed to arrest him.
 +Soon the glad tidings spread over the city. The watchman,
 +proclaiming the hour and giving the usual cry, “All’s
 +well,” added, “and Cornwallis is taken!” Thousands of
 +citizens rushed from their beds, half dressed, and filled the
 +streets. The old State-house bell, that had clearly proclaimed
 +independence, now rang out tones of gladness.
 +Lights were seen moving in every house. The first blush
 +of morning was greeted with the booming of cannon, and
 +at an early hour the Congress assembled and with quick-beating
 +hearts heard Charles Thomson read the despatch
 +from Washington. At its conclusion it was resolved to
 +go in a body to the Lutheran church, at 2 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, and “return
 +thanks to the Almighty God for crowning the allied
 +armies of the United States and France with success.”<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
 +
 +<h3>II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE RESULTS OF YORKTOWN</span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="p1 b2 center"><i>By Claude Halstead Van Tyne, Ph.D.</i></p>
 +
 +<p>The surrender of Cornwallis came at the right time to
 +produce a great political effect in England. The war had
 +assumed such tremendous proportions that accumulated
 +disaster seemed to threaten the ruin of Great Britain.
 +From India came news of Hyder Ali’s temporary successes,
 +and of the presence of a strong French armament which
 +demanded that England yield every claim except to Bengal.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
 +That Warren Hastings and Sir Eyre Coote would yet
 +save the British Empire there, the politicians could not
 +foresee. Spain had already driven the British forces from
 +Florida, and in the spring of 1782 Minorca fell before her
 +repeated assaults and Gibraltar was fearfully beset. De
 +Grasse’s successes during the winter in the West Indies
 +left only Jamaica, Barbadoes, and Antigua in British hands.
 +St. Eustatius, too, was recaptured, and it was not until the
 +middle of April that Rodney regained England’s naval
 +supremacy by a famous victory near Marie-Galante.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>
 +England had not a friend in Europe, and was beset at
 +home by violent agitation in Ireland, to which she was
 +obliged to yield an independent Irish Parliament.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> Rodney’s
 +victory and the successful repulsion of the Spaniards
 +from Gibraltar, in the summer of 1782, came too late to
 +save the North ministry.</p>
 +
 +<p>The negotiations between the English and American
 +peace envoys dragged on. Congress had instructed the
 +commissioners not to make terms without the approval
 +of the French court, but the commissioners became suspicious
 +of Vergennes, broke their instructions, and dealt
 +directly and solely with the British envoys. Boundaries,
 +fishery questions, treatment of the American loyalists,
 +and settlement of American debts to British subjects were
 +settled one after another, and, November 30, 1782, a provisional
 +treaty was signed. The definitive treaty was delayed
 +until September 3, 1783, after France and England
 +had agreed upon terms of peace.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a></p>
 +
 +<p>America awaited the outcome almost with lethargy.
 +After Yorktown the country relapsed into indifference,
 +and Washington was left helpless to do anything to assure
 +victory. He could only wait and hope that the enemy
 +was as exhausted as America. Disorganization was seen
 +everywhere—in politics, in finance, and in the army.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
 +Peace came like a stroke of good-fortune rather than a
 +prize that was won. Congress (January 14, 1784) could
 +barely assemble a quorum to ratify the treaty.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p>
 +
 +<p>During the war many had feared that British victory
 +would mean the overthrow in England of constitutional
 +liberty. The defeat, therefore, of the king’s purpose in
 +America seemed a victory for liberalism in England as
 +well as in America. Personal government was overthrown,
 +and no British king has gained such power since.
 +The dangers to freedom of speech and of the press were
 +ended. Corruption and daring disregard of public law
 +received a great blow. The ancient course of English
 +constitutional development was resumed. England never,
 +it is true, yielded to her colonies what America had demanded
 +in 1775, but she did learn to handle the affairs
 +of her colonies with greater diplomacy, and she does not
 +allow them now to get into such an unsympathetic state.</p>
 +
 +<p>Great Britain herself was not so near ruin as she
 +seemed; she was still to be the mother of nations, and
 +the English race was not weakened, though the empire was
 +broken. In political, social, and intellectual spirit England
 +and America continued to be much the same. English
 +notions of private and public law still persisted in
 +independent America. The large influence which the
 +Anglo-Saxon race had long had upon the world’s destiny
 +was not left with either America or England alone, but
 +with them both. America only continued England’s
 +“manifest destiny” in America, pushing her language,
 +modes of political and intellectual activity, and her social
 +customs westward and southward—driving back Latin
 +civilization in the same resistless way as before the Revolution.</p>
 +
 +<p>For America much good came out of the Revolution.
 +Americans had acted together in a great crisis, and Washington’s
 +efforts in the army to banish provincial distinctions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
 +did much to create fellow-feeling which would make
 +real union possible. With laws and governments alike,
 +and the same predominant language, together with common
 +political and economic interests, future unity seemed
 +assured.</p>
 +
 +<p>The republican form of government was now given a
 +strong foothold in America. Frederick the Great asserted
 +that the new republic could not endure, because “a republican
 +government had never been known to exist for
 +any length of time where the territory was not limited and
 +concentrated”; yet America, within a century, was to
 +make it a success over a region three times as great as
 +the territory for which Frederick foretold failure.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE BATTLE OF<br />
 +YORKTOWN, 1781, AND THE<br />
 +BATTLES ON THE LAKES,<br />
 +1813 AND 1814</h3>
 +
 +<p>1782. Holland recognizes the independence of the United
 +States. The British evacuate Savannah and Charleston.
 +Signing of the preliminary treaty of peace with Great
 +Britain.</p>
 +
 +<p>1783. Peace of Versailles between Great Britain, the
 +United States, France, and Spain. Great Britain acknowledges
 +the independence of the United States, restores
 +Florida and Minorca to Spain, and cedes Tobago to
 +France. Evacuation of New York by the British.</p>
 +
 +<p>1785. Disputes between the United States and Spain
 +over the navigation of the Mississippi and the boundaries
 +of the Floridas.</p>
 +
 +<p>1786. Outbreak of Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
 +1787. Suppression of Shays’ Rebellion. Framing of
 +the Constitution of the United States at Philadelphia.
 +Congress undertakes the government of the Northwest
 +Territory.</p>
 +
 +<p>1788. The Constitution ratified by a majority of the
 +States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1789. George Washington elected first President of the
 +United States. The Continental Congress is superseded
 +by the first Congress under the Constitution. Beginning
 +of the French Revolution.</p>
 +
 +<p>1790. Rhode Island (the last of the original thirteen
 +States) ratifies the Constitution. Harmar’s unsuccessful
 +expedition against the Indians of the Northwest Territory.</p>
 +
 +<p>1791. Admission of Vermont into the Union. Defeat
 +of St. Clair by the Miami Indians. Insurrection of the
 +blacks in Hayti against the French. Canada is divided
 +into Upper and Lower Canada.</p>
 +
 +<p>1792. Admission of Kentucky into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1793. Beginning of Washington’s second administration.
 +Execution of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette.
 +Napoleon Bonaparte commands the French artillery at the
 +recapture of Toulon from the English.</p>
 +
 +<p>1794. Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsylvania. The
 +Miami Indians defeated by Gen. Anthony Wayne near
 +Maumee Rapids, Ohio.</p>
 +
 +<p>1796. Admission of Tennessee into the Union. John
 +Adams elected President. Bonaparte becomes the conspicuous
 +figure in European warfare.</p>
 +
 +<p>1797. Trouble between France and the United States.
 +The <i>Constellation</i> captures <i>L’Insurgente</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>1798. Passage of the Alien and Sedition laws in the
 +United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1799. Death of Washington.</p>
 +
 +<p>1800. The seat of government of the United States is
 +removed from Philadelphia to Washington. Thomas
 +Jefferson elected President. Retrocession of Louisiana
 +to France by Spain.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
 +1801. War between Tripoli and the United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1802. Admission of Ohio into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1803. The Louisiana Purchase is negotiated with France.</p>
 +
 +<p>1804. Thomas Jefferson re-elected President. Decatur
 +captures and burns the frigate <i>Philadelphia</i> at Tripoli.
 +Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806. Napoleon proclaimed
 +Emperor of France.</p>
 +
 +<p>1805. Peace between the United States and Tripoli.</p>
 +
 +<p>1806. The <i>Leander</i>, a British naval vessel, fires into
 +an American coaster off Sandy Hook. Great Britain
 +issues an “Order in Council” declaring the coast of
 +Europe from the Elbe to Brest under blockade. Napoleon
 +issues Berlin Decree. Culmination of Aaron Burr’s conspiracy
 +and his arrest.</p>
 +
 +<p>1807. Congress prohibits the importation of slaves.
 +The British man-of-war <i>Leopard</i> fires upon the American
 +frigate <i>Chesapeake</i> and takes four seamen claimed as
 +British subjects. Aaron Burr tried for conspiracy and
 +treason, and acquitted. Another British “Order in
 +Council” forbids neutral nations to deal with France.
 +Napoleon’s Milan decree forbidding trade with England.
 +American Embargo Act, prohibiting foreign commerce.</p>
 +
 +<p>1808. James Madison elected President. Embargo Act
 +repealed. Non-intercourse Act passed, forbidding commerce
 +with Great Britain and France.</p>
 +
 +<p>1809. Recall of British minister asked by American
 +government.</p>
 +
 +<p>1810. Napoleon orders sale of captured American
 +vessels, worth with their cargoes $8,000,000.</p>
 +
 +<p>1811. General Harrison defeats Tecumseh at Tippecanoe.
 +Fight between the United States frigate <i>President</i>
 +and the British sloop-of-war <i>Little Belt</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>1812. Admission of Louisiana into the Union. The
 +United States declares war against Great Britain. The
 +Americans, under Hull, invade Canada. Surrender of
 +Hull at Detroit. The <i>Constitution</i> captures the <i>Guerrière</i>;
 +the <i>Wasp</i> takes the <i>Frolic</i>; the <i>United States</i>, the <i>Macedonian</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
 +and the <i>Constitution</i>, the <i>Java</i>. James Madison
 +re-elected President. General Smyth makes a futile
 +attempt to invade Canada.</p>
 +
 +<p>1813. The British are victorious at Frenchtown. The
 +<i>Hornet</i> captures the <i>Peacock</i>. The Americans take York
 +(Toronto), and the British are repulsed at Sackett’s Harbor.
 +Capture of the <i>Chesapeake</i> by the <i>Shannon</i>. The
 +<i>Boxer</i> taken by the <i>Enterprise</i>. Commodore Perry wins
 +the battle of Lake Erie.</p>
 +
 +<p>1814. General Jackson defeats the Creek Indians. The
 +<i>Essex</i> surrenders to the <i>Phœbe</i> and the <i>Cherub</i>. The
 +Americans are victorious at Chippewa and Lundy’s Lane.
 +Battle of Lake Champlain. In Europe the year was
 +chiefly notable for the entry of the Allies into Paris, the
 +abdication of Napoleon, and his withdrawal to Elba.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="X" class="vspace">X<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_11" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE, 1813</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +
 +<p>The opening of the nineteenth century brought years of humiliation,
 +in which American ideals of a neutral commerce, to be unrestricted
 +except by incidents of actual war, collided with the
 +passions of two nations engaged in a death-grapple between “the
 +elephant and the whale”—the French army and the English
 +navy. The established principles of international law were set
 +aside, and fifteen hundred American merchantmen were made
 +prize under a series of iniquitous Orders in Council and Decrees.
 +American sailors were seized by British cruisers on the high seas,
 +even on a duly commissioned American man-of-war. President
 +Jefferson discovered that great nations at war are not moved by
 +ideals of permanent self-interest, and that the rights and the
 +friendship of little powers are not trump-cards.</p>
 +
 +<p>Then the country entered into the War of 1812 at the inopportune
 +moment when the snows of Russia were about to overwhelm
 +Napoleon. In the war the Americans held a talisman which
 +could sway even proud Albion: the victories of American cruisers,
 +combined with the heroism of the privateers, convinced the English
 +that, after all, David was a likely youth, whose sling might
 +disturb the peace of the nations; and they agreed, in the Peace of
 +Ghent, in 1814, to terms highly favorable to the United States.
 +From that time down to the Civil War the United States had the
 +respect of all European nations.</p>
 +
 +<p>The War of 1812 seemed designed by Providence to teach the
 +Americans that free institutions do not of themselves create
 +trained soldiers or efficient officers. The field of land war was
 +strewn with the dead reputations of commanding officers, and
 +the nation underwent the deep humiliation of the destruction of
 +the national capital, but the magnificent conduct of the American
 +navy on the lakes and on the ocean showed what Americans
 +could do in a disciplined service with men properly armed and
 +supplied. Upon England especially the lesson that, ship against
 +ship, the Americans were their equals as navigators and fighting-men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
 +was never lost. The naval victories, combined with the defeat
 +of the British by Jackson in the closing days of the war, left
 +on the minds of the Americans the impression of a second national
 +success.—Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart, in <cite>National Ideals</cite>.</p></blockquote>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Oliver Hazard Perry</span>, the hero of Lake Erie,
 +inherited from his father a fearless, high-strung disposition,
 +and early in life showed his longing for adventure.
 +The elder Perry was a seaman from the time he
 +could lift a handspike, and fought in the Revolutionary
 +days, first as a privateersman on a Boston letter-of-marque,
 +and afterward as a volunteer on board the frigate <i>Trumbull</i>
 +and the sloop-of-war <i>Mifflin</i>. He was captured and
 +imprisoned for eight long months in the famous Jersey
 +prison-ship, where he succeeded in braving the dangers of
 +disease, starvation, and hardship, and at last regained his
 +liberty. Once more he became a privateersman, but ill-fortune
 +followed him. He was captured in the English
 +Channel, and confined for eighteen months in a British
 +prison, whence he again escaped and made his way to
 +the island of St. Thomas. From thence he sailed to
 +Charleston, South Carolina, where he arrived about the
 +time that peace was concluded. After that Perry found
 +employment in the East Indian trade until 1798, when
 +he was appointed to the command of the U.S.S. <i>General
 +Greene</i>. He was the head of a large family, having married
 +in 1783, the oldest of his children being Oliver Hazard.
 +Of the four other sons, three of them also entered the navy
 +and served with distinction.</p>
 +
 +<p>Oliver Hazard as a boy was not physically strong; he
 +grew tall at an early age, and his strength was not in keeping
 +with his inches. Nevertheless, he declared himself positively
 +in favor of taking up the sea as a profession, and in
 +April of 1799, after his father had been in command of the
 +<i>General Greene</i> for one year, to his delight young Perry received
 +his midshipman’s warrant and joined the same ship.</p>
 +
 +<p>The young midshipman made several cruises with his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
 +father to the West Indies; his health and strength increased
 +with the life in the open air; he showed capacity
 +and courage, and participated in the action that resulted
 +in the reduction of Jacmel in connection with the land
 +attack of the celebrated General Toussaint’s army. This
 +was the last active service of the <i>General Greene</i>; she was
 +sold and broken up, and upon the reduction of the navy
 +in 1801 the elder Perry left the service. In 1803 his son
 +returned from a cruise in the Mediterranean and was
 +promoted to an acting lieutenancy.</p>
 +
 +<p>In our naval history of this time the recurrence of
 +various names, and the references made over and over
 +again to the same actions and occurrences, are easily accountable
 +when we think of the small number of vessels
 +the United States possessed and the surprisingly few officers
 +on the pay-rolls. The high feeling of <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">esprit de corps</i>
 +that existed among them came from the fact that they each
 +had a chance to prove their courage and fidelity. There
 +was a high standard set for them to reach.</p>
 +
 +<p>Oliver Hazard Perry went through the same school that,
 +luckily for us, graduated so many fine officers and sailors—that
 +of the Tripolitan war. After he returned to America,
 +at the conclusion of peace with Tripoli, he served in
 +various capacities along the coast, proving himself an
 +efficient leader upon more than one occasion. The first
 +service upon which the young officer was employed after
 +the commencement of the war with England was taking
 +charge of a flotilla of gunboats stationed at Newport.</p>
 +
 +<p>As this service was neither arduous nor calculated to
 +bring chances for active employment in the way of fighting,
 +time hung on his hands, and Perry chafed greatly
 +under his enforced retirement. At last he petitioned the
 +government to place him in active service, stating plainly
 +his desire to be attached to the naval forces that were then
 +gathering under the command of Commodore Chauncey
 +on the lakes. His request was granted, to his great joy,
 +and he set out with all despatch.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
 +It was at an early period of the war that the government
 +had seen the immense importance of gaining the
 +command of the western lakes, and in October of 1812
 +Commodore Chauncey had been ordered to take seven
 +hundred seamen and one hundred and fifty marines and
 +proceed by forced marches to Lake Ontario. There had
 +been sent ahead of him a large number of ship-builders
 +and carpenters, and great activity was displayed in building
 +and outfitting a fleet which might give to the United
 +States the possession of Lake Ontario. There was no
 +great opposition made to the American arms by the British
 +on this lake, but the unfortunate surrender of General
 +Hull had placed the English in undisputed possession of
 +Lake Erie.</p>
 +
 +<p>In March, 1813, Captain Perry having been despatched
 +to the port of Erie, arrived there to find a fleet of ten
 +sail being prepared to take the waters against the British
 +fleet under Commodore Barclay—an old and experienced
 +leader, a hero of the days of Nelson and the <i>Victory</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>Before Perry’s arrival a brilliant little action had taken
 +place in October of the previous year. Two British vessels,
 +the <i>Detroit</i> and the <i>Caledonia</i>, came down the lake and
 +anchored under the guns of the British Fort Erie on the
 +Canadian side. At that time Lieutenant Elliott was superintending
 +the naval affairs on Lake Erie, and, the news
 +having been brought to him of the arrival of the English
 +vessels on the opposite side, he immediately determined
 +to make a night attack and cut them out. For a long
 +time a body of seamen had been tramping their toilsome
 +march from the Hudson River to the lakes, and Elliott,
 +hearing that they were but some thirty miles away, despatched
 +a messenger to hasten them forward; at the
 +same time he began to prepare two small boats for the
 +expedition. About twelve o’clock the wearied seamen,
 +footsore and hungry, arrived, and then it was discovered
 +that in the whole draft there were but twenty pistols, and
 +no cutlasses, pikes, or battle-axes. But Elliott was not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
 +dismayed. Applying to General Smyth, who was in command
 +of the regulars, for arms and assistance, he was
 +supplied with a few muskets and pistols, and about fifty
 +soldiers were detached to aid him.</p>
 +
 +<p>Late in the afternoon Elliott had picked out his crews
 +and manned the two boats, putting about fifty men in
 +each; but he did not stir until one o’clock on the following
 +morning, when in the pitch darkness he set out from the
 +mouth of Buffalo Creek, with a long pull ahead. The
 +wind was not strong enough to make good use of the
 +sails, and the poor sailors were so weary that those who
 +were not rowing lay sleeping, huddled together on their
 +arms, and displaying great listlessness and little desire for
 +fighting. At three o’clock Elliott was alongside the British
 +vessels. It was a complete surprise; in ten minutes
 +he had full possession of them and had secured the crews
 +as prisoners. But after making every exertion to get
 +under sail, he found to his bitter disappointment that the
 +wind was unfortunately so light that the rapid current
 +made them gather an increasing sternway every instant.
 +Another unfortunate circumstance was that he would
 +have to pass the British fort below and quite close to
 +hand, for he was on the Canadian shore. As the vessels
 +came in sight of the British battery, the latter opened a
 +heavy fire of round and grape, and several pieces of flying
 +artillery stationed in the woods took up the chorus.</p>
 +
 +<p>The <i>Caledonia</i>, being a smaller vessel, succeeded in getting
 +out of the current, and was beached in as safe a position
 +as possible under one of the American batteries at Black
 +Rock, across the river; but Elliott was compelled to drop
 +his anchor at the distance of about four hundred yards
 +from two of the British batteries. He was almost at their
 +mercy, and in the extremity he tried the effect of a ruse, or,
 +better, made a threat that we must believe he never intended
 +carrying into effect.</p>
 +
 +<p>Observing an officer standing on the top of an earthwork,
 +he hailed him at the top of his voice:</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
 +“Heigh, there, Mr. John Bull! if you fire another gun
 +at me I’ll bring up all my prisoners, and you can use them
 +for targets!” he shouted.</p>
 +
 +<p>The answer was the simultaneous discharge of all of the
 +Englishman’s guns. But not a single prisoner was brought
 +on deck to share the fate of the Americans, who felt the
 +effect of the fire, and who now began to make strenuous
 +efforts to return it. Elliott brought all of the guns on one
 +side of his ship, and replied briskly, until he suddenly discovered
 +that all of his ammunition was expended. Now
 +there was but one chance left: to cut the cable, drift down
 +the river out of the reach of the heavy batteries, and
 +make a stand against the flying artillery with small arms.
 +This was accordingly done, but as the sails were raised the
 +fact was ascertained that the pilot had taken French
 +leave. No one else knew the channel, and, swinging
 +about, the vessel drifted astern for some ten minutes;
 +then, fortunately striking a cross-current, she brought up
 +on the shore of Squaw Island, near the American side.
 +Elliott sent a boat to the mainland with the prisoners first.
 +It experienced great difficulty in making the passage, being
 +almost swamped once or twice, and it did not return.
 +Affairs had reached a crisis, but with the aid of a smaller
 +boat, and by the exercise of great care, the remainder of
 +the prisoners and the crew succeeded in getting on shore
 +at about eight o’clock in the morning. At about eleven
 +o’clock a company of British regulars rowed over from the
 +Canadian shore to Squaw Island and boarded the <i>Detroit</i>,
 +their intention being to destroy her and burn up the
 +munitions with which she was laden. Seeing their purpose,
 +Major Cyrenus Chapin, a good Yankee from Massachusetts,
 +called for volunteers to return to the island, and,
 +despite the difficulties ahead, almost every man signified
 +his willingness to go. Quickly making his selection,
 +Major Chapin succeeded in landing with about thirty
 +men at his back, and drove off the English before they
 +had managed to start the flames. About three o’clock<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
 +a second attempt was made, but it was easily repulsed.</p>
 +
 +<p>The <i>Detroit</i> mounted six long six-pounders, and her
 +crew numbered some sixty men. She was worth saving,
 +but so badly was she grounded on the island that it was
 +impossible to get her off, and, after taking her stores out,
 +Elliott set her on fire to get rid of her. The little <i>Caledonia</i>
 +was quite a valuable capture, aside from her armament,
 +as she had on board a cargo of furs whose value
 +has been estimated at one hundred and fifty thousand
 +dollars.</p>
 +
 +<p>But to return to the condition of affairs upon the arrival
 +of Captain Perry. The fleet that in a few weeks he had
 +under his command consisted of the brig <i>Lawrence</i>, of
 +twenty guns, to which he attached his flag; the <i>Niagara</i>,
 +of twenty guns, in command of Elliott; and the schooners
 +<i>Caledonia</i> and <i>Ariel</i>, of three and four guns respectively.
 +There were, besides, six smaller vessels, carrying from one
 +to two guns each; in all, Perry’s fleet mounted fifty-five
 +guns. The British fleet, under command of Barclay, consisted
 +of the <i>Detroit</i> (named after the one that was wrecked),
 +the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>, and the <i>Lady Prevost</i>. They mounted
 +nineteen, seventeen, and thirteen guns, in the order named.
 +The brig <i>Hunter</i> carried ten guns; the sloop <i>Little Belt</i>,
 +three; and the schooner <i>Chippeway</i>, one gun; in all, Barclay
 +had sixty-three guns, not counting several swivels—that
 +is, more than eight guns to the good.</p>
 +
 +<p>The morning of September 10th dawned fine and clear.
 +Perry, with his fleet anchored about him, lay in the quiet
 +waters of Put-in Bay. A light breeze was blowing from
 +the south. Very early a number of sail were seen out on
 +the lake beyond the point, and soon the strangers were
 +discovered to be the British fleet. Everything depended
 +now upon the speed with which the Americans could prepare
 +for action. In twelve minutes every vessel was under
 +way and sailing out to meet the on-comers; the <i>Lawrence</i>
 +led the line. As the two fleets approached, the British<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
 +concentrated the fire of their long and heavy guns upon
 +her. She came on in silence; at her peak was flying a
 +huge motto-flag—plain to view were the words of the
 +brave commander of the <i>Chesapeake</i>, “Don’t give up the
 +ship.”</p>
 +
 +<p>The responsibility that rested upon the young commander’s
 +shoulders was great; his position was most precarious.
 +This was the first action between the fleets of
 +the two hostile countries; it was a battle for the dominion
 +of the lakes; defeat meant that the English could land at
 +any time an expeditionary force at any point they chose
 +along the shores of our natural northern barrier. The
 +<i>Lawrence</i> had slipped quite a way ahead of the others,
 +and Perry found that he would have to close, in order to
 +return the English fire, as at the long distance he was surely
 +being ripped to pieces.</p>
 +
 +<p>Signalling the rest of the fleet to follow him, he made
 +all sail and bore down upon the English; but, to quote
 +from the account in the <i>Naval Temple</i>, printed in the
 +year 1816, “Every brace and bowline of the <i>Lawrence</i>
 +being shot away, she became unmanageable, notwithstanding
 +the great exertion of the sailing-master. In this
 +situation she sustained the action within canister distance
 +upward of two hours, until every gun was rendered useless
 +and the greater part of her crew either killed or
 +wounded.”</p>
 +
 +<p>It is easy to imagine the feelings of Perry at this moment.
 +The smaller vessels of his fleet had not come
 +within firing distance; there was absolutely nothing for
 +him to do on board the flag-ship except to lower his flag.
 +Yet there was one forlorn-hope that occurred to the
 +young commander, and without hesitation he called away
 +the only boat capable of floating; taking his flag, he
 +quitted the <i>Lawrence</i> and rowed off for the <i>Niagara</i>. The
 +most wonderful accounts of hair-breadth escapes could
 +not equal that of Perry upon this occasion. Why his
 +boat was not swamped, or its crew and commander killed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
 +cannot be explained. Three of the British ships fired
 +broadsides at him at pistol-shot distance as he passed
 +by them in succession; and, although the water boiled
 +about him, and the balls whistled but a few inches overhead,
 +he reached the <i>Niagara</i> in safety.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_165" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24.5em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_191.jpg" width="392" height="168" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption"><p>THE TWO SQUADRONS JUST BEFORE THE BATTLE</p></div>
 +
 +<p>In this diagram and the following, A is the British squadron, and its vessels
 +are designated by Roman numerals: I, <i>Chippeway</i>;
 +II, <i>Detroit</i>; III, <i>Hunter</i>;
 +IV, <i>Queen Charlotte</i>; V, <i>Lady Prevost</i>;
 +VI, <i>Little Belt</i>. B is the American squadron,
 +and the vessels are designated by Arabic numerals:
 +1, <i>Scorpion</i>; 2, <i>Ariel</i>;
 +3, <i>Lawrence</i>; 4, <i>Caledonia</i>;
 +5, <i>Niagara</i>; 6, <i>Somers</i>; 7, <i>Porcupine</i>;
 +8, <i>Tigress</i>; 9, <i>Trippe</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>The diagrams were furnished to Benson J. Lossing by Commodore Stephen
 +Champlin, of the United States Navy, the commander of the <i>Scorpion</i> in the
 +battle.</p></div>
 +
 +<p>There are but a few parallel cases to this, of a commander
 +leaving one ship and transferring his flag to another
 +in the heat of action.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Duke of York upon one occasion shifted his flag,
 +in the battle of Solebay; and in the battle of Texel, fought
 +on August 11, 1673, the English Admiral Sprague shifted
 +his flag from the <i>Royal Prince</i> to the <i>St. George</i>; and the
 +Dutch Admiral Van Tromp shifted his flag from the
 +<i>Golden Lion</i> to the <i>Comet</i>, owing to the former vessel being
 +practically destroyed by a concentrated fire. This does
 +not detract from the gallantry of Perry’s achievement.
 +The danger he faced was great, and he was probably
 +closer to the enemy’s vessels than any of the commanders
 +above mentioned.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_165b" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_192.jpg" width="375" height="150" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE FIRST POSITION IN THE BATTLE</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Perry’s younger brother, who was but a midshipman,
 +was one of the seven other men in the boat. They left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
 +on board the <i>Lawrence</i> not above a half-score of able-bodied
 +men to look after the numerous wounded. Owing to the
 +opinions of many of the contemporary writers, who gave
 +way to an intense feeling of partisanship, some bitterness
 +was occasioned and sides were taken in regard to the
 +actions of Master Commandant Elliott and his superior
 +officer; but, looking back at it from this day, we can see
 +little reason for any feeling of jealousy. It is hard to
 +point the finger at any one on the American side in this
 +action and say that he did not do his duty. As Perry
 +reached the side of the <i>Niagara</i> the wind died away until
 +it was almost calm; the smaller vessels, the sloops and
 +schooners—the <i>Somers</i>, the <i>Scorpion</i>, the <i>Tigress</i>, the
 +<i>Ohio</i>, and the <i>Porcupine</i>—were seen to be well astern.
 +Upon Perry setting foot on deck, Elliott congratulated him
 +upon the way he had left his ship, and volunteered to
 +bring up the boats to windward, if he could be spared.
 +Upon receiving permission, he jumped into the boat in
 +which Perry had rowed from the <i>Lawrence</i> and set out
 +to bring up all the forces. Every effort was made to form
 +a front of battle, and the little gunboats, urged on by
 +sweeps and oars, were soon engaged in a race for glory.
 +In the mean time, however, the English had slackened their
 +fire as they saw the big flag lowered from the <i>Lawrence’s</i>
 +mast-head; they supposed that the latter had struck, and
 +set up a tremendous cheering. This was hushed as they
 +caught sight of the flash of oars and realized what was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
 +going forward. In a few minutes, out of the thick smoke
 +came the <i>Niagara</i>, breaking their line and firing her broadsides
 +with such good execution that great confusion followed
 +throughout the fleet. Two of their larger brigs,
 +the <i>Queen Charlotte</i> and <i>Detroit</i>, ran afoul of each other,
 +and the <i>Niagara</i>, giving signal for close action, ran across
 +the bow of one ship and the stern of the other, raking
 +them both with fearful effect; then, squaring away and
 +running astern of the <i>Lady Prevost</i>, she got in another
 +raking fire, and, sheering off, made for the <i>Hunter</i>. Now
 +the little one-gun and two-gun vessels of the American
 +fleet were giving good accounts of themselves.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_167" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_193.jpg" width="450" height="299" alt="" />
 +  <div class="captionl">From a painting by Carlton T. Chapman</div>
 +  <div class="caption"><p>BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE</p></div></div>
 +
 +<p>Although their crews were exposed to full view and
 +stood waist-high above the bulwarks, they did no dodging;
 +their shots were well directed, and they raked the Englishmen
 +fore and aft, carrying away all the masts of the
 +<i>Detroit</i> and the mizzen-mast of the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>A few minutes after 3 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span> a white flag at the end of a
 +boarding-pike was lifted above the bulwarks of the <i>Hunter</i>.
 +At sight of this the <i>Chippeway</i> and <i>Little Belt</i> crowded all
 +sail and tried to escape, but in less than a quarter of an
 +hour they were captured and brought back by the <i>Trippe</i>
 +and <i>Scorpion</i>, under the commands of Lieutenant Thomas
 +Holdup and Sailing-Master Stephen Champlin. With a
 +ringing cheer the word went through the line that the
 +British had surrendered. The sovereignty of Lake Erie
 +belonged to America. The question of supremacy was
 +settled.</p>
 +
 +<p>The events of the day had been most dramatic. This
 +fight amid the wooded shores and extending arms of the
 +bay was viewed from shore by hundreds of anxious Americans.
 +The bright sunlight and calm surface of the lake,
 +the enshrouding fog of smoke that from shore hid all but
 +the spurts of flame and the topmasts and occasionally
 +the flags of the vessels engaged, all had combined to make
 +a drama of the most exciting and awe-inspiring interest.
 +Nor was the last act to be a letting-down. Perry determined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
 +to receive the surrender of the defeated enemy nowhere
 +else but on the deck of his old flag-ship that was
 +slowly drifting up into the now intermingled fleets.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_168" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.4375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_196.jpg" width="407" height="147" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE SECOND POSITION IN THE BATTLE</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Once more he lowered his broad pennant and rowed
 +out for the crippled <i>Lawrence</i>. He was received on board
 +with three feeble cheers, the wounded joining in, and a
 +number of men crawling up from the slaughter-pen of a
 +cockpit, begrimed and bloody.</p>
 +
 +<p>On board the <i>Lawrence</i> there had been left but one
 +surgeon, Usher Parsons. He came on deck red to the
 +elbows from his work below, and the terrible execution
 +done by the concentrated English fire was evident to the
 +English officers as they stepped on board the flag-ship.
 +Dead men lay everywhere. A whole gun’s crew were
 +littered about alongside of their wrecked piece. From
 +below came the mournful howling of a dog. The cockpit
 +had been above the water’s surface, owing to the <i>Lawrence’s</i>
 +shallow draught, and here was a frightful sight.
 +The wounded had been killed outright or wounded again
 +as they lay on the surgeon’s table. Twice had Perry called
 +away the surgeon’s aids to help work ship, and once his
 +hail of “Can any wounded men below there pull a rope?”
 +was answered by three or four brave, mangled fellows
 +crawling up on deck to try to do their duty. All this was
 +apparent to the English officers as they stepped over the
 +bodies of the dead and went aft to where Perry stood
 +with his arms folded, no vainglorious expression on his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
 +face, but one of sadness for the deeds that had been done
 +that day. Each of the English officers in turn presented
 +his sword, and in reply Perry bowed and requested that
 +the side-arms should be retained. As soon as the formalities
 +had been gone through with, Perry tore off the back
 +of an old letter he took from his pocket, and, using his
 +stiff hat for a writing-desk, scribbled the historic message
 +which a detractor has charged he cribbed from Julius
 +Caesar: “We have met the enemy and they are ours:—two
 +ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Calling away a small boat, he sent Midshipman Forrest
 +with the report to Gen. William Henry Harrison.</p>
 +
 +<p>A computation has been made by one historian of the
 +number of guns directed against the <i>Lawrence</i> in the early
 +part of the action. The English had heavier armaments
 +and more long guns; they could fight at a distance where
 +the chubby carronade was useless. The <i>Lawrence</i> had but
 +seven guns whose shots could reach her opponents, while
 +the British poured into her the concentrated fire of thirty-two.
 +This accounts for the frightful carnage.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_169" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.75em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_197.jpg" width="364" height="128" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">POSITIONS AT THE CLOSE OF THE BATTLE</div></div>
 +
 +<p>When the <i>Lawrence</i> was being shot through and through,
 +and there were but three guns that could reply to the
 +enemy’s fire, Lieutenant Yarnell, disfigured by a bad
 +wound across his face from a splinter, came up to where
 +Perry was standing. “The officers of my division have
 +all been cut down,” he said. “Can I have others?”
 +Perry looked about him and sent three of his aid to help
 +Yarnell, but in less than a quarter of an hour the lieutenant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
 +returned again. His words were almost the same
 +as before, but he had a fresh wound in his shoulder.
 +“Those officers,” he said, “have been cut down also.”</p>
 +
 +<p>“There are no more,” Perry replied. “Do your best
 +without them.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Three times was Yarnell wounded, and three times after
 +his wounds had been hurriedly dressed he returned to his
 +post.</p>
 +
 +<p>Dulany Forrest, the midshipman whom Perry sent with
 +the despatch to General Harrison, had a most remarkable
 +escape. He was a brave lad who had faced death before;
 +he had seen the splinters fly in the action between the
 +<i>Constitution</i> and the <i>Java</i>. Forrest was standing close to
 +Captain Perry when a grape-shot that had glanced from
 +the side of a port struck the mast, and, again deflected,
 +caught the midshipman in the chest. He fell, gasping,
 +at Perry’s feet.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Are you badly hurt, lad?” asked the latter, anxiously,
 +as he raised the midshipman on his knee.</p>
 +
 +<p>“No, sir; not much,” the latter answered, as he caught
 +his breath. “But this is my shot, I think.” And with
 +that he extracted the half-spent ball from his clothing and
 +slipped it into his pocket.</p>
 +
 +<p>Midshipman Henry Laub was killed in the cockpit just
 +after having had a dressing applied to his shattered right
 +arm. A Narragansett Indian who served as a gunner in
 +the forward division of the <i>Lawrence</i> was killed in the
 +same manner.</p>
 +
 +<p>A summary of the losses on both sides shows that, despite
 +the death-list of the <i>Lawrence</i>, the English loss was
 +more severe. On board the American flag-ship, twenty-two
 +were killed and sixty-one were wounded; on board
 +the <i>Niagara</i>, two killed and twenty-five wounded; the
 +<i>Ariel</i> had one killed and three wounded; the <i>Scorpion</i>,
 +two killed; the <i>Caledonia</i>, three wounded; and the
 +<i>Somers</i> and <i>Trippe</i> each showed but two wounded men
 +apiece. In all, twenty-seven were killed and ninety-six<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
 +wounded on the American side. The comparison of the
 +loss of the rest of the fleet and that suffered by the <i>Lawrence</i>
 +makes a remarkable showing. The English lost
 +forty-one killed and ninety-four wounded altogether. A
 +number of Canadian Indians were found on board the
 +English vessels. They had been engaged as marksmen,
 +but the first shot had taken all the fight out of them, and
 +they had hidden and skulked for safety.</p>
 +
 +<p>Perry’s treatment of the prisoners was magnanimous.
 +Everything that would tend to relieve the sufferings of
 +the wounded was done, and relief was distributed impartially
 +among the sufferers on both sides. The result
 +of this action was a restoration of practical peace along the
 +frontier of the lake. The British evacuated Detroit and
 +Michigan, and the dreaded invasion of the Indians that
 +the settlers had feared so long was headed off.</p>
 +
 +<p>Perry, who held but a commission of master commandant,
 +despite his high-acting rank, was promoted at once
 +to a captaincy, the date of his commission bearing the
 +date of his victory. He was given the command of the
 +frigate <i>Java</i>, a new forty-four-gun ship then fitting out at
 +Baltimore. Gold medals were awarded to him and to
 +Elliott by Congress, and silver medals to each of the commissioned
 +officers. A silver medal also was given to the
 +nearest male relative of Lieutenant Brooks, of the marines,
 +and swords to the nearest male relatives of Midshipmen
 +Laub, Claxton, and Clark. Three months’ extra pay was
 +voted to all the officers, seamen, and marines, and, in addition,
 +Congress gave $225,000 in prize-money, to be divided
 +among the American forces engaged in the action.
 +This sum was distributed in the following proportions:
 +Commodore Chauncey, who was in command on the lakes,
 +$12,750; Perry and Elliott, $7140 each—besides which Congress
 +voted Perry an additional $5000; the commanders of
 +gunboats, lieutenants, sailing-masters, and lieutenants of
 +marines received $2295 each; midshipmen, $811; petty officers,
 +$447 per capita; and marines and sailors, $209 apiece.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
 +No money, however, could repay the brave men for the
 +service they had rendered the country. To-day the
 +dwellers along the shores of Lake Erie preserve the anniversary
 +of the battle as an occasion for rejoicing. While
 +the naval actions at sea reflected honor and glory to their
 +commanders and credit to the service, the winning of Lake
 +Erie averted a national catastrophe.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XI" class="vspace">XI<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_12" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN, 1814</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first Thomas Macdonough was a major in the Continental
 +Army, and his three sons also possessed desires
 +for entering the service of their country. The oldest had
 +been a midshipman under Commodore Truxton, but, being
 +wounded in the action between the <i>Constellation</i> and the
 +<i>L’Insurgente</i>, he had to retire from the navy owing to the
 +amputation of his leg. But his younger brother, Thomas
 +Macdonough, Jr., succeeded him, and he has rendered his
 +name and that of Lake Champlain inseparable; but his
 +fearlessness and bravery were shown on many occasions
 +long before he was ordered to the lakes.</p>
 +
 +<p>In 1806 he was first-lieutenant of the <i>Siren</i>, a little
 +sloop-of-war in the Mediterranean service. On one occasion
 +when Captain Smith, the commander of the <i>Siren</i>,
 +had gone on shore, young Lieutenant Macdonough saw a
 +boat from a British frigate lying in the harbor row up to
 +an American brig a short distance off, and afterward put
 +out again with one more man in her than she had originally.
 +This looked suspicious, and Macdonough sent to the
 +brig to ascertain the reason, with the result that he found
 +that an American had been impressed by the English captain’s
 +orders. Macdonough quietly lowered his own boat
 +and put after the heavy cutter, which he soon overhauled.
 +Although he had but four men with him, he took the
 +man out of the cutter and brought him on board the
 +<i>Siren</i>. When the English captain heard, or rather saw,
 +what had occurred—it was right under the bow of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>
 +frigate that the affair took place—he waxed wroth, and,
 +calling away his gig, he rowed to the <i>Siren</i> to demand an
 +explanation.</p>
 +
 +<p>The following account of the incident is quoted from
 +the life of Macdonough in Frost’s <cite>Naval Biography</cite>:</p>
 +
 +<p>“The Englishman desired to know how Macdonough
 +dared to take a man from one of his Majesty’s boats.
 +The lieutenant, with great politeness, asked him down
 +into the cabin; this he refused, at the same time repeating
 +the same demand, with abundance of threats. The Englishman
 +threw out some threats that he would take the
 +man by force, and said he would haul the frigate alongside
 +the <i>Siren</i> for that purpose. To this Macdonough replied
 +that he supposed his ship could sink the <i>Siren</i>, but as long
 +as she could swim he should keep the man. The English
 +captain said to Macdonough:</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘You are a very young man, and a very indiscreet
 +young man. Suppose I had been in the boat—what
 +would you have done?’</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘I would have taken the man or lost my life.’</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘What, sir! would you attempt to stop me, if I were
 +now to attempt to impress men from that brig?’</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘I would; and to convince yourself I would, you have
 +only to make the attempt.’</p>
 +
 +<p>“On this the Englishman went on board his ship, and
 +shortly afterward was seen bearing down in the direction
 +of the American vessel. Macdonough ordered his boat
 +manned and armed, got into her himself, and was in readiness
 +for pursuit. The Englishman took a circuit around
 +the American brig, and returned again to the frigate.
 +When Captain Smith came on board he justified the conduct
 +of Macdonough, and declared his intention to protect
 +the American seaman.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Although Macdonough was very young, and his rank
 +but that of a lieutenant, people who knew him were not
 +surprised to hear that he had been appointed to take command
 +of the little squadron on Lake Champlain. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
 +vessels were built of green pine, and almost without exception
 +constructed in a hurried fashion. They had to
 +be of light draught, and yet, odd to relate, their general
 +model was the same as that of ships that were expected
 +to meet storms and high seas.</p>
 +
 +<p>Macdonough was just the man for the place; as in the
 +case of Perry, he had a superb self-reliance and was eager
 +to meet the enemy.</p>
 +
 +<p>Lake Champlain and the country that surrounds it
 +were considered of great importance by the English, and,
 +descending from Canada, large bodies of troops poured
 +into New York State. But the American government
 +had, long before the war was fairly started, recognized
 +the advantage of keeping the water communications on
 +the northern frontier. The English began to build vessels
 +on the upper part of the lake, and the small force of ships
 +belonging to the Americans was increased as fast as possible.
 +It was a race to see which could prepare the better
 +fleet in the shorter space of time.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the fall of the year 1814 the English had one fairly
 +sized frigate, the <i>Confiance</i>, mounting thirty-nine guns;
 +a brig, the <i>Linnet</i>; a sloop, <i>Chubb</i>, and the sloop <i>Finch</i>;
 +besides which they possessed thirteen large galleys, aggregating
 +eighteen guns. In all, therefore, the English fleet
 +mounted ninety-five guns. The Americans had the <i>Saratoga</i>,
 +sloop of war, twenty-six guns; the <i>Eagle</i>, twenty;
 +the <i>Ticonderoga</i>, seventeen; the <i>Preble</i>, seven; and ten
 +galleys carrying sixteen; their total armament was nine
 +guns less than the British.</p>
 +
 +<p>By the first week in September Sir George Prevost had
 +organized his forces and started at the head of fourteen
 +thousand men to the southward. It was his intention to
 +dislodge General Macomb, who was stationed at Plattsburg,
 +where considerable fortifications had been erected.
 +A great deal of the militia force had been drawn down the
 +State to the city of New York, owing to the fears then
 +entertained that the British intended making an attack<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
 +upon the city from their fleet. It was Sir George’s plan
 +to destroy forever the power of the Americans upon the
 +lake, and for that reason it was necessary to capture the
 +naval force which had been for some time under the command
 +of Macdonough. The English leader arranged a
 +plan with Captain Downie, who was at the head of the
 +squadron, that simultaneous attacks should be made by
 +water and land. At eight o’clock on the morning of September
 +11th news was brought to Lieutenant Macdonough
 +that the enemy was approaching. As his own vessels were
 +in a good position to repel an attack, he decided to remain
 +at anchor and await the onslaught in a line formation.
 +In about an hour the enemy had come within gunshot distance,
 +and formed a line of his own parallel with that of
 +the Americans. There was little or no breeze, and consequently
 +small chance for manœuvring. The <i>Confiance</i>
 +evidently claimed the honor of exchanging broadsides with
 +the <i>Saratoga</i>. The <i>Linnet</i> stopped opposite the <i>Eagle</i>,
 +and the galleys rowed in and began to fire at the <i>Ticonderoga</i>
 +and the <i>Preble</i>.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_176" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_205.jpg" width="418" height="413" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">PLAN OF THE NAVAL ACTION ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Macdonough wrote such a clear and concise account of
 +the action that it is best to quote from it:</p>
 +
 +<p>“... The whole force on both sides became engaged,
 +the <i>Saratoga</i> suffering much from the heavy fire of the
 +<i>Confiance</i>. I could perceive at the same time, however,
 +that our fire was very destructive to her. The <i>Ticonderoga</i>,
 +Lieutenant-Commandant Cassin, gallantly sustained her
 +full share of the action. At half-past ten the <i>Eagle</i>, not
 +being able to bring her guns to bear, cut her cable, and
 +anchored in a more eligible position, between my ship and
 +the <i>Ticonderoga</i>, where she very much annoyed the enemy,
 +but unfortunately leaving me exposed to a galling fire
 +from the enemy’s brig.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Our guns on the starboard side being nearly all dismounted
 +or unmanageable, a stern-anchor was let go, the
 +bower-cable cut, and the ship winded with a fresh broadside
 +on the enemy’s ship, which soon after surrendered.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
 +Our broadside was then sprung to bear on the brig, which
 +struck about fifteen minutes afterward. The sloop which
 +was opposed to the <i>Eagle</i> had struck some time before, and
 +drifted down the line. The sloop which was with their
 +galleys had also struck. Three of their galleys are said
 +to be sunk; the others pulled off. Our galleys were about
 +obeying with alacrity the signal to follow them, when all
 +the vessels were reported to me to be in a sinking state.
 +It then became necessary to annul the signal to the galleys
 +and order their men to the pumps. I could only look at
 +the enemy’s galleys going off in a shattered condition, for
 +there was not a mast in either squadron that could stand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
 +to make sail on. The lower rigging, being nearly all shot
 +away, hung down as though it had just been placed over
 +the mast-heads.</p>
 +
 +<p>“The <i>Saratoga</i> had fifty-nine round shot in her hull;
 +the <i>Confiance</i> one hundred and five. The enemy’s shot
 +passed principally just over our heads, as there were not
 +twenty whole hammocks in the nettings at the close of
 +the action, which lasted, without intermission, two hours
 +and twenty minutes.</p>
 +
 +<p>“The absence and sickness of Lieutenant Raymond
 +Perry left me without the assistance of that able officer.
 +Much ought fairly to be attributed to him for his great
 +care and attention in disciplining the ship’s crew as her
 +first-lieutenant. His place was filled by a gallant young
 +officer, Lieutenant Peter Gamble, who, I regret to inform
 +you, was killed early in the action.”</p>
 +
 +<p>The English had begun the action as if they never
 +doubted the result being to their advantage, and, before
 +taking up their positions in the line parallel to Macdonough’s,
 +Downie had sailed upon the waiting fleet bows
 +on; thus most of his vessels had been severely raked before
 +they were able to return the fire. As soon as Sir
 +George Prevost saw the results of the action out on the
 +water, he gave up all idea of conquest, and began the retreat
 +that left New York free to breathe again. The
 +frontier was saved. The hills and the shores of the lake
 +had been crowded with multitudes of farmers, and the
 +two armies encamped on shore had stopped their own
 +preparations and fighting to watch.</p>
 +
 +<p>Sir George Prevost had bombarded the American forts
 +from the opposite side of the River Saranac, and a brigade
 +endeavored to ford the river with the intention of attacking
 +the rear of General Macomb’s position. However,
 +they got lost in the woods, and were recalled by a mounted
 +messenger just in time to hear the cheers and shouts of
 +victory arise from all about them.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the battle the <i>Saratoga</i> had twenty-eight men killed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
 +and twenty-nine wounded, more than a quarter of her
 +entire crew; the <i>Eagle</i> lost thirteen killed and twenty
 +wounded; the <i>Ticonderoga</i>, six killed and six wounded;
 +the <i>Preble</i>, two killed; and the galleys, three killed and
 +three wounded. The <i>Saratoga</i> was hulled fifty-five times,
 +and had caught on fire twice from the hot shot fired by
 +the <i>Confiance</i>. The latter vessel was reported to have lost
 +forty-one killed outright and eighty-three wounded. In
 +all, the British loss was eighty-four killed and one hundred
 +and ten wounded.</p>
 +
 +<p>Macdonough received substantial testimonials of gratitude
 +from the country at large, the Legislature of New
 +York giving him one thousand acres of land, and the
 +State of Vermont two hundred. Besides this, the corporations
 +of Albany and New York City made him the
 +present of a valuable lot, and from his old command in the
 +Mediterranean he received a handsome presentation sword.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, IN THE HISTORY OF THE<br />
 +UNITED STATES, BETWEEN THE<br />
 +BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN,<br />
 +1814, AND THE WAR WITH<br />
 +MEXICO, 1846–1847</h3>
 +
 +<p>1814. General Jackson seizes Pensacola. The Hartford
 +Convention. Treaty of Ghent between Great Britain
 +and the United States terminates the war.</p>
 +
 +<p>1815. Before the news of peace reached this country
 +General Jackson repulses the British attack on New Orleans,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
 +defeating in a bloody battle veterans who had fought
 +against Napoleon. Escape of Napoleon from Elba. The
 +“Hundred Days.” Battle of Waterloo. Second abdication
 +of Napoleon, who is sent to St. Helena. Commodore
 +Decatur imposes terms upon the Dey of Algiers, and exacts
 +reparation from Tunis and Tripoli.</p>
 +
 +<p>1816. James Monroe elected President. Indiana admitted
 +into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1817. Admission of Mississippi into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1818. Beginning of the Seminole War. Illinois admitted
 +into the Union. Act passed establishing the flag
 +of the United States. General Jackson captures Spanish
 +fort, St. Mark’s, Florida.</p>
 +
 +<p>1819. Treaty between the United States and Spain for
 +the cession of Florida (formal possession given in 1821).
 +Admission of Alabama into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1820. Admission of Maine into the Union. Adoption
 +of the Missouri Compromise, 1820, 1821. James Monroe
 +re-elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1822. Establishment of the colony of Liberia. The
 +President recommends recognition of the independence of
 +the South American States and Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<p>1823. The President announces the “Monroe Doctrine.”</p>
 +
 +<p>1824. John Quincy Adams elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1825. Corner-stone of Bunker Hill monument laid in
 +presence of Lafayette.</p>
 +
 +<p>1827. Parry’s expedition to the Arctic circle, latitude
 +82° 45´.</p>
 +
 +<p>1828. Andrew Jackson elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
 +1829. First locomotive tried in the United States, at
 +Honesdale, Pa.</p>
 +
 +<p>1830. The Webster-Hayne debate in Congress. Establishment
 +of the Mormon Church.</p>
 +
 +<p>1831. William Lloyd Garrison begins the publication of
 +the <i>Liberator</i> in Boston.</p>
 +
 +<p>1832. Black Hawk War. Defeat of the Sacs and the
 +Foxes. Nullification movement in South Carolina. Andrew
 +Jackson re-elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1833. Henry Clay’s tariff compromise. President Jackson
 +removes the public funds from the Bank of the United
 +States. Formation of the American Anti-Slavery Society.</p>
 +
 +<p>1834. Act of Congress for the formation of Indian Territory.</p>
 +
 +<p>1835. Outbreak of the Second Seminole War. Revolution
 +in Texas against Mexican authority. Great fire in
 +New York.</p>
 +
 +<p>1836. Admission of Arkansas into the Union. Martin
 +Van Buren elected President. Storming of the Alamo
 +by Santa Anna. Houston defeats the Mexicans on the
 +San Jacinto. The republic of Texas proclaimed.</p>
 +
 +<p>1837. Admission of Michigan into the Union. Financial
 +panic throughout the United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1838. Inauguration of transatlantic steam navigation.</p>
 +
 +<p>1839. Dissolution of the Confederacy of Central America.</p>
 +
 +<p>1840. William Henry Harrison elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1841. John Tyler succeeds to the Presidency after the
 +death of President Harrison.</p>
 +
 +<p>1842. Final termination of the Seminole War. The
 +Ashburton Treaty between Great Britain and the United
 +States for the settlement of the Northeastern boundary
 +line concluded. Dorr’s Rebellion in Rhode Island.</p>
 +
 +<p>1844. James K. Polk elected President. Invention of
 +the electric telegraph.</p>
 +
 +<p>1845. Admission of Florida and Texas into the Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1846. Admission of Iowa into the Union. War begins
 +between the United States and Mexico. The Mexicans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
 +defeated at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Surrender
 +of Monterey. Occupation of California and New Mexico
 +by the American forces. Treaty between Great Britain
 +and the United States for the settlement of the Northwestern
 +boundary-line dispute. Discovery of anæsthetics
 +by Doctor Norton.</p>
 +
 +<p>1847. General Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena
 +Vista. Occupation of Vera Cruz. American victories at
 +Pueblo, Contreras, and Churubusco. Storming of Molino
 +del Rey. Storming of Chapultepec and occupation of
 +the City of Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XII" class="vspace">XII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_13" class="subhead">THE RUPTURE WITH MEXICO, 1843–1846</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3>I<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE APPROACH OF WAR</span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Upon</span> the annexation of Texas (in 1845) Mexico at once
 +severed her diplomatic relations with the United
 +States. This result had been foreshadowed by the utterances
 +of Mexican officials dating from the revival of
 +the question in 1843. The relations, however, of the two
 +countries had been difficult to adjust from the time when
 +Mexico became independent in 1821. The most serious
 +friction between them arose concerning four subjects:
 +claims of the United States citizens on the government of
 +Mexico; assistance given the Texans by the people of the
 +United States; violation of Mexican territory by United
 +States troops; and the annexation of Texas.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The immediate occasion, however, of the breach of
 +diplomatic relations in 1845 was the annexation of Texas.
 +When rumors of the renewal of the annexation movement
 +came to the city of Mexico in the summer of 1843, President
 +Santa Anna gave notice to the United States government,
 +in a letter dated August 23d, from Secretary of
 +State Bocanegra to Minister Waddy Thompson, that
 +“the Mexican government will consider equivalent to a
 +declaration of war against the Mexican Republic the passage
 +of an act for the incorporation of Texas with the
 +territory of the United States; the certainty of the fact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
 +being sufficient for the immediate proclamation of war,
 +leaving to the civilized world to determine with regard
 +to the justice of the cause of the Mexican Nation, in a
 +struggle which it has been so far from provoking.”<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Thompson replied immediately with a sharply resentful
 +letter, questioning the sources of information of the
 +Mexican authorities as to the prospect of annexation, but
 +refusing any explanation whatever. Another letter from
 +Bocanegra to Thompson asserted that the advices of the
 +Mexican government on the subject were official and
 +reliable, and sought to justify the attitude of Mexico as
 +follows: “but as it may happen that ambition and delusion
 +may prevail over public propriety, that personal
 +views may triumph over sane and just ideas, and that the
 +vigorous reasoning of Mr. John Quincy Adams and his
 +co-laborers may be ineffectual, how can it be considered
 +strange and out of the way that Mexico, under such a
 +supposition, should announce that she will regard the
 +annexation of Texas as an act of declaration of war?”<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a>
 +Secretary of State Upshur approved the course of Thompson,
 +and instructed him that, in case he were again addressed
 +in such offensive language, he should demand
 +either a withdrawal of the letter or a suitable apology.</p>
 +
 +<p>On November 3, 1843, Almonte, the Mexican minister
 +at Washington, in accordance with the instructions of his
 +government, notified Upshur, in a communication whose
 +terms were hardly less offensive than those used by Bocanegra
 +to Thompson, that if “the United States should,
 +in defiance of good faith and of the principles of justice
 +which they have constantly proclaimed, commit the unheard-of
 +act of violence (<i xml:lang="es" lang="es">inaudito atentado</i>—the expression
 +[says the official translator] is much stronger than the
 +translation) of appropriating to themselves an integrant
 +part of the Mexican territory, the undersigned, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
 +name of his Nation, and now for them, protests, in the
 +most solemn manner, against such an aggression; and he
 +moreover declares, by express order of his Government,
 +that, on sanction being given by the Executive of the
 +Union to the incorporation of Texas into the United
 +States, he will consider his mission ended, seeing that, as
 +the Secretary of State will have learned, the Mexican
 +Government is resolved to declare war so soon as it receives
 +information of such an act.” On November 8th
 +Upshur replied, in a restrained and dignified way, repelling
 +both the threats and insinuations of Almonte’s letter
 +and intimating that the policy of the United States would
 +not be affected by them.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> To this Almonte rejoined, on
 +the 11th, suggesting that Upshur had been misled by an
 +incorrect translation of the letter of November 3d, and
 +disclaiming any intention to impute to the authorities of
 +the American Union unworthy views or designs as to
 +Texas. December 1, 1843, Upshur replied, denying that
 +he had misunderstood Almonte, and declaring that the
 +United States regarded Texas as an independent nation
 +and did not feel called on to consult any other nation in
 +dealing with it.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>
 +
 +<p>On the accomplishment of annexation, the threat of
 +Almonte was carried out. The joint resolution making
 +the offer was approved March 1, 1845, and on March 6th
 +he demanded his passports. March 28th the United
 +States minister in Mexico was officially notified that the
 +diplomatic intercourse between the two countries was at
 +an end.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> The expressions of the Mexican papers indicated
 +the most intense popular excitement in that country, and
 +those of the government treated the war as already existing.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a>
 +Two decrees were passed by the Mexican congress
 +and approved by President Herrera, one on June 4th and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
 +the other on June 7th, providing for an increase of the
 +available force in order to resist annexation.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> July 20th
 +the “supreme government,” or executive, recommended
 +to the congress a declaration of war against the United
 +States from the moment when the government should
 +know that annexation had been effected or Texas had
 +been invaded.</p>
 +
 +<p>There can be little question, indeed, that impatience
 +on both sides had gone beyond the point of safety and
 +was threatening appeal to arms. No theory of a conspiracy
 +is needed to explain the war with Mexico. While
 +it was strongly opposed and condemned by a bold and
 +outspoken minority, the votes in Congress and the utterances
 +of the contemporaneous journals show that it was
 +essentially a popular movement, both in Mexico and in
 +the United States. The disagreement reached the verge
 +of an outbreak in 1837, and the only thing that prevented
 +a conflict then was that Congress was a bit more conservative
 +than the President; but neither the aggressiveness of
 +Jackson nor even that of Polk would have been so likely
 +to end in actual fighting had it not been well understood
 +that they were backed by sympathetic majorities. On
 +the Mexican side, at the critical moment, the pacific tendencies
 +of the executive were overpowered by the angry
 +impulse of the people.</p>
 +
 +<p>May 28, 1845, General Taylor, who was in command of
 +the troops in the Southwest, was ordered, in view of the
 +prospect of annexation, to hold himself in readiness to
 +advance into Texas with the approval of the Texan authorities,
 +and to defend that republic from any invasion
 +of which he should be officially informed after Texas had
 +consented to annexation on the terms offered. June 15th
 +he was ordered to advance, with the western frontier of
 +Texas for his ultimate destination. There he was to
 +occupy a convenient point “on or near the Rio Grande,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
 +but to limit himself to the defence of the territory of Texas
 +unless Mexico should declare war against the United States.
 +He was subsequently directed to protect the territory up
 +to the Rio Grande, avoiding, however, except in case of
 +an outbreak of hostilities, any attack on posts actually
 +held by Mexicans, but placing at least a part of his forces
 +west of the Nueces.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> In July, General Taylor advanced
 +into Texas, and in August he established his camp on the
 +west bank of the Nueces, near Corpus Christi.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> The spot
 +which he selected could hardly be considered as “near”
 +the Rio Grande, being, in fact, about one hundred and
 +fifty miles therefrom. The location was chosen because
 +of its convenience as a temporary base either for defensive
 +or offensive operations.</p>
 +
 +<p>The army remained in camp near Corpus Christi several
 +months. The information Taylor obtained here and reported
 +to Washington indicated no threatening movement
 +on the part of the Mexicans; but on October 4th
 +he suggested that, if the United States government meant
 +to insist on the Rio Grande as the boundary, it would
 +gain an advantage by occupying points on that river. He
 +therefore suggested an advance to Point Isabel and
 +Laredo.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> Meanwhile had come the attempt to renew
 +diplomatic relations between the United States and
 +Mexico, which ended in failure. January 13, 1846, when
 +it was known in Washington that Slidell would probably
 +not be received by the Mexican government, Taylor was
 +ordered to advance to the Rio Grande.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Up to the time of this movement the Mexican government
 +had neglected the distinction in the validity of its
 +claims to the territory east of the Rio Grande. It strenuously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
 +asserted the right of Mexico to the whole of Texas,
 +whatever its limits might be, and declared that annexation
 +would be tantamount to a declaration of war. From
 +the Mexican point of view, Taylor invaded Mexico the
 +moment he entered Texas. But when he advanced to the
 +Rio Grande the distinction was finally made. April 12,
 +1846, he was warned by Ampudia, general in command of
 +the Mexican forces at Matamoras, to retire in twenty-four
 +hours—not beyond the Sabine, as one might have expected
 +from the previous attitude of the Mexican government,
 +but beyond the Nueces.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p>
 +
 +<p>A few days later occurred the first conflict. April 24th
 +a party of dragoons sent out by Taylor was ambushed on
 +the east side of the river by a large force of Mexicans, and
 +after a skirmish, in which a number of men were killed
 +and wounded, was captured.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> The official report of this
 +affair reached Washington the evening of Saturday, May
 +9th.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> President Polk had already decided, in conformity
 +with the judgment of all his cabinet except Bancroft, to
 +send to Congress a message recommending a declaration
 +of war. Now, in formulating the reasons for the declaration,
 +he asserted that “Mexico has passed the boundary
 +of the United States, has invaded our territory, and shed
 +American blood upon the American soil,”<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> and with the
 +unanimous concurrence of his cabinet he sent the message
 +to Congress, Monday, May 11th.</p>
 +
 +<p>On the same day a bill providing for the enlistment of
 +fifty thousand soldiers and the appropriation of ten
 +million dollars, the preamble to which re-echoed the President’s
 +assertion that war existed by the act of Mexico
 +itself, passed the House by a vote of 174 to 14.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p>
 +
 +<h3>II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">CONQUERING A PEACE (1846–1848)</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>It was only after Polk felt assured of the refusal to receive
 +Slidell<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> that he assumed an attitude so aggressive
 +as clearly to challenge war; and from that time forward
 +it seems to have been his desire to carry the struggle just
 +far enough to bring Mexico to the point of conceding a
 +territorial indemnity on the terms which he had intended
 +to offer through Slidell. In accordance with this policy
 +he suggested, while the question of Slidell’s reception by
 +the Paredes government was yet in suspense, that Slidell
 +should be directed to go on board a United States vessel
 +and wait for further instructions.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> The object of this
 +plan was evidently to be able to resume negotiations, as
 +soon as Mexico had felt the pressure sufficiently, without
 +the delays incident to a correspondence between the two
 +capitals. The same considerations influenced, at a later
 +stage of the war, the appointment of Trist.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> To this
 +method of pushing on the conflict, with the sword in one
 +hand and the olive-branch in the other, Polk applied the
 +peculiar designation of “conquering a peace.”</p>
 +
 +<p>After the declaration of war by Congress, May 12, 1846,
 +General Scott, the commander-in-chief of the United States
 +Army, was appointed to command directly the forces that
 +were to operate against Mexico. According to a plan of
 +operations which appears to have originated with President
 +Polk himself, but which was concurred in by Secretary
 +of War Marcy and by General Scott, New Mexico and
 +California, which Polk intended to claim by way of indemnity,
 +and Chihuahua, were to be occupied and held;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
 +the United States forces were to be pushed toward the
 +heart of Mexico in order to force the Mexicans to terms; and
 +the naval forces in the Gulf and the Pacific were assigned
 +specific duties in connection with the general scheme.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The plan was in keeping with the main purpose of the
 +war, and was, on the whole, well adapted to insure success.
 +The northern provinces were far distant from the city of
 +Mexico; the hold of the central government upon them
 +was but slight; and, even if its available forces had been
 +sufficiently strong and effective to send the troops needed
 +to resist invasion, the difficulties of transportation would
 +have been hard to overcome. Of course, similar difficulties
 +were experienced in throwing the United States troops
 +into the interior of northern Mexico; but such operations
 +were far easier for a strong government with abundant
 +resources than for one so ill established and so lacking
 +in means as that of Herrera or Paredes. The population
 +of the north Mexican provinces was sparse and unenergetic,
 +and could not be relied on for its defence; the local governments
 +were weak and inefficient; and in 1846 that of
 +California was disastrously affected by dissensions between
 +two rival leaders, José Castro and Pio Pico, representing
 +respectively the northern district and the southern.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> It
 +was in the northern district, in the lower valley of the
 +Sacramento River and near the bay of San Francisco, that
 +the foreign population, including the Americans, was most
 +numerous.</p>
 +
 +<p>The plan for a campaign directed at the city of Mexico
 +was gradually developed as the war went on. The impression
 +of Polk and his advisers at first was that a vigorous
 +invasion of Mexico would end the war, without the
 +necessity of pushing it far into the interior; and, since
 +operations on the coast in the summer were so dangerous,
 +the attack was made first in the north. The resistance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
 +of the Mexicans was, however, more desperate and prolonged
 +than was expected, and ultimately the change was
 +made to the shorter and more direct line of advance by
 +way of Vera Cruz.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_191" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_219.jpg" width="800" height="1075" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">MAP
 +ILLUSTRATING THE
 +MEXICAN WAR
 +1846–1848</div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
 +The occupation of New Mexico and California was accomplished
 +speedily and with little resistance. General
 +Kearny occupied New Mexico in the summer of 1846, and
 +the occupation of California under Commodore R. F. Stockton
 +was completed by January, 1847. The first expeditions
 +against Mexico from the north under Wool and Doniphan
 +were inconclusive.</p>
 +
 +<p>The army which was most depended on to force Mexico
 +to terms was that operating in the east. The campaign
 +in this quarter began with an advance from Matamoras
 +through Tamaulipas and Nuevo León into Coahuila. But
 +as it progressed the plan was gradually assimilated, so far
 +as these states were concerned, to that which had been
 +followed in dealing with California and New Mexico, and
 +became one of simple occupation; while the attack was
 +shifted to the south, and the final advance was made
 +from Vera Cruz direct on the city of Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the prosecution of the war, in this part especially,
 +the administration was much hampered by the character
 +and conduct of the generals on whom the detailed development
 +and execution of the plan devolved. The friction
 +thus arising was increased by mutual suspicions of political
 +motives between President Polk, certain members of his
 +cabinet, and the generals themselves.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>In this war the United States troops, though always
 +outnumbered—in some cases heavily—and usually with
 +the advantage of position against them, enjoyed such
 +superiority both in <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">morale</i> and in <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">matériel</i> that they were
 +almost uniformly victorious. Their victories, however,
 +were by no means easy; on the contrary, they were obtained
 +only at the cost of no little bloody fighting and of
 +great loss of men. And, as is not unusual in like emergencies,
 +there was much complaint of the extravagance and
 +inefficiency of the quartermaster’s department.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
 +The attack on Mexico began with the advance of Taylor’s
 +army. Two battles, Palo Alto, on May 8, 1846, and
 +Resaca de la Palma, on the following day, were required
 +to drive the Mexicans across the Rio Grande. Taylor
 +then advanced from Matamoras through Tamaulipas into
 +Nuevo León, and, after defeating the Mexicans in a three
 +days’ battle, September 21–23, at Monterey, the capital
 +of Nuevo León, he captured that city. Saltillo, the capital
 +of Coahuila, was occupied by the United States troops on
 +November 16th, and Victoria, the capital of Tamaulipas,
 +December 29th.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_193" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_221.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">TAYLOR’S MARCH
 +1846–1847</div></div>
 +
 +<p>It had long before this become a most important question
 +whether the campaign should be confined to the
 +occupation and cutting-off of northern Mexico, or whether
 +the army should be pushed on toward the city of Mexico.
 +Taylor recommended the first of these two plans; but
 +when asked his advice as to what should be done further,
 +and especially whether an expedition should be aimed at
 +the city of Mexico from near Vera Cruz, he had been
 +hesitating and non-committal in his answer.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> Orders
 +issued direct from Washington, September 22, 1846, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
 +connection with the scheme before it was fully developed,
 +to General Patterson, one of Taylor’s subordinates, drew
 +from Taylor himself a resentful protest.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> Finally the
 +plan of capturing Vera Cruz and marching thence upon
 +the city of Mexico was adopted by Polk and his cabinet,
 +with a little objection from Buchanan as to advancing
 +beyond Vera Cruz,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> and Scott was elected to lead the
 +expedition. Soon after his appointment, he left Washington,
 +and about the end of December he reached Matamoras
 +and began to make preparations for the attack on
 +Vera Cruz. Part of Taylor’s men were drawn away for
 +the southern campaign, and renewed complaints from him
 +were added to the general chorus of discord and dissatisfaction.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Information of the shifting of the attack to the south
 +reached Santa Anna through intercepted despatches, and
 +he at once conceived the project of a counter-stroke.
 +Advancing northward with an army of more than twenty
 +thousand men, he came upon Taylor February 23, 1847,
 +with only about one-fourth that number at Buena Vista,
 +a few miles south of Saltillo. The American troops gained
 +a brilliant victory,<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> and with this the serious work of the
 +“army of occupation” was at an end.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_194" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19.6875em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_223.jpg" width="315" height="454" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">GENERAL SCOTT’S ENTRY INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>Attention was now centred on the southern campaign.
 +During the month of February, 1847, Scott’s troops were
 +conveyed by sea from Brazos Santiago and concentrated
 +on the island of Lobos, about sixty miles south of Tampico.
 +On March 9th a landing was made without opposition near
 +Vera Cruz. With the co-operation of the naval forces
 +under Commodore Conner the city was invested, and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
 +after a brief siege culminating in a sharp bombardment,
 +was captured, March 29, 1847.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_195" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_225.jpg" width="500" height="192" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">SCOTT’S MARCH
 +to the City of
 +MEXICO</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Next in order was the advance upon the city of Mexico,
 +which began April 8th. The first resistance was met at
 +Cerro Gordo, where, on April 17th and 18th, Scott’s army
 +of not more than nine thousand drove thirteen thousand
 +Mexicans, in disastrous defeat, from a naturally strong
 +and well-fortified position. Finally there was a series of
 +battles near the city of Mexico, which culminated in its
 +capture, and which will be referred to further on.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile another effort was made by Polk to negotiate,
 +an idea which even after the failure of the Slidell mission
 +had been kept steadily in view.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>In answer to the proposition to negotiate which came
 +through Trist, the American commissioner, Santa Anna
 +contrived to intimate that, if he were paid ten thousand
 +dollars down and one million on the conclusion of peace,
 +negotiations should begin at once. After consulting with
 +several of his officers, in a conference held late in July
 +or early in August, Scott paid the ten thousand dollars.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a>
 +Still no step was taken by the Mexicans toward negotiation
 +until they were beaten in the engagements at Contreras,
 +August 19th and 20th, and Churubusco, August
 +20, 1847. Then Scott himself proposed an armistice,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
 +which was accepted August 24th. Commissioners were
 +appointed to meet Trist, and the effort to conclude a
 +treaty began. Whether it could have been accomplished
 +at that stage of the “conquering” on the basis of his instructions
 +is uncertain; but Trist’s wavering attitude undoubtedly
 +served to make the possibility much less. The
 +Mexican commissioners still refused to come to terms, and
 +submitted counter-propositions which were in conflict
 +with those instructions, but which Trist referred to the
 +authorities at Washington.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> As soon as unofficial news of
 +what Trist had done was received there, President Polk,
 +without waiting to hear from him directly, ordered his recall.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p>
 +
 +<p>In the mean time the armistice had been terminated and
 +the advance of the United States troops renewed. The
 +victories of Molino del Rey, September 8th, and Chapultepec,
 +September 13th, opened the way to the city of
 +Mexico, which was occupied on September 14th.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> Santa
 +Anna abdicated, and on November 22d the new government
 +announced to Trist that it had appointed commissioners
 +to negotiate. Trist had already received the
 +letter recalling him; but, in spite of this fact, he listened
 +to the suggestion of the Mexicans that they were not officially
 +notified of his recall, and were anxious to negotiate
 +on the terms of his original instructions.</p>
 +
 +<p>The negotiations terminated with the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo,
 +signed February 2, 1848. The boundary
 +agreed upon was to follow the Rio Grande from its mouth
 +to the line of New Mexico; that line westward and northward
 +to the first branch of the Gila it should cross; that
 +branch and the Gila to the Colorado; and the line between
 +Upper and Lower California thence to the Pacific.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
 +the territory thus ceded by Mexico the United States was
 +to satisfy the claims of its citizens on the Mexican government,
 +and to pay in addition thereto fifteen million
 +dollars. In spite of the fact that Trist’s authority had
 +been withdrawn before the final negotiations, President
 +Polk submitted the treaty to the Senate, and after some
 +opposition and suspense it was ratified, March 10, 1848,
 +by a vote of 38 to 14.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XIII" class="vspace">XIII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_14" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA (1847)</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">After</span> Taylor’s capture of Monterey, the stronghold of
 +northern Mexico, an armistice terminated hostilities
 +till November 13th, 1846. By that time Santa Anna—who
 +had returned to Mexico—had mustered a powerful army
 +at San Luis Potosi, and was expected to march against
 +Monterey. Taylor, intending to act on the defensive only,
 +proposed to occupy a line stretching from Saltillo to Tampico,
 +which fort had been evacuated by the Mexicans; and,
 +in pursuance of this plan, marched on Saltillo and Victoria,
 +and occupied them without resistance. His plans were
 +frustrated by a requisition from General Scott depriving
 +him of Worth and Twiggs’ divisions of regulars. Thus
 +reduced to a force of some five thousand men—all of
 +whom, except a few dragoons and artillery, were volunteers—Taylor
 +was compelled to abandon his projected line,
 +and to content himself with one stretching from Saltillo
 +to the mouth of the Rio Grande. December, January,
 +and part of February were spent by the army in awaiting
 +the Mexican attack. It was known that Santa Anna
 +would advance from San Luis to expel the invaders; his
 +force was fairly estimated, and the wide disparity, in point
 +of numbers, between the two armies was not concealed
 +from the troops. Yet there was no thought of retreating;
 +on the contrary, when Taylor determined to advance southward
 +from Saltillo, and to occupy Agua Nueva, eighteen
 +miles nearer the foe, the whole army marched in high
 +spirits. It was subsequently found that the force under
 +Taylor—including Wool’s division, which had joined the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
 +main army—was too small to hold Agua Nueva, and a
 +retrograde movement was ordered to the pass of La
 +Angostura, a narrow defile near the hacienda of Buena
 +Vista. There the army awaited Santa Anna’s approach.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was on February 22d—Washington’s birthday—that
 +the Mexican advance made its appearance, rolling before
 +it clouds of dust. It had suffered dreadfully on the road
 +from San Luis from cold and want of supplies; but, allowing
 +for these sources of loss, the army led by Santa Anna
 +cannot have numbered less than twenty thousand men,
 +including four thousand cavalry and twenty pieces of
 +artillery; and the sufferings of the march made the soldiers
 +all the more eager for the battle. Disappointed in not
 +finding Taylor at Agua Nueva, as he had expected, Santa
 +Anna proclaimed that he had fled, and ordered the cavalry
 +in pursuit. The Mexicans had already had one experience
 +of Taylor’s flights—a second was at hand. When the
 +lancers reached the Angostura, they found the pass guarded
 +by Washington’s battery of eight pieces, and very properly
 +halted. The correspondence, since so famous, between
 +the two generals then took place; and on receipt of Taylor’s
 +laconic letter Santa Anna commenced the attack.</p>
 +
 +<p>The advantage of position was all on the side of the
 +United States army. The pass itself was so narrow that
 +Washington’s battery could guard it against almost any
 +force; impassable gullies and ravines flanked it on the
 +west, and on the east the mountains gradually rose to a
 +height of some two thousand feet. The only spot on
 +which a regular battle could be fought was a plateau on
 +the east of the pass, which stretched from the precipitous
 +mountain-slope nearly to the road, terminating on that
 +side in several ridges and ravines. This plateau gained,
 +the pass might have been turned; and accordingly Santa
 +Anna’s first thought was to master it. A strong body of
 +light infantry was despatched, in the afternoon of the 22d,
 +to climb the mountain-side which commanded the plateau;
 +but the moment the manœuvre was perceived a party of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
 +Taylor’s riflemen ascended the opposite ridge to keep them
 +in check. The Mexicans opened fire, and the Kentuckians
 +replied; and thus, as each body strove to overtop the
 +other, both ridges were soon covered with smoke. Foiled
 +in his object, Santa Anna awaited the morning to commence
 +operations in earnest; and Taylor, fearing an attack
 +on Saltillo, set out to complete the defences of that point
 +during the night.</p>
 +
 +<p>At two o’clock in the morning the American pickets were
 +driven in, and at break of day the Mexican light infantry,
 +on the ridge above the plateau, led by General Ampudia,
 +commenced charging down into the ravine which separated
 +them from the Kentuckians. They had received reinforcements
 +during the night, and were at least eight to
 +one. Fortunately, General Wool had anticipated the
 +movement, and Lieutenant O’Brien was ready at the foot
 +of the hill with a piece of cannon. A very few discharges,
 +well-aimed, sent the Mexicans back to cover. Then the
 +main army advanced; two columns, under Pacheco and
 +Lombardini, supported by lancers and a twelve-pounder
 +battery in the rear, marching directly toward the plateau,
 +and a third moving against the pass. Wool had disposed
 +the army almost in a line across the plateau from the pass
 +to the mountain: Washington’s battery being on the right,
 +and O’Brien’s on the left wing, the infantry and a squadron
 +of dragoons in the centre, and the volunteer cavalry inclined
 +slightly to the rear on the right and left. About
 +nine in the morning Pacheco’s column debouched from a
 +ravine and began to form coolly on a ridge of the plateau.
 +General Lane hastened forward, skirting the mountains
 +with the Second Indiana volunteers and O’Brien’s battery,
 +to meet them. At two hundred yards O’Brien opened
 +with terrific effect; the close columns of the Mexicans
 +were ploughed by his shot. But the reply was steady and
 +almost equally effective. Raked on the left by the twelve-pounder
 +battery, and assailed by a storm of bullets from
 +the masses rising out of the ravine, the volunteers fell<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>
 +thickly round their colors, and, after some minutes, the
 +Indiana volunteers could stand it no longer, and fled in
 +spite of Lane’s efforts to rally them.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> O’Brien was left
 +almost alone with his guns. He fired one last discharge,
 +then, hastily limbering up, followed the flying infantry over
 +the plateau.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was an almost fatal movement; for, Lombardini
 +gaining the southern edge of the plateau at that moment,
 +the two Mexican columns united, and the lancers, who
 +swarmed on the flanks, galloped down on the volunteers.
 +To add to the danger, the Indiana regiment in its flight
 +became entangled with the Arkansas volunteers, who
 +caught the panic and fled likewise. Their loss in a fight
 +where the enemy was over four to one was severely felt.
 +However, nothing daunted, the Second Illinois, under
 +Colonel Bissell, received the Mexican fire, and returned
 +it as fast as the men could load. The dragoons, who
 +could do no service in such a conflict, were sent to the
 +rear; but a couple of guns, under Trench and Thomas,
 +were brought to bear, and every shot cut like a knife
 +through the Mexican columns. Still, it was impossible
 +for such a handful of men to check an army of thousands:
 +the enemy poured down the plateau, and, passing
 +between the mountain and the Illinoisans, turned our left
 +and poured in a flank as well as a front fire. Eighty men
 +having fallen in twenty minutes, Colonel Bissell gave the
 +word of command to face to the rear, and the gallant regiment,
 +as cool as if on drill, faced about, marched deliberately
 +a few yards toward the ravine—Churchill walking
 +his horse before them—then turned and resumed firing.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile the lancers were driving the Indiana and
 +Arkansas volunteers off the plateau, and cutting off the
 +riflemen in the mountain from the main army. These,
 +perceiving the danger, and trusting that the lancers would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
 +be checked by the Arkansas and Kentucky cavalry, toward
 +which they were approaching, abandoned their position
 +and came running down the mountain-side, with a
 +view of cutting their way back to the batteries. But the
 +mounted volunteers made but a brief stand against the
 +impetuous charge of the lancers, and Ampudia’s light infantry
 +no sooner saw the riflemen move than they followed
 +close on their heels, firing as they went. The slaughter
 +of our poor fellows was dreadful; the Texans were annihilated.
 +In one confused mass, riflemen and volunteer
 +cavalry, Arkansans and Kentuckians were driven back
 +by the advancing columns of the enemy, and little was
 +wanted to complete the rout. Vainly did the officers try
 +to rally the fugitives. No sooner had a handful of men
 +been persuaded to halt and turn than a volley from the
 +Mexicans scattered them. Thus fell Captain Lincoln—a
 +chivalrous spirit, who was struck to the earth by two balls
 +in the act of cheering on a small party of Kentuckians to
 +hold their ground.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_202" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.5625em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_233.jpg" width="473" height="283" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>At this perilous moment the rattle of musketry was
 +drowned by a tremendous roar pf cannon in the direction
 +of the pass. The Mexicans under Villamil had approached
 +within range, and Captain Washington, who had sworn to
 +hold the pass against any odds, was keeping his word.
 +The gunners had been wild with ardor and suspense all
 +morning; they were now gratified, and, though three guns
 +had been taken from the battery, they poured such a murderous
 +fire upon Villamil’s column as it approached through
 +the narrow pass that, after wavering a moment, it scattered,
 +and most of the men sought refuge in the ravines.
 +The moment they broke the Second Illinoisans, who had
 +been stationed at the pass, eagerly followed their colonel,
 +Hardin, to the plateau, to share the dangers of their comrades.
 +Almost as soon McKee’s Kentuckians and Bragg’s
 +battery came plunging through the gullies on the west of
 +the pass and joined them; while Sherman’s guns were
 +speedily brought up from the rear. Thus the First Illinoisans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
 +were saved, and grape and canister mowed down
 +the Mexican masses at the foot of the mountain.</p>
 +
 +<p>Still, the light infantry under Ampudia were pressing
 +on by the left to the rear of Wool’s position. In half an
 +hour the pass might have been turned. Most providentially
 +at that moment Taylor arrived with Davis’ Mississippi
 +riflemen and May’s dragoons. The former barely stopped
 +an instant for the men to fill their canteens, then hastened
 +to the field. Boiling with rage, Davis called on the Indiana
 +volunteers to form “behind that wall,” pointing to
 +his men, and advance against their enemy. Their colonel,
 +Bowles, the tears streaming down his face, finding all his
 +appeals fruitless, seized a musket and joined the Mississippians
 +as a private. Time could not be lost; Ampudia
 +was close upon them; Davis formed and advanced
 +with steady tread against a body more than five times his
 +strength. A rain of balls poured upon the Mississippians,
 +but no man pulled a trigger till sure of his mark. Then
 +those deadly rifles blazed and stunned the Mexican advance.
 +A ravine separated them from the enemy; Davis
 +gave the word, and, with a cheer, down they rushed and
 +up the other side; then forming hastily, with one awful
 +volley they shattered the Mexican head and drove them
 +back to cover.</p>
 +
 +<p>But the cavalry had crept round the mountain and
 +were descending on the hacienda. They were Torrejon’s
 +brigade, splendid fellows, mostly lancers, and brimful of
 +fight. Opposed to them were Yell’s Arkansas and Marshall’s
 +Kentucky mounted volunteers—less than half their
 +number. Hopelessly these brave fellows stood, firing their
 +carbines as the foe approached; but the last man was still
 +taking aim when the lancers were upon them like a whirlwind.
 +The brave Yell was dashed to the earth a corpse,
 +and Lieutenant Vaughan fell from his horse, pierced by
 +twenty-four wounds. Huddled together in a confused
 +mass, Mexicans and Americans dashed side by side toward
 +the hacienda, engaged in a death-struggle as they galloped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
 +onward, and enveloped in a cloud of dust. One tall
 +Mexican was seen, mounted upon a powerful horse, spearing
 +every one that came within reach, in the drunkenness
 +of battle; while here and there a Kentuckian, with native
 +coolness, loaded as he rode, and brought down man after
 +man. In less time than it takes to read these lines the
 +horses’ hoofs were rattling over the streets, shrieks and
 +shouts heralding their approach. Amid the din, the
 +crack of rifles from the roofs of the houses told that the
 +little garrison were holding their own. Through and
 +through the hacienda the Mexicans swept, disengaging
 +themselves from the volunteers just in time to escape a
 +charge from May’s dragoons, which came clattering down
 +the ravine to the rescue. Reynolds followed with two
 +pieces of flying artillery, and Torrejon himself, badly
 +wounded and minus several of his best men, was glad to
 +escape to the mountains.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile Major Dix had snatched the colors of the
 +Second Indiana volunteers from the hands of their bearer,
 +and bitterly swore that, with God’s help, that standard
 +should not be disgraced that day. “He would bear it
 +alone,” he said, “into the thick of the fight.” Roused by
 +his words, a few men rallied around him and joined the
 +Mississippi rifles on the plateau. The gallant Third Indiana
 +were there, and Sherman had brought up a howitzer.
 +Enraged at the failure of the attack on the hacienda, a
 +fresh body of lancers now charged these troops, advancing
 +in close column, knee to knee, and lance in rest. In
 +breathless haste the volunteers were thrown across the
 +narrow ridge, in two lines, meeting at an angle near the
 +centre. Not a whisper broke the silence as the Mexicans
 +approached, and the intrepid bearing of men whom nothing
 +could have saved from destruction if the charge had
 +been vigorous appalled the lancers. Within eighty yards
 +of the lines they actually halted. At that instant the
 +rifles were raised: a second—an awful second—elapsed.
 +Then “Fire!” and a blaze ran round the angle. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
 +Mexican column was destroyed. Horses and men writhed
 +on the plain. The rear rank stood for a moment, but a
 +single discharge from the howitzer scattered them too,
 +and they fell back. For the first time during the day
 +fortune seemed to favor the Americans. Hemmed in
 +on two sides, and driven to the base of the mountain,
 +five thousand Mexicans, horse and foot, with Ampudia’s
 +division, were being slaughtered by nine guns, which
 +never slackened fire. Their fate was certain; when a flag
 +of truce from Santa Anna induced Taylor to silence his
 +batteries. It was only a ruse. Santa Anna asked, “What
 +does General Taylor want?” Before the answer reached
 +him, the Mexicans had made good their escape to the rear.</p>
 +
 +<p>Notwithstanding the parley, one Mexican battery continued
 +its fire upon our troops. This was the eighteen
 +and twenty-four pounder battery of the battalion of San
 +Patricio, composed of Irishmen, deserters from our ranks,
 +and commanded by an Irishman named Riley. Harassed
 +by this fire, and perceiving the enemy’s treachery, Taylor
 +sent the Illinoisans and Kentuckians, with three pieces
 +of artillery, in pursuit of Ampudia. They hurried forward
 +along the heads of the ravines; but to their horror,
 +as they neared the southern edge of the plateau, an overwhelming
 +force of over ten thousand men, comprising
 +the whole of Santa Anna’s reserve, emerged from below
 +and deployed before their firing. To resist was madness.
 +The volunteers discharged their pieces and rushed precipitately
 +into the nearest gorge. Its sides were steep,
 +and many rolled headlong to the bottom. Others were
 +massacred by a shower of bullets poured from Mexicans
 +who clustered on both ridges above. In the midst of
 +the carnage, Hardin, McKee, and many other brave officers
 +fell, vainly trying to seek an exit for their troops.
 +At the mouth of the ravine a squadron of lancers were
 +ready to cut off their escape. Down the sides poured
 +the Mexican infantry, slaughtering the wounded with
 +the bayonet and driving the helpless mass before them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
 +Above, pale as death, with compressed lips, O’Brien and
 +Thomas stood to their deserted pieces. Once before that
 +morning the Mexican shot had left the former alone at
 +his gun; for the second time the fortune of the day seemed
 +to depend on his single exertions. If he could hold the
 +enemy at bay for a few minutes, there would be time for
 +other batteries to come up. Ball after ball tore ragged
 +gaps through the advancing host. After each discharge
 +O’Brien fell back just far enough to load and fire again,
 +praying in an agony that help might come. He was
 +wounded himself; all his men were killed or wounded;
 +but he never flinched before the surging wave of Mexicans
 +until the clack of whips and the rattle of wheels were
 +heard behind him. Then—for he knew it was Bragg
 +urging onward his jaded horses—the brave fellow aimed
 +one deadly volley of canister and abandoned his piece.
 +The next moment Bragg unlimbered and opened a telling
 +fire. Sherman followed, and, Davis and Lane coming up
 +at a run, the crack of rifles was heard away to the extreme
 +left. On the right, the well-known roar of Washington’s
 +guns startled the foe. It was the death-warrant of the
 +lancers, who were penning our volunteers in the ravine.
 +Out came the remnant, leaving crowds of dead, and not
 +one man wounded, in the horrid trap, and hastily scaled
 +the side of the plateau. Taylor was there, coolly picking
 +the balls out of his dress, and Wool rode wildly backward
 +and forward, urging on the rear ranks. But it was needless.
 +At Bragg’s third discharge the whole body of the
 +Mexicans broke and dashed pell-mell into the ravine
 +whence they had come.</p>
 +
 +<p>This was the last of the battle. Davis and Bragg followed
 +the enemy a short distance; but the San Patricio
 +battery still commanded the southern edge of the plateau,
 +and the troops were so fagged that they could hardly
 +walk. Night was coming on, and the firing ceased. The
 +men lay down where they stood; and a few, overcome by
 +fatigue, slept side by side with the dead and the wounded.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
 +It was a dark, gloomy night, and a bitter wind swept
 +from the mountain. Not far in the distance the wolf’s
 +howl broke dismally on the ear, and the vultures flapped
 +their wings overhead. Nothing was known of the Mexican
 +army; no one could say what the morrow might bring
 +forth. With anxious eye the officers looked for the dawn.</p>
 +
 +<p>It came at last; and to their inexpressible delight the
 +first streaks of light in the eastern sky revealed a deserted
 +camp. The Mexicans had fled. An army of over twenty
 +thousand men, comprising the flower of the Mexican
 +troops, had been beaten by forty-six hundred Americans,
 +over four thousand of whom were raw volunteers. Such
 +a cheer as rose from the pass of Angostura on that February
 +morning never before or since re-echoed through
 +the dark gorges of the Sierra Madre.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XIV" class="vspace">XIV<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_15" class="subhead">SCOTT’S CONQUEST OF MEXICO, 1847</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Northern</span> Mexico lay helpless at Taylor’s feet.
 +The stars and stripes floated over the citadel of
 +Monterey, and the flower of the Mexican army, commanded
 +by their greatest general, had been repulsed at
 +Buena Vista. Nothing now remained but to strike a
 +blow at the vitals of the southern republic. That task
 +had been imposed on General Scott, whose skill and experience
 +designated him as the proper man to conduct a
 +campaign in which the fate of the war was to be decided.</p>
 +
 +<p>On March 6, 1847, the fleet of transports and men-of-war
 +was concentrated near Vera Cruz. It bore a small
 +but well-disciplined force of some twelve thousand men,
 +comprising the whole standing army of the United States—four
 +regiments of artillery, eight of infantry, one of
 +mounted riflemen, and detachments of dragoons—besides
 +eight volunteer regiments of foot and one of horse.
 +Major-General Scott commanded the whole, with Worth,
 +fresh from the brilliant capture of Monterey, Twiggs, and
 +the volunteer Patterson as his brigadiers. Under the
 +latter served Generals Quitman, Pillow, and Shields.</p>
 +
 +<p>Vera Cruz was the strongest place on this continent,
 +after Quebec. Situated on the border of the Gulf, it was
 +surrounded by a line of bastions and redans, terminating
 +at either extremity in a fort of large capacity. A sandy
 +plain encircled it on the land side, affording no protection
 +to an assailant within seven hundred yards of the walls;
 +and toward the sea, on a reef at a distance of rather more
 +than half a mile, the famous fort of San Juan d’Ulloa
 +commanded the harbor. In March, 1847, the city<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
 +mounted nearly ninety, the castle one hundred and
 +twenty-eight guns of various calibers, including several
 +thirteen-inch mortars and ten-inch Paixhans. So implicit
 +was the faith of the Mexicans in the strength of the
 +place that, having rendered it, as they believed, impregnable,
 +they left its defence to a garrison of five thousand
 +men, and bade them remember that the city was
 +named Vera Cruz the Invincible. This was the first mistake
 +of the enemy; a second was omitting to provision
 +the place for a siege; a third was allowing women, children,
 +and non-combatants to remain in the town. In
 +this instance, as in so many others, the overweening assurance
 +of the Mexicans was the cause of their ruin.
 +Monterey and Buena Vista should have taught them to
 +know better.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The American troops began to land on March 9, 1847,
 +and by the 12th a line of troops five miles long surrounded
 +Vera Cruz. On the 22d the bombardment was begun,
 +and on the 26th, without an assault, the Mexicans began
 +negotiations for a surrender, which took place three days
 +afterward.</p>
 +
 +<h3>CERRO GORDO</h3>
 +
 +<p>On April 8th the army, headed by Twiggs’ division,
 +moved forward on the national road toward the city
 +of Mexico. At the mountain-pass of Cerro Gordo the
 +Mexicans, under Santa Anna, had made a stand. They
 +had planted batteries to command all the level ground,
 +and behind them were some twelve thousand infantry
 +and cavalry. The fighting began on the 17th with an
 +attack by Twiggs on the Mexican left, which resulted
 +in driving back the Mexicans, and in the capture of a
 +strong position on a hill called Atalaya, where some
 +cannon were mounted in the night. The next day the
 +desperate assaults of Harney and Riley stormed the
 +redoubts on the crest of Cerro Gordo, and Riley and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
 +Shields charged and captured the Mexican batteries on
 +the road. On the left Pillow was less successful, but
 +the guns of Cerro Gordo were turned against the Mexicans,
 +who, seeing the defeat of Santa Anna, hoisted a white
 +flag. Three thousand men, including five generals,
 +surrendered to General Scott, and over a thousand were
 +killed or wounded. Of the American force of eighty-five
 +hundred, sixty-three were killed and three hundred
 +and sixty-eight wounded.</p>
 +
 +<p>The unopposed seizure of the castle of La Hoya, and
 +the occupation of the towns of Perote and Puebla were
 +followed by a delay due to the necessity of waiting for
 +reinforcements to replace the three thousand volunteers
 +whose time had expired.</p>
 +
 +<p>Reinforcements arrived but slowly, and each detachment,
 +as it moved from Vera Cruz to the mountains, had
 +to sustain a running fight with the guerrillas whom
 +Santa Anna had let loose on the road. All arrived, however,
 +in safety, and by the beginning of August General
 +Scott was ready to move on the valley of Mexico with
 +ten thousand seven hundred and thirty-eight men, leaving
 +Colonel Childs with fourteen hundred to garrison Puebla.
 +On the third day they stood upon the summit of the
 +ridge which looks down upon the valley of Mexico, with
 +the city itself glittering in the centre, and bright lakes,
 +grim forts, and busy causeways dotting the dark expanse
 +of marsh and lava. That night the troops encamped at
 +the foot of the mountains and within the valley on the
 +border of Lake Chalco.</p>
 +
 +<p>With the energy which characterized Santa Anna
 +throughout the war, he had prepared for a desperate
 +defence. Civil strife had been silenced, funds raised, an
 +army of twenty-five thousand men mustered, and every
 +precaution taken which genius could suggest or science
 +indicate. Nature had done much for him. Directly in
 +front of the invading army lay the large lakes of Xochimilco
 +and Chalco. These turned, vast marshes, intersected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
 +by ditches and for the most part impassable, surrounded
 +the city on the east and south—on which side
 +Scott was advancing—for several miles. The only approaches
 +were by causeways, and these Santa Anna had
 +taken prodigious pains to guard. The national road to
 +Vera Cruz—which Scott must have taken had he marched
 +on the north side of the lakes—was commanded by a fort
 +mounting fifty-one guns on an impregnable hill called El
 +Peñon. Did he turn the southern side of the lakes, a
 +field of lava, deemed almost impassable for troops, interposed
 +a primary obstacle, and fortified positions at San
 +Antonio, San Angel, and Churubusco, with an intrenched
 +camp at Contreras, were likewise to be surmounted before
 +the southern causeways could be reached. Beyond
 +these there yet remained the formidable castle of Chapultepec
 +and the strong enclosure of Molino del Rey to be
 +stormed before the city gates could be reached. Powerful
 +batteries had been mounted at all these points, and
 +ample garrisons detailed to serve them. The bone and
 +muscle of Mexico were there. Goaded by defeat, Santa
 +Anna never showed so much vigor; ambition fired Valencia;
 +patriotism stirred the soul of Alvarez; Canalejo,
 +maddened by the odium into which he had fallen, was
 +boiling to regain his sobriquet of “The Lion of Mexico.”
 +With a constancy equal to anything recorded of the
 +Roman Senate, the Mexican Congress, on learning the
 +defeat at Cerro Gordo, had voted unanimously that any
 +one opening negotiations with the enemy should be
 +deemed a traitor, and the citizens with one accord had
 +ratified the vote. Within six months Mexico had lost
 +two splendid armies in two pitched battles against the
 +troops now advancing against the capital; but she never
 +lost heart.</p>
 +
 +<h3>CONTRERAS</h3>
 +
 +<p>When the engineers reported that the fortress on El
 +Peñon could not be carried without a loss of one-third the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
 +army, Scott decided to move by the south of the lakes;
 +and Worth accordingly advanced, leading the van, as
 +far as San Augustin, nine miles from the city of Mexico.
 +There a large field of lava—known as the Pedregal—barred
 +the way. On the one side, a couple of miles from
 +San Augustin, the fortified works at San Antonio commanded
 +the passage between the field and the lake; on
 +the other the ground was so much broken that infantry
 +alone could advance, and General Valencia occupied an
 +intrenched camp, with a heavy battery, near the village
 +of Contreras, three miles distant. Scott determined to
 +attack on both sides, and sent forward Worth on the east
 +and Pillow and Twiggs on the west. The latter advanced
 +as fast as possible over the masses of lava on the morning
 +of the 19th, and by 2 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span> a couple of light batteries were
 +placed in position and opened fire on the Mexican camp.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the same time, General Persifer Smith conceived
 +the plan of turning Valencia’s left, and hastened along
 +the path through the Pedregal in the direction of a village
 +called San Jeronimo. Colonel Riley followed. Pillow
 +sent Cadwalader’s brigade on the same line, and later in
 +the day Morgan’s regiment was likewise despatched toward
 +that point. They drove in the Mexican pickets and
 +skirmishers, dispersed a few parties of lancers, and occupied
 +the village without loss. Seeing the movement,
 +Santa Anna hastened to Valencia’s support with twelve
 +thousand men. He was discovered by Cadwalader just
 +as the latter gained the village road; and, appreciating
 +the vast importance of preventing a junction between
 +the two Mexican generals, that gallant officer did not
 +hesitate to draw up his brigade in order of battle. So
 +broken was the ground that Santa Anna could not see
 +the amount of force opposed to him, and declined the
 +combat. This was all Cadwalader wanted. Shields’
 +brigade was advancing through the Pedregal, and the
 +troops which had already crossed were rapidly moving to
 +the rear of Valencia’s camp. Night, too, was close at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
 +hand. When it fell, Smith’s, Riley’s, and Cadwalader’s
 +commands had gained the point they sought. Shields
 +joined them at ten o’clock; and at midnight Captain Lee
 +crossed the Pedregal, with a message from General Smith
 +to General Scott, to say that he would commence the
 +attack at daybreak next morning.</p>
 +
 +<p>It rained all night, and the men lay in the mud without
 +fires. At three in the morning (August 20th) the
 +word was passed to march. Such pitchy darkness covered
 +the face of the plain that Smith ordered every man
 +to touch his front file as he marched. Now and then a
 +flash of lightning lit up the narrow ravine; occasionally
 +a straggling moonbeam pierced the clouds and shed an
 +uncertain glimmer on the heights; but these flitting
 +guides only served to make the darkness seem darker.
 +The soldiers groped their way, stumbling over stones and
 +brushwood, and did not gain the rear of the camp till day
 +broke. Then Riley bade his men look to the priming of
 +their guns and reload those which the rain had wet.
 +With the first ray of daylight the firing had recommenced
 +between the Mexican camp and Ransom’s corps stationed
 +in front and Shields’ brigade at San Jeronimo. Almost
 +at the same moment Riley began to ascend the height
 +in the rear. Before he reached the crest, his engineers,
 +who had gone forward to reconnoitre, came running back
 +to say that his advance had been detected, that two
 +guns were being pointed against him, and a body of infantry
 +were sallying from the camp. The news braced
 +the men’s nerves. They gained the ridge, and stood a
 +tremendous volley from the Mexicans without flinching.
 +Poor Hanson of the Seventh—a gallant officer and an
 +excellent man—was shot down with many others; but
 +the Mexicans had done their worst. With steady aim,
 +the volley was returned; and ere the smoke rose a cheer
 +rang through the ravine and Riley fell with a swoop on
 +the intrenchments. With bayonet and butt of musket,
 +the Second and Seventh drove the enemy from his guns,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
 +leaping into his camp and slaughtering all before them.
 +Up rushed Smith’s own brigade on the left, driving a
 +party of Mexicans before them, and charging with the
 +bayonet straight at Torrejon’s cavalry, which was drawn
 +up in order of battle. Defeat was marked on their faces.
 +Valencia was nowhere to be found. Salas strove vainly
 +to rouse his men to defend themselves with energy; Torrejon’s
 +horse, smitten with panic, broke and fled at the
 +advance of our infantry. Riley hurled the Mexicans
 +from their camp after a struggle of a quarter of an hour;
 +and as they rushed down the ravine their own cavalry
 +rode over them, trampling down more men than the
 +bayonet and ball had laid low. On the right, as they
 +fled, Cadwalader’s brigade poured in a destructive volley;
 +and Shields, throwing his party across the road,
 +obstructed their retreat and compelled the fugitives to
 +yield themselves prisoners of war; The only fight of any
 +moment had taken place within the camp. There, for
 +a few minutes, the Mexicans had fought desperately;
 +two of our regimental colors had been shot down; but
 +finally Anglo-Saxon bone and sinew had triumphed. To
 +the delight of the assailants, the first prize of victory
 +was the guns O’Brien had abandoned at Buena Vista,
 +which were regained by his own regiment. Twenty
 +other guns and over one thousand prisoners, including
 +eighty-eight officers and four generals, were likewise captured,
 +and some fifteen hundred Mexicans killed and
 +wounded. The American loss in killed, wounded, and
 +missing was about one hundred men.</p>
 +
 +<p>Barely taking time to breathe his troops, Smith followed
 +in pursuit toward the city. By ten o’clock in the
 +morning he reached San Angel, which Santa Anna
 +evacuated as he approached. The general-in-chief and
 +the generals of division had by this time relieved Smith
 +of his command; Scott rode to the front, and in a few
 +brief words told the men there was more work to be done
 +that day. A loud cheer from the ranks was the reply.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
 +The whole force then advanced to Coyacan, within a mile
 +of Churubusco, and prepared to assault the place.</p>
 +
 +<h3>CHURUBUSCO</h3>
 +
 +<p>Santa Anna considered it the key to the city, and
 +awaited the attack in perfect confidence with thirty
 +thousand men. The defences were of a very simple description.
 +On the west, in the direction of Coyacan, stood
 +the large stone convent of San Pablo, in which seven heavy
 +guns were mounted, and which, as well as the wall and
 +breastworks in front, was filled with infantry. A breastwork
 +connected San Pablo with the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i> over the
 +Churubusco River, four hundred yards distant. This was
 +the easternmost point of defence, and formed part of the
 +San Antonio causeway leading to the city. It was a
 +work constructed with the greatest skill—bastions, curtain,
 +and wet ditch, everything was complete and perfect—four
 +guns were mounted in embrasure and barbette,
 +and as many men as the place would hold were stationed
 +there. The reserves occupied the causeway behind Churubusco.
 +Independently of his defences, Santa Anna’s
 +numbers—nearly five to one—ought to have insured the
 +repulse of the assailants.</p>
 +
 +<p>By eleven—hardly seven hours having elapsed since
 +the Contreras camp had been stormed, five miles away—Twiggs
 +and Pillow were in motion toward the San Antonio
 +causeway. Nothing had been heard of Worth,
 +who had been directed to move along the east side of the
 +Pedregal on San Antonio; but it was taken for granted
 +he had carried the point, and Scott wished to cut off the
 +retreat of the garrison. Twiggs was advancing cautiously
 +toward the convent, when a heavy firing was heard in
 +advance. Supposing that a reconnoitring party had
 +been attacked, he hastily sent forward the First Artillery,
 +under Dimmick, through a field of tall corn, to support
 +them. No sooner had they separated from the main<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
 +body than a terrific discharge of grape, canister, and
 +musketry assailed them from the convent. In the teeth
 +of the storm they advanced to within one hundred yards
 +of that building, and a light battery under Taylor was
 +brought up on their right and opened on the convent.
 +Over an hour the gunners stood firm to their pieces under
 +a fire as terrible as troops ever endured; one-third of the
 +command had fallen before they were withdrawn. Colonel
 +Riley meanwhile, with the stormers of Contreras, had
 +been despatched to assail San Pablo on the west, and,
 +like Dimmick, was met by a murderous rain of shot.
 +Whole heads of companies were mowed down at once.
 +Thus Captain Smith fell, twice wounded, with every man
 +beside him; and a single discharge from the Mexican
 +guns swept down Lieutenant Easley and the section he
 +led. It was the second time that day the gallant Second
 +had served as targets for the Mexicans, but not a man
 +fell back. General Smith ordered up the Third in support,
 +and these, protecting themselves as best they could
 +behind a few huts, kept up a steady fire on the convent.
 +Sallies from the works were constantly made and as
 +constantly repulsed, but not a step could the assailants
 +make in advance.</p>
 +
 +<p>By this time the battle was raging on three different
 +points. Worth had marched on San Antonio that morning,
 +found it evacuated, and given chase to the Mexicans
 +with the Fifth and Sixth Infantry. The causeway leading
 +from San Antonio to the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i> of Churubusco
 +was thronged with flying horse and foot; our troops
 +dashed headlong after them, never halting till the advance
 +corps—the Sixth—were within short range of the
 +Mexican batteries. A tremendous volley from the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête
 +de pont</i> in front and the convent on the flank then forced
 +them to await the arrival of the rest of the division. This
 +was the fire which Twiggs heard when he sent Dimmick
 +against the convent.</p>
 +
 +<p>Worth came up almost immediately; and, directing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
 +the Sixth to advance as best they could along the causeway
 +in the teeth of the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i>, despatched Garland
 +and Clarke’s brigades through the fields on the right to
 +attack it in flank. Every gun was instantly directed
 +against the assailants; and, though the day was bright
 +and clear, the clouds of smoke actually darkened the air.
 +Hoffman, waving his sword, cheered on the Sixth; but
 +the shot tore and ripped up their ranks to such a degree
 +that in a few minutes they had lost ninety-seven men.
 +The brigades on the right suffered as severely. One
 +hundred men fell within the space of an acre. Still they
 +pressed on, till the Eighth (of Clarke’s brigade) reached
 +the ditch. In they plunged, Lieutenant Longstreet bearing
 +the colors in advance—scrambled out on the other
 +side—dashed at the walls, without ladders or scaling
 +implements—bayoneted the defenders as they took aim.
 +At last officers and men, mixed pell-mell, some through
 +the embrasures, some over the walls, rushed or leaped
 +in and drove the garrison helter-skelter upon their reserves.</p>
 +
 +<p>The <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i> gained, its guns were turned on the
 +convent, whence the Mexicans were still slaughtering our
 +gallant Second and Third. Duncan’s battery, too, hitherto
 +in reserve, was brought up, and opened with such
 +rapidity that a bystander estimated the intervals between
 +the reports at three seconds. Stunned by this
 +novel attack, the garrison of San Pablo slackened fire.
 +In an instant the Third, followed by Dimmick’s artillery,
 +dashed forward with the bayonet to storm the nearest
 +bastion. With a run they carried it, the artillery bursting
 +over the curtain; but at that moment a dozen white
 +flags waved in their faces. The whole fortified position
 +of Churubusco was taken.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meantime, however, a conflict as deadly as either of
 +these was raging behind the Mexican fortifications. Soon
 +after the battle commenced, Scott sent Pierce and
 +Shields’ brigades by the left, through the fields, to attack<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
 +the enemy in the rear. On the causeway, opposed
 +to them, were planted Santa Anna’s reserves—four
 +thousand foot and three thousand horse—in a measure
 +protected by a dense growth of maguey. Shields advanced
 +intrepidly with his force of sixteen hundred. The
 +ground was marshy, and for a long distance—having
 +vainly endeavored to outflank the enemy—his advance
 +was exposed to their whole fire. Morgan, of the Fifteenth,
 +fell wounded. The New York regiment suffered fearfully,
 +and their leader, Colonel Burnett, was disabled. The
 +Palmettos, of South Carolina, and the Ninth, under Ransom,
 +were as severely cut up; and after a while all sought
 +shelter in and about a large barn near the causeway.
 +Shields, in an agony at the failure of his movement, cried
 +imploringly for volunteers to follow him. The appeal
 +was instantly answered by Colonel Butler, of the Palmettos:
 +“Every South-Carolinian will follow you to the
 +death!” The cry was contagious, and most of the New-Yorkers
 +took it up. Forming at angles to the causeway,
 +Shields led these brave men, under an incessant hail of
 +shot, against the village of Portales, where the Mexican
 +reserves were posted. Not a trigger was pulled till they
 +stood at a hundred and fifty yards from the enemy.
 +Then the little band poured in their volley, fatally answered
 +by the Mexican host. Butler, already wounded,
 +was shot through the head, and died instantly. Calling
 +to the Palmettos to avenge his death, Shields gives the
 +word to charge. They charge—not four hundred in all—over
 +the plain, down upon four thousand Mexicans,
 +securely posted under cover. At every step their ranks
 +thinned. Dickenson, who succeeded Butler in command
 +of the Palmettos, seizes the colors as the bearer falls
 +dead; the next moment he is down himself, mortally
 +wounded, and Major Gladden snatches them from his
 +hand. Adams, Moragne, and nearly half the gallant
 +band are prostrate. A very few minutes more, and there
 +will be no one left to bear the glorious flag.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_218" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33.375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_251.jpg" width="534" height="322" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">CHARGE OF THE “PALMETTOS” AT CHURUBUSCO<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
 +But at this very moment a deafening roar was heard
 +in the direction of the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i>. Round-shot and
 +grape, rifle-balls and canister came crashing down the
 +causeway into the Mexican ranks from their own battery.
 +Worth was there just in time. Down the road and over
 +the ditch, through the field and hedge and swamp, in
 +tumult and panic, the Mexicans fled from the bayonets
 +of the Sixth and Garland’s brigade. A shout, louder
 +than the cannon’s peal—Worth was on their heels, with
 +his best men. Before Shields reached the causeway he
 +was by his side, driving the Mexican horse into their
 +infantry, and Ayres was galloping up with a captured
 +Mexican gun. Captain Kearny, with a few dragoons,
 +rode straight into the flying host, scattered them right
 +and left, sabred all he could reach, and halted before
 +the gate of Mexico. Not till then did he perceive that he
 +was alone with his little party, nearly all of whom were
 +wounded; but, in spite of the hundreds of escopetas that
 +were levelled at him, he galloped back in safety to headquarters.</p>
 +
 +<p>The sun, which rose that morning on a proud army
 +and a defiant metropolis, set at even on a shattered, haggard
 +band and a city full of woe-stricken wretches who
 +did nothing all night but quake with terror and cry at
 +every noise, “Aqui viene los Yanquies!” All along the
 +causeway, and in the fields and swamp on either side,
 +heaps of dead men and cattle, intermingled with broken
 +ammunition-carts, marked where the American shot had
 +told. A gory track leading to the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de pont</i>, groups of
 +dead in the fields on the west of Churubusco, over whose
 +pale faces some stalks of tattered corn still waved, red
 +blotches in the marsh next the causeway, where the rich
 +blood of Carolina and New York soaked the earth, showed
 +where the fire of the heavy Mexican guns and the countless
 +escopetas of the infantry had been most murderous.
 +Scott had lost, in that day’s work, over one thousand men
 +in killed and wounded, seventy-nine of whom were officers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>
 +The Mexican loss, according to Santa Anna, was one-third
 +of his army, equal probably to ten thousand men, one-fourth
 +of whom were prisoners, the rest killed and wounded.
 +As the sun went down the troops were recalled to
 +headquarters; but all night long the battle-field swarmed
 +with straggling parties, seeking some lost comrade in the
 +cold and rain, and surgeons hurrying from place to place
 +and offering succor to the wounded.</p>
 +
 +<p>It would have been easy for Scott to have marched on
 +the city that night, or next morning, and seized it before
 +the Mexicans recovered the shock of their defeat. Anxious,
 +however, to shorten the war, and assured that Santa
 +Anna was desirous of negotiating; warned, moreover, by
 +neutrals and others that the hostile occupation of the
 +capital would destroy the last chance of peaceable accommodation
 +and rouse the Mexican spirit to resistance
 +all over the country, the American general consented, too
 +generously perhaps, to offer an armistice to his vanquished
 +foe. It was eagerly accepted, and negotiations were
 +commenced which lasted over a fortnight. Early in
 +September the treachery of the Mexicans became apparent.
 +No progress had been made in the negotiations;
 +and, in defiance of the armistice, an American wagon,
 +proceeding to the city for provisions, had been attacked
 +by the mob and one man killed and others wounded.
 +Scott wrote to Santa Anna, demanding an apology, and
 +threatening to terminate the armistice on the 7th if it
 +were not tendered. The reply was insulting in the extreme;
 +Santa Anna had repaired his losses and was
 +ready for another fight.</p>
 +
 +<h3>MOLINO DEL REY</h3>
 +
 +<p>On the evening of the 7th of September Worth and his
 +officers were gathered in his quarters at Tacubaya. On
 +a table lay a hastily sketched map showing the position
 +of the fortified works at Molino del Rey, with the Casa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
 +Mata on one side and the castle of Chapultepec on the
 +other. The Molino was occupied by the enemy; there
 +was reason to believe it contained a foundry in full operation,
 +and Worth had been directed to storm it next morning.
 +Over that table bent Garland and Clarke, eager to
 +repeat the glorious deeds of August 20th at the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tête de
 +pont</i> of Churubusco; Duncan and Smith, already veterans;
 +Wright, the leader of the forlorn-hope, joyfully thinking
 +of the morrow; famous Martin Scott and dauntless
 +Graham, little dreaming that a few hours would see their
 +livid corpses stretched upon the plain; fierce old McIntosh,
 +covered with scars; Worth himself, his manly brow
 +clouded and his cheek paled by sickness and anxiety.
 +Each officer had his place assigned to him in the conflict;
 +and they parted to seek a few hours’ rest. At half-past
 +two in the morning of the 8th the division was astir.
 +’Twas a bright, starlight night, whose silence was unbroken
 +as the troops moved thoughtfully toward the
 +battle-field. In front, on the right, about a mile from
 +the encampment, the hewn-stone walls of the Molino del
 +Rey—a range of buildings five hundred yards long and
 +well adapted for defence—were distinctly visible, with
 +drowsy lights twinkling through the windows. A little
 +farther off, on the left, stood the black pile of the Casa
 +Mata, the arsenal, crenelled for musketry and surrounded
 +by a quadrangular field-work. Beyond the Casa Mata
 +lay a ravine, and from this a ditch and hedge ran, passing
 +in front of both works to the Tacubaya road. Far
 +on the right the grim old castle of Chapultepec loomed up
 +darkly against the sky. Sleep wrapped the whole Mexican
 +line, and but few words were spoken in the American
 +ranks as the troops took up their respective positions—Garland,
 +with Dunn’s battery and Huger’s twenty-four-pounders,
 +on the right, against the Molino; Wright, at
 +the head of the stormers, and followed by the light division,
 +under Captain Kirby Smith, in the centre; McIntosh,
 +with Duncan’s battery, on the left, near the ravine, looking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
 +toward the Casa Mata; and Cadwallader, with his
 +brigade, in reserve.</p>
 +
 +<p>Night still overhung the east when the Mexicans were
 +roused from their slumbers by the roar of Huger’s twenty-four-pounders
 +and the crashing of the balls through the
 +roof and walls of the Molino. A shout arose within their
 +lines, spreading from the ravine to the castle; lights
 +flashed in every direction, bugles sounded, the clank of
 +arms rang from right to left, and every man girded himself
 +for the fray. With the first ray of daylight Major
 +Wright advanced with the forlorn-hope down the slope.
 +A few seconds elapsed; then a sheet of flame burst from
 +the batteries, and round-shot, canister, and grape hurtled
 +through the air. “Charge!” shouted the leader, and
 +down they went, with double-quick step, over the ditch
 +and hedge and into the line, sweeping everything before
 +them. The Mexicans fell from their guns, but soon, seeing
 +the smallness of the force opposed to them, and reassured
 +by the galling fire poured from the azoteas and
 +Molino on the stormers, they rallied, charged furiously,
 +and drove our men back into the plain. Here eleven out
 +of the fourteen officers of Wright’s party and the bulk of
 +his men fell killed or wounded. All of the latter who
 +could not fly were bayoneted where they lay by the
 +Mexicans. Captain Walker, of the Sixth, badly shot,
 +was left for dead; he saw the enemy murdering every
 +man who showed signs of life, but the agony of thirst
 +was so insupportable that he could not resist raising his
 +canteen to his lips. A dozen balls instantly tore up the
 +ground around him; several Mexicans rushed at him
 +with the bayonet, but at that moment the light division
 +under Kirby Smith came charging over the ditch into
 +the Mexican line and diverted their attention.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_222" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19.5625em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_257.jpg" width="313" height="387" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BATTLE OF MOLINO DEL REY<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>Garland, meanwhile, moved down rapidly on the right
 +with Dunn’s guns, which were drawn by hand, all the
 +horses having been wounded and become unmanageable.
 +These soon opened an enfilading fire on the Mexican battery;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span>
 +and, some of the gunners flying, the light division
 +charged, under a hot fire, and carried the guns for a second
 +time. Their gallant leader was shot dead in the charge.
 +But the enemy could afford to lose the battery. From
 +the tops of the azoteas, from the Casa Mata, and the
 +Molino, a deadly shower of balls was rained crosswise
 +upon the assailants. Part of the reserve was brought
 +up, and Dunn’s guns and the Mexican battery were
 +served upon the buildings without much effect at first.
 +Lieutenant-Colonel Graham led a party of the Eleventh
 +against the latter; when within pistol-shot a terrific volley
 +assailed him, wounding him in ten places. The gallant
 +soldier quietly dismounted, pointed with his sword
 +to the building, cried “Charge!” and sank dead on the
 +field.</p>
 +
 +<p>There was an equally fierce fight at the other wing,
 +where Duncan and McIntosh had driven in the enemy’s
 +right toward the Casa Mata. McIntosh started to storm
 +that fort; and, in the teeth of a tremendous hail of musketry,
 +advanced to the ditch, only twenty-five yards from
 +the work. There a ball knocked him down; it was his
 +luck to be shot or bayoneted in every battle. Martin
 +Scott took the command, but as he ordered the men
 +forward he rolled lifeless into the ditch. Major Waite, the
 +next in rank, had hardly seen him fall before he too was
 +disabled. By whole companies the men were mowed
 +down by the Mexican shot; but they stood their ground.
 +At length some one gave the word to fall back, and the
 +remnants of the brigade obeyed. Many wounded were
 +left on the ground; among others Lieutenant Burnell shot
 +in the leg, whom the Mexicans murdered when his comrades
 +abandoned him. After the battle his body was
 +found, and beside it his dog, moaning piteously and
 +licking his dead master’s face.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the head of four thousand cavalry, Alvarez now
 +menaced our left. Duncan watched them come, driving
 +a cloud of dust before them, till they were within close<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
 +range; then, opening with his wonderful rapidity, he shattered
 +whole platoons at a discharge. Worth sent him
 +word to be sure to keep the lancers in check. “Tell
 +General Worth,” was his reply, “to make himself perfectly
 +easy; I can whip twenty thousand of them.”
 +So far as Alvarez was concerned, he kept his word.</p>
 +
 +<p>On the American right the fight had reached a crisis.
 +Mixed confusedly together, men of all arms furiously attacked
 +the Molino, firing into every aperture, climbing
 +to the roof, and striving to batter in the doors and gates
 +with their muskets. The garrison never slackened their
 +terrible fire for an instant. At length, Major Buchanan,
 +of the Fourth, succeeded in bursting open the southern
 +gate, and almost at the same moment Anderson and
 +Ayres, of the artillery, forced their way into the buildings
 +at the northwestern angle. Ayres leaped down alone
 +into a crowd of Mexicans—he had done the same at
 +Monterey—and fell covered with wounds. In our men
 +rushed on both sides, stabbing, firing, and felling the
 +Mexicans with their muskets. From room to room and
 +house to house a hand-to-hand encounter was kept up.
 +Here a stalwart Mexican hurled down man after man as
 +they advanced; there Buchanan and the Fourth levelled
 +all before them. But the Mexicans never withstood the
 +cold steel. One by one the defenders escaped by the
 +rear toward Chapultepec, and those who remained hung
 +out a white flag. Under Duncan’s fire the Casa Mata
 +had been evacuated, and the enemy was everywhere in
 +full retreat. Twice he rallied and charged the Molino;
 +but each time the artillery drove him back toward
 +Chapultepec, and parties of the light infantry pursued
 +him down the road. Before ten in the morning the whole
 +field was won; and, having blown up the Casa Mata,
 +Worth, by Scott’s order, fell back to Tacubaya.</p>
 +
 +<p>With gloomy face and averted eye the gallant soldier
 +received the thanks of his chief for the exploits of the
 +morning. His heart was with the brave men he had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
 +lost: near eight hundred out of less than thirty-five
 +hundred, and among them fifty-eight officers, many of
 +whom were his dearest friends. All had fallen in advance
 +of their men, with sword in hand and noble words
 +on their lips. They had helped to storm Molino del Rey,
 +and to cut down near a fifth of Santa Anna’s fourteen
 +thousand men. Sadly the general returned to his
 +quarters.</p>
 +
 +<p>The end was now close at hand. Reconnaissances were
 +carefully made, and, the enemy’s strength being gathered
 +on the southern front of the city. General Scott determined
 +to assault Chapultepec on the west. By the morning
 +of the 12th the batteries were completed, and opened
 +a brisk fire on the castle, without, however, doing any
 +more serious damage than annoying the garrison and
 +killing a few men. The fire was kept up all day; and at
 +night preparations were made for the assault, which was
 +ordered to be made next morning.</p>
 +
 +<h3>CHAPULTEPEC</h3>
 +
 +<p>At daybreak on the 13th the cannonade recommenced,
 +as well from the batteries planted against Chapultepec
 +as from Steptoe’s guns, which were served against the
 +southern defences of the city in order to divert the attention
 +of the enemy. At 8 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> the firing from the former
 +ceased and the attack commenced. Quitman advanced
 +along the Tacubaya road, Pillow from the Molino del Rey,
 +which he had occupied on the evening before. Between
 +the Molino and the castle lay first an open space, then
 +a grove thickly planted with trees; in the latter Mexican
 +sharpshooters had been posted, protected by an intrenchment
 +on the border of the grove. Pillow sent Lieutenant-Colonel
 +Johnstone with a party of voltigeurs to turn this
 +work by a flank movement; it was handsomely accomplished,
 +and, just as the voltigeurs broke through the
 +redan, Pillow, with the main body, charged it in front<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
 +and drove back the Mexicans. The grove gained, Pillow
 +pressed forward to the foot of the rock; for the Mexican
 +shot from the castle batteries, crashing through the trees,
 +seemed even more terrible than it really was, and the
 +troops were becoming restless. The Mexicans had retreated
 +to a redoubt half-way up the hill; the voltigeurs
 +sprang up from rock to rock, firing as they advanced, and
 +followed by Hooker, Chase, and others, with parties of
 +infantry. In a very few minutes the redoubt was gained,
 +the garrison driven up the hill, and the voltigeurs, Ninth,
 +and Fifteenth in hot pursuit after them. Here the firing
 +from the castle was very severe. Colonel Ransom, of the
 +Ninth, was killed, and Pillow himself was wounded.</p>
 +
 +<p>Still the troops pressed on till the crest of the hill was
 +gained. There some moments were lost, owing to the
 +delay in the arrival of scaling-ladders, during which two
 +of Quitman’s regiments and Clarke’s brigade reinforced
 +the storming party. When the ladders came, numbers of
 +men rushed forward with them, leaped into the ditch, and
 +planted them for the assault. Lieutenant Selden was the
 +first man to mount. But the Mexicans collected all their
 +energies for this last moment. A tremendous fire dashed
 +the foremost of the stormers in the ditch, killing Lieutenants
 +Rogers and Smith, and clearing the ladders. Fresh
 +men instantly manned them, and, after a brief struggle,
 +Captain Howard, of the voltigeurs, gained a foothold on
 +the parapet. McKenzie, of the forlorn-hope, followed;
 +and a crowd of voltigeurs and infantry, shouting and
 +cheering, pressed after him and swept down upon the
 +garrison with the bayonet. Almost at the same moment
 +Johnstone, of the voltigeurs, who had led a small party
 +round to the gate of the castle, broke it open and effected
 +an entrance in spite of a fierce fire from the southern
 +walls. The two parties uniting, a deadly conflict ensued
 +within the building. Maddened by the recollection of
 +the murder of their wounded comrades at Molino del Rey,
 +the stormers at first showed no quarter. On every side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
 +the Mexicans were stabbed or shot down without mercy.
 +Many flung themselves over the parapet and down the
 +hillside, and were dashed in pieces against the rocks.
 +More fought like fiends, expending their last breath in a
 +malediction and expiring in the act of aiming a treacherous
 +blow as they lay on the ground. Streams of blood
 +flowed through the doors of the college, and every room
 +and passage was the theatre of some deadly struggle.
 +At length the officers succeeded in putting an end to the
 +carnage, and, the remaining Mexicans having surrendered,
 +the stars and stripes were hoisted over the castle of
 +Chapultepec by Major Seymour.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile Quitman had stormed the batteries on the
 +causeway to the east of the castle, after a desperate
 +struggle, in which Major Twiggs, who commanded the
 +stormers, was shot dead at the head of his men. The
 +Mexicans fell back toward the city. General Scott, coming
 +up at this moment, ordered a simultaneous advance
 +to be made on the city along the two roads leading from
 +Chapultepec to the gates of San Cosme and Belen respectively.
 +Worth was to command that on San Cosme,
 +Quitman that on Belen. Both were prepared for defence
 +by barricades, behind which the enemy were posted in
 +great numbers. Fortunately for the assailants, an aqueduct,
 +supported on arches of solid masonry, ran along
 +the centre of each causeway. By keeping under cover
 +of these arches and springing rapidly from one to another,
 +Smith’s rifles and the South Carolina regiment
 +were enabled to advance close to the first barricade on
 +the Belen road and pour in a destructive fire on the
 +gunners. A flank discharge from Duncan’s guns completed
 +the work; the barricade was carried; and, without
 +a moment’s rest, Quitman advanced in the same manner
 +on the garita of San Belen, which was held by General
 +Torres with a strong garrison. It, too, was stormed, though
 +under a fearful hail of grape and canister; and the rifles
 +moved forward toward the citadel. But at this moment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
 +Santa Anna rode furiously down to the point of attack.
 +Boiling with rage at the success of the invaders, he smote
 +General Torres in the face, threw a host of infantry into
 +the houses commanding the garita and the road, ordered
 +the batteries in the citadel to open fire, planted fresh
 +guns on the Paseo, and infused such spirit into the Mexicans
 +that Quitman’s advance was stopped at once. A
 +terrific storm of shot, shells, and grape assailed the garita,
 +where Captain Dunn had planted an eight-pounder.
 +Twice the gunners were shot down, and fresh men sent to
 +take their places. Then Dunn himself fell, and immediately
 +afterward Lieutenant Benjamin and his first sergeant
 +met the same fate. The riflemen in the arches repelled
 +sallies, but Quitman’s position was precarious till
 +night terminated the conflict.</p>
 +
 +<p>Worth, meanwhile, had advanced in like manner along
 +the San Cosme causeway, driving the Mexicans from
 +barricade to barricade till within two hundred and fifty
 +yards of the garita of San Cosme. There he encountered
 +as severe a fire as that which stopped Quitman. But
 +Scott had ordered him to take the garita, and take it he
 +would. Throwing Garland’s brigade out to the right
 +and Clarke’s to the left, he ordered them to break into
 +the houses, burst through the walls, and bore their way
 +to the flanks of the garita. The plan had succeeded perfectly
 +at Monterey; nor did it fail here. Slowly but surely
 +the sappers passed from house to house, until at sunset
 +they reached the point desired. Then Worth ordered the
 +attack. Lieutenant Hunt brought up a light gun at a
 +gallop and fired it through the embrasure of the enemy’s
 +battery, almost muzzle to muzzle; the infantry at the
 +same moment opened a most deadly and unexpected fire
 +from the roofs of the houses, and McKenzie, at the head
 +of the stormers, dashed at the battery and carried it
 +almost without loss. The Mexicans fled precipitately into
 +the city.</p>
 +
 +<p>At one that night two parties left the citadel and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
 +issued forth from the city. One was the remnant of the
 +Mexican army, which slunk silently and noiselessly
 +through the northern gate, and fled to Guadalupe-Hidalgo;
 +the other was a body of officers who came under a white
 +flag to propose terms of capitulation.</p>
 +
 +<h3>THE OCCUPATION OF THE CITY OF MEXICO</h3>
 +
 +<p>The sun shone brightly on the morning of September
 +14th. Scores of neutral flags floated from the windows
 +on the Calle de Plateros, and in their shade beautiful
 +women gazed curiously on the scene beneath. Gayly
 +dressed groups thronged the balconies, and at the street-corners
 +were scowling, dark-faced men. The street resounded
 +with the heavy tramp of infantry, the rattle of
 +gun-carriages, and the clatter of horses’ hoofs. “Los
 +Yanquies!” was the cry, and every neck was stretched to
 +obtain a glimpse of the six thousand bemired and begrimed
 +soldiers who were marching proudly to the Gran
 +Plaza. But six months before, Winfield Scott had landed
 +on the Mexican coast; since then he had stormed the two
 +strongest places in the country, won four battles in the
 +field against armies double, treble, and quadruple his own,
 +and marched without reverse from Vera Cruz to the city
 +of Mexico; losing fewer men, making fewer mistakes, and
 +creating less devastation, in proportion to his victories,
 +than any invading general of former times.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE CONQUEST OF<br />
 +MEXICO, 1847, AND THE BOMBARDMENT<br />
 +OF FORT SUMTER, 1861</h3>
 +
 +<p>1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo between the United
 +States and Mexico. Admission of Wisconsin into the
 +Union. Congress passes an act for the organization of
 +Oregon Territory. Migration of the Mormons to Great
 +Salt Lake. Zachary Taylor elected President. Formation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>
 +of the Free-Soil party. Discovery of gold in California.</p>
 +
 +<p>1850. The United States and Great Britain conclude
 +the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty regarding a water route across
 +Central America. On the death of Zachary Taylor,
 +Millard Fillmore succeeds to the Presidency. New
 +Mexico and Utah are organized as territories, and the
 +“Clay Compromise,” providing for the admission of
 +California as a free state, is adopted. Slavery in the
 +District of Columbia is abolished.</p>
 +
 +<p>1851. Unsuccessful filibustering expedition, under Lopez,
 +against Cuba. Arrival of Louis Kossuth in the
 +United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1852. Franklin Pierce elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1853. Organization of Washington Territory. The
 +Kane Arctic expedition in search of Sir John Franklin.</p>
 +
 +<p>1854. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise, limiting slave
 +territory in the United States, and passage of the Kansas-Nebraska
 +bill, making slavery optional in the new territories.
 +The “Ostend Manifesto” recommends the purchase
 +of Cuba by the United States. Passage of the
 +commercial reciprocity treaty between the United States
 +and Canada (abrogated in 1866). Commodore Perry
 +concludes a treaty with Japan.</p>
 +
 +<p>1855. A Pro-Slavery legislature organizes in Kansas. A
 +Free-State convention draws up the Topeka Constitution.
 +William Walker, with a force of filibusters, invades Nicaragua.
 +Opening of the railway across the Isthmus of Panama.</p>
 +
 +<p>1856. Civil war in Kansas. James Buchanan elected
 +President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1857. Victory of the Free-State party at the polls in
 +Kansas. A Pro-Slavery convention draws up the Lecompton
 +Constitution. Dred Scott decision. Mormon
 +rebellion in Utah. Financial panic in the United States
 +and Europe.</p>
 +
 +<p>1858. Admission of Minnesota into the Union. Kansas
 +rejects the Lecompton Constitution. Senator Douglas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
 +debates. Partial establishment of transatlantic telegraphic
 +communication.</p>
 +
 +<p>1859. Admission of Oregon into the Union. John
 +Brown’s raid into West Virginia. His capture, trial,
 +and execution. Petroleum discovered in the United
 +States. San Juan islands occupied by General Harney.</p>
 +
 +<p>1860. Abraham Lincoln elected President. Secession
 +of South Carolina. Kansas prohibits slavery within its
 +boundaries. Lewis Cass, Secretary of State, resigns because
 +President Buchanan refused to reinforce Major
 +Anderson at Fort Moultrie, S. C.</p>
 +
 +<p>1861. Secession of Mississippi, January 9th, followed
 +by Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Texas, and Louisiana.
 +Admission of Kansas into the Union. Jefferson Davis
 +elected president of the Confederate States of America
 +on February 7th. Bombardment of Fort Sumter.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XV" class="vspace">XV<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_16" class="subhead">FORT SUMTER, 1861</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3>I<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">DRIFT TOWARD SOUTHERN NATIONALIZATION (1850–1860)</span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Seventy-two</span> years after the adoption of the
 +Constitution, called into being to form “a more
 +perfect union,” and eighty-five years after the declaration
 +of independence (a space completely covered by the lives
 +of men still living), a new confederacy of seven Southern
 +states was formed, and the great political fabric, the
 +exemplar and hope of every lover of freedom throughout
 +the world, was apparently hopelessly rent. Of these
 +seven states but two were of the original thirteen—Louisiana
 +and Florida had been purchased by the government
 +of the Union; a war had been fought in behalf of
 +Texas; two states, Alabama and Mississippi, lay within
 +original claims of Georgia, but had been ceded to the
 +Union and organized as Federal territories.</p>
 +
 +<p>April 11, 1861, found a fully organized separate government
 +established for these seven states, with a determination
 +to form a separate nation, most forcibly
 +expressed by the presence of an army at Charleston,
 +South Carolina, which next day was to open fire upon
 +a feebly manned fort, and thus to begin a terrible civil
 +war. The eight other slave states were in a turmoil of
 +anxiety, leaning toward their sisters of the farther South
 +through the common sympathy which came of slavery,
 +but drawn also to the Union through tradition and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
 +appreciation of benefits, and through a realization by a
 +great number of persons that their interests in slavery
 +were much less than those of the states which had already
 +seceded.</p>
 +
 +<p>The North, in the middle of April, was only emerging
 +from a condition of stupefied amazement at a condition
 +which scarcely any of its statesmen, and practically none
 +of the men of every-day life, had thought possible. It
 +was to this crisis that the country had been brought by
 +the conflicting views of the two great and strongly divided
 +sections of the Union respecting slavery, and by
 +the national aspirations which, however little recognized,
 +were working surely in each section, but upon
 +divergent lines.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The outward manifestations in the history of the
 +separation of the North and the South stand out in
 +strong relief: the Missouri question; the protective tariff
 +and South Carolina nullification; the abolition attacks
 +which wrought the South into a frenzy suicidal in character
 +through its impossible demands upon the North
 +for protection; the action of the Southern statesmen in
 +the question of petitions; the passage of a fugitive-slave
 +law which drove the North itself to nullification; the
 +Kansas-Nebraska act and its outcome of civil war in the
 +former territory; the recognition, in the dicta of the
 +supreme court in the Dred Scott case, of the South’s
 +contention of its constitutional right to carry slavery
 +into the territories, and the stand taken by the North
 +against any further slavery extension. To these visible
 +conflicts were added the unconscious workings of the
 +disruptive forces of a totally distinct social organization.
 +The outward strifes were but the symptoms of a malady
 +in the body politic of the Union which could have but
 +one end, unless the deep, abiding cause, slavery, should be
 +removed.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
 +The president and vice-president of the Southern Confederacy,
 +in their elaborate defences written after the
 +war, have endeavored to rest the cause of the struggle
 +wholly on constitutional questions. Stephens, whose
 +book, not even excepting Calhoun’s utterances, is the
 +ablest exposition of the Southern reading of the Constitution,
 +says: “The struggle or conflict, ... from its
 +rise to its culmination, was between those who, in whatever
 +state they lived, were for maintaining our Federal
 +system as it was established, and those who were for a
 +consolidation of power in the central head.”<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> Jefferson
 +Davis is even more explicit. “The truth remains,” he
 +says, “intact and incontrovertible, that the existence of
 +African servitude was in no wise the cause of the conflict,
 +but only an incident. In the later controversies ...
 +its effect in operating as a lever upon the passions, prejudices,
 +or sympathies of mankind was so potent that
 +it has been spread like a thick cloud over the whole
 +horizon of historic truth.”<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p>
 +
 +<p>This is but begging the question. The constitutional
 +view had its weight for the South in 1860 as it had for
 +New England in the Jefferson-Madison period. Jefferson’s
 +iron domination of the national government during
 +his presidency, a policy hateful to New England, combined
 +with the fear of being overweighted in sectional
 +influence by the western extension through the Louisiana
 +purchase, led to pronounced threats of secession by men
 +of New England, ardently desirous of escaping from what
 +Pickering, one of its most prominent men, termed the
 +Virginian supremacy.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> Exactly the same arguments were
 +used, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">mutatis mutandis</i>, later by the South.</p>
 +
 +<p>As we all know, the movement, which never had any
 +real popular support and which had its last spasm of life
 +in the Hartford Convention at the close of the War of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
 +1812, came to naught. Freed by the fall of Napoleon
 +and the peace with England from the pressure of the
 +upper and nether mill-stones which had so ground to
 +pieces our commerce, a prosperity set in which drowned
 +the sporadic discontent of the previous twenty years.
 +The fears of the Eastern states no longer loomed so high
 +and were as imaginary in fact, and had as slight a basis,
 +as were, in the beginning of the era of discord, those of
 +the South. Could slavery have been otherwise preserved,
 +the extreme decentralizing ideas of the South
 +would have disappeared with equal ease, and Stephens’
 +<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">causa causans</i>—“the different and directly opposite views
 +as to the nature of the government of the United States,
 +and where, under our system, ultimate sovereign power
 +or paramount authority properly resides,” would have
 +had no more intensity of meaning in 1860 than to-day.</p>
 +
 +<p>Divergence of constitutional views, like most questions
 +of government, follow the lines of self-interest; Jefferson’s
 +qualms gave way before the great prize of Louisiana;
 +one part of the South was ready in 1832 to go to war on
 +account of a protective tariff; another, Louisiana, was
 +at the same time demanding protection for her special
 +industry. The South thus simply shared in our general
 +human nature, and fought, not for a pure abstraction, as
 +Davis and Stephens, led by Calhoun, would have it, but
 +for the supposed self-interest which its view of the Constitution
 +protected. Its section, its society, could not
 +continue to develop in the Union under the Northern
 +reading of the document, and the irrepressible and certain
 +nationalization, so different from its own tendencies,
 +to which the North as a whole was steadily moving.</p>
 +
 +<p>Slavery drove the South into opposition to the broad,
 +liberal movement of the age. The French Revolution;
 +the destruction of feudalism by Napoleon; the later
 +popular movements throughout Europe and South
 +America; the liberalizing of Great Britain; the nationalistic
 +ideas of which we have the results in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
 +German empire and the kingdom of Italy, and the strong
 +nationalistic feeling developing in the northern part of
 +the Union itself had but little reflex action in the South
 +because of slavery and the South’s consequent segregation
 +and tendency to a feudalistic nationalization.</p>
 +
 +<h3>II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">STATUS OF THE FORTS (OCT. 29, 1860–DEC. 20, 1860)</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>General Scott, with his memories of 1832, was one of
 +those who appreciated the danger hanging over the
 +country, and, October 29, 1860, he wrote from New York,
 +where he had his headquarters, a letter of great length
 +to the President, which in pompous phrases, conceding
 +the right of secession, and embodying some absurd ideas,
 +such as allowing “the fragments of the great republic to
 +form themselves into new confederacies, probably four,”
 +as a smaller evil than war, gave it as his “solemn conviction”
 +that there was, from his knowledge of the Southern
 +population, “some danger of an early act of rashness
 +preliminary to secession, viz.: the seizure of some or all
 +of the following posts: Forts Jackson and St. Philip on
 +the Mississippi; Morgan below Mobile, all without garrisons;
 +Pickens, McKee at Pensacola, with an insufficient
 +garrison for one; Pulaski, below Savannah, without a
 +garrison; Moultrie and Sumter, Charleston harbor, the
 +former with an insufficient garrison, the latter without
 +any; and Fort Monroe, Hampton Roads, with an insufficient
 +garrison.”</p>
 +
 +<p>He gave it as his opinion that “all these works should
 +be immediately so garrisoned as to make any attempt to
 +take any one of them by surprise or <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">coup de main</i> ridiculous.”
 +He did not state the number of men needed, but
 +in a supplementary paper the next day (October 30th)
 +said, “There is one (regular) company in Boston, one
 +here (at the Narrows), one at Pittsburg, one at Baton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
 +Rouge—in all, five companies only within reach.”<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> These
 +five companies, about two hundred and fifty men, were
 +of course absurdly inadequate to garrison nine such posts,
 +but, had there been a determination in the President’s
 +mind to prevent seizures, enough men could have been
 +brought together to hold the more important points.</p>
 +
 +<p>For Scott’s statement as to the number available was
 +grossly inaccurate, and but serves to show the parlous
 +state of a war department in which the general-in-chief
 +can either be so misinformed or allow himself to remain
 +in ignorance of vital facts. There were but five points
 +in the farther South of primal importance: the Mississippi,
 +Mobile, Pensacola, Savannah, and Charleston; two hundred
 +men at each would have been ample to hold the
 +positions for the time being, and, being held, reinforcement
 +in any degree would later have been easy. There
 +was a total of 1048 officers and men at the Northern
 +posts,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> including Leavenworth, Mackinac, Plattsburg,
 +Boston, New York, and Fort Monroe, who could have
 +been drawn upon. There were already 250 men at
 +Charleston, Key West, Pensacola, and Baton Rouge.
 +It is safe to say that a thousand men were available.
 +There were also some eight hundred marines at the navy-yards
 +and barracks<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> who could have been used in such
 +an emergency. The aggregate of the army, June 30,
 +1860, was 16,006, of which 14,926 were enlisted men;
 +and it was in the power of the President to increase this
 +total aggregate to 18,626.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> Recruiting was, in fact,
 +actively going on; almost every man at the posts mentioned
 +could, even much after the date of Scott’s paper,
 +have been safely withdrawn for the object mentioned and
 +quickly replaced.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>
 +Scott’s inaccurate report gave Buchanan additional
 +reason for the inaction which was his basic thought.
 +He says, in his <cite>apologia</cite>, that “to have attempted to distribute
 +these five companies in the eight forts of the
 +cotton states and Fortress Monroe in Virginia, would
 +have been a confession of weakness.... It could have
 +had no effect in preventing secession, but must have
 +done much to provoke it.”<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> The first part of this statement
 +would have been true had these five companies
 +been the only force available; the second, on the supposition
 +that the President meant that any attempt with
 +a force reasonably large would have provoked secession,
 +was a short-sighted view. To garrison the forts could
 +not have been more obnoxious than to put them in a
 +state of defence. At any time before the secession of a
 +state they could have been garrisoned without bringing
 +on actual conflict. The statesmen of the South were
 +well aware that an attack upon an armed force of the
 +United States, before secession, must place them irretrievably
 +in the wrong. South Carolina did not secede
 +until December 20th. To resist the sending of troops
 +before this date to any of these forts would have been
 +unqualified treason, and for this no one in the South
 +was prepared. The safety of the secession movement,
 +the extension of sympathy throughout the South, rested
 +very greatly upon strict compliance with the forms of
 +law and with the theories of the Constitution held by
 +that section. At least one ardent secessionist, Judge
 +Longstreet, recognized this when he appealed to South-Carolinians
 +to refrain from any act of war; “let the first
 +shot,” he said, “come from the enemy. <em>Burn that precept
 +into your hearts.</em>”<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> It was impossible that the
 +Southern leaders should place themselves, or allow their
 +people to place them, in the attitude of waging war against
 +the Union while even in their own view their states still<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
 +remained within it. There was, too, still a very large
 +Union sentiment in the South, though finally swept into
 +the vortex by the principle of going with the state, which
 +would not have been averse to a determined action on
 +the part of the President and might have upheld it, as
 +in 1833. Such vigor would have given this sentiment a
 +working basis, through the evidence that the Federal
 +authority was to be upheld; and it would have caused
 +a pause even in the least thoughtful of the secessionists
 +had they felt that their coast strongholds were to be held
 +and all their ports to be in the hands of the enemy. In
 +the dearth of manufactures in the South, the holding of
 +their ports was an essential to Southern military success.
 +Their closure by blockade was equally an essential to
 +the success of the North. The strategy of the situation
 +was of the clearest and most palpable, and with their
 +coast forts in Union hands warlike action on the part
 +of the South is not conceivable. One can thus understand
 +the importance of spreading the reiterated statements
 +of “intense excitement” and “danger of attack”
 +in the event of reinforcement; statements which, in the
 +circumstances, must be regarded, if the phrase may be
 +used, in the nature of a gigantic and successful “bluff.”</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>The military property of the United States at Charleston
 +consisted of the armory, covering a few acres, where
 +were stored twenty-two thousand muskets and a considerable
 +number of old, heavy guns, and of three forts
 +named for South-Carolinians of Union-wide fame. The
 +smallest of these, Castle Pinckney, was a round, brick
 +structure, in excellent condition, on a small island directly
 +east of the town and distant from the wharves but half
 +a mile. It completely commanded the town, and had
 +a formidable armament of four forty-two-pounders,
 +fourteen twenty-four-pounders, and four eight-inch sea-coast
 +howitzers. The powder of the arsenal was here
 +stored. The only garrison was an ordnance sergeant,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
 +who, with his family, looked after the harbor light which
 +was in the fort.</p>
 +
 +<p>Almost due east again, and three miles distant, was
 +Fort Moultrie, on the south end of Sullivan’s Island, a
 +low sand-spit forming the north side of the harbor entrance.
 +The work had an area of one and a half acres,
 +and mounted fifty-five guns in barbette. The drifting
 +sands had piled themselves even with the parapet, and
 +the work was in such condition as to be indefensible
 +against a land attack. The whole was but of a piece with
 +the long-continued neglect arising from many years of
 +peace and the optimistic temperament of a people who
 +never believe that war can occur until it is upon them;
 +it was the natural outcome of the almost entire absence
 +of governmental system and forethought of the time.
 +The fort was garrisoned by two companies, comprising
 +sixty-four enlisted men and eight officers, of the First
 +regiment of artillery; the surgeon, band, a hospital
 +steward, and an ordnance sergeant brought the total up
 +to eighty-four.</p>
 +
 +<p>Almost south of Moultrie was Cummings Point, on
 +Morris Island, forming the southern side of the harbor
 +entrance. Nearly midway between this point and
 +Moultrie, but a half-mile within the line joining them,
 +and distant three and a half miles from the nearest part
 +of the city, was Fort Sumter, begun in 1829, and after
 +thirty-one years not yet finished. Built on a shoal covered
 +at most stages of the tide, it rose directly out of the
 +water, with two tiers of casemates, and surmounted by
 +a third tier of guns in barbette. In plan it was very
 +like the transverse section of the ordinary American house,
 +the apex of the two sides representing the lines of the
 +roof, looking toward Moultrie. It was intended for a
 +garrison of six hundred and fifty men and an armament
 +of one hundred and forty-six guns, of which seventy-eight
 +were on hand.</p>
 +
 +<p>On a report made in July by Captain J. G. Foster, repairs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>
 +on Moultrie were begun September 14th, and next day
 +upon Sumter, some two hundred and fifty men being
 +employed. The sand about the walls of Moultrie was
 +removed, a wet ditch dug, a glacis formed, the guardhouse
 +pierced with loop-holes, and the four field-guns
 +placed in position for flank attack.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the end of October, Captain Foster, foreseeing events,
 +requested the issue of arms to the workmen to protect
 +property, and the Secretary of War approved the issue of
 +forty muskets, if it should meet the concurrence of the
 +commanding officer. Colonel Gardner, in reply, November
 +5th, doubted the expediency, as most of the laborers
 +were foreigners, indifferent to which side they took, and
 +wisely advised, instead, filling up “at once” the two
 +companies at Moultrie with recruits and sending two
 +companies from Fort Monroe to the two other forts.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a>
 +The requisition was thus held in abeyance, and the
 +muskets remained at the arsenal. When, only two days
 +later, Gardner, urged by the repeated solicitations of his
 +officers, directed the transfer of musket ammunition to
 +Moultrie, the loading of the schooner was objected to by
 +the owner of the wharf, and the military store-keeper,
 +under apparently very inadequate pressure, returned the
 +stores to the arsenal. A permit, given by the mayor of
 +Charleston next day, for the removal was very properly
 +declined by Gardner, on the ground that the city authorities
 +could not control his actions.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The affair, however, cost Gardner his command, by a
 +process described by the Assistant Secretary of State,
 +Trescot: “I received a telegram from Charleston, saying
 +that intense excitement prevailed, ... and that, if the
 +removal was by orders of the Department of War, it ought
 +to be revoked, otherwise collision was inevitable. Knowing
 +the Cabinet were then in session, I went over to the White
 +House.... I took Governor Floyd aside, and he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
 +joined, I think, by Messrs. Cobb and Toucey, and showed
 +them the telegram. Governor Floyd replied, ‘Telegraph
 +back at once; say that you have seen me, that no such
 +orders have been issued, and none such will be issued,
 +under any circumstances.’” Floyd, a day or so later,
 +gave Trescot “his impressions of the folly of Colonel
 +Gardner’s conduct, and his final determination to remove
 +him and supply his place with Major Robert Anderson,
 +in whose discretion, coolness, and judgment he
 +put great confidence. He also determined to send Colonel
 +Ben. Huger to take charge of the arsenal, believing that
 +his high reputation, his close association with many of
 +the most influential people in Charleston, and the fact of
 +his being a Carolinian, would satisfy the state of the
 +intention of the government.”<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a></p>
 +
 +<p>That Floyd himself was in an uncertain state of mind
 +is shown by his willingness to begin and continue the
 +work upon the forts; that his mental state did not permit
 +logical action is clear from his temper and attitude
 +regarding the transfer of musket ammunition November
 +7th, though but the week before (October 31st) he had
 +authorized the transfer of the muskets themselves.</p>
 +
 +<p>Major Fitz-John Porter, of the adjutant-general’s office,
 +later the able and ill-treated general, was sent to Charleston
 +to inspect the conditions. His report, made November
 +11th, revealed the military inefficiency almost inseparable
 +from a post so neglected and ill-manned, and
 +subject to the lazy peace conditions of the period. He
 +said: “The unguarded state of the fort invites attack,
 +if such design exists, and much discretion and prudence
 +are required on the part of the commander to restore the
 +proper security without exciting a community prompt to
 +misconstrue actions of authority. I think this can be
 +effected by a proper commander without checking in the
 +slightest the progress of the engineer in completing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
 +works of defence.” Major Porter continues with a most
 +significant phrase, “All could have been easily arranged
 +a few weeks since, when the danger was foreseen by the
 +present commander.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a></p>
 +
 +<p>November 15th, Anderson was ordered to the command.
 +A Kentuckian by birth, his wife a Georgian, his views in
 +sympathy with those of General Scott, he appeared to be
 +and, as results proved, was in many respects particularly
 +fitted for the post; by November 23d he was able to
 +report that in two weeks the outer defences of Moultrie
 +would be finished and the guns mounted, and that Sumter
 +was ready for the comfortable accommodation of one
 +company, and, indeed, for the temporary reception of
 +its proper garrison. “This,” he said, “is the key to the
 +entrance to this harbor; its guns command this work
 +[Moultrie] and could drive out its occupants. It should
 +be garrisoned at once.... So important do I consider the
 +holding of Castle Pinckney by the government that I
 +recommend, if the troops asked for cannot be sent at
 +once, that I be authorized to place an engineer detachment
 +[of an officer and thirty workmen] ... to make the
 +repairs needed there.... If my force was not so very
 +small, I would not hesitate to send a detachment at once
 +to garrison that work. Fort Sumter and Castle Pinckney
 +<em>must</em> be garrisoned immediately if the government
 +determines to keep command of this harbor.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Anderson proceeded to give advice which sane judgment
 +and every sentiment of national honor demanded.
 +After mentioning his anxiety to avoid collision with the
 +citizens of South Carolina, he said: “Nothing, however,
 +will be better calculated to prevent bloodshed than our
 +being found in such an attitude that it would be madness
 +and folly to attack us. There is not so much feverish
 +excitement as there was last week, but that there is a
 +settled determination to leave the Union, and obtain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
 +possession of this work, is apparent to all.... The clouds
 +are threatening, and the storm may break upon us at
 +any moment. I do, then, most earnestly entreat that a
 +reinforcement be immediately sent to this garrison, and
 +that at least two companies be sent at the same time to
 +Fort Sumter and Castle Pinckney.” Anderson also
 +stated his belief that as soon as the people of South
 +Carolina learned that he had demanded reinforcements
 +they would occupy Pinckney and attack Moultrie; and
 +therefore it was vitally important to embark the troops
 +in war steamers and designate them for other duty as a
 +blind.<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> Captain Foster, November 24th, reported the
 +whole of the barbette tier of Sumter ready for its armament
 +and as presenting an excellent appearance of preparation
 +and strength equal to seventy per cent. of its
 +efficiency when finished.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> He said, November 30th, “I
 +think more troops should have been sent here to guard
 +the forts, and I believe that no serious demonstration on
 +the part of the populace would have met such a course.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The work on the forts was, of course, well known to
 +the people of Charleston, and that at Moultrie, at least,
 +subject to daily inspection by many visitors. There was
 +still no restriction “upon any intercourse with Charleston,
 +many of whose citizens were temporary residents of
 +Sullivan’s Island. The activity about the fort drew to
 +it a large number of visitors daily, and the position of
 +the garrison and the probable action of the state in
 +regard to the forts were constant subjects of discussion.
 +There was as yet no unfriendly feeling manifested, and
 +the social intercourse between the garrison and their
 +friends in Charleston was uninterrupted. But as the
 +days went on the feeling assumed a more definite shape,
 +and found expression in many ways.... It was openly
 +announced, both to the commanding officer and to his
 +officers, that as soon as the state seceded a demand for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
 +the delivery of the forts would be made, and, if resisted,
 +they would be taken.... Meantime, all of the able-bodied
 +men in Charleston were enrolled, military companies
 +were formed everywhere, and drilling went on by night
 +and day, and with the impression among them that they
 +were to attack Fort Moultrie.”<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> November 28th and
 +December 1st, Anderson again pressed for troops or for
 +ships of war in the harbor;<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> but his last request was anticipated
 +in a letter of the same date, when he was informed
 +by the War Department, “from information
 +thought to be reliable, that an attack will not be made
 +on your command, and the Secretary has only to refer
 +to his conversation with you and to caution you that, should
 +his convictions unhappily prove untrue, your actions
 +must be such as to be free from the charge of initiating a
 +collision. If attacked, you are of course expected to
 +defend the trust committed to you to the best of your
 +ability.”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a></p>
 +
 +<p>A demand being made by the adjutant of a South
 +Carolina regiment on the engineer officer at Moultrie for
 +a list of his workmen, “as it was desired to enroll the men
 +upon them for military duty,”<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> Anderson asked for instructions.
 +The War Department replied, December 14th,
 +“If the state authorities demand any of Captain Foster’s
 +workmen on the ground of their being enrolled into the
 +service of the state, ... you will, after fully satisfying
 +yourself that the men are subject to enrolment, and have
 +been properly enrolled, ... cause them to be delivered up
 +or suffer them to depart.” Banality could go no further,
 +and Anderson, December 18th, informed the department
 +that, as he understood it, “the South Carolina authorities
 +sought to enroll as a part of their army intended to act
 +against the forces of the United States men who are
 +employed by and in the pay of that government, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span>
 +could not, as I conceived, be enrolled by South Carolina
 +‘under the laws of the United States and of the state of
 +South Carolina.’” No answer was vouchsafed to this,
 +and the request was not complied with.</p>
 +
 +<p>Anderson’s repeated statements of the necessity of the
 +occupancy of Sumter, without which his own position
 +was untenable, led to the despatch of Major Buell, a Kentuckian,
 +and later a major-general of United States
 +volunteers, with verbal instructions, which, however, on
 +Buell’s own motion, and with the thought that Anderson
 +should have written evidence, were reduced, December
 +11th, to writing. This memorandum is of such importance
 +that it must be given in full.</p>
 +
 +<p>“You are aware of the great anxiety of the Secretary
 +of War that a collision of the troops with the people of
 +this state shall be avoided, and of his studied determination
 +to pursue a course with reference to the military
 +force and forts in this harbor which shall guard against
 +such a collision. He has therefore carefully abstained
 +from increasing the force at this point, or taking any
 +measures which might add to the present excited state
 +of the public mind, or which would throw any doubt on
 +the confidence he feels that South Carolina will not
 +attempt, by violence, to obtain possession of the public
 +works or interfere with their occupancy. But as the
 +counsels and acts of rash and impulsive persons may
 +possibly disappoint those expectations of the government,
 +he deems it proper that you should be prepared
 +with instructions to meet so unhappy a contingency.
 +He has therefore directed me verbally to give you such
 +instructions. You are carefully to avoid every act which
 +would needlessly tend to provoke aggression; and for
 +that reason you are not without evident and imminent
 +necessity to take up any position which could be construed
 +in the assumption of a hostile attitude. But
 +you are to hold possession of the forts in the harbor,
 +and if attacked you are to defend yourself to the last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
 +extremity. The smallness of your force will not permit
 +you, perhaps, to occupy more than one of the three forts,
 +but an attack on, or attempt to take possession of, any
 +one of them will be regarded as an act of hostility, and
 +you may then put your command into either of them
 +which you may deem most proper to increase its power
 +of resistance. You are also authorized to take similar
 +steps whenever you have tangible evidence of a design
 +to proceed to a hostile act.”<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a></p>
 +
 +<p>These instructions did not come to the President’s
 +knowledge until December 21st, though a despatch from
 +Washington, December 13th, published in the <cite>Charleston
 +Courier</cite>, announced Major Buell’s visit; when made
 +known to the President, he directed them to be modified,
 +ordering that if “attacked by a force so superior that resistance
 +would, in your judgment, be a useless waste of
 +life, it will be your duty to yield to necessity and make
 +the best terms in your power.”<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a></p>
 +
 +<p>December 3d, Anderson placed Lieutenant Jefferson C.
 +Davis with thirty men in Castle Pinckney, and began
 +work there. Action upon a request for arms for the
 +workmen at Sumter and Pinckney was deferred by the
 +War Department “for the present,” but Captain Foster
 +going to the arsenal, December 17th, for two gins for
 +hoisting, “to the transmission of which there was no
 +objection,” arranged with the store-keeper that the old
 +order of the Ordnance Department of November 1st, for
 +forty muskets, should be complied with, which was done.
 +“Intense excitement” as usual was reported the next
 +day to have occurred; there was the reiteration of great
 +danger of “violent demonstration” from a military official
 +of the state who called upon Foster, and who stated that
 +Colonel Huger had informed the governor that no arms
 +should be removed. Foster declined to return the arms,
 +stating that he knew nothing of Huger’s pledge, but was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
 +willing to refer the matter to Washington. Trescot was
 +informed by telegraph that “not a moment’s time should
 +be lost.” The Secretary of War was aroused in the
 +depths of the night, and the result was a telegraphic order
 +from Floyd himself to “return [the arms] instantly.”<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a>
 +The go-between Assistant Secretary of State, so busily
 +engaged with affairs not his own, received from the aide-de-camp
 +of Governor Pickens the telegram: “The Governor
 +says he is glad of your despatch, for otherwise there
 +would have been imminent danger. Earnestly urge that
 +there be no transfer of troops from Fort Moultrie to Fort
 +Sumter and inform Secretary of War.”<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> Captain Foster,
 +explaining to the War Department, December 20, 1860,
 +says, “when in town to see General Schnierle and allay
 +any excitement relative to the muskets, I found to my
 +surprise that there was no excitement except with a
 +very few who had been active in the matter, and the
 +majority of the gentlemen whom I met had not even
 +heard of it.”<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Pickens, the new governor of South Carolina, December
 +17th, the day after his inauguration, and before the
 +state had passed the ordinance of secession, made a demand
 +on the President for the delivery of Fort Sumter.
 +The letter, drawn in the most offensive terms, and marked
 +“strictly confidential,” urged that all work be stopped
 +and that no more troops be ordered. It continued: “It
 +is not improbable that, under orders from the commandant,
 +or, perhaps, from the commander-in-chief of the
 +army, the alteration and defences of the posts are progressing
 +without the knowledge of yourself or the Secretary
 +of War. The arsenal in the city of Charleston, with
 +the public arms, I am informed, was turned over very
 +properly to the keeping and defence of the state force at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
 +the urgent request of the Governor of South Carolina.
 +I would most respectfully, and from a sincere devotion
 +to the public peace, request that you would allow me to
 +send a small force, not exceeding twenty-five men and
 +an officer, to take possession of Fort Sumter immediately,
 +in order to give a feeling of safety to the community.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The ever-ready Trescot arranged an interview December
 +20th with the President for the delivery of the letter.
 +The President stated that he would give an answer the
 +next day. In the mean time Trescot, seeing the difficulties
 +to which it led, consulted both Senators Davis
 +and Slidell, who thought the demand “could do nothing
 +but mischief”; and on consultation with two of the
 +South Carolina delegation in Washington, Governor
 +Pickens was advised by telegraph to withdraw the
 +letter, which was done. Trescot’s letter to Governor
 +Pickens, returning that of the latter, after mentioning
 +all that had been done by the executive to refrain from
 +injuring the sensibilities of South Carolina, said: The
 +President’s “course had been violently denounced by
 +the Northern press, and an effort was being made to
 +institute a Congressional investigation. At that moment
 +he could not have gone to the extent of action you desired,
 +and I felt confident that, if forced to answer your
 +letter then, he would have taken such ground as would
 +have prevented his even approaching it hereafter; ...
 +you had all the advantage of knowing the truth, without
 +the disadvantage of having it put on record.... I was
 +also perfectly satisfied that the status of the garrison
 +would not be disturbed.... I have had this morning an
 +interview with Governor Floyd, the Secretary of War; ...
 +while I cannot even here venture into details, which are
 +too confidential to be risked in any way, I am prepared to
 +say ... that nothing will be done which will either do
 +you injury or properly create alarm.”<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
 +The President’s painful weakness is but too clear in
 +the fact that he had not only given his confidence so
 +largely to such a man, whose position and attitude he
 +knew, but saw nothing derogatory in such a letter as
 +that of Governor Pickens, and could draft a reply
 +(December 20th) in which, while stating that no authority
 +had been given to Governor Gist to guard the
 +Charleston arsenal, he said: “I deeply regret to observe
 +that you seem entirely to have misapprehended my
 +position, which I supposed had been clearly stated in
 +my message. I have incurred, and shall incur, any
 +reasonable risk ... to prevent a collision.... Hence I
 +have declined for the present to reinforce these forts,
 +relying upon the honor of the South-Carolinians that they
 +will not be assaulted whilst they remain in their present
 +condition; but that commissioners will be sent by the
 +convention <em>to treat with Congress</em> on the subject.”<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a></p>
 +
 +<p>December 18th the President sent Caleb Cushing with
 +a letter to Governor Pickens, with the idea of inducing
 +the authorities and people of South Carolina to await the
 +action of Congress and the development of opinion in the
 +North as to the recommendation of his message. Governor
 +Pickens told Cushing, December 20th, the day of
 +the passage of the ordinance of secession, that he would
 +make no reply to the letter, and stated “very candidly
 +that there was no hope for the Union, and that, as far as
 +he was concerned, he intended to maintain the separate
 +independence of South Carolina.”<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a></p>
 +
 +<h3>III<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE FORT SUMTER CRISIS (DEC. 2, 1860–JAN. 8, 1861)</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>The question of the United States forts was now uppermost,
 +and upon the action regarding them hung war or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
 +peace. Three commissioners—Robert W. Barnwell,
 +James H. Adams, and James L. Orr—were appointed by
 +South Carolina to lay the ordinance of secession before
 +the President and Congress, and were empowered as
 +agents of the state to treat for the delivery of the forts
 +and other real estate, for the apportionment of the
 +public debt, and for a division of all the property of the
 +United States.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a></p>
 +
 +<p>In apprehension of the occupation of Sumter by Anderson,
 +a patrol by two small steamers, the <i>Nina</i> and
 +<i>General Clinch</i>, was established, with orders to prevent
 +such action at all hazards and seize Fort Sumter if it
 +should be attempted. A Lieutenant-Colonel Green was
 +sent to Fort Monroe to observe any movements; and
 +one Norris, at Norfolk, was employed to give information
 +of any action at the Norfolk navy-yard. A committee of
 +prominent men was sent to Fort Sumter, who thoroughly
 +inspected the works and reported upon them.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meantime, Major Anderson had been preparing, with
 +great caution and foresight, to move his command. For
 +some ten days the officers had been apprised that it was
 +advisable to send the families of the men to the unoccupied
 +barracks on James’ Island, known as Fort Johnson,
 +a mile and a quarter west of Sumter. The work of
 +mounting guns at Sumter had been discontinued for
 +three days, and the elevating-screws and pintle-bolts
 +sent to Moultrie so that the guns should not be used if
 +the South-Carolinians should anticipate his action, and
 +also to give the impression that occupancy of the fort
 +was not designed. All stores and provisions at Fort
 +Moultrie which could be carried, and personal belongings,
 +except what the men could carry in their knapsacks,
 +were loaded as for Fort Johnson in the two small
 +sailing-vessels which were to carry the women and children.</p>
 +
 +<p>Christmas Day had been fixed for the transfer, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
 +heavy rains prevented. The delay might have had
 +other consequences, for, curiously enough, on the morning
 +of December 26th, Colonel R. B. Rhett, Jr., waited
 +upon the governor, with a private warning letter from
 +Washington to the effect that Anderson was about to
 +seize Sumter, and urged the governor to secure it.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></p>
 +
 +<p>All was made ready on December 26th, and the quartermaster
 +who was to have charge of the little flotilla, loaded
 +with “everything in the household line from boxes and
 +barrels of provisions to cages of canary-birds,” was directed
 +to go to Fort Johnson, but not to land anything.
 +Upon a signal of two guns from Moultrie he was to go to
 +Sumter on the plea that he had to report to Anderson
 +that he could not find accommodations. Five pulling-boats
 +in customary use were available for the transportation
 +of the men. Only one officer had been thus far informed,
 +and the men had no suspicion where they were
 +to go when they fell in at retreat roll-call with packed
 +knapsacks and filled cartridge-boxes, carried at parade
 +under a general standing order. So little was the movement
 +suspected that Captain Doubleday, second in command,
 +came at sunset to Anderson in the midst of the
 +officers to invite the major to tea. He was then informed
 +of Anderson’s intentions, and was directed to
 +have his company in readiness in twenty minutes, an
 +order met by an “eager obedience.” Part of this time
 +was taken in arranging for the safety of Mrs. Doubleday
 +in the village outside of the fort, whither the families of
 +the other officers were also sent. The men were ready
 +promptly, and the first detachment of twenty, led by
 +Anderson himself, marched over the quarter of a mile of
 +sand to the landing-place with the good-fortune of encountering,
 +no one.</p>
 +
 +<p>Anderson went in the leading boat. Lieutenant
 +Meade, the engineer in charge of the works at Castle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
 +Pinckney, had charge of the second, and Captain Doubleday
 +of the third. When half-way across, Doubleday’s
 +boat came unexpectedly in the path of one of the patrol
 +boats, the <i>General Clinch</i>, which was towing a schooner
 +to sea. The men were ordered to take off their coats
 +and cover their muskets. The steamer stopped, but in
 +the twilight, and with the resemblance of the boat and
 +its load of men to the usual parties of workmen, suspicion
 +was not aroused, and the steamer resumed her
 +way without questioning. She had been anxiously
 +watched from Moultrie, and had she interfered would
 +have been fired upon by a thirty-two-pounder, two of
 +which had been loaded with that intent. Captain Foster,
 +with Assistant Surgeon Crawford, a Mr. Moall, four non-commissioned
 +officers, and seven privates, had been left
 +at Moultrie to spike the guns, burn the gun-carriages, and
 +hew down the flag-staff.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></p>
 +
 +<p>On reaching Sumter, the workmen, some hundred and
 +fifty, swarmed to the wharf, some feebly cheering, many
 +angrily demanding the reason for the presence of the
 +soldiers; many of the workmen wore the secession cockade;
 +the malecontents (a number of whom shortly returned
 +to Charleston) quickly gave way before the bayonets
 +of Doubleday’s men, who at once occupied the
 +main entrance and guard-room; sentries were posted
 +and the fort was under military control. Boats were
 +now sent back for Captain Seymour’s company, which
 +arrived without interference, and the whole force, except
 +the few detailed to remain at Moultrie, was in Sumter
 +before eight o’clock, at which hour Anderson wrote the
 +Adjutant-General, reporting that he had “just completed,
 +by the blessing of God, the removal to this fort of all
 +my garrison.... The step which I have taken was, in
 +my opinion, necessary to prevent the effusion of blood.”<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a>
 +On the firing of the signal-guns at Moultrie, Lieutenant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
 +Hall left the west side of the bay with the two lighters
 +carrying the men’s families and stores, and reached
 +Sumter under sail.</p>
 +
 +<p>With the help of the engineer’s workmen at Moultrie,
 +the boats were loaded during the night with part of the
 +impedimenta of every sort which had to be left in the
 +first crossing, and reached Sumter in the early dawn.
 +The following day, December 27th, was passed like the
 +preceding night, in transferring ammunition and other
 +stores to Sumter; but a month and a half’s supply of
 +provisions, some fuel, and personal effects had to be left.
 +All the guns at Moultrie were spiked, and the carriages
 +of those bearing on Sumter burned, the smoke from these
 +bearing to Charleston the first indication of what had
 +happened. At fifteen minutes before noon the command
 +and one hundred and fifty workmen were formed
 +in a square near the flag-staff of Sumter; the chaplain
 +offered a prayer expressing gratitude for their safe arrival,
 +and prayed that the flag might never be dishonored, but
 +soon float again over the whole country, a peaceful and
 +prosperous nation. “When the prayer was finished,
 +Major Anderson, who had been kneeling, arose, the battalion
 +presented arms, the band played the national air,
 +and the flag went to the head of the flag-staff, amid the
 +loud and earnest huzzas of the command.”<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_254" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_291.jpg" width="416" height="593" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">SERGEANT HART NAILING THE COLORS TO THE FLAG-STAFF, FORT
 +SUMTER</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Intense excitement in Charleston was the natural outcome
 +of Anderson’s action, and the morning of the 27th
 +the governor sent his aide-de-camp, Colonel Pettigrew,
 +accompanied by Major Capers, with a peremptory demand
 +that Anderson should return with his garrison to
 +Moultrie, to which Anderson replied, “Make my compliments
 +to the governor and say to him that I decline to
 +accede to his request; I cannot and will not go back.”
 +The governor’s messenger mentioned that when Governor
 +Pickens came into office he found an understanding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>
 +between his predecessor (Gist) and the President, by
 +which the status in the harbor was to remain unchanged.
 +Anderson stated “that he knew nothing of it; that he
 +could get no information or positive orders from Washington;
 +... that he had reason to believe that [the state
 +troops] meant to land and attack him from the north;
 +that the desire of the governor to have the matter settled
 +peaceably and without bloodshed was precisely his own
 +object in transferring his command; ... that he did it
 +upon his own responsibility alone,” as safety required it,
 +“and as he had the right to do.” He added that, “In
 +this controversy between the North and the South, my
 +sympathies are entirely with the South,” but that a
 +sense of duty to his trust was first.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> The immediate result
 +was the occupancy by the state forces, December
 +27th, of Pinckney and Moultrie; the seizure, December
 +30th, of the unoccupied barracks known as Fort Johnson,
 +and of the arsenal, with its ordnance and ordnance stores,
 +valued at four hundred thousand dollars.</p>
 +
 +<p>The news of Anderson’s dramatic, bold, and self-reliant
 +act, one for which the country owes a debt to the memory
 +of this upright and excellent commander, brought consternation
 +to the President and Secretary of War, who
 +learned it through the indefatigable Trescot, who had,
 +on the 26th, arranged for the three commissioners of
 +South Carolina an interview with the President for December
 +27th, at one o’clock. The news of the morning
 +brought a complete change of circumstances. A telegram
 +to Wigfall was brought by him to the commissioners
 +and to the Secretary of War, who at once went to the
 +commissioners. Trescot was present, and could not believe
 +in an “act not only without orders but in the face
 +of orders.” Floyd at once telegraphed, asking an explanation
 +of the report. “It is not believed, because
 +there is no order for any such movement.” A telegram<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
 +in reply from Anderson assured him of the truth, and a
 +written report gave as reasons that “many things convinced
 +me that the authorities of the state designed to
 +proceed to a hostile act. Under this impression I could
 +not hesitate that it was my solemn duty to move my
 +command from a fort which we could not have held
 +probably longer than forty-eight or sixty hours to this
 +one where my power of resistance is increased to a very
 +great degree.”<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a></p>
 +
 +<p>[In January a futile attempt to relieve Fort Sumter was
 +made by sending from New York two hundred troops in
 +an unarmed steamer, <i>The Star of the West</i>, which was
 +fired upon by the secessionists in Fort Moultrie, and,
 +receiving no support from Fort Sumter, returned to
 +New York.]</p>
 +
 +<h3>IV<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE FALL OF FORT SUMTER (APRIL, 1861)</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>Lamon’s<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> officiousness resulted in giving both to
 +Anderson and to the Confederate authorities an impression
 +that Sumter would surely be evacuated; hence
 +Beauregard, March 26th, wrote to Anderson offering
 +facilities for removal, but asking his word of honor that
 +the fort would be left without any preparation for its
 +destruction or injury. This demand deeply wounded
 +Anderson, and he resented it in a letter of the same date,
 +saying, “If I can only be permitted to leave on the pledge
 +you mention, I shall never, so help me God, leave this
 +fort alive.”<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> Beauregard hastened to state that he had
 +only alluded to the “pledge” on account of the “high
 +source” from which the rumors appeared to come, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>
 +made a full amend, which re-established their usual
 +relations.</p>
 +
 +<p>Anderson had informed Fox that, by placing the command
 +on a short allowance, he could make the provisions
 +last until after April 10th; but not receiving instructions
 +from the War Department that it was desirable to do so,
 +it had not been done.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> He had already reported, March
 +31st, that his last barrel of flour had been issued two
 +days before.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Anderson’s little command, as he explained to Washington
 +April 1st, would now face starvation should the
 +daily supply of fresh meat and vegetables, still allowed
 +from Charleston, be cut off. Being in daily expectation,
 +since the return of Colonel Lamon to Washington, of receiving
 +orders to vacate the post, he had, to the great
 +disadvantage of the food supply, kept the engineer laborers
 +as long as he could. He now asked permission to
 +send them from Sumter; but the request, referred to
 +Montgomery April 2d by Beauregard, was refused, unless
 +all the garrison should go.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a></p>
 +
 +<p>April 1st an ice-laden schooner bound for Savannah
 +entered Charleston harbor by mistake, and was fired
 +upon by a Morris Island battery. Again the Sumter
 +batteries were manned and a consultation held, at which
 +five of the eight officers declared in favor of opening fire,
 +but no action was taken by Anderson beyond sending an
 +officer to the offending battery, from which word was
 +returned by its commanding officer that he was simply
 +carrying out his orders to fire upon any vessel carrying
 +the United States colors which attempted to enter.</p>
 +
 +<p>On April 4th Anderson assembled his officers, and for
 +the first time made known to them the orders of January
 +10th and February 23d, directing him to act strictly on
 +the defensive. As Lieutenant Talbot had just been promoted
 +captain and ordered to Washington, Anderson<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
 +determined to send by him his despatches. In order to
 +arrange for his departure, Talbot, April 4th, accompanied
 +Lieutenant Snyder, under a white flag, to call the attention
 +of the governor to the fact that the schooner fired
 +upon had not been warned by one of their own vessels,
 +as had been arranged. It developed that the guard-vessel
 +on duty had come in on account of heavy weather,
 +and the commanding officer was consequently dismissed.
 +The request to allow Talbot to proceed brought out the
 +fact that orders had been received from Montgomery not
 +to allow any portion of the garrison to leave the fort
 +unless all should go<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a>—which, however, Beauregard construed,
 +for the benefit of Talbot, to apply more particularly
 +to laborers and enlisted men<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a>—and also that the following
 +telegram from Commissioner Crawford had reached
 +Charleston April 1st: “I am authorized to say that this
 +government will not undertake to supply Sumter without
 +notice to you. My opinion is that the President has
 +not the courage to execute the order agreed upon in
 +Cabinet for the evacuation of the fort, but that he intends
 +to shift the responsibility upon Major Anderson by suffering
 +him to be starved out. Would it not be well to aid
 +in this by cutting off all supplies?”<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> Beauregard had,
 +the same day, sent the message to the Confederate Secretary
 +of War, with the remark, “Batteries here ready
 +to open Wednesday or Thursday. What instructions?”</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_258" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_297.jpg" width="800" height="512" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">CHARLESTON HARBOR<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">April, 1861</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>The knowledge of these telegrams called from Anderson,
 +April 5th, a pathetic despatch to the War Department:
 +“I cannot but think Mr. Crawford has misunderstood
 +what he has heard in Washington, as I cannot think
 +the government could abandon, without instructions and
 +without advice, a command which has tried to do all
 +its duty to our country.” He ended a fervent appeal
 +for this act of justice with, “Unless we receive supplies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259<a class="hidep" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
 +I shall be compelled to stay here without food or to
 +abandon this post very early next week.”<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> “At this
 +time,” says Doubleday, “the seeming indifference of the
 +politicians to our fate made us feel like orphan children
 +of the Republic, deserted by both the State and Federal
 +administration.”<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Two days later Anderson received a letter of April 4th
 +from the Secretary of War, informing him of the government’s
 +purpose to send the Fox expedition, and hoping
 +that he would be able to sustain himself until the 11th
 +or 12th.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> The same day he was informed by the Confederate
 +authorities that the supply of provisions had
 +been stopped, and late that evening that no mails coming
 +or going would be allowed to pass. The fort was to be
 +“completely isolated.” This action was undoubtedly
 +taken at this moment in consequence of a telegram from
 +Washington sent Magrath April 6th, as follows: “Positively
 +determined not to withdraw Anderson. Supplies
 +go immediately, supported by naval force under Stringham
 +if their landing be resisted.” This telegram, signed
 +“A Friend,” was, as later became known, from James E.
 +Harvey, who was about to go as United States minister
 +to Portugal. It was sent to Montgomery, and had its
 +full effect.<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Just before the reception of the information regarding
 +the stoppage of mails, Anderson had posted his acknowledgment
 +of the War Department’s letter of the 4th and
 +a report by Foster to the chief-engineer of the army;
 +both letters were opened by the Confederate authorities,
 +and gave full confirmation of the accuracy of the telegram
 +from “A Friend.” Anderson said that “the resumption
 +of work yesterday (Sunday) at various points
 +on Morris Island, and the vigorous prosecution of it this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
 +morning, ... shows that they have either received some
 +news from Washington which has put them on the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">qui
 +vive</i>, or that they have received orders from Montgomery
 +to commence operations here. I fear” that Fox’s attempt
 +“cannot fail to be disastrous to all concerned.... We
 +have not oil enough to keep a light in lanterns for one
 +night. The boats will have therefore to rely at night
 +entirely upon other marks. I ought to have been informed
 +that this expedition was to come. Colonel Lamon’s
 +remark convinced me that the idea merely hinted
 +at to me by Captain Fox would not be carried out. We
 +shall strive to do our duty, though I frankly say that
 +my heart is not in the war which I see is to be thus
 +commenced.”<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a></p>
 +
 +<p>As shown by despatches which Anderson had no
 +means of sending, and carried north, eight guard-boats
 +and signal-vessels were on duty out far beyond the bar;
 +a fourth gun had been added to the new battery on Sullivan’s
 +Island, which had until the 8th been masked by
 +a house now torn down, and which bore directly upon
 +any boat attempting to land stores on the left bank.
 +There was bread enough to last, using half-rations, until
 +dinner-time Friday (12th). Anderson reported the command
 +in fine spirits. It was evident that a hostile force
 +was expected. The iron-clad floating battery appeared
 +the morning of the 11th at the west end of Sullivan’s
 +Island. Anderson, in ignorance that his own intercepted
 +letter and Harvey’s telegram had given them all they
 +needed to know, said: “Had they been in possession of
 +the information contained in your letter of the 4th instant
 +they could not have made better arrangements
 +than these they have made and are making to thwart
 +the contemplated scheme.”<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Chew, who, as mentioned, had been selected as the
 +messenger to carry to Charleston the notice of the President’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
 +intention to attempt to provision Sumter, left
 +Washington Saturday, April 6th, at 6 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, in company
 +with Captain Talbot, and reached Charleston forty-eight
 +hours later; finding no action taken against Sumter,
 +he delivered a copy of his memorandum to the governor,
 +who called General Beauregard into the consultation.
 +Captain Talbot’s request to join the garrison at Sumter
 +was referred to Beauregard, and peremptorily refused,
 +Beauregard remarking that the instructions from Montgomery
 +required that no communication whatever should
 +be permitted with Anderson except to convey an order for
 +the evacuation of the fort.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> The return of the envoys
 +to Washington was much delayed by disarrangement of
 +trains by order of Beauregard, who also held all telegrams
 +from Chew to Lincoln.<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Sumter now mounted fifty-nine guns, twenty-seven
 +of the heaviest of which were in barbette (the upper
 +and open tier). In the lowest tier there were also twenty-seven,
 +four of which were forty-two-pounders and the remainder
 +thirty-two’s. The ports of the second (or middle
 +tier), eight feet square, were closed by a three-foot brick
 +wall, laid in cement and backed in twenty-seven of the
 +more exposed by two feet of sand kept in place by planks
 +or barrels. On the parade were one 10-inch and four 8-inch
 +guns, mounted as howitzers, the former to throw shells
 +into Charleston, the latter into the batteries on Cummings
 +Point. The guns bearing upon the three batteries on
 +the west end of Sullivan’s Island were ten thirty-two-pounders;
 +on Fort Moultrie, two forty-three-pounders.
 +Five guns bore upon the mortar battery at Fort Johnson.
 +Seven hundred cartridges had been made up, material of
 +every kind, even the woollen shirts of the men, being used.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Bearing upon Fort Sumter there were on Sullivan’s Island
 +three 8-inch, two thirty-two-pounders, and six twenty-four-pounders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
 +in Fort Moultrie; two thirty-two-pounders and
 +two twenty-four-pounders in the new enfilade battery; one
 +9-inch, two forty-two-pounders, and two thirty-two-pounders
 +at the Point and aboard the floating battery, and six
 +10-inch mortars; on Morris Island, two forty-two-pounders,
 +one twelve-pounder Blakely rifle, three 8-inch guns, and
 +seven 10-inch mortars; at Fort Johnson, one twenty-four-pounder
 +and four 10-inch mortars; at Mount Pleasant, one
 +10-inch mortar: a total of twenty-seven guns and eighteen
 +mortars.<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> The latter were particularly to be feared, as
 +mortar fire under the conditions of a fixed target and perfectly
 +established distances is extremely accurate. The interior
 +of the fort was thus as vulnerable as the exterior.</p>
 +
 +<p>Governor Pickens at once sent to Montgomery a telegram
 +reporting the visit of the President’s messenger.
 +A lengthy discussion ensued in the Confederate Cabinet.
 +Toombs, the Secretary of State, said: “The firing upon
 +that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the
 +world has yet seen; and I do not feel competent to advise
 +you.”<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> In the state of Southern feeling, however,
 +the only thing possible was for Secretary Walker to order
 +Beauregard, April 10th, “If you have no doubt of the
 +authorized character of the agent who communicated to
 +you the intention of the Washington government to
 +supply Sumter by force, you will at once demand its
 +evacuation, and if this is refused proceed, in such manner
 +as you may determine, to reduce it.”<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> Beauregard answered
 +the same day, “The demand will be made to-morrow
 +at twelve o’clock.” To this came reply from Montgomery,
 +“Unless there are special reasons connected with
 +your own condition, it is considered proper that you
 +should make the demand at an earlier date.” Beauregard
 +replied (all these of the same date, the 10th), “The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
 +reasons are special for twelve o’clock.”<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> These imperative
 +“reasons” proved to be shortness of powder, then on
 +its way, and which arrived from Augusta, Georgia, that
 +evening,<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> and the placing of a new rifled twelve-pounder.</p>
 +
 +<p>Shortly after noon, April 11th, a boat bearing a white
 +flag and three officers, the senior being Colonel James
 +Chesnut, recently a United States senator, pushed off
 +from a Charleston wharf and arrived at Sumter at half-past
 +three. The officers being conducted to Anderson,
 +a demand for the evacuation of the work was delivered.
 +The officers of the fort were summoned, and after an
 +hour’s discussion it was determined, without dissent, to
 +refuse the demand, and a written refusal was sent, in
 +which Anderson regretted that his sense of honor and
 +his obligations to his government prevented his compliance.<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a>
 +Anderson accompanied the messengers as far
 +as the main gate, where he asked, “Will General Beauregard
 +open his batteries without further notice to me?”
 +Colonel Chesnut replied, “I think not,” adding, “No, I
 +can say to you that he will not, without giving you
 +further notice.” On this Anderson unwisely remarked
 +that he would be starved out anyway in a few days if
 +Beauregard did not batter him to pieces with his guns.
 +Chesnut asked if he might report this to Beauregard.
 +Anderson declined to give it such character, but said it
 +was the fact.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a></p>
 +
 +<p>This information, telegraphed to Montgomery, elicited
 +the reply: “Do not desire needlessly to bombard Fort
 +Sumter. If Major Anderson will state the time at which,
 +as indicated by him, he will evacuate, and agree that in
 +the mean time he will not use his guns against us unless
 +ours should be employed against Sumter, you are authorized
 +thus to avoid the effusion of blood. If this or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span>
 +its equivalent be refused, reduce the fort as your judgment
 +decides to be most practicable.”<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a></p>
 +
 +<p>A second note from Beauregard was presented that
 +night, and after a conference with his officers of three
 +hours, in which the question of food was the main consideration,
 +Anderson replied, “I will, if provided with
 +proper and necessary means of transportation, evacuate
 +Fort Sumter by noon on the 15th instant ... should I
 +not receive prior to that time controlling instructions
 +from my government or additional supplies.” The
 +terms of the reply were considered by the messengers
 +“manifestly futile,” and at 3.20 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> of the 12th the following
 +note was handed by Beauregard’s aides, Chesnut
 +and Lee, to Anderson: “By authority of Brigadier-General
 +Beauregard, commanding the provisional forces
 +of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify
 +you that he will open the fire of his batteries on Fort
 +Sumter in one hour from this time.”<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Meantime Fox, intrusted with the general charge of
 +the relief expedition, was sent by the President, March
 +30th, to New York, with verbal instructions to prepare
 +for the voyage but to make no binding engagements.
 +Not having received the written authority expected, he
 +returned to Washington April 2d, and on the 4th the
 +final decision was reached, and Fox was informed that
 +a messenger would be sent to the authorities at Charleston
 +to notify them of the President’s action. Fox mentioned
 +to the President that he would have but nine
 +days to charter vessels and reach Charleston, six hundred
 +and thirty-two miles distant. He arrived at New York
 +April 5th, bearing an order from General Scott to Lieutenant-Colonel
 +H. L. Scott (son-in-law and aide-de-camp
 +to the general-in-chief), embracing all his wants and directing
 +Colonel Scott to give in his name all necessary
 +instructions. Colonel Scott ridiculed the idea of relief,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>
 +and his indifference caused the loss of half a day of
 +precious time, besides furnishing recruits who, Fox complained,
 +were “totally unfit” for the service they were
 +sent on.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Fox at once engaged the large steamer <i>Baltic</i> for troops
 +and stores, and, after great difficulty, obtained three
 +tugs, the <i>Uncle Ben</i>, <i>Freeborn</i>, and <i>Yankee</i>, the last fitted
 +to throw hot water. The <i>Pocahontas</i>, <i>Pawnee</i>, and the
 +revenue-cutter <i>Harriet Lane</i>, as already mentioned, were
 +to be a part of the force, which thus, with the <i>Powhatan</i>,
 +included four armed vessels, the last being of considerable
 +power. The <i>Pawnee</i>, Commander Rowan, sailed from
 +Washington the 9th; the <i>Pocahontas</i>, Captain Gillis,
 +from Norfolk the 10th; the <i>Harriet Lane</i>, Captain Faunce,
 +from New York the 8th; the <i>Baltic</i>, Captain Fletcher, the
 +9th. The <i>Powhatan</i> was already far on her way to
 +Pensacola.</p>
 +
 +<p>The <i>Baltic</i> arrived at the rendezvous, ten miles east
 +of Charleston bar, at 3 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> of the 12th, and found there
 +the <i>Harriet Lane</i>; at six the <i>Pawnee</i> arrived; the <i>Powhatan</i>
 +was not visible. The <i>Baltic</i>, followed by the
 +<i>Harriet Lane</i>, stood in toward the land, where heavy
 +guns were heard and the smoke and shells from the batteries
 +which had opened that morning on Sumter were
 +distinctly visible. Fox stood out to inform Rowan, of
 +the <i>Pawnee</i>. Rowan asked for a pilot, declaring his intention
 +of going in and sharing the fate of his brethren
 +of the army. Fox went aboard the <i>Pawnee</i> and informed
 +him that he would answer for it that the government did
 +not expect such a sacrifice, having settled maturely upon
 +the policy in instructions to Captain Mercer and himself.
 +The <i>Nashville</i>, from New York, and a number of merchant
 +vessels off the bar, gave the appearance of the presence of
 +a large naval fleet.</p>
 +
 +<p>The weather continued very bad, with a heavy sea.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
 +No tugboats had arrived; the tug <i>Freeborn</i> did not leave
 +New York; the <i>Uncle Ben</i> was driven into Wilmington
 +by the gale; the <i>Yankee</i> did not arrive off Charleston bar
 +until April 15th, too late for any service; neither the
 +<i>Pawnee</i> nor the <i>Harriet Lane</i> had boats or men to carry
 +supplies; the <i>Baltic</i> stood out to the rendezvous and
 +signalled all night for the expected <i>Powhatan</i>. The next
 +morning, the 13th, was thick and foggy, with a heavy
 +ground-swell, and the <i>Baltic</i>, feeling her way in, touched
 +on Rattlesnake Shoal, but without damage; a great
 +volume of black smoke was seen from Sumter. No tugboats
 +had yet arrived, and a schooner near by, loaded
 +with ice, was seized and preparations made to load her
 +for entering the following night. Going aboard the
 +<i>Pawnee</i>, Fox now learned that a note from Captain
 +Mercer of the <i>Powhatan</i> mentioned that he had been
 +detached by superior authority and that the ship
 +had gone elsewhere; though Fox had left New York
 +two days later than the <i>Powhatan</i>, he had no intimation
 +of the change. At 2 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, April 13th, the <i>Pocahontas</i>
 +arrived, and the squadron, powerless for relief,
 +through the absence of the <i>Powhatan</i> and the tugs,
 +was obliged to witness the progress of the bombardment.<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a></p>
 +
 +<p>“About 4 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> on the twelfth,” says Doubleday, “I
 +was awakened by some one groping about my room in
 +the dark and calling out my name.” This was Anderson,
 +who had come to inform his second in command of
 +the information just received of the intention of the
 +Confederates to open fire an hour later.<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> At 4.30, the
 +Confederates being able to make out the outline of the
 +fort, a gun at Fort Johnson was fired as the signal to
 +open; the first shotted gun was then fired from Morris
 +Island by Edmund Ruffin, an aged secessionist from Virginia,
 +who had long, in pamphlet and speech, advocated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
 +separation from the Union. The fire from the batteries
 +at once became general.</p>
 +
 +<p>The fort began its return at seven o’clock. All the
 +officers and men, including the engineers, had been divided
 +into three reliefs of two hours each, and the forty-three
 +workmen yet remaining all volunteered for duty.
 +It was, however, an absurdly meagre force to work such
 +a number of guns and to be pitted against the surrounding
 +batteries, manned by more than six thousand men.
 +The number of cartridges was so reduced by the middle
 +of the day, though the six needles available were kept
 +steadily at work in making cartridge-bags, that the
 +firing had to slacken and be confined to the six guns
 +bearing toward Moultrie and the batteries on the west
 +end of Sullivan’s Island. The mortar fire had become
 +very accurate, so that, when the 13-inch shells “came
 +down in a vertical direction and buried themselves in
 +the parade-ground, their explosion shook the fort like
 +an earthquake.”<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> The horizontal fire also grew in accuracy,
 +and Anderson, to save his men, withdrew them
 +from the barbette guns and used those of the lower tiers
 +only. Unfortunately, these were of too light a caliber to
 +be effective against the Morris Island batteries, the shot
 +rebounding without effect from the face of the iron-clad
 +battery there, as well as from the floating iron-clad battery
 +moored behind the sea-wall at Sullivan’s Island.
 +The withdrawal of the men from the heavier battery could
 +only be justified by the already foregone result, and no
 +doubt this was in Anderson’s mind. The garrison was
 +reduced to pork and water, and, however willing, it could
 +not with such meagre food withstand the strain of the
 +heavy labor of working the guns; to add to the difficulties,
 +the guns, strange to say, were not provided with breech-sights,
 +and these had to be improvised with notched sticks.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The shells from the batteries set fire to the barracks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>
 +three times during the day, and the precision of the vertical
 +fire was such that the four 8-inch and one 10-inch
 +columbiad, planted in the parade, could not be used.
 +Half the shells fired from the seventeen mortars engaged
 +came within, or exploded above, the parapet of
 +the fort, and only about ten buried themselves in the
 +soft earth of the parade without exploding. Two of the
 +barbette guns were struck by the fire from Moultrie,
 +which also damaged greatly the roof of the barracks and
 +the stair towers. None of the shot came through. The
 +day closed stormy and with a high tide, without any
 +material damage to the strength of the fort. Throughout
 +the night the Confederate batteries threw shell every
 +ten or fifteen minutes. The garrison was occupied until
 +midnight in making cartridge-bags, for which all the
 +extra clothing was cut up and all the coarse paper and
 +extra hospital sheets used.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a></p>
 +
 +<p>At daylight, April 13th, all the batteries again opened,
 +and the new twelve-pounder Blakely rifle, which had
 +arrived but four days before from abroad,<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> caused the
 +wounding of a sergeant and three men by the fragments
 +thrown off from the interior of the wall by its deep penetration.
 +An engineer employed was severely wounded
 +by a fragment of shell. Hot shot now became frequent,
 +and at nine o’clock the officers’ quarters were set afire.
 +As it was evident the fire would soon surround the magazine,
 +every one not at the guns was employed to get out
 +powder; but only fifty barrels could be removed to the
 +casements, when it became necessary from the spread
 +of the flames to close the magazine. The whole range
 +of the officers’ quarters was soon in flames, and the
 +clouds of smoke and cinders sent into the casements set
 +on fire many of the men’s beds and boxes, making the
 +retention of the powder so dangerous that all but five
 +barrels were thrown into the sea.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
 +By eleven o’clock the fire and smoke were driven by
 +the wind in such masses into the point where the men
 +had taken refuge that suffocation appeared imminent.
 +“The roaring and crackling of the flames, the dense
 +masses of whirling smoke, the bursting of the enemy’s
 +shells, and our own, which were exploding in the burning
 +rooms, the crashing of the shot and the sound of masonry
 +falling in every direction made the fort a pandemonium....
 +There was a tower at each angle of the fort. One of
 +these, containing great quantities of shells, ... was almost
 +completely shattered by successive explosions. The
 +massive wooden gates, studded with iron nails, were
 +burned, and the wall built behind them was now a heap
 +of débris, so that the main entrance was wide open for
 +an assaulting party.”<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a></p>
 +
 +<p>But however great the apparent damage and the discomfort
 +and danger while the fire lasted, the firing could
 +have been resumed “as soon as the walls cooled sufficiently
 +to open the magazines, and then, having blown down
 +the wall projecting above the parapet, so as to get rid
 +of the flying bricks, and built up the main gates with
 +stones and rubbish, the fort would actually have been
 +in a more defensible condition than when the action
 +commenced.”<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a></p>
 +
 +<p>But want of men, want of food, and want of powder
 +together made a <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">force majeure</i> against which further
 +strife was useless; and when, about 1 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, the flag-staff
 +was shot away, though the flag was at once flown
 +from an improvised staff, a boat was sent from the commanding
 +officer at Morris Island, bringing Colonel (Ex-Senator)
 +Wigfall and a companion bearing a white flag,
 +to inquire if the fort had surrendered.</p>
 +
 +<p>Being allowed entrance, Major Anderson was sought
 +for, and Wigfall, using Beauregard’s name, offered Anderson
 +his own terms. Wigfall exhibited a white handkerchief<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
 +from the parapet, and this being noticed brought
 +from Beauregard himself Colonel Chesnut, Colonel Roger
 +A. Pryor, Colonel William Porcher Miles, and Captain
 +Lee, followed soon by Beauregard’s adjutant-general,
 +Jones, Ex-Governor Manning, and Colonel Alston. It
 +transpired that Wigfall had not seen Beauregard for
 +two days, and that his visit was wholly unauthorized.
 +The proper authorities, however, being now at hand, arrangements
 +were concluded at 7 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, Anderson surrendering
 +(after some correspondence), with permission
 +to salute the flag as it was hauled down, to march out
 +with colors flying and drums beating and with arms
 +and private baggage.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Noticing the disappearance of the colors, a flag of truce
 +was sent in from the squadron outside, and arrangements
 +made for carrying the garrison north. Next morning,
 +Sunday, April 14th, with a salute of fifty guns, the flag
 +was finally hauled down. It had been Anderson’s intention
 +to fire a hundred guns, but a lamentable accident
 +occurred in the premature discharge of one, by which
 +one man was killed, another mortally wounded, and four
 +others seriously injured. This accident delayed the departure
 +until 4 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, when the little company of some
 +eighty men, accompanied by the forty laborers,<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> marched
 +out of the gate with their flags flying and drums beating.
 +The steamer <i>Isabel</i> carried Anderson and his men to the
 +<i>Baltic</i>, and at nightfall they were on their way north.</p>
 +
 +<p>April 15th, the day after the surrender, the President
 +issued his proclamation calling “forth the militia of the
 +several states of the Union” to the number of seventy-five
 +thousand men, in order to suppress “combinations
 +too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of
 +judicial proceedings or by the powers vested in the
 +marshals by law,” and “to cause the laws to be duly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
 +executed.” Congress was called to convene July 4th.
 +An immediate effect of the proclamation was the secession
 +of Virginia, April 17th, the conservative elements of the
 +state convention, although in the majority, being overwhelmed
 +by the enthusiasm and impetus of the secession
 +attack. Another prompt result was the formation
 +of the northwestern counties into what is now West
 +Virginia.</p>
 +
 +<p>Fox’s expedition, however abortive in a physical
 +sense, did much more than attempt to succor Sumter;
 +it was the instrument through which the fort was held
 +to the accomplishment of the fateful mistake of the
 +Confederacy in striking the first blow. It prevented the
 +voluntary yielding of the fort, and was an exhibition of
 +the intention of the government to hold its own. It was
 +thus elemental in its effects. Had Anderson withdrawn
 +and hauled down his flag without a shot from the South,
 +it would have been for the Federal government to strike
 +the first blow of war; and its call for men would have
 +met with a different response to that which came from
 +the electric impulse which the firing upon the flag caused
 +to vibrate through the North. This expectation was the
 +basis of Lincoln’s determination. Almost alone, unmovable
 +by Cabinet or War Department, he saw with the certainty
 +of the seer what holding Sumter meant, and continued
 +on the unchangeable way which from the first
 +he had taken. In his letter of sympathy to Fox, May 1st,
 +he said: “You and I both anticipated that the cause of
 +the country would be advanced by making the attempt
 +to provision Fort Sumter, even if it should fail, and it is
 +no small consolation now to feel that our anticipation is
 +justified by the result.”<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The enthusiastic response of the North to the proclamation
 +was witness to the truth of Lincoln’s view, as
 +well as to the North’s determination that the offended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
 +dignity of the Union should be avenged, its strongholds
 +regained, its boundaries made intact, and that the United
 +States be proved to be a nation. It was for this the
 +Union fought; the freeing of the blacks was but a natural
 +and necessary incident. The assault upon Sumter was
 +the knife driven by the hand of the South itself into the
 +vitals of slavery.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE BOMBARDMENT<br />
 +OF FORT SUMTER, 1861, AND THE BATTLE<br />
 +OF THE <i>MONITOR</i> AND THE<br />
 +<i>MERRIMAC</i>, 1862</h3>
 +
 +<p>1861. President Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand
 +militia to suppress the rebellion of the Southern
 +States. Secession of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and
 +North Carolina. Formal division of Western Virginia
 +from Virginia. The Massachusetts militia attacked in
 +Baltimore. The Congress of the Confederate States assembles
 +at Montgomery and is later transferred to Richmond.
 +The first battle of Bull Run results in a Federal
 +repulse. Battle of Wilson’s Creek. Repulse of the Federals
 +at Ball’s Bluff. McClellan succeeds Scott as commander-in-chief
 +of the Federal armies. The Federals
 +gain possession of Port Royal. The Confederate commissioners,
 +Mason and Slidell, are intercepted on the
 +British steamer <i>Trent</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>1862. Surrender of the Confederate commissioners,
 +Mason and Slidell, to the British government. The
 +Federals capture Roanoke Island. Fort Henry and Fort
 +Donelson surrender to General Grant. Federal victory
 +at Pea Ridge. Engagement between the <i>Monitor</i> and
 +the <i>Merrimac</i>. The French declare war against Mexico.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XVI" class="vspace">XVI<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_17" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF THE <i>MONITOR</i> AND THE <i>MERRIMAC</i></span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3>I<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">A PRELUDE TO THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN OF APRIL TO JUNE,
 +1862</span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="p1 b2 center"><i>By James Kendall Hosmer</i></p>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Obviously</span> the capture of Richmond was the
 +proper objective in the offensive campaign in the
 +East for which McClellan had been so long preparing.
 +The selection of that city by the Confederacy for the
 +seat of government caused all its interests to centre
 +there; the maintenance of its capital, moreover, was
 +essential to the good standing of the Confederacy before
 +Europe, recognition from which was so earnestly desired.
 +If the North could capture Richmond, quite
 +possibly nothing more would be necessary to crush the
 +South. The protection of Washington, too, could not
 +be left at all in doubt. Should that city be lost to the
 +Union, England and France might justly feel that the
 +cause of the North was hopeless, and no longer refrain
 +from intervention.</p>
 +
 +<p>Before Washington, McClellan and Johnston faced each
 +other throughout the fall of 1861, the latter having, in
 +October, a force of 41,000, which later grew to 57,337.<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a>
 +Under Johnston at the end of the year were three subordinates—Jackson,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
 +in the Valley of Virginia; Beauregard,
 +about Leesburg, near the Potomac; and Holmes,
 +below Washington, about Acquia Creek, where Confederate
 +batteries closed the Potomac. McClellan had fully
 +twice as many men, an army well disciplined and equipped,
 +devoted to their leader, and of fine <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">morale</i>. Why could
 +the army not be used? Because the general always
 +imagined before him a host of enemies that greatly outnumbered
 +his own, and insisted on more men and a more
 +perfect training before setting out. Meantime he grew
 +cavalier in his treatment of his superiors. The venerable
 +Scott, who now retired at seventy-five, had his last days
 +embittered by the scant courtesy of the new commander,
 +and even the President was slighted. “I will hold
 +McClellan’s horse for him if he will only win us victories,
 +said Lincoln, with good-natured patience. In December,
 +McClellan fell ill, and all was in doubt. With the new
 +year, 1862, prospects brightened for the Union. The
 +great successes in the West and South, ending with the
 +capture of New Orleans, brought cheer; at last the army
 +of the Potomac was in motion.</p>
 +
 +<p>In March, Johnston withdrew southward; and McClellan,
 +his command now restricted to the “Army of the
 +Potomac,” as he had baptized his splendid creation, was
 +ready for the long-delayed advance. Lincoln, whose
 +good sense when applied to warfare often, though not
 +always, struck true, earnestly desired that Richmond
 +should be approached by a direct southward movement,
 +Washington being covered, while at the same time Richmond
 +was threatened. But McClellan judged it better
 +to proceed by the Chesapeake, landing at the end of the
 +peninsula running up between the York and James rivers,
 +and marching against Richmond from the east. Much
 +could be said in favor of this route: troops and supplies
 +could be carried by water to the neighborhood of Richmond
 +without fatigue or danger. Yet the President
 +yielded reluctantly, fearing danger to Washington, laying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
 +it down as fundamental that the capital must be
 +protected by forty thousand men.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Peninsular campaign had a dramatic prelude. A
 +necessary condition was a command of the waters, which
 +was secured in early March by an event that startled the
 +world. Among the many disadvantages under which
 +the South labored in her struggle with the North was a
 +painful lack, as compared with her opponent, of factories,
 +machine-shops, ship-yards, and skilled labor; yet determination
 +and ingenuity brought about several wonderful
 +fighting contrivances, of which the most remarkable
 +was the <i>Virginia</i>. The hull of the <i>Merrimac</i>, a frigate of
 +thirty-five hundred tons and forty guns, one of the most
 +formidable vessels of the old navy, partly burned and
 +afterward sunk at the evacuation of Norfolk by the
 +Federals in April, 1861, was raised, and found to be
 +sound enough for further use. Good heads, among whom
 +John M. Brooke, manager of the Tredegar Iron Works
 +at Richmond, was prominent, fitted to the hull a casemate,
 +or box, pierced for cannon, and heavily plated with
 +iron—the first effective armored ship. There was a
 +frank farewell to masts, sails, and other former appliances
 +for motion and management. The winds were superseded
 +by steam, applied for the first time in naval warfare,
 +not as auxiliary, but as the sole motive-power. One
 +appliance of the <i>Virginia</i> was, however, not a new invention,
 +but a revival of a fighting arm common in the
 +days of Salamis and Actium—a ram, projecting from the
 +prow like that of an ancient galley.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> The craft was cumbrous,
 +hard to steer, and provided with engines far too
 +weak for her immense weight, but she had marvellous
 +defensive power and was fast enough to approach and
 +destroy any resisting sailing-ship.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_276" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_315.jpg" width="400" height="456" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">HAMPTON ROADS</div></div>
 +
 +<p>On March 8th, from the direction of Norfolk, the
 +<i>Virginia</i>, a mass low-lying upon the water, suddenly appeared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
 +before the astonished eyes of the Federal onlookers
 +in Hampton Roads.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> Five stately wooden frigates
 +lay at anchor off Hampton, and they gallantly discharged
 +their broadsides at this strange assailant, but the balls
 +glanced harmless from her impenetrable back. She
 +turned and pierced the <i>Cumberland</i> with her ram, sending
 +the frigate to the bottom; then she assailed the <i>Congress</i>,
 +which presently went up in flames; the brave crews as
 +helpless as if their means of defence were bows and
 +arrows. Mistress of the situation, with three more
 +frigates—<i>Minnesota</i>, <i>Roanoke</i>, and <i>St. Lawrence</i>—aground
 +on the shoals or offering a futile defiance, the <i>Virginia</i>
 +then withdrew for the day; she was certain of her prey and
 +could afford to wait for a few hours, meanwhile making
 +some changes which would render her more effective.
 +Vivid terror overspread the North as the news was despatched<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
 +in the evening; and it was nowhere greater than
 +in the cabinet-room at the White House, where Lincoln
 +anxiously studied upon means to meet the exigency; and
 +Stanton, pacing the room “like a caged lion,” predicted
 +she would come up the Potomac and shell Washington.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a></p>
 +
 +<p>On the forenoon of March 9th, doing all things deliberately,
 +as one that has no reason to hasten, the <i>Virginia</i>
 +again appeared and moved toward the <i>Minnesota</i>,
 +aground and apparently certain to become a helpless
 +victim. Suddenly in the path appeared a little craft
 +scarcely one-fourth the size of the <i>Virginia</i>, “a cheese-box
 +on a raft,” as it will go down in history, the <i>Monitor</i>,
 +an iron-clad of another pattern. This vessel, undertaken
 +as an experiment, and completed in one hundred days,
 +was due to the genius and indomitable zeal of John
 +Ericsson, its designer. That it should have arrived from
 +New York at this moment is one of the fateful accidents
 +of history. A multitude beheld the encounter, from
 +the ships close at hand, from the shores near and far.
 +The superior size and armament of the <i>Virginia</i> were
 +neutralized by her unwieldiness and depth of draught.
 +The <i>Monitor</i>, more active, and passing everywhere over
 +shoal or through channel, could elude or strike as she
 +chose. Neither had much power to harm the other;
 +each crew behind its shield manœuvred and fired for the
 +most part uninjured. Worden, commander of the <i>Monitor</i>,
 +in his pilot-house at the bow, built of iron bars log-cabin
 +fashion, received in the face, as he peered through
 +the interstice, the blinding fire and smoke from a shell
 +that struck within a few inches, but he escaped death.
 +The casualties on the <i>Virginia</i> were few. On the morning
 +of that day both North and South believed that the
 +Confederacy was about to control the sea. The anticipation,
 +whether hope or fear, vanished in the smoke of that
 +day’s battle. With it, too, passed away the traditional
 +beauty and romance of the old sea-service—the oakribbed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
 +and white-winged navies, whose dominion had
 +been so long and picturesque, at last and forever gave
 +way to steel and steam.<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></p>
 +
 +<h3 id="t_18">II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE BATTLE DESCRIBED BY CAPTAIN WORDEN AND LIEUTENANT
 +GREENE OF THE <i>MONITOR</i></span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="p1 b2 center"><i>By Lucius E. Chittenden</i></p>
 +
 +<p>Some weeks after the historic battle between the
 +<i>Monitor</i> and the <i>Merrimac</i> in Hampton Roads, on March
 +9, 1862, the former vessel came to the Washington navy-yard
 +unchanged, in the same condition as when she discharged
 +her parting shot at the <i>Merrimac</i>. There she
 +lay until her heroic commander had so far recovered from
 +his injuries as to be able to rejoin his vessel. All leaves
 +of absence had been revoked, the absentees had returned
 +and were ready to welcome their captain. President
 +Lincoln, Captain Fox, and a limited number of Captain
 +Worden’s personal friends had been invited to his informal
 +reception. Lieutenant Greene received the President
 +and the guests. He was a boy in years—not too
 +young to volunteer, however, when volunteers were
 +scarce, and to fight the <i>Merrimac</i> during the last half of
 +the battle, after the captain was disabled.</p>
 +
 +<p>The President and the other guests stood on the deck,
 +near the turret. The men were formed in lines, with
 +their officers a little in advance, when Captain Worden
 +ascended the gangway. The heavy guns in the navy-yard
 +began firing the customary salute when he stepped
 +upon the deck. One side of his face was permanently
 +blackened by the powder shot into it from the muzzle of
 +a cannon carrying a shell of one hundred pounds weight,
 +discharged less than twenty yards away. The President<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
 +advanced to welcome him, and introduced him to the
 +few strangers present. The officers and men passed in
 +review and were dismissed. Then there was a scene
 +worth witnessing. The old tars swarmed around their
 +loved captain, they grasped his hand, crowded to touch
 +him, thanked God for his recovery and return, and invoked
 +blessings upon his head in the name of all the
 +saints in the calendar. He called them by their names,
 +had a pleasant word for each of them, and for a few moments
 +we looked upon an exhibition of a species of affection
 +that could only have been the product of a common
 +danger.</p>
 +
 +<p>When order was restored the President gave a brief
 +sketch of Captain Worden’s career. Commodore Paulding
 +had been the first, Captain Worden the second officer
 +of the navy, he said, to give an unqualified opinion in
 +favor of armored vessels. Their opinions had been influential
 +with him and with the Board of Construction.
 +Captain Worden had volunteered to take command of
 +the <i>Monitor</i>, at the risk of his life and reputation, before
 +her keel was laid. He had watched her construction, and
 +his energy had made it possible to send her to sea in time
 +to arrest the destructive operations of the <i>Merrimac</i>.
 +What he had done with a new crew, and a vessel of novel
 +construction, we all know. He, the President, cordially
 +acknowledged his indebtedness to Captain Worden, and
 +he hoped the whole country would unite in the feeling of
 +obligation. The debt was a heavy one, and would not
 +be repudiated when its nature was understood. The
 +details of the first battle between iron-clads would interest
 +every one. At the request of Captain Fox, Captain Worden
 +had consented to give an account of his voyage from
 +New York to Hampton Roads, and of what had afterward
 +happened there on board the <i>Monitor</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>In an easy, conversational manner, without any effort
 +at display, Captain Worden told the story, of which the
 +following is the substance:</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>
 +“I suppose,” he began, “that every one knows that we
 +left New York Harbor in some haste. We had information
 +that the <i>Merrimac</i> was nearly completed, and if we
 +were to fight her on her first appearance we must be on
 +the ground. The <i>Monitor</i> had been hurried from the
 +laying of her keel. Her engines were new, and her machinery
 +did not move smoothly. Never was a vessel
 +launched that so much needed trial-trips to test her
 +machinery and get her crew accustomed to their novel
 +duties. We went to sea practically without them. No
 +part of the vessel was finished; there was one omission
 +that was serious, and came very near causing her failure
 +and the loss of many lives. In heavy weather it was intended
 +that her hatches and all her openings should be
 +closed and battened down. In that case all the men
 +would be below, and would have to depend upon artificial
 +ventilation. Our machinery for that purpose proved
 +wholly inadequate.</p>
 +
 +<p>“We were in a heavy gale of wind as soon as we passed
 +Sandy Hook. The vessel behaved splendidly. The seas
 +rolled over her, and we found her the most comfortable
 +vessel we had ever seen, except for the ventilation, which
 +gave us more trouble than I have time to tell you about.
 +We had to run into port and anchor on account of the
 +weather, and, as you know, it was two o’clock in the
 +morning of Sunday before we were alongside the <i>Minnesota</i>.
 +Captain Van Brunt gave us an account of Saturday’s
 +experience. He was very glad to make our acquaintance,
 +and notified us that we must be prepared to
 +receive the <i>Merrimac</i> at daylight. We had had a very
 +hard trip down the coast, and officers and men were weary
 +and sleepy. But when informed that our fight would probably
 +open at daylight, and that the <i>Monitor</i> must be put
 +in order, every man went to his post with a cheer. That
 +night there was no sleep on board the <i>Monitor</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>“In the gray of the early morning we saw a vessel
 +approaching which our friends on the <i>Minnesota</i> said<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
 +was the <i>Merrimac</i>. Our fastenings were cast off, our
 +machinery started, and we moved out to meet her half-way.
 +We had come a long way to fight her, and did
 +not intend to lose our opportunity.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Before showing you over the vessel, let me say that
 +there were three possible points of weakness in the <i>Monitor</i>,
 +two of which might have been guarded against in her
 +construction if there had been more time to perfect her
 +plans. One of them was in the turret, which, as you see,
 +is constructed of eight plates of inch iron—on the side
 +of the ports, nine—set on end so as to break joints, and
 +firmly bolted together, making a hollow cylinder eight
 +inches thick. It rests on a metal ring on a vertical shaft,
 +which is revolved by power from the boilers. If a projectile
 +struck the turret at an acute angle, it was expected
 +to glance off without doing damage. But what would
 +happen if it was fired in a straight line to the centre of
 +the turret, which in that case would receive the whole
 +force of the blow? It might break off the bolt-heads on
 +the interior, which, flying across, would kill the men at
 +the guns; it might disarrange the revolving mechanism,
 +and then we would be wholly disabled.</p>
 +
 +<p>“I laid the <i>Monitor</i> close alongside the <i>Merrimac</i>, and
 +gave her a shot. She returned our compliment by a
 +shell, weighing one hundred and fifty pounds, fired when
 +we were close together, which struck the turret so squarely
 +that it received the whole force. Here you see the scar,
 +two and a half inches deep in the wrought iron, a perfect
 +mould of the shell. If anything could test the turret,
 +it was that shot. It did not start a rivet-head or a nut!
 +It stunned the two men who were nearest where the
 +ball struck, and that was all. I touched the lever—the
 +turret revolved as smoothly as before. The turret had
 +stood the test; I could mark that point of weakness off
 +my list forever.</p>
 +
 +<p>“You notice that the deck is joined to the side of the
 +hull by a right angle, at what sailors call the ‘plank-shear.’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
 +If a projectile struck that angle, what would happen?
 +It would not be deflected; its whole force would be expended
 +there. It might open a seam in the hull below
 +the water-line, or pierce the wooden hull, and sink us.
 +Here was our second point of weakness.</p>
 +
 +<p>“I had decided how I would fight her in advance. I
 +would keep the <i>Monitor</i> moving in a circle, just large
 +enough to give time for loading the guns. At the point
 +where the circle impinged upon the <i>Merrimac</i> our guns
 +should be fired, and loaded while we were moving around
 +the circuit. Evidently the <i>Merrimac</i> would return the
 +compliment every time. At our second exchange of
 +shots, she returning six or eight to our two, another of
 +her large shells struck our ‘plank-shear’ at its angle, and
 +tore up one of the deck-plates, as you see. The shell had
 +struck what I believed to be the weakest point in the
 +<i>Monitor</i>. We had already learned that the <i>Merrimac</i>
 +swarmed with sharpshooters, for their bullets were constantly
 +spattering against our turret and our deck. If
 +a man showed himself on deck he would draw their fire.
 +But I did not much consider the sharpshooters. It was
 +my duty to investigate the effects of that shot. I ordered
 +one of the pendulums to be hauled aside, and,
 +crawling out of the port, walked to the side, laid down
 +upon my chest, and examined it thoroughly. The hull
 +was uninjured, except for a few splinters in the wood.
 +I walked back and crawled into the turret—the bullets
 +were falling on the iron deck all about me as thick as
 +hailstones in a storm. None struck me, I suppose because
 +the vessel was moving—and at the angle, and when
 +I was lying on the deck, my body made a small mark
 +difficult to hit. We gave them two more guns, and then
 +I told the men, what was true, that the <i>Merrimac</i> could
 +not sink us if we let her pound us for a month. The
 +men cheered; the knowledge put new life into all.</p>
 +
 +<p>“We had more exchanges, and then the <i>Merrimac</i> tried
 +new tactics. She endeavored to ram us, to run us down.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>
 +Once she struck us about amidships with her iron ram.
 +Here you see its mark. It gave us a shock, pushed us
 +around, and that was all the harm. But the movement
 +placed our sides together. I gave her two guns, which I
 +think lodged in her side, for, from my lookout crack, I
 +could not see that either shot rebounded. Ours being
 +the smaller vessel, and more easily handled, I had no
 +difficulty in avoiding her ram. I ran around her several
 +times, planting our shot in what seemed to be the most
 +vulnerable places. In this way, reserving my fire until
 +I got the range and the mark, I planted two more shots
 +almost in the very spot I had hit when she tried to ram
 +us. Those shots must have been effective, for they were
 +followed by a shower of bars of iron.</p>
 +
 +<p>“The third weak spot was our pilot-house. You see
 +that it is built a little more than three feet above the
 +deck, of bars of iron, ten by twelve inches square, built
 +up like a log-house, bolted with very large bolts at the
 +corners where the bars interlock. The pilot stands upon
 +a platform below, his head and shoulders in the pilot-house.
 +The upper tier of bars is separated from the
 +second by an open space of an inch, through which the
 +pilot may look out at every point of the compass. The
 +pilot-house, as you see, is a four-square mass of iron, provided
 +with no means of deflecting a ball. I expected
 +trouble from it, and I was not disappointed. Until my
 +accident happened, as we approached the enemy I stood
 +in the pilot-house and gave the signals. Lieutenant
 +Greene fired the guns, and Engineer Stimers, here, revolved
 +the turret.</p>
 +
 +<p>“I was below the deck when the corner of the pilot-house
 +was first struck by a shot or a shell. It either burst
 +or was broken, and no harm was done. A short time
 +after I had given the signal, and, with my eye close against
 +the lookout crack, was watching the effect of our shot,
 +when something happened to me—my part in the fight
 +was ended. Lieutenant Greene, who fought the <i>Merrimac</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>
 +until she had no longer stomach for fighting, will tell you
 +the rest of the story.”</p>
 +
 +<p>Can it be possible that this beardless boy fought one
 +of the historic battles of the world? This was the thought
 +of every one as the modest, diffident young Greene was
 +half pushed forward into the circle.</p>
 +
 +<p>“I cannot add much to the Captain’s story,” he began.
 +“He had cut out the work for us, and we had only
 +to follow his pattern. I kept the <i>Monitor</i> either moving
 +around the circle or around the enemy, and endeavored
 +to place our shots as near her amidships as possible where
 +Captain Worden believed he had already broken through
 +her armor. We knew that she could not sink us, and I
 +thought I would keep right on pounding her as long as
 +she would stand it. There is really nothing new to be
 +added to Captain Worden’s account. We could strike
 +her wherever we chose; weary as they must have been,
 +our men were full of enthusiasm, and I do not think we
 +wasted a shot. Once we ran out of the circle for a moment
 +to adjust a piece of machinery, and I learn that
 +some of our friends feared that we were drawing out of
 +the fight. The <i>Merrimac</i> took the opportunity to start
 +for Norfolk. As soon as our machinery was adjusted we
 +followed her, and got near enough to give her a parting
 +shot. But I was not familiar with the locality; there
 +might be torpedoes planted in the channel, and I did not
 +wish to take any risk of losing our vessel, so I came back
 +to the company of our friends. But except that we were,
 +all of us, tired and hungry when we came back to the
 +<i>Minnesota</i> at half-past 12 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, the <i>Monitor</i> was just as
 +well prepared to fight as she was at eight o’clock in the
 +morning when she fired the first gun.”</p>
 +
 +<p>We were then shown the injury to the pilot-house.
 +The mark of the ball was plain upon the two upper bars,
 +the principal impact being upon the lower of the two.
 +This huge bar was broken in the middle, but held firmly
 +at either end. The farther it was pressed in, the stronger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
 +was the resistance on the exterior. On the inside the
 +fracture in the bar was half an inch wide. Captain Worden’s
 +eye was very near to the lookout crack, so that
 +when the gun was discharged the shock of the ball knocked
 +him senseless, while the mass of flame filled one side of
 +his face with coarse grains of powder. He remained insensible
 +for some hours.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Have you heard what Captain Worden’s first inquiry
 +was when he recovered his senses after the general shock
 +to his system?” asked Captain Fox of the President.</p>
 +
 +<p>“I think I have,” replied Mr. Lincoln, “but it is worth
 +relating to these gentlemen.”</p>
 +
 +<p>“His question was,” said Captain Fox, “‘Have I saved
 +the <i>Minnesota</i>?’</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘Yes, and whipped the <i>Merrimac</i>!’ some one answered.</p>
 +
 +<p>“‘Then,’ said Captain Worden, ‘I don’t care what
 +becomes of me.’”</p>
 +
 +<p>“Mr. President,” said Captain Fox, “not much of the
 +history to which we have listened is new to me. I saw
 +this battle from eight o’clock until mid-day. There was
 +one marvel in it which has not been mentioned—the
 +splendid handling of the <i>Monitor</i> throughout the battle.
 +The first bold advance of this diminutive vessel against
 +a giant like the <i>Merrimac</i> was superlatively grand. She
 +seemed inspired by Nelson’s order at Trafalgar: ‘He will
 +make no mistake who lays his vessel alongside the enemy.’
 +One would have thought the <i>Monitor</i> a living thing.
 +No man was visible. You saw her moving around that
 +circle, delivering her fire invariably at the point of contact,
 +and heard the crash of the missile against her
 +enemy’s armor above the thunder of her guns, on the
 +bank where we stood. It was indescribably grand!</p>
 +
 +<p>“Now,” he continued, “standing here on the deck of
 +this battle-scarred vessel, the first genuine iron-clad—the
 +victor in the first fight of iron-clads—let me make
 +a confession and perform an act of simple justice. I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
 +never fully believed in armored vessels until I saw this
 +battle. I know all the facts which united to give us the
 +<i>Monitor</i>. I withhold no credit from Captain Ericsson,
 +her inventor, but I know that the country is principally
 +indebted for the construction of this vessel to President
 +Lincoln, and for the success of her trial to Captain Worden,
 +her commander.”</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XVII" class="vspace">XVII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_19" class="subhead">FARRAGUT’S CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS (1862)</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="p0 b2 center smaller wspace">WITH SOME NOTES ON THE BLOCKADE</p>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">While</span> the West in 1861–62 was alive with marching
 +armies and the sound of strife, the East had been
 +experiencing its share of activity by land and sea, and the
 +navy must first engage us. The blockade became steadily
 +more effective as new ships, purchased, chartered, or
 +built for the purpose, gathered at the various rendezvous.
 +Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal, seized in the fall of 1861,<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a>
 +became bases for coast and inland expeditions which narrowed
 +the Confederate hold on the shore of the Atlantic.
 +In January, 1862, a fleet and army, braving the mid-winter
 +storms which were more formidable than human
 +opposition, entered by Hatteras Inlet, in order to dominate
 +more completely the North Carolina sounds. The
 +fortifications on Roanoke Island, lying between Albemarle
 +and Pamlico sounds, were easily captured, February
 +8th. New-Berne and other towns were soon after
 +occupied, and the inlets and river-mouths so occupied
 +and threatened that the outlets to the sea became for
 +the Confederates few and perilous. This successful course
 +was interrupted during the Virginia campaign of the
 +summer; the troops were to a large extent withdrawn to
 +places where reinforcements were demanded. The Roanoke
 +Island expedition is noteworthy, among other reasons,
 +for bringing to the front Ambrose E. Burnside, its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>
 +commander,<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> a brave and well-intentioned patriot, quite
 +inadequate, however, for large responsibilities, which
 +later came upon him.</p>
 +
 +<p>During these same weeks forces farther south were
 +equally busy in expeditions from Port Royal. Fort
 +Pulaski, the strong work which commanded the approaches
 +to Savannah, a post environed by swamps and
 +watercourses, and therefore difficult of access, succumbed
 +rather to the engineering skill than to the bravery of its
 +assailants, April 11, 1862; therefore, most of the littoral
 +of Georgia, in addition to that of North and South Carolina,
 +was in Federal hands.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> These conquests were presently
 +supplemented by the occupation of the Atlantic
 +ports of Florida. On the Gulf side, the retention of Fort
 +Pickens by Union forces from the beginning had put
 +Pensacola Harbor under Federal control. The blockade,
 +at first deemed impracticable, within a year of its establishment
 +was throttling the foreign commerce which was
 +vital to the Confederacy. On the Atlantic scarcely any
 +important ports were left except Charleston and Wilmington;
 +and before the thresholds of these places lay,
 +night and day, the fierce and watchful war-dogs of the
 +Union.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> Nevertheless, up to April, 1862, the Gulf ports
 +of Mobile, New Orleans, Galveston, and Matagorda still
 +remained to the Confederacy. How long could these
 +maintain themselves?</p>
 +
 +<p>This swift and easy repossession of the southern coastline
 +by the Union, however important, lacked the wholesale
 +excitement of great and bloody battles, and was a
 +game little appreciated. But in the midst of it came an
 +incident dramatic and startling in the highest degree, its
 +hero being a naval officer, David Glasgow Farragut, son
 +of a Spaniard from the island of Minorca, who had married
 +a girl of Scotch strain and settled in the Tennessee<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>
 +mountains. After the birth of David the family removed
 +to Louisiana, the father receiving a naval command.
 +David as a boy of thirteen was on the <i>Essex</i> at Valparaiso,
 +in 1814, in her famous fight against the <i>Phœbe</i> and <i>Cherub</i>.
 +He had done good service on the seas and in port for
 +almost fifty years, but his opportunity did not come until
 +he was sixty years old.<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_290" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.9375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_328.jpg" width="479" height="436" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE MISSISSIPPI BELOW NEW ORLEANS</div></div>
 +
 +<p>The need of seizing New Orleans, if practicable, was
 +obvious: the place commanded the lower Mississippi, and
 +was the most populous and important city of the Confederacy.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
 +The government, therefore, early gave thought
 +to its capture, assigning for that end a land force of
 +eighteen thousand men, under General Benjamin F. Butler,
 +and a powerful fleet. It was recognized that the
 +navy must play the larger part in the operations: eighty-two
 +ships, therefore, were assigned to the West Gulf
 +Squadron, ranging from tugs, mortar-schooners, and
 +chartered ferry-boats to the most powerful man-of-war
 +which the nation owned.<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> To command this great fleet
 +was chosen Farragut, whose force and capacity had been
 +recognized, especially by Welles, Secretary of the Navy.<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a>
 +He hoisted his flag on the <i>Hartford</i>, a wooden ship of
 +nineteen hundred tons and twenty-four guns, and February
 +2, 1862, sailed southward from Hampton Roads to
 +Ship Island, midway between the mouth of the Mississippi
 +and Mobile, the rendezvous for the army and squadron.</p>
 +
 +<p>Farragut’s ships were all of wood; and, although steam
 +in great part was the motive-power, sails were not superseded.
 +Even as Farragut was concentrating in the Gulf,
 +an event, to be described presently, took place in Hampton
 +Roads which revolutionized naval warfare. But the
 +enterprises in the Gulf were well started, and some
 +triumphs still remained for the old-fashioned sailor and
 +the old-fashioned ship.<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> In March the fleet managed to
 +cross the bar and enter the Mississippi, a feat of no small
 +difficulty in the case of the heavier vessels. The <i>Colorado</i>
 +was left outside, the <i>Pensacola</i> was dragged by her consorts
 +through a foot of mud, and the <i>Mississippi</i> was
 +scarcely less embarrassed. At last the squadron of attack
 +was for the most part within the branches of the
 +river; at the head of the passes they stripped like gladiators
 +for a final struggle, and proceeded to attack the
 +main obstructions twenty miles above. Farragut had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
 +seventeen ships for the attack, mounting one hundred
 +and fifty guns, besides twenty mortar-schooners, with
 +six attendant gunboats, under Commodore David D.
 +Porter.</p>
 +
 +<p>Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip, well manned and
 +equipped, guarded the river on the west and east. An
 +enormous chain, supported on anchored hulks, stretched
 +across the half-mile of current to hold any approaching
 +hostile vessels at a point where the fire of the forts could
 +converge. Above the forts, a formidable flotilla of craft
 +variously armed with rams and guns, some heaped with
 +pitch-pine knots to serve as fire-ships, stood ready to
 +take part.<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_292" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_330.jpg" width="480" height="241" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">FORTS OF THE MISSISSIPPI</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Unless this boom could be broken the ships could not
 +ascend. Farragut ordered two gunboats to this dangerous
 +task. Stealing up at night, they accomplished it.
 +On the night of April 23d, the ships advanced, a column
 +led by the <i>Cayuga</i> following the eastern bank; Farragut
 +himself, in the <i>Hartford</i>, led the column which was to
 +pass close to Fort Jackson. Now came a rare blending<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span>
 +of the splendid and the terrible. The night was calm,
 +with starlight and a waning moon; but in the fiercer
 +flashings of the combat the world seemed on fire. In
 +arcs rising far toward the zenith the shells of the mortars
 +mounted and fell; broadsides thundered; from barbette
 +and casemate rolled an incessant reply. Suddenly above
 +the flashes of guns came a steady glare: fire-ships, their
 +pitch-pine cargoes all ablaze, swept into the midst of
 +the struggling fleet. The attacking lines became confused
 +in the volumes of smoke settling down upon the
 +stream. In the blinding vapor friend could scarcely be
 +told from foe. The captain of the Confederate <i>Governor
 +Moore</i>, finding that the bow of his own ship interfered
 +with the aim of his gun, coolly blew the bow to pieces
 +with a discharge, then through the shattered opening
 +renewed the battle. A Confederate tug pluckily pushed
 +a fire-raft directly upon the <i>Hartford</i>. The tug and its
 +crew disappeared and the <i>Hartford</i> ran aground; the
 +sailors, undaunted, stuck to their work; the ship was
 +pulled off by her own engines, while a deluge from the
 +pumps put out the fire. For an hour and a half the roar
 +and the flashings continued; as the dawn came, the
 +battle was hushed. Three Federal gunboats had been
 +driven back and one sunk, but the main fleet was above
 +the forts. The ships in general were scarred and battered
 +in the night’s encounter, but little harmed, and Farragut
 +made ready at once to go on his way.<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The passing of the forts made certain the fall of New
 +Orleans. The small Confederate army under General
 +Mansfield Lovell was at once withdrawn and the city
 +left to its fate. Farragut appeared before it, after passing
 +rapidly up the intervening seventy miles, at noon,
 +April 25th. The population of one hundred and fifty
 +thousand souls, seething with natural mortification and
 +passion, lay under the broadsides of the fleet, and, after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
 +one outburst, in which a mob trampled on the United
 +States flag, they sullenly submitted. With all possible
 +expedition, the forts having given up, the land forces
 +ascended the river and, on May 1st, took possession.<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a>
 +Farragut soon ascended the river to Vicksburg with a
 +large part of his fleet.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN FARRAGUT’S CAPTURE<br />
 +OF NEW ORLEANS, 1862, AND THE<br />
 +BATTLES OF GETTYSBURG<br />
 +AND VICKSBURG, 1863</h3>
 +
 +<p>1862. Battle of Shiloh. Capture of Island No. 10.
 +Battle of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. “Seven Days’
 +Battle” between the armies of McClellan and Lee before
 +Richmond. Repulse of the Confederates at Malvern
 +Hill, and a constant succession of battles. Halleck appointed
 +Federal commander-in-chief. Confederate victory
 +at Cedar Mountain. Second battle of Bull Run and
 +defeat of the Federals. Battle of South Mountain. Battle
 +of Antietam Creek. Proclamation of Emancipation.
 +The Confederate cavalry under General Stuart makes
 +a successful raid into Pennsylvania. Burnside succeeds
 +McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac.
 +Battle of Fredericksburg and repulse of the Federals.</p>
 +
 +<p>1863. Definite abolition of slavery in the rebellious
 +states. Hooker commands Army of the Potomac. West
 +Virginia admitted (by proclamation) into the Union.
 +Confederate victory at Chancellorsville. General Grant
 +invests Vicksburg. Lee occupies Winchester, crosses the
 +Potomac, and enters Pennsylvania. Meade appointed
 +commander of the Army of the Potomac. Battle of
 +Gettysburg, July 1–3. Fall of Vicksburg, July 4th.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XVIII" class="vspace">XVIII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_20" class="subhead">VICKSBURG (JANUARY–JULY, 1863)</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +
 +<p>In the American Civil War, 1861–65, the capture of Vicksburg,
 +on the Mississippi, cut the Confederacy in two, and the battle of
 +Gettysburg proved a Confederate invasion of the North impossible.
 +Out of the many great battles of that war it is historically
 +essential that these two should be emphasized.</p>
 +
 +<p>After Fort Sumter was fired upon, April 12, 1861, the relative
 +efficiency of the South and the unpreparedness of the North were
 +soon illustrated in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. In the
 +East, where the main objective point of the Northern attack was
 +Richmond, there followed McClellan’s organization of the Army
 +of the Potomac. In the West were Halleck and Buell, with headquarters
 +at St. Louis and Louisville, and the main end in view in
 +the Western campaign was the control of the Mississippi. February,
 +1862, brought Northern successes in the Western campaign
 +in Grant’s capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, followed by
 +Shiloh, Corinth, and Memphis, which opened the Mississippi to
 +Vicksburg. At the same time Farragut’s fleet in the South captured
 +New Orleans, a victory which, like the effect of the blockade
 +throughout the war, was a weighty demonstration of the influence
 +of sea power upon history. After Farragut had cleared
 +the lower river, it was practically Vicksburg alone which remained
 +to unite the eastern and western territory of the Confederacy.
 +But in the East there had been a series of Northern disasters, culminating
 +in Chancellorsville.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span></p></blockquote>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> the defeated Federals recrossed the Rappahannock,
 +May 5, 1863, after Chancellorsville, the
 +fortunes of the North were at the lowest ebb. Then
 +came the turning of the tide, and in an unexpected quarter.
 +General Grant had shot up into fame through his
 +capture of Fort Donelson, early in 1862, but had done
 +little thereafter to confirm his reputation. Though in
 +responsible command in northern Mississippi and southwestern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>
 +Tennessee, the few successes there which the
 +country could appreciate went to the credit of his subordinate,
 +Rosecrans. The world remembered his shiftlessness
 +before the war, and began to believe that his success
 +had been accidental. All things considered, it is strange
 +that Grant had been kept in place. The pressure for his
 +removal had been great everywhere, but his superiors
 +stood by him faithfully, though Lincoln’s persistence was
 +maintained in the midst of misgivings.</p>
 +
 +<p>In the fall of 1862, Grant, in command of fifty thousand
 +men, purposed to continue the advance southward
 +through Mississippi, flanking Vicksburg, which then must
 +certainly fall. His supplies must come over the Memphis
 +&amp; Charleston road and the two weak and disabled lines
 +of railroad, the Mississippi Central and the Mobile &amp; Ohio.
 +To guard one hundred and fifty miles of railroad in a
 +hostile country the army must necessarily be scattered,
 +as every bridge, culvert, and station needed a detail.
 +From Washington came unwise interference; but he
 +moved on with vigor. As winter approached, he pushed
 +into Mississippi toward Jackson. If that place could be
 +seized, Vicksburg, fifty miles west, must become untenable,
 +and to this end Grant desired to unite his whole
 +force. He was overruled, and the troops divided: while
 +he marched on Jackson, Sherman, with thirty-two thousand,
 +was to proceed down the river from Memphis.
 +Grant’s hope was that he and Sherman, both near Vicksburg,
 +and supporting each other, might act in concert.</p>
 +
 +<p>Complete failure attended this beginning. Forrest,
 +operating in a friendly country, tore up the railroads in
 +Grant’s rear for scores of miles, capturing his detachments
 +and working destruction. On December 20th,
 +also, Van Dorn, now a cavalry leader, surprised Holly
 +Springs, Grant’s main depot in northern Mississippi, carrying
 +off and burning stores to the amount of $1,500,000.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
 +Grant’s movement southward became impossible: the
 +army stood stripped and helpless, saving itself only by
 +living off the country, an experience rough at the time,
 +but out of which, later, came benefit.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Co-operation with
 +Sherman could no longer be thought of. Nor could news
 +of the disaster be sent to Sherman, who, following his
 +orders, punctually embarked and steamed down to the
 +mouth of the Yazoo; this he entered, and on December
 +29th, believing that the garrison of Vicksburg had been
 +drawn off to meet Grant, he flung his divisions against
 +the Confederate lines at Chickasaw Bayou, with a loss of
 +eighteen hundred men and no compensating advantage.<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The difficulty and disaster in the Mississippi campaign
 +were increased by a measure which strikingly reveals the
 +effect in war of political pressure at the capital. At the
 +outbreak of the war, John A. McClernand was a member
 +of Congress from Illinois, and later commanded a division
 +at Donelson and Shiloh. Returning to Washington, he
 +stood out as a War Democrat, a representative of a class
 +whose adherence to the administration was greatly
 +strained by the Emancipation Proclamation, and whose
 +loyalty Lincoln felt it was almost vital to preserve.
 +When, therefore, he laid before Lincoln a scheme<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> to
 +raise by his own influence a large force in the West, over
 +which he was to have military command, with the intention
 +of taking Vicksburg, Lincoln and Stanton yielded,
 +the sequel showing that McClernand was a soldier of little
 +merit....</p>
 +
 +<p>McClernand went West, and kept his promise by mustering
 +into the service, chiefly through his personal influence,
 +some thirty regiments, a welcome recruitment in
 +those dark days. With this new army McClernand appeared
 +at the mouth of the Yazoo just at the moment
 +when Sherman emerged from the swamps with his crestfallen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
 +divisions. McClernand assumed command, Sherman
 +subsiding into a subordinate place; but he had influence
 +enough with his new superior to persuade him to
 +proceed at once to an attack upon Arkansas Post, not far
 +away.<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> This measure proved successful, the place capitulating
 +January 11, 1863, with five thousand men and
 +seventeen guns. Though the victory was due in great
 +part to the navy, Sherman alone in the army having rendered
 +conspicuous service, yet before the country the
 +credit went to McClernand, nominally the commander,
 +giving him an undeserved prestige which made the situation
 +worse.</p>
 +
 +<p>Grant often found Halleck very trying; but in the
 +present exigency the superior stood stoutly by him, and
 +probably saved to him his position. The military sense
 +of the general-in-chief saw clearly the folly of a divided
 +command, and he enlightened the President, who made
 +Grant major-general in command of operations on the
 +Mississippi, McClernand being put at the head of a corps.
 +January 30th, therefore, Grant, suppressing a scheme entertained
 +by McClernand for a campaign in Arkansas, set
 +to work to solve the problem of opening the great river.</p>
 +
 +<p>Probably few generals have ever encountered a situation
 +more difficult, or one in which military precedents
 +helped so little. The fortress occupied a height commanding
 +on the north and west, along the river, swampy bottom-lands,
 +at the moment largely submerged or threaded
 +with channels. These lowlands were much overgrown
 +with canebrake and forest; roads there were almost none,
 +the plantations established within the area being approached
 +most conveniently by boats. But it was from
 +the north and west, apparently, that Vicksburg must be
 +assailed, for the region south of the city appeared quite
 +beyond reach, since the batteries closed the river, which
 +seemed the sole means of approach for Northern forces.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>
 +The surest approach to the stronghold was from the east;
 +but there Grant had tried and failed; public sentiment
 +would not sustain another movement from that side.
 +There was nothing for it but to try by the north and west,
 +and Grant grappled with the problem.</p>
 +
 +<p>Besides the natural obstacles, he had to take account of
 +his own forces, and the strength and character of his adversary.
 +In November, 1862, Johnston, not yet recovered
 +from the wounds received at Fair Oaks in May, was
 +ordered to assume command in the West, taking the
 +troops of Kirby Smith, Bragg, and the army defending
 +the Mississippi. The latter force, up to that time under
 +Van Dorn, was transferred to John C. Pemberton, of an
 +old Pennsylvania family, before and after the war a
 +citizen of Philadelphia. Though a Northerner, he had
 +the entire confidence of both Jefferson Davis and Robert
 +E. Lee. His record in the old army was good; he was
 +made lieutenant-general by the Confederacy, and received
 +most weighty responsibilities. He served bravely
 +and faithfully the cause he had espoused; though outclassed
 +in his campaign, he did not lack ability. Pemberton
 +commanded some fifty thousand men, comprising
 +not only the garrison of Vicksburg, but also that of Port
 +Hudson and detachments posted in northern Mississippi.
 +On the watch at such a point as Jackson, the state capital,
 +he could, on short notice, concentrate his scattered command
 +to meet whatever danger might threaten.</p>
 +
 +<p>Against this alert adversary Grant could now oppose
 +about an equal number of men, comprised in four corps—the
 +Thirteenth (McClernand), Fifteenth (Sherman),
 +Sixteenth (Hurlbut), Seventeenth (McPherson). Hurlbut
 +was of necessity retained at and near Memphis, to preserve
 +communications and hold western Tennessee; the
 +three other corps could take the field with about forty-three
 +thousand. Among Grant’s lieutenants, two were
 +soldiers of the best quality—Sherman and James B.
 +McPherson, the latter a young officer of engineers, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
 +during the preceding months had been coming rapidly
 +to the front.<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> Besides the army, Grant had a powerful
 +auxiliary in the fleet, which now numbered seventy craft,
 +large and small, manned by fifty-five hundred sailors
 +and commanded by David D. Porter, an indefatigable chief.</p>
 +
 +<p>Grant at the outset could, of course, have no fixed
 +plan. Throughout February and March his operations
 +were tentative; and though the country murmured at
 +his “inactivity,” never did general or army do harder
 +work. Might not Vicksburg perhaps be isolated on the
 +west, and a way be found beyond the reach of its cannon
 +to that vantage-ground south of it which seemed so inaccessible?
 +Straightway the army tried, with spade,
 +pick, and axe, to complete the cut-off which Williams had
 +begun the previous summer; also to open a tortuous and
 +embarrassed passage far round through Lake Providence
 +and the Tensas and Washita rivers. Might not some
 +insufficiently guarded approach be found through the
 +Yazoo bottom<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> to Haines’ Bluff, the height dominating
 +Vicksburg from the northeast, which Sherman had sought
 +to seize at Chickasaw Bayou? Straightway there were
 +enterprises seldom attempted in war.<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> The levee at
 +Yazoo Pass was cut, far up the river, so that the swollen
 +Mississippi flooded the wide region below. Through the
 +crevasse plunged gunboat and transport, to engage in
 +amphibious warfare; soldiers wading in the mire or
 +swimming the bayous; divisions struggling to <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">terra firma</i>,
 +only to find that Pemberton was there before them behind
 +unassailable parapets; gunboats wedged in ditches,
 +unable to turn, with hostile axemen blocking both advance
 +and retreat by felling trees across the channel;
 +Porter sheltering himself from sharpshooters within a
 +section of broken smokestack and meditating the blowing-up
 +of his boats; Sherman now paddling in a canoe,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
 +now riding bareback, now joining the men of a rescue-party
 +in a double-quick—all in cypress forests draped
 +with funereal moss, as if Death had made ready for a
 +calamity that seemed certain.</p>
 +
 +<p>April came, and nothing had been accomplished on the
 +north or west. To try again from the east meant summary
 +removal for the commander. Was an attack from
 +the south, after all, out of the question, as all his lieutenants
 +urged? Grant resolved to try; the river-bank to
 +the west was so far dried that the passage of a column
 +through the swamp-roads became possible. Porter was
 +willing to attempt to run the batteries, though sure that,
 +if once below, he could never return. The night of April
 +16th was one of wild excitements. The fleet was discovered
 +as soon as it got under way, and conflagrations,
 +blazing right and left, clearly revealed it as it swept down
 +the stream. The Confederate fire could not be concentrated,<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">235</a>
 +and hence the injury was small to the armored
 +craft; and even the transports in their company, protected
 +only by baled hay or cotton, escaped with one
 +exception. A few days later transports and barges again
 +passed down.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> The column, toiling along the swampy
 +road, was met, when at last it reached a point well below
 +the town, by an abundance of supplies and ample means
 +for placing it on the other bank. April 29th, Grand Gulf,
 +the southern outpost of Vicksburg, was cannonaded, with
 +ten thousand men on transports at hand for an assault,
 +if the chance came. High on its bluff, it defied the bombardment,
 +as the main citadel had done. Then it was
 +that Grant turned to his last resource.</p>
 +
 +<p>It requires attention to comprehend how a plan so
 +audacious as that now adopted could succeed. First, the
 +watchful Pemberton was bewildered and misled as to the
 +point of attack. About the time the batteries were run,
 +Grierson, an Illinois officer, starting with seventeen hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
 +cavalry from La Grange, Tennessee, raided completely
 +through Mississippi, from north to south, so skilfully
 +creating an impression of large numbers, so effectively
 +wrecking railroads and threatening incursion now here
 +and now there, that the back-country was thrown into
 +a panic, and Pemberton thought an attack in force from
 +that direction possible. Following close upon Grierson’s
 +raid, Sherman demonstrated with such noise and parade
 +north of the city that Pemberton sent troops to meet a
 +possible assault there. Meantime, the Thirteenth and
 +Seventeenth corps were ferried rapidly across the river
 +below Grand Gulf, and, a footing on the upland having
 +been obtained unopposed, Grant stood fairly on the left
 +bank. He now sent word to Halleck that he felt this
 +battle was more than half won.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">237</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_302" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_341.jpg" width="400" height="545" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">SIEGE OF VICKSBURG</div></div>
 +
 +<p>The event proved that Grant was not oversanguine.
 +An easy victory at Port Gibson, over a brave but inferior
 +force, gave him Grand Gulf. Joined now by Sherman,
 +he plunged with his three corps into the interior, cutting
 +loose from his river base, and also from his hampering
 +connection with Washington. The previous fall he had
 +learned to live off the country. Two more easy victories,
 +at Raymond and Jackson, gave him the state capital,
 +and placed him, fully concentrated, between the armies
 +of Pemberton and Johnston. The number of his foes
 +was swelling fast—from Port Hudson, from South Carolina,
 +from Tennessee; but Grant did not let slip his advantage.
 +Johnston, not yet recovered from his Fair
 +Oaks wound, was not at his best. Pemberton, confused
 +by an adversary who could do so unmilitary a thing as
 +to throw away his base, vacillated and blundered. A
 +heavy battle at Champion’s Hill, May 16th, in which the
 +completeness of Grant’s victory was prevented by the
 +bad conduct of McClernand, nevertheless resulted in
 +Pemberton’s precipitate flight. Next day the Federals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
 +seized the crossing of the Big Black River, after which
 +all the outposts of Vicksburg, from Haines’ Bluff southward,
 +fell without further fighting, and Pemberton, with
 +the army that remained to him, was shut up within the
 +works. The Federals held all outside, looking down
 +from those heights, which for so long had seemed to them
 +impregnable, upon the great river open to the north. Supplies
 +and reinforcements could now come unhindered and were
 +already pouring in. The fall of Vicksburg was certain....</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
 +The siege once begun, the fortress was doomed without
 +recourse. Pemberton, to be sure, did not lose heart, and
 +drove back the repeated Federal assaults with skill and
 +courage. Johnston, from the rear, mustered men as he
 +could, tried to concert with the besieged army a project
 +of escape, and at last advanced to attack. But within
 +the city supplies soon failed, and outside no resources
 +were at hand for the city’s succor. Johnston’s request
 +for twenty thousand men, lying idle in Arkansas had
 +been slighted;<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> there was no other source of supply.
 +Kirby Smith and Dick Taylor attempted a diversion on
 +the west bank of the river; and still later, at Helena,
 +Arkansas, a desperate push was made to afford relief.
 +It was all in vain. The North, made cheerful by long-delayed
 +success, poured forth to Grant out of its abundance
 +both men and means. His army was in size nearly
 +doubled; food and munitions abounded. The starving
 +defenders were inexorably encircled by nearly three times
 +their number of well-supplied and triumphant foes.
 +Grant’s assaults, bold and bloody though they were, had
 +little effect in bringing about the result; the close investment
 +would have sufficed.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> On July 4th came the unconditional
 +surrender. The Confederate losses before the
 +surrender were fully 10,000; now 29,491, became prisoners,
 +while in the fortress were 170 cannon and 50,000 small
 +arms. Grant’s loss during the whole campaign was 9362.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">240</a></p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>
 +To this triumph, a week later, was added the fall of
 +Port Hudson,<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> which, with a depleted garrison, held out
 +stubbornly for six weeks against the Federals. N. P.
 +Banks, who after his tragical Virginia experiences succeeded,
 +in December, 1862, Butler in Louisiana, was set,
 +as in the valley, to meet a difficult situation with inadequate
 +means. With an army of little more than thirty
 +thousand, in part nine-months men, he was expected to
 +hold New Orleans and such of Louisiana as had been conquered,
 +and also to co-operate with Grant in opening the
 +Mississippi. When his garrisons had been placed he had
 +scarcely fifteen thousand men left for service in the field,
 +a number exceeded at first by the Port Hudson defenders,
 +strongly placed and well commanded. West of the river,
 +moreover, was still another force under an old adversary
 +in the Shenandoah country—Dick Taylor, a general well-endowed
 +and trained in the best school. That Banks,
 +though active, had no brilliant success was not at all
 +strange; yet Halleck found fault. He could not extend
 +a hand to Grant; but, risking his communications—risking,
 +indeed, the possession of New Orleans—he concentrated
 +at Port Hudson, which fortress, after a six weeks’
 +siege, marked by two spirited assaults, he brought to great
 +distress. Its fate was sealed by the fall of Vicksburg—Gardner,
 +the commander, on July 9th, surrendering the
 +post with more than six thousand men and fifty-one guns.</p>
 +
 +<p>The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson was a success
 +such as had not been achieved before during our Civil War,
 +and was not paralleled afterward until Appomattox. In
 +military history there are few achievements which equal
 +it; and the magnitude of the captures of men and resources
 +is no more remarkable than are the unfailing courage of
 +the soldiers and the genius and vigor of the general.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">242</a></p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XIX" class="vspace">XIX<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_21" class="subhead">GETTYSBURG, JULY 1–3, 1863</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +
 +<p>In the Eastern field of operations in the American Civil War,
 +McClellan’s organization of the Army of the Potomac had given
 +him a well-disciplined force, with which he was facing General
 +Joseph Johnston at the opening of 1862. But the Peninsular
 +Campaign which McClellan entered upon early in the year, with
 +the bloody fighting at Fair Oaks in May, and the Seven Days’
 +Battles in May and June, resulted in the withdrawal of the
 +Northern forces. There followed Pope’s defeat near Bull Run.
 +The forward movement was a failure. The Northern forces, only
 +four miles from Richmond in June, were practically defending
 +Washington in September. The desperate battle of Antietam
 +checked Lee’s movement into Maryland, but was not decisive.
 +Burnside’s costly defeat at Fredericksburg in December closed a
 +gloomy year in the East, which to many seemed to show that the
 +South could more than hold its own. The new year brought a
 +renewal of disaster to the Northern arms in Hooker’s defeat in
 +the hard-fought battle of Chancellorsville. But the tide was to
 +be turned by one of the crucial events of military history, which
 +was close at hand.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span></p></blockquote>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> fall of Vicksburg, though a terrible blow to the
 +South, was not a sudden one: to all intelligent eyes
 +it had for some weeks been impending; but that Lee
 +could be defeated seemed a thing impossible. Because
 +so long unconquered, it had come to be accepted that he
 +was unconquerable.</p>
 +
 +<p>Hooker soon recovered from the daze into which he
 +had been thrown at Chancellorsville. His confidence in
 +himself was not broken by his misfortune. Instead of,
 +like Burnside, manfully shouldering most of the responsibility
 +of his failure, Hooker vehemently accused his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>
 +lieutenants of misconduct, and faced the new situation
 +with as much resolution as if he had the prestige of a
 +victor. The Army of the Potomac, never down in heart
 +except for a moment, plucked up courage forthwith and
 +girded itself for new encounters.</p>
 +
 +<p>The South, meanwhile, was still rejoicing over Chancellorsville,
 +for the cloud on the southwestern horizon
 +was at first no bigger than a man’s hand. Longstreet
 +joined Lee from Suffolk with two divisions, swelling the
 +Army of Northern Virginia to eighty thousand or more.
 +Never before had it been so numerous, so well appointed,
 +or in such good heart. The numerical advantage which
 +the Federals had heretofore enjoyed was at this time
 +nearly gone, because thousands of enlistments expired
 +which could not immediately be made good; volunteering
 +had nearly ceased, and the new schemes for recruiting
 +were not yet effective.</p>
 +
 +<p>Lee took the initiative early in June,<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> full of the sense
 +of the advantage to be gained from a campaign on
 +Northern soil. War-worn Virginia was to receive a
 +respite; Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, as well as
 +Washington, might be terrorized, and perhaps captured.
 +If only the good-fortune so far enjoyed would continue,
 +the Union’s military strength might be completely
 +wrecked, hesitating Europe won over to recognition, and
 +the cause of the South made secure.</p>
 +
 +<p>With these fine and not at all extravagant anticipations,
 +Lee put in motion his three great corps under the
 +lieutenant-generals Ewell (Jackson’s successor), Longstreet,
 +and A. P. Hill. Longstreet was ill at ease. Vicksburg,
 +now in great danger, he thought could only be saved
 +by reinforcing Bragg and advancing rapidly on Cincinnati,
 +in which case Grant might be drawn north. Notwithstanding
 +Longstreet’s urgency, Lee persisted.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> Ewell,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
 +pouring suddenly down the Shenandoah Valley, “gobbled
 +up,” as Lincoln put it, Milroy and his whole command
 +of some four thousand, June 13th, and presently from
 +Maryland invaded Pennsylvania. Longstreet was close
 +behind: while the head of Ewell’s column had been nearing
 +the Potomac, A. P. Hill, who had remained at Fredericksburg
 +to watch Hooker, as yet inactive on Stafford
 +Heights, broke camp and followed northwestward.
 +Ewell seized Chambersburg a few days later, then appeared
 +at Carlisle, and even shook Harrisburg with his
 +cannon. The North had, indeed, cause for alarm; the
 +farmers of the invaded region were in a panic. “Emergency
 +men,” enlisted for three months, gathered from
 +New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania to
 +the threatened points. The great coast cities were face
 +to face with a menace hitherto unexperienced. Were
 +they really about to be sacked? What was to be done?</p>
 +
 +<p>There was no indecision either at Washington or in
 +the Army of the Potomac. Lincoln’s horse-sense, sometimes
 +tripping, but oftener adequate to deal with unparalleled
 +burdens, homely, terse, and unerring in its expression,
 +was at its best in these days. To Hooker,
 +meditating movements along and across the Rappahannock,
 +he wrote: “I would not take any risk of being
 +entangled upon the river like an ox jumped half over a
 +fence, and liable to be torn by dogs in front and rear
 +without a fair chance to gore one way or kick the other.”<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">245</a>
 +And again: “If the head of Lee’s army is at Martinsburg
 +(near the Potomac), and the tail of it on the plank-road
 +between Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, the animal
 +must be very slim somewhere. Could you not break
 +him?” “Fret him and fret him,” was the President’s
 +injunction to Hooker, regarding the advance of Lee.
 +Well-poised, good-humored, constant, Lincoln gave no
 +counsel to Hooker in these days that was not sound.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>
 +Indeed, at this time, Hooker needed little admonition.
 +Alert and resourceful, he no sooner detected the movement
 +of Lee than he suggested an advance upon Richmond,
 +which was thus left unguarded. Lee, of course,
 +had contemplated the possibility of such a move, and,
 +with a nod toward Washington, had joked about “swapping
 +queens.” The idea, which Hooker did not press,
 +being disapproved, Hooker, turning toward Lee, proceeded
 +to “fret him and fret him,” his conduct comparing
 +well with his brilliant management at the opening of
 +the campaign of Chancellorsville. The cavalry, greatly
 +improved by him, under Pleasonton, with divisions commanded
 +by Buford, Duffie, and Gregg, was serviceable
 +as never before, matching well the troopers of Stuart at
 +Brandy Station, Aldie, and Middleburg. Screened on
 +his left flank by his cavalry, as, on the other hand, Lee
 +was screened by a similar body on his right, Hooker
 +marched in columns parallel to those of his foe and farther
 +east, yet always interposing between the enemy and
 +Washington. As June drew to its end the Confederate
 +advance was near Harrisburg, but the Federals were not
 +caught napping. Hooker stood at Frederick, in Maryland,
 +his corps stretched on either hand to cover Washington
 +and Baltimore, touching hands one with the
 +other, and all confronting the foe.</p>
 +
 +<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
 +
 +<p>Lee’s previous campaign had shown with what disregard
 +of military rules he could act, a recklessness up to
 +this time justified by good luck and the ineptitude of his
 +adversaries. Still contemptuous of risks, he made just
 +here an audacious move which was to result unfortunately.<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">246</a>
 +He ordered, or perhaps suffered, Stuart, whom as he drew
 +toward the Potomac he had held close on his right flank,
 +to undertake with the cavalry a raid around the Federal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>
 +army, after the precedents of the Peninsular and Second
 +Bull Run campaigns. Casting loose from his chief, June
 +25th, Stuart sallied out eastward and penetrated close to
 +the neighborhood of Washington. He did no harm beyond
 +making a few small captures and causing a useless
 +scare; on the other hand, he suffered terrible fatigue, his
 +exhausted men falling asleep almost by squadrons in
 +their saddles. He could get no news from his friends, nor
 +could he find Ewell’s corps, which he had hoped to meet.
 +Quite worn out with hardship, he did not become available
 +to Lee until the late afternoon of July 2d. A critical
 +battle might have had a different issue<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> had the Confederate
 +cavalry been in its proper place. It was almost a
 +chance, through a scout of Longstreet’s, that Lee, at
 +Chambersburg, all uncertain of the Federal movement,
 +heard at last that his enemy was close at hand and threatening
 +his communications. At once he withdrew Ewell
 +southward, so that he might face the danger with his
 +three divisions together.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meantime a most critical change came about in the
 +camp of his foes. Hooker, on ill terms with Halleck,
 +and engaged in controversy with him over Halleck’s refusal
 +to authorize the withdrawal of the garrison of Harper’s
 +Ferry, rather petulantly asked to be relieved of
 +command, and the President complied at once. Such
 +promptness was to be expected. Hooker had been doing
 +well; but he had done just as well before Chancellorsville;
 +he was generally distrusted; his best subordinates were
 +outspoken as to his lamentable record. The unsparing
 +critic of Burnside had now to take his own medicine. A
 +battle with Lee could not be ventured upon under a
 +commander who could not keep on good terms with the
 +administration, had there been nothing else. It was
 +perilous swapping of horses in the midst of the stream,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
 +but Lincoln was forced to do it. Some cried out for the
 +restoration of McClellan, and others for that of Frémont.
 +The appointment fell to George Gordon Meade, commander
 +of the Fifth Corps, who, with soldierly dignity,
 +obeyed orders, assuming the burden June 28th, with a
 +pledge to do his best.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meade, a West-Pointer of 1835,<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> was a man of ripe
 +experience, thoroughly trained in war. He had first risen
 +leading a brigade of the Pennsylvania reserves at Mechanicsville,
 +just a year earlier. The good name then
 +won he confirmed at Antietam, and still more at Fredericksburg.
 +He was tall and spare, with an eagle face
 +which no one that saw it can forget, a perfect horseman,
 +and, though irascible, possessed of strong and manly
 +character. In that momentous hour the best men were
 +doubtful on what footing they stood. When Lincoln’s
 +messenger, with a solemn countenance, handed to Meade
 +the appointment, he took it to be an order for his arrest.
 +Placed in command, he hesitated not a moment, building
 +his strategy upon the foundation laid by his predecessor.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meade had with him in the field seven corps of infantry:
 +the First, commanded temporarily by Doubleday;
 +the Second, by Hancock, recently promoted; the
 +Third, by Sickles; the Fifth, his own corps, now turned
 +over to Sykes; the Sixth, Sedgwick, fortunately not displaced,
 +though so unjustly censured for his noble work
 +on May 3d; the Eleventh, Howard; and the Twelfth,
 +Slocum. The excellent cavalry divisions were under Buford,
 +Kilpatrick, and Gregg; and in the lower places
 +capable young officers—Custer, Merritt, Farnsworth,
 +Devin, Gamble—were pushing into notice. Of field-guns
 +there were three hundred and forty. It was a fault of
 +the Union organization that corps, divisions, and brigades
 +were too small, bringing about, among other evils, too
 +large a number of general and staff officers.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> The Confederates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
 +here were wiser. Lee faced Meade’s seven corps
 +with but three, and two hundred and ninety-three guns;
 +but each Confederate corps was nearly or quite twice as
 +large as a Union corps; divisions and brigades were in
 +the same relative proportion. The Army of the Potomac
 +numbered 88,289 effectives; the Army of Northern Virginia,
 +75,000.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">250</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_312" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_350.jpg" width="500" height="378" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption"><p>POSITION OF FEDERAL AND CONFEDERATE ARMIES, JUNE 30, 1863</p>
 +
 +<p>(Federal: hollow bars, Confederate: solid bars)</p></div></div>
 +
 +<p>Meade at once chose and caused to be surveyed a position
 +on Pipe Creek, just south of the Maryland line, as a
 +field suitable to be held should the enemy come that
 +way. He marched, however, northwestward cautiously,
 +his corps in touch but spread wide apart, ready for battle
 +and protecting as ever the capital and cities of the coast.<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">251</a>
 +His especial reliance in this hour of need was John F.
 +Reynolds, hand in hand with whom he had proceeded in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span>
 +his career from the day when, as fellow-brigadiers, they
 +repulsed A. P. Hill at Beaver Dam Creek. This man he
 +trusted completely and loved much. He warmly approved
 +Hooker’s action in committing to Reynolds the
 +left wing nearest the enemy, made up of the First, Third,
 +and Eleventh corps. This made Reynolds second in
 +command. Meade, commander-in-chief, retained the centre
 +and right. So the armies hovered, each uncertain
 +of the other’s exact whereabouts, during the last days of
 +June.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_313" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_351.jpg" width="400" height="331" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">OPENING OF BATTLE OF
 +GETTYSBURG, JULY 1, 8 A.M.</div></div>
 +
 +<p>On July 1st, though Stuart for the moment was out of
 +the campaign, the Federal cavalry was on hand. Buford’s
 +division, thrown out from the Federal left, moved
 +well forward north of the town
 +of Gettysburg, and were met
 +by Heth’s division of Hill’s
 +corps, marching forward, it is
 +said, with no more hostile purpose
 +at the time than that of
 +getting shoes.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> Buford held his
 +line valiantly, being presently
 +joined by Reynolds. The two,
 +from the cupola of the seminary
 +near by, studied the prospect
 +hurriedly. A stand must
 +be made then and there, and the First Corps, close at
 +hand, was presently in support of the bold horsemen,
 +who, dismounted, were with their carbines blocking the
 +advance of the hostile infantry.</p>
 +
 +<p>The most irreparable and lamentable loss of the entire
 +battle now occurred at the very outset. Reynolds fell
 +dead at the front, leaving the left divisions without a
 +leader in the most critical hour. Heth’s advance was
 +roughly handled; one brigade was mostly captured,
 +Doubleday nodding, with a pleasant “Good-morning, I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>
 +am glad to see you,” to its commander, his old West Point
 +chum Archer, as the latter was passed to the rear among
 +the prisoners.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> There were still other captures and much
 +fighting; but Ewell was fast arriving by the roads from
 +the north; and although Howard, with the Eleventh
 +Corps, came up from the south at the same time, the
 +heavier Confederate battalions could not be held. Barlow,
 +thrown out far forward into Ewell’s path, was at
 +once badly wounded, whereupon his division was repulsed.
 +The Eleventh Corps in general gave way before Ewell’s
 +rush, rolling back disordered through the town, where
 +large numbers were captured. Fortunately, on the high
 +crest of Cemetery Hill, Howard had stationed in reserve
 +the division of Steinwehr. What broken brigades and
 +regiments, fleeing through the town, could reach this
 +point were forthwith rallied and reorganized. Thus, at
 +mid-day of July 1st, things were hopeful for Lee. The
 +First Corps, its flank exposed by the retirement of the
 +Eleventh Corps, fell back fighting through Gettysburg to
 +Cemetery Hill during the afternoon. Lee swept the
 +Federals from the town and the fields and ridges beyond.
 +Had Ewell stormed Cemetery Hill at once, Lee might
 +have won a great success.</p>
 +
 +<p>One of the first marks of a capacity for leadership is
 +the power to choose men, and Meade now showed this
 +conspicuously. He had lost Reynolds, his main dependence,
 +a loss that no doubt affected greatly the fortunes of
 +the first day’s battle; he replaced Reynolds with a young
 +officer whom it was necessary to push over the heads of
 +several seniors; but a better selection could not have
 +been made. Of the splendid captains whom the long
 +agony of the Army of the Potomac was slowly evolving,
 +probably the best as an all-round soldier was Winfield
 +Scott Hancock. Since his West Point training, finished
 +in 1844,<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> he had had wide and thorough military experience,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span>
 +climbing laboriously from colonel to corps commander,
 +winning out from each grade to the next higher
 +through faithful and able service. He could deal with
 +figures; was diligent over papers and office drudgery; he
 +was a patient drill-master—all these, and at the same
 +time so dashing and magnetic in the field that he early
 +earned the title “The Superb.”<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">255</a> His vigor, moreover,
 +was tempered by judgment.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_315" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_353.jpg" width="300" height="376" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BEGINNING OF
 +INFANTRY ENGAGEMENT,
 +JULY 1, 10 A.M.</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Hancock it was whom Meade now sent forward from
 +Taneytown, thirteen miles away, when he was anxiously
 +gathering in his host, to lead the
 +hard-pressed left wing; he was to
 +judge whether the position should
 +be held, as Reynolds had thought,
 +or a retirement attempted toward
 +the surveyed lines of Pipe Creek.
 +The apparition on Cemetery Hill,
 +just before four o’clock, July 1st, of
 +Hancock upon his sweating charger,
 +was equal to a reinforcement by an
 +army corps. Fugitives halted; fragments
 +of formations were welded
 +into proper battle-lines. In the respite
 +given by Ewell, so ill-timed for Lee, the shattered
 +First and Eleventh corps found breathing-space and
 +plucked up heart. At six o’clock they were joined by
 +the Twelfth Corps, that of the steadfast Slocum. Hancock,
 +now feeling that there were troops enough for the
 +present, and resolute leaders, galloped back to report to
 +his chief. Upon his report Meade concentrated everything
 +toward Cemetery Hill, the troops plodding through
 +the moonlit night. Meade himself reached the field an
 +hour past midnight, gaunt and hollow-eyed through want
 +of sleep,<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> but clear in mind and stout of heart. At dawn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
 +of July 2d the Second Corps, at the head of which Gibbon
 +had taken Hancock’s place, and the Third Corps, Sickles,
 +were at hand. At noon arrived the Fifth, and soon after
 +the Sixth, Sedgwick having marched his men thirty-four
 +miles in eighteen hours.</p>
 +
 +<p>Two parallel ridges, their crests separated by an interval
 +of not quite a mile, extend at Gettysburg north and
 +south. The more westerly of these, called, from the
 +Lutheran College there, Seminary Ridge, was the scene
 +of the first attack on July 1st, but on the second day
 +became the main Confederate position. The eastern
 +ridge, terminated at its northern end by the town cemetery,
 +close to which Howard so fortunately stationed
 +Steinwehr on the first day, became the Federal stronghold.
 +Cemetery Ridge was really shaped like a fishhook,
 +its line curving eastward to the abrupt and wooded Culp’s
 +Hill, the barb of the hook. At the curve the ridge was
 +steep and rough with ledges and bowlders; as it ran
 +southward its height diminished until, after a mile or so,
 +it rose again into two marked elevations—Round Top,
 +six hundred feet high, with a spur, Little Round Top,
 +just north.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_316" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_354.jpg" width="600" height="360" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">POSITION, JULY 1, 3 P.M.</div></div>
 +
 +<p>On the morning of July 2d the Federals lay along this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
 +ridge in order as follows: at the extreme right, on Culp’s
 +Hill (the fishhook’s barb), the Twelfth Corps, Slocum; at
 +the bend, near the cemetery, the Eleventh Corps, Howard,
 +reinforced from other bodies; on their left the First,
 +now under Newton, and the Second, Gibbon. The First
 +and Second corps formed, as it were, the shank of the
 +hook, which the Third, Sickles, was expected to prolong.
 +The Fifth, on arriving, took place behind the Third; and
 +the Sixth, when it appeared from the east, helped to make
 +secure the trains and sent aid elsewhere. The convex
 +formation presently proved to be of incalculable value,
 +enabling Meade to strengthen rapidly any threatened
 +point. Fronting their foe, the Confederates lay in a
 +parallel concave line, Ewell close at the curve and in the
 +town, and A. P. Hill on Seminary Ridge; this line Longstreet
 +prolonged southward, his right flank opposed to
 +Round Top. The concave formation was an embarrassment
 +to Lee—no reinforcements could reach threatened
 +points without making a wide circuit.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_317" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_355.jpg" width="450" height="303" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">FIRST CORPS, SEMINARY RIDGE, 3.30 P.M., JULY 1, 1863<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>When Meade, supposing that Sickles had prolonged
 +with the Third Corps the southward-stretching line, reviewed
 +the field, he found the Third Corps thrown out far
 +in advance, to the Emmittsburg road, which here passed
 +along a dominating ridge; the break in the continuity of
 +his line filled the general with alarm, but it was too late
 +to change. Whether or not Sickles blundered will not
 +be argued here. Meade condemned; other good authorities
 +have approved, among them Sheridan, who regarded
 +as just Sickles’ claim that the line marked out by
 +Meade was untenable.<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">257</a></p>
 +
 +<p>What happened here will presently be told.</p>
 +
 +<p>Lee, too, was out of harmony with Longstreet, his well-tried
 +second; and the first matter in dispute was the expediency
 +of fighting at all at Gettysburg. When Longstreet,
 +coming from Chambersburg, took in the situation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>
 +he urged upon Lee, bent upon his battle, a turning of the
 +Federal left as better strategy, by which the Confederates
 +might interpose between Meade and Washington and
 +compel Meade to make the attack. Longstreet held Lee
 +to be perfect in defensive warfare; on the offensive, however,
 +he thought him “over-combative” and liable to
 +rashness.<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> Lee rejected the advice with a touch of irritation;
 +and when Longstreet, acquiescing, made a second
 +suggestion—namely, for a tactical turning of the Federal
 +left instead of a direct assault—Lee pronounced for the
 +assault in a manner so peremptory that Longstreet could
 +say no more. From first to last at Gettysburg, Longstreet
 +was ill at ease, in spite of which his blows fell like
 +those from the hammer of a war-god. The friends of
 +Lee have denounced him for a sluggishness and insubordination
 +that, as they claim, lost for them the
 +battle.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> His defence of himself is earnest and pathetic,
 +of great weight as coming from one of the most
 +able and manful figures on either side in the Civil
 +War.</p>
 +
 +<p>Of Longstreet’s three divisions, only one, that of
 +McLaws, was on hand with all its brigades on the forenoon
 +of July 2d. At noon arrived Law, completing
 +Hood’s division. Pickett’s division was still behind;
 +but in mid-afternoon, without waiting for him, Longstreet
 +attacked—Hood, with all possible energy, striking
 +Sickles in his far-advanced position and working dangerously
 +around his flank toward the Round Tops. Longstreet’s
 +generals, Hood and afterward Law (Hood falling
 +wounded in the first attack), though men of courage and
 +dash, assaulted only after having filed written protests,
 +feeling sure that the position could be easily turned and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span>
 +gained with little fighting. But Lee had been peremptory,
 +and no choice was left.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">260</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_319" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_359.jpg" width="500" height="632" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">POSITION, JULY 2, 2.30 P.M.</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Gouverneur K. Warren, then chief-engineer of the Army
 +of the Potomac, despatched by Meade to the left during
 +the afternoon, found the Round Tops undefended. They
 +were plainly the key to the Federal position, offering
 +points which, if seized by the enemy, would make possible
 +an enfilading of the Federal line. Troops of the Twelfth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span>
 +Corps, at first stationed there, had been withdrawn and
 +their places not supplied. There was not a moment to
 +lose. Even as he stood, Warren beheld in the opposite
 +woods the gleam of arms from Longstreet’s swift advance.
 +Leaping down from ledge to ledge, he met a brigade of
 +the Fifth Corps, just arrived and marching to the aid of
 +Sickles. These he diverted to the eyrie he had so lately
 +left; a battery, too, was dragged up over the rocks, and
 +none too soon. At that very moment the men of Hood
 +charged out of the valley, and the height was held only
 +by the most obstinate combat.</p>
 +
 +<p>From the valley, meantime, came up a tumult of arms
 +which, as the sun threw its rays aslant, spread wider
 +and louder. Longstreet and A. P. Hill threw in upon
 +the Third Corps every man available; while, on the other
 +hand, Meade poured in to its support division after division
 +from the Fifth, and at last from the Second and Twelfth.<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">261</a>
 +About six o’clock Sickles fell wounded; by sunset his line
 +was everywhere forced back, though not in rout. By
 +dusk the Confederates had mastered all resistance in the
 +valley. But the line once reached which Meade had
 +originally designed, running north from Little Round
 +Top to Cemetery Ridge, retreat went no farther. That
 +line was not crossed by foot of foe. When night fell the
 +Round Tops were held firmly, while troops from the
 +Sixth Corps guarded the Union left. Nearer the centre
 +stood the Third and Fifth, much shattered but still defiant.
 +In a way, what had happened was but a rectification
 +of Meade’s line: the Confederates, indeed, had won
 +ground, but the losses they had inflicted were no more
 +appalling than those they had received.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meantime, fighting no less determined and sanguinary
 +had taken place at the cemetery and Culp’s Hill. Lee’s
 +plan contemplated a simultaneous attack at the north
 +and south; but Ewell, at the north, was late in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>
 +advance, and the intended effect of distracting the
 +Federals was wellnigh lost. The Louisiana brigade
 +dashed itself in vain against the height just above the
 +town. The Stonewall division fared better; for, the
 +Federal defenders being for the most part withdrawn,
 +they seized intrenchments on Culp’s Hill, penetrating far—for
 +Meade a most critical advance, since they came
 +within thirty rods of the Baltimore turnpike, where lay
 +his trains and reserve ammunition. The South has always
 +believed that, had Stonewall Jackson been there,
 +the Federal rear would have been reached, and rout and
 +capture made certain.</p>
 +
 +<p>For both sides it had been a day of terrible experiences,
 +and for the Federals the outlook was perhaps more gloomy
 +than for their foes. On each flank the Confederates had
 +gained an advantage, and Lee probably felt a hopefulness
 +which the circumstances did not really justify. Meade
 +gathered his generals at midnight in council. It was in
 +a little room, but ten or twelve feet square, a group dust-covered
 +and sweat-stained, the strong faces sternly earnest.
 +Some sat on the bed; some stood; Warren, wounded,
 +stretched out on the floor, was overcome by sleep. There
 +was no vote but to fight it out on the morrow. In this
 +Meade acquiesced, carefully planning for a retreat, however,
 +should the need arise. To Gibbon, commanding the
 +Second Corps, placed between the wings, he said: “Your
 +turn will come to-morrow. To-day he has struck the
 +flanks; next, it will be the centre.”<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">262</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Lee was drawn on by the success of the first day to
 +fight again on the second; his success on the second induced
 +him to try for the third time; but he had exhausted
 +his good-fortune. At earliest dawn of July 3, 1863, began
 +a wrestle for the possession of Culp’s Hill, Ewell
 +heavily reinforcing the Stonewall division which had
 +won footing there the night before, and the Twelfth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>
 +Corps as stubbornly struggling for the ground it had
 +lost. It was a fight of six hours, in which the extreme
 +northern wings of the two armies only were concerned.
 +The Federals won, at a heavy sacrifice of life.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_322" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_362.jpg" width="500" height="546" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">POSITION, JULY 3, IN THE EARLY AFTERNOON</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Elsewhere the armies rested, an ominous silence at last
 +reigning on the trampled and bloody field under the mid-day
 +sun. Meade and his soldiers knew that it portended
 +danger, and with a sure intuition the army chief was
 +watching with especial care the centre, as yet unassailed.
 +On the Confederate side, the unhappy Longstreet, at
 +odds with his chief as to the wisdom of the campaign
 +from the start, and disapproving both its strategy and
 +tactics, was now in deeper gloom than ever. Lee had
 +determined to assault the Federal centre, and by a cruel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
 +turn of fate the blow must be struck by the reluctant
 +Longstreet. Of the three great Confederate corps, it
 +was only in Longstreet’s that a force remained as yet unwrung
 +by the fearful agonies of the last two days. Pickett’s
 +division, solidly Virginian, and in the eyes of Lee a Tenth
 +Legion in its valor, as yet had done nothing, and was to
 +bear the brunt of the attack. “What troops do you design
 +for the assault?” Longstreet had asked. Lee, having
 +indicated Pickett’s division of five thousand, with auxiliary
 +divisions, making an entire number in the charging
 +column of fifteen thousand, the Georgian burst out: “I
 +have been a soldier from the ground up. I have been
 +with soldiers engaged in fights by couples, by squads,
 +companies, regiments, armies, and should know as well
 +as any one what soldiers can do. It is my opinion that
 +no fifteen thousand men ever arrayed for battle can take
 +that position.”<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">263</a></p>
 +
 +<p>But Lee was unmoved. Confident of success, he despatched
 +Stuart, arrived at last after his raid, so long
 +and futile, around beyond the Federal right. When the
 +Union centre should be broken and Meade thrown into
 +retreat, Stuart was to seize its only practicable route for
 +retreat, the Baltimore pike, and make the defeat decisive.</p>
 +
 +<p>Meade, meantime, had managed warily and well. At
 +his centre stood Hancock, his best lieutenant. There were
 +massed the First and Second corps, with reserve troops at
 +hand ready to pour in at the word, with batteries bearing
 +upon front and flank, every approach guarded, every
 +man and horse on the alert. The provost guards, and in
 +the rear of all a regiment of cavalry, formed in line behind,
 +had orders to shoot any faint-hearts who, in the
 +crisis, should turn from the foe to flee.<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> At one o’clock
 +two signal-guns were heard on Seminary Ridge, upon
 +which followed a terrible cannonade, appalling but only
 +slightly harmful, for the waiting ranks found cover from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>
 +the missiles. Feeling sure that this was a prelude to
 +something more serious, the Federal chief relaxed his fire
 +to spare his ammunition. It was understood on the
 +other side that the Federal guns were silenced; and that
 +moment having been appointed as the time for the onset,
 +Pickett inquired of Longstreet if he should go forward.
 +Longstreet, convinced that the charge must fail, made
 +no reply, though the question was repeated. “I shall go
 +forward,” said Pickett, to which his general bowed his
 +head. Instantly was heard the footbeat of the fifteen
 +thousand, and the heavy-hearted Longstreet, mounting
 +his horse, rode out to behold the sacrifice. He has recorded
 +that the column passed him down the slope high-hearted,
 +buoyant, hopeful, Pickett riding gracefully, like
 +a holiday soldier, with cap set jauntily on his long, auburn
 +locks.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">265</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The silence of the Federal guns had been for a purpose.
 +As Pickett’s men appeared there was a sudden reopening
 +of their tumult; a deadly sequence from round-shot to
 +canister, and thence to the Minié-balls of the infantry.
 +The defenders now saw before them, as they peered
 +through the battle smoke from their shelter, a solid wedge
 +of men, the division of Pickett, flanked by masses on the
 +right and left commanded by Pettigrew and Wilcox.
 +The column approached, and visibly melted away. Of
 +Pickett’s commanders of brigades every one went down,
 +and their men lay literally in heaps beside them.</p>
 +
 +<div class="poem-container">
 +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
 +<span class="iq">“A thousand fell where Kemper led;<br /></span>
 +<span class="i0">A thousand died where Garnett bled;<br /></span>
 +<span class="i0">In blinding flame and strangling smoke<br /></span>
 +<span class="i0">The remnant through the batteries broke,<br /></span>
 +<span class="i0">And crossed the line with Armistead.”<br /></span>
 +</div></div>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="in0">A hundred or so, led by Armistead, his cap held aloft on
 +his sword-point, actually penetrated the Federal line and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>
 +reached the “clump of trees” just beyond, holding for a
 +few moments a battery. Pettigrew and Trimble, just
 +north, struggled also for a footing. But the foothold
 +was only for a moment; on front and flank the Federals
 +converged, and the tide rolled slowly and heavily
 +rearward. For the South all hope of victory was
 +gone.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_325" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_365.jpg" width="450" height="303" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">ATTACK OF PICKETT’S AND ANDERSON’S DIVISION<br />
 + <span class="smaller">(From a print of the time)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>As the broken and diminished multitude fell back to
 +Seminary Ridge, Lee rode out to meet them. He was
 +alone, his staff being all absent, in that supreme moment,
 +on desperate errands. His face was calm and resolute,
 +his voice confident but sympathetic as he exclaimed, “It
 +was all my fault; now help me to do what I can to save
 +what is left.” It casts a light on his character that even
 +in that hour he chided a young officer near for chastising
 +his horse: “Don’t whip him, captain. I’ve got just such
 +another foolish horse myself, and whipping does no good.”<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">266</a>
 +Longstreet declares Lee said again that night, about the
 +bivouac-fire: “It was all my fault. You ought not to
 +have made that last attack”; and that still again Lee
 +wrote to him at a later time, “If I had only taken your
 +advice, even on the 3d, and moved around the Federal
 +left, how different all might have been!”<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">267</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Longstreet also records that he fully expected a counter-stroke
 +at once, and looked to his batteries, only to find the
 +ammunition exhausted; but they were his only reliance
 +for defence. The Federal cavalry, at that moment attacking
 +his right, occupied troops who might otherwise
 +have been brought to the centre.</p>
 +
 +<p>Should there have been a counter-stroke? Hancock,
 +lying wounded almost to death in an ambulance, reasoned
 +that, because he had been struck by a tenpenny nail, the
 +Confederate ammunition must be exhausted; he had
 +strength to dictate an approval if the charge should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>
 +ordered.<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> Lincoln always felt that it should have been
 +made, and lamented that he did not go to Gettysburg
 +himself and push matters on the field, as the crisis required.<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">269</a>
 +We can surmise what Grant would have done
 +had he instead of Meade, as the sun lowered, looked across
 +the valley from Cemetery Ridge. But the case may be
 +put strongly for Meade: with his best lieutenants dead
 +or wounded, worn out himself, whom else could he trust?
 +And, in the disorder of his line, how could he tell how
 +far his own army had been shattered in the desperate
 +fights, or what was Lee’s condition? It was only prudent
 +to let well enough alone. Nevertheless, a little of such
 +imprudence as his adversary was constantly showing
 +might perhaps have led to Lee’s complete destruction.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">270</a>
 +During the three fearful days the Federals had lost 3155
 +killed, 14,529 wounded, 5365 missing—a total of about
 +23,000; the Confederates, 3903 killed, 18,735 wounded,
 +5425 missing—a total of about 28,000.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">271</a></p>
 +
 +<p>As it was, Lee stood defiantly on Seminary Ridge full
 +twenty-four hours longer. Then, gathering his army
 +about him, and calling in the cavalry which, during
 +Pickett’s charge, was receiving severe punishment on its
 +own account at the hands of Gregg and his division, he
 +slowly withdrew. Practically undisturbed, he crossed
 +the Potomac, followed with great deliberation by the army
 +that had conquered but failed to crush.</p>
 +
 +<p>Lincoln’s disappointment was never greater than over
 +the lame outcome of Gettysburg. “We had them within
 +our grasp,” he cried. “We had only to stretch forth our
 +hands and they were ours, and nothing I could say or do<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span>
 +could make the army move. Our army held the War in
 +the hollow of their hand and they would not close it.”
 +The honor that fell to Meade for his splendid service was
 +deserved. While the criticism was violent he asked to
 +be relieved. But the better nature of the North made
 +itself evident at last, and he was retained. It was felt
 +that he had served his country most nobly, and, though
 +possibly falling short of the highest, deserved to be forever
 +cherished among the immortals.</p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN THE BATTLES OF<br />
 +GETTYSBURG AND VICKSBURG, 1863,<br />
 +AND APPOMATTOX, 1865</h3>
 +
 +<p>1863. Surrender of Port Hudson. Conscription riots
 +in New York. The Confederate cavalry leader, General
 +Morgan, makes a raid into Indiana. Confederate victory
 +at Chickamauga. Federal victories of Chattanooga,
 +Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge. Admission
 +of Nevada into the Union. The Archduke Maximilian,
 +of Austria, lands at Vera Cruz and assumes the crown of
 +Mexico, with the support of French troops.</p>
 +
 +<p>1864. The Red River expedition. Grant supersedes
 +Halleck as commander-in-chief of the Federal armies.
 +Storming of Fort Pillow by the Confederates. General
 +Sherman begins his march on Atlanta. Battle of the
 +Wilderness. Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house. Second
 +battle of Cold Harbor. Siege of Petersburg. Sinking
 +of the Confederate cruiser <i>Alabama</i> by the <i>Kearsarge</i>.
 +Confederate raid into Maryland and Pennsylvania.
 +Federal naval victory of Mobile Bay. The Federals
 +occupy Atlanta. Battle of Winchester and Cedar Creek.
 +Abraham Lincoln re-elected President. Federal occupation
 +of Savannah.</p>
 +
 +<p>1865. The Federals capture Fort Fisher. General Sherman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span>
 +occupies Charleston. Organization of the Freedmen’s
 +Bureau. Battle of Five Forks. Occupation of
 +Petersburg and Richmond by the Federals, April 3rd.
 +Surrender of General Lee at Appomattox Court-House,
 +April 9th. Assassination of Abraham Lincoln, April 14th.
 +Andrew Johnson succeeds to the Presidency. Capture of
 +Jefferson Davis in Georgia. End of the Civil War.
 +Proclamation of amnesty. The Thirteenth Amendment,
 +abolishing slavery in the United States, becomes a part
 +of the Constitution.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XX" class="vspace">XX<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_22" class="subhead">THE LAST SCENE—APPOMATTOX, 1865</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span>, on the night of the 8th of April, 1865, the
 +cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac reached
 +the two or three little houses that made up the settlement
 +at Appomattox Depot—the station on the South-side
 +Railroad that connects Appomattox Court-house with
 +the travelling world—it must have been nearly or quite
 +dark. At about nine o’clock or half-past, while standing
 +near the door of one of the houses, it occurred to me that
 +it might be well to try and get a clearer idea of our immediate
 +surroundings, as it was not impossible that we
 +might have hot work here or near here before the next
 +day fairly dawned upon us.</p>
 +
 +<p>My “striker” had just left me with instructions to
 +have my horse fed, groomed, and saddled before daylight.
 +As he turned to go he paused and put this question, “Do
 +you think, Colonel, that we’ll get General Lee’s army
 +to-morrow?”</p>
 +
 +<p>“I don’t know,” was my reply; “but we will have some
 +savage fighting if we don’t.”</p>
 +
 +<p>As the sturdy young soldier said “Good-night, sir,”
 +and walked away, I knew that if the enlisted men of our
 +army could forecast the coming of the end so plainly,
 +there was little hope of the escape of the Army of Northern
 +Virginia.</p>
 +
 +<p>I walked up the road a short distance, and looked carefully
 +about me to take my bearings. It was a mild spring
 +night, with a cloudy sky, and the soft, mellow smell of
 +earthiness in the atmosphere that not infrequently portends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>
 +rain. If rain came, then it might retard the arrival
 +of our infantry, which I knew General Sheridan was most
 +anxious should reach us at the earliest possible moment.
 +A short distance from where I stood was the encampment
 +of our headquarters escort, with its orderlies, grooms,
 +officers’ servants, and horses. Just beyond it could be
 +seen the dying camp-fires of a cavalry regiment, lying
 +close in to cavalry corps headquarters. This regiment
 +was in charge of between six and eight hundred prisoners,
 +who had fallen into our hands just at dark, as Generals
 +Custer and Devin, at the head of their respective cavalry
 +commands, had charged into the station and captured
 +four railway trains of commissariat supplies, which had
 +been sent here to await the arrival of the Confederate
 +army, together with twenty-six pieces of artillery. For
 +a few moments the artillery had greatly surprised and
 +astonished us, for its presence was entirely unexpected,
 +and as it suddenly opened on the charging columns of
 +cavalry it looked for a short time as though we might
 +have all unwittingly fallen upon a division of infantry.
 +However, it turned out otherwise. Our cavalry, after
 +the first recoil, boldly charged in among the batteries,
 +and the gunners, being without adequate support, sensibly
 +surrendered. The whole affair was for us a most gratifying
 +termination of a long day’s ride, as it must have
 +proved later on a bitter disappointment to the weary and
 +hungry Confederates pressing forward from Petersburg
 +and Richmond in the vain hope of escape from the
 +Federal troops, who were straining every nerve to overtake
 +them and compel a surrender. To-night the cavalry
 +corps was in their front and squarely across the road to
 +Lynchburg, and it was reasonably certain, should our
 +infantry get up in time on the morrow, that the almost
 +ceaseless marching and fighting of the last ten days
 +were to attain their legitimate result in the capitulation
 +of General Lee’s army.</p>
 +
 +<p>As I stood there in the dark thinking over the work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>
 +of the twelve preceding days, it was borne in upon me
 +with startling emphasis that to-morrow’s sun would rise
 +big with the fate of the Southern Confederacy.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_331" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_373.jpg" width="800" height="534" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">MAP OF THE APPOMATTOX CAMPAIGN</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Just before daylight on the morning of the 9th of
 +April, I sat down to a cup of coffee, but had hardly begun
 +to drink it when I heard the ominous sound of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>
 +scattering skirmish fire, apparently in the direction of
 +Appomattox Court-house. Hastily swallowing what remained
 +of the coffee, I reported to General Sheridan, who
 +directed me to go to the front at once. Springing into
 +the saddle, I galloped up the road, my heart being greatly
 +lightened by a glimpse of two or three infantrymen standing
 +near a camp-fire close by the depot—convincing proof
 +that our hoped-for reinforcements were within supporting
 +distance.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was barely daylight as I sped along, but before I
 +reached the cavalry brigade of Colonel C. H. Smith, that
 +held the main road between Appomattox Court-house
 +and Lynchburg, a distance of about two miles northeast
 +from Appomattox Depot, the enemy had advanced to
 +the attack, and the battle had opened. When ordered
 +into position late the preceding night, Colonel Smith had
 +felt his way in the dark as closely as possible to Appomattox
 +Court-house, and at or near midnight had halted
 +on a ridge, on which he had thrown up a breastwork of
 +rails. This he occupied by dismounting his brigade, and
 +also with a section of horse-artillery, at the same time
 +protecting both his flanks by a small mounted force. As
 +the enemy advanced to the attack in the dim light of
 +early dawn he could not see the led horses of our cavalry,
 +which had been sent well to the rear, and was evidently
 +at a loss to determine what was in his front. The result
 +was that after the first attack he fell back to get his artillery
 +in position, and to form a strong assaulting column
 +against what must have seemed to him a line of infantry.
 +This was most fortunate for us, for by the time he again
 +advanced in full force, and compelled the dismounted
 +cavalry to slowly fall back by weight of numbers, our infantry
 +was hurrying forward from Appomattox Depot
 +(which place it had reached at four o’clock in the morning),
 +and we had gained many precious minutes. At
 +this time most of our cavalry was fighting dismounted,
 +stubbornly retiring. But the Confederates at last realized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>
 +that there was nothing but a brigade of dismounted
 +cavalry and a few batteries of horse-artillery in their
 +immediate front, and pushed forward grimly and determinedly,
 +driving the dismounted troopers slowly
 +ahead of them.</p>
 +
 +<p>I had gone to the left of the road, and was in a piece
 +of woods with some of our cavalrymen (who by this time
 +had been ordered to fall back to their horses and give
 +place to our infantry, which was then coming up), when
 +a couple of rounds of canister tore through the branches
 +just over my head. Riding back to the edge of the woods
 +in the direction from which the shots came, I found myself
 +within long pistol range of a section of a battery of
 +light artillery. It was in position near a country road
 +that came out of another piece of woods about two hundred
 +yards in its rear, and was pouring a rapid fire into
 +the woods from which I had just emerged. As I sat on
 +my horse quietly watching it from behind a rail fence,
 +the lieutenant commanding the pieces saw me, and, riding
 +out for a hundred yards or more toward where I was,
 +proceeded to cover me with his revolver. We fired together—a
 +miss on both sides. The second shot was uncomfortably
 +close, so far as I was concerned, but as I took
 +deliberate aim for the third shot I became aware that in
 +some way his pistol was disabled; for using both hands
 +and all his strength I saw that he could not cock it. I
 +had him covered, and had he turned I think I should
 +have fired. He did nothing of the sort. Apparently
 +accepting his fate, he laid his revolver across the pommel
 +of his saddle, fronted me quietly and coolly, and looked
 +me steadily in the face. The whole thing had been
 +something in the nature of a duel, and I felt that to fire
 +under the circumstances savored too much of murder.
 +Besides, I knew that at a word from him the guns would
 +have been trained on me where I sat. He, too, seemed
 +to appreciate the fact that it was an individual fight, and
 +manfully and gallantly forbore to call for aid; so, lowering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>
 +and uncocking my pistol, I replaced it in my holster, and
 +shook my fist at him, which action he cordially reciprocated,
 +and then, turning away, I rode back into the
 +woods.</p>
 +
 +<p>About this time the enemy’s artillery ceased firing, and
 +I again rode rapidly to the edge of the woods, just in time
 +to see the guns limber up and retire down the wood road
 +from which they had come. The lieutenant in command
 +saw me and stopped. We simultaneously uncovered,
 +waved our hats to each other, and bowed. I have always
 +thought he was one of the bravest men I ever faced.</p>
 +
 +<p>I rode back again, passing through our infantry line,
 +intending to go to the left and find the cavalry, which I
 +knew would be on the flank somewhere. Suddenly I became
 +conscious that firing had ceased along the whole
 +line.</p>
 +
 +<p>I had not ridden more than a hundred yards when I
 +heard some one calling my name. Turning, I saw one of
 +the headquarters aides, who came galloping up, stating
 +that he had been hunting for me for the last fifteen minutes,
 +and that General Sheridan wished me to report to
 +him at once. I followed him rapidly to the right on the
 +wood path in the direction from which he had come.</p>
 +
 +<p>As soon as I could get abreast of him I asked if he
 +knew what the general wanted me for.</p>
 +
 +<p>Turning in his saddle, with his eyes fairly ablaze, he
 +said: “Why, don’t you know? A white flag.”</p>
 +
 +<p>All I could say was, “Really?”</p>
 +
 +<p>He answered by a nod; and then we leaned toward
 +each other and shook hands; but nothing else was said.</p>
 +
 +<p>A few moments more and we were out of the woods in
 +the open fields. I saw the long line of battle of the
 +Fifth Army Corps halted, the men standing at rest, the
 +standards being held butt on earth, and the flags floating
 +out languidly on the spring breeze. As we passed them I
 +noticed that the officers had generally grouped themselves
 +in front of the centre of their regiments, sword in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span>
 +hand, and were conversing in low tones. The men were
 +leaning wearily on their rifles, in the position of parade
 +rest. All were anxiously looking to the front, in the
 +direction toward which the enemy’s line had withdrawn,
 +for the Confederates had fallen back into a little swale
 +or valley beyond Appomattox Court-house, and were
 +not then visible from this part of our line.</p>
 +
 +<p>We soon came up to General Sheridan and his staff.
 +They were dismounted, sitting on the grass by the side
 +of a broad country road that led to the Court-house. This
 +was about one or two hundred yards distant, and, as we
 +afterward found, consisted of the court-house, a small
 +tavern, and eight or ten houses, all situated on this same
 +road or street.</p>
 +
 +<p>Conversation was carried on in a low tone, and I was
 +told of the blunder of one of the Confederate regiments
 +in firing on the general and staff after the flag of truce
 +had been accepted. I also heard that General Lee was
 +then up at the little village awaiting the arrival of General
 +Grant, to whom he had sent a note, through General
 +Sheridan, requesting a meeting to arrange terms of surrender.
 +Colonel Newhall, of our headquarters staff, had
 +been despatched in search of General Grant, and might
 +be expected up at almost any moment.</p>
 +
 +<p>It was, perhaps, something more than an hour and a
 +half later, to the best of my recollection, that General
 +Grant, accompanied by Colonel Newhall, and followed
 +by his staff, came rapidly riding up to where we were
 +standing by the side of the road, for we had all risen at
 +his approach. When within a few yards of us he drew
 +rein, and halted in front of General Sheridan, acknowledged
 +our salute, and then, leaning slightly forward in
 +his saddle, said, in his usual quiet tone, “Good-morning,
 +Sheridan; how are you?”</p>
 +
 +<p>“First-rate, thank you, General,” was the reply.
 +“How are you?”</p>
 +
 +<p>General Grant nodded in return, and said, “Is General<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>
 +Lee up there?” indicating the court-house by a
 +glance.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Yes,” was the response, “he’s there.” And then
 +followed something about the Confederate Army, but I
 +did not clearly catch the import of the sentence.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Very well, then,” said General Grant. “Let’s go up.”</p>
 +
 +<p>General Sheridan, together with a few selected officers
 +of his staff, mounted and joined General Grant and staff.
 +Together they rode to Mr. McLean’s house, a plain two-story
 +brick residence in the village, to which General Lee
 +had already repaired, and where he was known to be
 +awaiting General Grant’s arrival. Dismounting at the
 +gate, the whole party crossed the yard, and the senior
 +officers present went up onto the porch which protected
 +the front of the house. It extended nearly across the
 +entire house and was railed in, except where five or six
 +steps led up the centre opposite the front door, which was
 +flanked by two small wooden benches, placed close against
 +the house on either side of the entrance. The door
 +opened into a hall that ran the entire length of the house,
 +and on either side of it was a single room with a window
 +in each end of it, and two doors, one at the front and
 +one at the rear of each of the rooms, opening on the hall.
 +The room to the left, as you entered, was the parlor, and
 +it was in this room that General Lee was awaiting General
 +Grant’s arrival.</p>
 +
 +<p>As General Grant stepped onto the porch he was met
 +by Colonel Babcock, of his staff, who had in the morning
 +been sent forward with a message to General Lee. He
 +had found him resting at the side of the road, and had
 +accompanied him to Mr. McLean’s house.</p>
 +
 +<p>General Grant went into the house, accompanied by
 +General Rawlins, his chief of staff; General Seth Williams,
 +his adjutant-general; General Rufus Ingalls, his quarter-master-general;
 +and his two aides, General Horace Porter
 +and Lieutenant-Colonel Babcock. After a little time General
 +Sheridan; General M. R. Morgan, General Grant’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>
 +chief commissary; Lieutenant-Colonel Ely Parker, his
 +military secretary; Lieutenant-Colonel T. S. Bowers, one
 +of his assistant adjutant-generals; and Captain Robert
 +T. Lincoln and Adam Badeau, aides-de-camp, went into
 +the house at General Grant’s express invitation, sent out,
 +I believe, through Colonel Babcock, who came to the
 +hall-door for the purpose, and they were, I was afterward
 +told, formally presented to General Lee. After a
 +lapse of a few more minutes quite a number of these
 +officers, including General Sheridan, came out into the
 +hall and onto the porch, leaving General Grant and
 +General Lee, Generals Rawlins, Ingalls, Seth Williams,
 +and Porter, and Lieutenant-Colonels Babcock, Ely Parker,
 +and Bowers, together with Colonel Marshall, of
 +General Lee’s staff, in the room, while the terms of the
 +surrender were finally agreed upon and formally signed.
 +These were the only officers, therefore, who were actually
 +present at the official surrender of the Army of Northern
 +Virginia.</p>
 +
 +<p>After quite a length of time Colonel Babcock came to
 +the door again, opened it, and glanced out. As he did
 +so he placed his forage-cap on one finger, twirled it
 +around, and nodded to us all, as much as to say, “It’s all
 +settled,” and said something in a low tone to General
 +Sheridan. Then they, accompanied by General E. O. C.
 +Ord, the commanding-general of the Army of the James,
 +who had just ridden up to the house, entered the house
 +together, the hall-door partly closed again after them,
 +leaving quite a number of us staff-officers upon the porch.</p>
 +
 +<p>While the conference between Generals Grant and Lee
 +was still in progress, Generals Merritt and Custer, of the
 +Cavalry Corps, and several of the infantry generals, together
 +with the rest of General Sheridan’s staff-officers,
 +came into the yard, and some of them came up on the
 +porch. Colonel Babcock came out once more, and General
 +Merritt went back to the room with him at his request;
 +but most, if not all, of the infantry generals left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>
 +us and went back to their respective commands while
 +the conference was still in progress and before it ended.</p>
 +
 +<p>Just to the right of the house, as we faced it on entering,
 +stood a soldierly looking orderly in a tattered gray
 +uniform, holding three horses—one a fairly well-bred-looking
 +gray, in good heart, though thin in flesh, which,
 +from the accoutrements, I concluded belonged to General
 +Lee; the others, a thoroughbred bay and a fairly
 +good brown, were undoubtedly those of the staff-officer
 +who had accompanied General Lee and of the orderly
 +himself. He was evidently a sensible soldier, too, for
 +as he held the bridles he baited the animals on the young
 +grass, and they ate as though they needed all they had
 +a chance to pick up.</p>
 +
 +<p>I cannot say exactly how long the conference between
 +Generals Grant and Lee lasted, but after quite a while,
 +certainly more than two hours, I became aware from the
 +movement of chairs within that it was about to break
 +up. I had been sitting on the top step of the porch,
 +writing in my field note-book, but I closed it at once,
 +and, stepping back on the porch, leaned against the railing
 +nearly opposite and to the left of the door, and expectantly
 +waited. As I did so the inner door slowly
 +opened, and General Lee stood before me. As he paused
 +for a few seconds, framed in by the doorway, ere he slowly
 +and deliberately stepped out upon the porch, I took
 +my first and last look at the great Confederate chieftain.
 +This is what I saw: A finely formed man, apparently
 +about sixty years of age, well above the average height,
 +with a clear, ruddy complexion—just then suffused by
 +a deep-crimson flush that, rising from his neck, overspread
 +his face and even slightly tinged his broad forehead,
 +which, bronzed where it had been exposed to the
 +weather, was clear and beautifully white where it had
 +been shielded by his hat—deep-brown eyes, a firm but
 +well-shaped Roman nose, abundant gray hair, silky and
 +fine in texture, with a full gray beard and mustache,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>
 +neatly trimmed and not over-long, but which, nevertheless,
 +almost completely concealed his mouth. A
 +splendid uniform of Confederate gray cloth, that had
 +evidently seen but little service, was closely buttoned
 +about him and fitted him to perfection. An exquisitely
 +mounted sword, attached to a gold-embroidered Russia-leather
 +belt, trailed loosely on the floor at his side, and
 +in his right hand he carried a broad-brimmed, soft, gray
 +felt hat, encircled by a golden cord, while in his left he
 +held a pair of buckskin gauntlets. Booted and spurred,
 +still vigorous and erect, he stood bareheaded, looking out
 +of the open doorway, sad-faced and weary—a soldier and
 +a gentleman, bearing himself in defeat with an all-unconscious
 +dignity that sat well upon him.</p>
 +
 +<p>The moment the open door revealed the Confederate
 +commander, each officer present sprang to his feet, and
 +as General Lee stepped out onto the porch every hand
 +was raised in military salute. Placing his hat on his
 +head, he mechanically but courteously returned it, and
 +slowly crossed the porch to the head of the steps leading
 +down to the yard, meanwhile keeping his eyes intently
 +fixed in the direction of the little valley over beyond the
 +Court-house in which his army lay. Here he paused
 +and slowly drew on his gauntlets, smiting his gloved
 +hands into each other several times after doing so, evidently
 +utterly oblivious of his surroundings. Then, apparently
 +recalling his thoughts, he glanced deliberately
 +right and left, and, not seeing his horse, he called, in a
 +hoarse, half-choked voice, “Orderly! Orderly!”</p>
 +
 +<p>“Here, General, here!” was the quick response. The
 +alert young soldier was holding the general’s horse near
 +the side of the house. He had taken out the bit, slipped
 +the bridle over the horse’s neck, and the wiry gray was
 +eagerly grazing on the fresh young grass about him.</p>
 +
 +<p>Descending the steps, the general passed to the left
 +of the house and stood in front of his horse’s head while
 +he was being bridled. As the orderly was buckling the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>
 +throat-latch, the general reached up and drew the fore-lock
 +out from under the brow-band, parted and smoothed
 +it, and then gently patted the gray charger’s forehead in
 +an absent-minded way, as one who loves horses but
 +whose thoughts are far away might all unwittingly do.
 +Then, as the orderly stepped aside, he caught up the
 +bridle-reins in his left hand, and, seizing the pommel of
 +the saddle with the same hand, he caught up the slack
 +of the reins in his right hand, and placing it on the cantle
 +he put his foot in the stirrup and swung himself slowly
 +and wearily, but nevertheless firmly, into the saddle (the
 +old dragoon mount), letting his right hand rest for an
 +instant or two on the pommel as he settled into his seat,
 +and as he did so there broke unguardedly from his lips a
 +long, low, deep sigh, almost a groan in its intensity, while
 +the flush on his neck and face seemed, if possible, to take
 +on a little deeper hue.</p>
 +
 +<p>Shortly after General Lee passed down the steps he
 +was followed by an erect, slightly built, soldierly looking
 +officer, in a neat but somewhat worn gray uniform, a
 +man with an anxious and thoughtful face, wearing spectacles,
 +who glanced neither to the right nor left, keeping
 +his eyes straight before him. Notwithstanding this, I
 +doubt if he missed anything within the range of his vision.
 +This officer, I was afterward told, was Colonel Marshall,
 +one of the Confederate adjutants-general, the member of
 +General Lee’s staff whom he had selected to accompany
 +him.</p>
 +
 +<p>As soon as the colonel had mounted, General Lee drew
 +up his reins, and, with the colonel riding on his left and
 +followed by the orderly, moved at a slow walk across the
 +yard toward the gate.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_340" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24.5em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_383.jpg" width="392" height="594" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">DEPARTURE OF GENERAL LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Just as they started, General Grant came out of the
 +house, crossed the porch, and passed down the steps into
 +the yard. At this time he was nearly forty-two years of
 +age, of middle height, not over-weighted with flesh, but,
 +nevertheless, stockily and sturdily built, with light complexion,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>
 +mild, gray-blue eyes, finely formed Grecian nose,
 +an iron-willed mouth, brown hair, full brown beard with
 +a tendency toward red rather than black, and in his
 +manner and all his movements there was a strength of
 +purpose, a personal poise, and a cool, quiet air of dignity,
 +decision, and soldierly confidence that were very good
 +to see. On this occasion he wore a plain blue army
 +blouse, with shoulder-straps set with three silver stars
 +equidistant, designating his rank as lieutenant-general
 +commanding the armies of the United States; it was unbuttoned,
 +showing a blue military vest, over which and
 +under his blouse was buckled a belt, but he was without
 +a sword. His trousers were dark blue and tucked into
 +top-boots, which were without spurs, but heavily splashed
 +with mud, for, once he knew that General Lee was waiting
 +for him at Appomattox Court-house, he had ridden rapidly
 +across the country, over road and field and through
 +woods, to meet him. He wore a peculiar, stiff-brimmed,
 +sugar-loaf-crowned, campaign hat of black felt, and his
 +uniform was partly covered by a light-weight, dark-blue,
 +waterproof, semi-military cloak, with a full cape, unbuttoned
 +and thrown back, showing the front of his uniform,
 +for while the day had developed into warm, bright, and
 +beautifully sunny weather, the early morning had been
 +damp, slightly foggy, and presaged rain.</p>
 +
 +<p>As he reached the foot of the steps and started across
 +the yard to the fence where, inside the gate, the orderlies
 +were holding his horse and those of several of his staff-officers,
 +General Lee, on his way to the gate, rode across
 +his path. Stopping suddenly, General Grant looked up,
 +and both generals simultaneously raised their hands in
 +military salute. After General Lee had passed, General
 +Grant crossed the yard and sprang lightly and quickly
 +into his saddle. He was riding his splendid bay horse
 +Cincinnati, and it would have been difficult to find a
 +firmer seat, a lighter hand, or a better rider in either army.</p>
 +
 +<p>As he was about to go out of the gate he halted, turned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>
 +his horse, and rode at a walk toward the porch of the
 +house, where, among others, stood General Sheridan and
 +myself. Stopping in front of the general, he said, “Sheridan,
 +where will you make your headquarters to-night?”</p>
 +
 +<p>“Here, or near here; right here in this yard, probably,
 +was the reply.</p>
 +
 +<p>“Very well, then; I’ll know where to find you in case
 +I wish to communicate. Good-day.”</p>
 +
 +<p>“Good-day, General,” was the response, and with a
 +military salute General Grant turned and rode away.</p>
 +
 +<p>As he rode forward and halted at the porch to make
 +this inquiry, I had my wished-for opportunity, but my
 +eyes sought his face in vain for any indication of what
 +was passing in his mind. Whatever may have been
 +there, as Colonel Newhall has well written, “not a muscle
 +of his face told tales on his thoughts”; and if he felt any
 +elation, neither his voice, features, nor his eyes betrayed
 +it. Once out of the gate, General Grant, followed by his
 +staff, turned to the left and moved off at a rapid trot.</p>
 +
 +<p>General Lee continued on his way toward his army
 +at a walk, to be received by his devoted troops with
 +cheers and tears, and to sit down and pen a farewell order
 +that, to this day, no old soldier of the Army of Northern
 +Virginia can read without moistening eyes and swelling
 +throat.</p>
 +
 +<p>General Grant, on his way to his field headquarters on
 +this eventful Sunday evening, dismounted, sat quietly
 +down by the roadside, and wrote a short and simple despatch,
 +which a galloping aide bore at full speed to the
 +nearest telegraph station. On its reception in the nation’s
 +capital this despatch was flashed over the wires to every
 +hamlet in the country, causing every steeple in the
 +North to rock to its foundation, and sending one tall,
 +gaunt, sad-eyed, weary-hearted man in Washington to
 +his knees, thanking God that he had lived to see the
 +beginning of the end, and that he had at last been vouchsafed
 +the assurance that he had led his people aright.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span></p>
 +
 +<h3 class="syn">SYNOPSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS, CHIEFLY<br />
 +MILITARY, BETWEEN APPOMATTOX, 1865,<br />
 +AND THE BATTLES OF MANILA BAY<br />
 +AND SANTIAGO DE CUBA, 1898</h3>
 +
 +<p>1866. The Civil Rights Bill is passed over President
 +Johnson’s veto. Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment
 +granting political rights to the negro. (This amendment
 +was proclaimed part of the Constitution in 1868.)
 +Successful establishment of ocean telegraphy between
 +Europe and America. Fenian raid into Canada.</p>
 +
 +<p>1867. Admission of Nebraska into the Union. Passage
 +of the Reconstruction Act. Purchase of Alaska from
 +Russia. Dominion of Canada constituted. Maximilian,
 +abandoned by the French in Mexico, is captured and
 +shot.</p>
 +
 +<p>1868. Impeachment and trial of President Johnson.
 +The impeachment fails. Ulysses S. Grant elected President.
 +Outbreak of Cuban insurrection.</p>
 +
 +<p>1869. Adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment prohibiting
 +the States from denying the right to vote to any citizen
 +of the United States on account of race or color.
 +(This amendment was proclaimed a part of the Constitution
 +in 1870.) Completion of the Pacific Railway.</p>
 +
 +<p>1870. Completion of reconstruction in the Southern
 +States. Death of Lee and Farragut.</p>
 +
 +<p>1871. Treaty of Washington for the settlement of the
 +“Alabama” Claims. Great Fire in Chicago. Hall’s Arctic
 +Expedition reaches lat. 82° 16´.</p>
 +
 +<p>1872. The Geneva Tribunal makes an award to the
 +United States on account of the “Alabama” Claims.
 +The Emperor of Germany decides San Juan boundary
 +question. Ulysses S. Grant re-elected President. Outbreak
 +of the Modoc War.</p>
 +
 +<p>1873. Surrender of the Modocs. Capture of the American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span>
 +steamer <i>Virginius</i> by a Spanish gunboat. Surrender
 +of the <i>Virginius</i>. Financial Panic.</p>
 +
 +<p>1874. President Grant vetoes Inflation Bill. Race riots
 +in the Southern States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1875. Supplementary Civil Rights Bill passed.</p>
 +
 +<p>1876. The Custer Massacre by the Sioux Indians.
 +Admission of Colorado into the Union. Disputed Presidential
 +Election (Hayes, Republican, and Tilden,
 +Democrat). The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
 +Invention of the Telephone.</p>
 +
 +<p>1877. The Electoral Commission awards the Presidency
 +to Rutherford B. Hayes. Great Labor Strike throughout
 +the United States. Campaign against the Nez Percé
 +Indians.</p>
 +
 +<p>1878. End of the Ten Years’ War in Cuba. China sends
 +a minister to Washington for the first time.</p>
 +
 +<p>1879. Resumption of Specie Payment in the United
 +States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1880. James A. Garfield elected President. Treaty
 +with China relative to the restriction of Chinese Immigration.</p>
 +
 +<p>1881. Assassination of James A. Garfield. Chester A.
 +Arthur succeeds to the Presidency. Construction of the
 +Panama Canal begun by the French.</p>
 +
 +<p>1882. Verdict in the Star Route case.</p>
 +
 +<p>1883. Passage of the Civil Service Bill. Northern
 +Pacific Railroad opened.</p>
 +
 +<p>1884. Grover Cleveland elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1885. United States government guarantees transit
 +across Isthmus of Panama threatened by insurgents, and
 +enforces this with troops.</p>
 +
 +<p>1886. Extensive Labor Strikes in the United States.
 +The “Haymarket” Anarchists’ riot at Chicago. Earthquake
 +at Charleston. Anti-Chinese riots in Seattle. Railroad
 +riots in the West. United States troops ordered to
 +St. Louis. Act passed to increase navy.</p>
 +
 +<p>1887. Interstate Commerce Bill passed. Centennial Celebration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span>
 +of the Constitution. Execution of the Chicago
 +“Haymarket” Anarchists. Blizzard throughout the
 +northwestern section of the United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1888. Blizzard in the East. Benjamin Harrison elected
 +President. Dakota divided into North and South Dakota.</p>
 +
 +<p>1889. Wreck of the U. S. steamers <i>Trenton</i>, <i>Vandalia</i>,
 +and <i>Nipsic</i> at the Samoan Islands. The territory of
 +Oklahoma opened for settlement. Flood at Johnstown,
 +Pennsylvania. Centennial celebration of Washington’s
 +inauguration. Admission of North and South Dakota
 +into the Union; also of Montana and Washington. Department
 +of Agriculture created.</p>
 +
 +<p>1890. The McKinley Tariff Bill passed. Admission of
 +Wyoming into the Union. The Mormon Church formally
 +abandons Polygamy.</p>
 +
 +<p>1891. The Pine Ridge Indian outbreak. Seizure of the
 +Chilian insurgent steamer <i>Itata</i>. Assault upon sailors
 +of the U. S. Cruiser <i>Baltimore</i> at Valparaiso.</p>
 +
 +<p>1892. An Ultimatum submitted to Chili; the latter
 +country makes an apology and pays an indemnity. The
 +Homestead Labor Riots in Pennsylvania. Railroad
 +riots at Buffalo. National Guard ordered out. Grover
 +Cleveland elected President.</p>
 +
 +<p>1893. Opening of the World’s Columbian Exposition
 +at Chicago. Admission of Utah and Arizona into the
 +Union.</p>
 +
 +<p>1894. Great Railway Strike at Chicago. President
 +Cleveland recognizes the new Republic of Hawaii. <i>Kearsarge</i>
 +lost on Roncador Reef.</p>
 +
 +<p>1895. Steamship <i>Alliance</i> fired upon by a Spanish
 +Cruiser. Spain apologizes. Spain declares martial law
 +in Cuba. Cuban revolutionists proclaim independence,
 +adopt a constitution, establish a republican government,
 +and unfurl the flag of the revolution of 1868–78. Message
 +of President Cleveland regarding the boundary dispute
 +between Great Britain and Venezuela.</p>
 +
 +<p>1896. William McKinley elected President. President<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span>
 +Cleveland issues a proclamation against the Cuban
 +Filibusters. International Arbitration Congress meets
 +at Washington.</p>
 +
 +<p>1897. The United States recognizes the belligerency of
 +the Cuban insurgents. Venezuela boundary treaty ratified.
 +Hawaii annexed to the United States.</p>
 +
 +<p>1898. The U. S. battle-ship <i>Maine</i> is blown up in Havana
 +Harbor, with great loss of life, on the night of February 15th.
 +On April 20th Congress directs the President to intervene
 +between Spain and Cuba. On April 23d the President
 +issues a call for one hundred and twenty-five thousand
 +volunteers, and on April 26th Congress authorizes an increase
 +of the regular army to 61,919 officers and men.
 +On April 25th Congress declares war between Spain and
 +the United States as existing since April 21st.</p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XXI" class="vspace">XXI<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_23" class="subhead">THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY, 1898</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">For</span> more than a century the island of Cuba had been
 +an object of peculiar interest and concern to the
 +United States.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> During the first part of the nineteenth
 +century the fear was that Cuba might be acquired by
 +Great Britain or France, and thus a strong European
 +power would be established at the very gate of the
 +American republic. Manifestly, it was then the policy
 +of the United States to guarantee the possession of the
 +island to Spain. But after the Mexican War the idea of
 +exterritorial expansion entered more and more largely
 +into American statesmanship. The South looked upon
 +Cuba as a desirable addition to slave-holding territory,
 +and it was apparent to every eye that the island occupied
 +an all-important strategic position in relation to the proposed
 +canal routes across the Isthmus of Panama.</p>
 +
 +<p>In 1822 propositions for annexation came from Cuba
 +to the United States, and Monroe sent an agent to investigate.
 +Later, annexation was a recurrent subject
 +favored by the South, which saw a field for the extension
 +of slavery. In 1848 the American minister at Madrid
 +was instructed by President Polk to sound the Spanish
 +government upon the question of sale or cession. But
 +Spain declined even to consider such a proposition. In
 +1854 the so-called “Ostend Manifesto,” drawn up by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span>
 +James Buchanan, John Y. Mason, and Pierre Soulé (respectively
 +United States ministers to England, France,
 +and Spain), declared in plain language that the “Union
 +can never enjoy repose nor possess reliable security as
 +long as Cuba is not embraced within its boundaries.” It
 +went on to advise the seizing of the coveted territory in
 +case Spain refused to sell. The administration of President
 +Pierce never directly sanctioned the proposition
 +advanced in such extraordinary terms, and Marcy, the
 +Secretary of State, repudiated it unqualifiedly. So the
 +matter fell again into abeyance until in 1873 the <i>Virginius</i>,
 +an American schooner suspected of conveying
 +arms and ammunition to the Cuban insurgents, was captured
 +by a Spanish gunboat and taken to Havana. As a
 +result of the trial, many insurgents, together with six British
 +subjects and thirty American citizens, were executed.
 +For a time international complications seemed certain,
 +but finally Spain made proper apologies and surrendered
 +the <i>Virginius</i> and the survivors of her crew.</p>
 +
 +<p>The Cuban “Ten Years’ War,” from 1868 to 1878, was
 +characterized by great cruelty and destructive losses of
 +life and property in which American interests were now
 +deeply involved. President Grant seriously considered
 +and even threatened intervention, which would have
 +meant annexation; but Spain promised definite reforms,
 +and the old conditions were continued.</p>
 +
 +<p>When the insurrection of 1895 began, American citizens
 +owned at least fifty millions of property in the island,
 +and American commerce amounted to a hundred millions
 +annually. Both on the Spanish and Cuban side outrages
 +were of daily occurrence, and the situation quickly became
 +intolerable. The McKinley administration ventured
 +upon a mild remonstrance against the inhumanities
 +of Captain-General Weyler, and the Spanish authorities
 +replied evasively. Finally the United States formally
 +offered its good offices for the adjustment of Cuban affairs,
 +presumably on a basis of independence. Spain declared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span>
 +that it was her intention to grant autonomy to the island,
 +and the decree was actually published on November 27,
 +1897. But it was now too late, and the unhappy conditions
 +grew worse day by day.</p>
 +
 +<p>There had been riots at Havana itself, and it was
 +thought advisable to send the United States cruiser <i>Maine</i>
 +on a friendly visit to that port. The <i>Maine</i> arrived at
 +Havana on January 25, 1898. On the night of February
 +15th the <i>Maine</i> was blown up while lying at her harbor
 +moorings, with a ghastly loss of life. The American Court
 +of Inquiry found that the ship was destroyed from the
 +outside; the Spanish inquiry resulted in a verdict that
 +the ship was destroyed from causes within herself. At
 +the time there was an outburst of passion throughout
 +the United States, and Spain was held guilty of an atrocious
 +crime. While the exact cause of the disaster has never
 +been finally determined, it is the verdict of calmer and
 +more distant consideration that official Spain must be
 +acquitted, although the belief remains on the part of
 +the American naval authorities that the <i>Maine</i> was blown
 +up from outside. At the time, however, this tragedy
 +powerfully reinforced the efforts of Cubans and the pressure
 +of financial interests to secure American support.
 +When Senator Redfield Proctor, of Vermont, a man of
 +peculiarly dispassionate temperament, made public his
 +account of the suffering which he had witnessed among the
 +<i xml:lang="es" lang="es">reconcentrados</i> (collections of native Cubans, particularly
 +women and children, herded together by Spanish troops),
 +the sympathies of Americans were stirred even more
 +deeply. Ministers preached intervention from their pulpits.
 +Many newspapers demanded intervention. Yellow
 +journals clamored for an ultimatum backed by arms.
 +Congress was carried away by the wave of intense feeling,
 +although President McKinley thought that a solution
 +could be reached without an appeal to arms—a belief in
 +which the final verdict of history will probably agree, although
 +it was inevitable that Spain should resign control<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span>
 +of Cuba. But the President was powerless against
 +the popular sentiment.</p>
 +
 +<p>On April 25th war with Spain was formally declared,
 +and for the first time in over three-quarters of a century
 +the republic of the West found itself arrayed in arms
 +against a European nation.</p>
 +
 +<p>The situation had its peculiar features. It had been
 +assumed that the principal theatre of conflict would be
 +the island of Cuba, and consequently the American campaign
 +must be one of invasion. But the Spaniards, owing
 +to the civil war in the colony, were in virtually the same
 +position—fighting at a distance from their base of supplies.</p>
 +
 +<p>In material resources the United States ranked immeasurably
 +superior. True, the numerical strength of the regular
 +army was small, but behind it stood thousands of
 +State militia and millions of available reserves. Moreover,
 +the United States was classed among the richest of nations
 +and Spain among the poorest. So far as the land operations
 +were concerned, the final issue could not be doubtful.</p>
 +
 +<p>In naval strength, however, there was less disparity.
 +On paper the United States ranked sixth among the
 +world powers, while Spain occupied eighth place. But
 +the United States, with its thousands of miles of coast on
 +both the Atlantic and the Pacific seaboards, was unquestionably
 +vulnerable. Coast defences were admittedly
 +inadequate, and it was conceivable that one swift dash
 +by a Spanish squadron might endanger millions of property
 +at Boston, New York, and Baltimore; at San
 +Francisco, Portland, and Seattle.</p>
 +
 +<p>The situation on the Pacific coast seemed even more
 +delicate than that on the Eastern seaboard. There was a
 +formidable Spanish squadron at Manila in the Philippine
 +Islands, and all depended upon the fighting ability of the
 +American Pacific fleet; if Dewey failed, the Western States
 +of America were absolutely at the mercy of the enemy.</p>
 +
 +<p>For more than a month Commodore Dewey had lain
 +with his fleet in the harbor of Hong-Kong, waiting for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>
 +events to shape themselves. In anticipation of the coming
 +strife, and the consequent declaration of neutrality
 +on the part of Great Britain, the American commander
 +had purchased two transport steamers, together with
 +ten thousand tons of coal. He was thus prepared for
 +prompt and decisive action.</p>
 +
 +<p>War had been declared on April 25th, and the American
 +squadron immediately left Hong-Kong for Mirs Bay,
 +some thirty miles away. On April 26th Commodore
 +Dewey received the following despatch:</p>
 +
 +<blockquote>
 +<p class="sigright">
 +“<span class="smcap">Washington</span>, <i>April 26</i>.
 +</p>
 +
 +<p>“<span class="smcap">Dewey, Asiatic Squadron</span>,—Commence operations at
 +once, particularly against the Spanish fleet. You must capture
 +or destroy them.</p>
 +
 +<p class="sigright">
 +<span class="smcap">McKinley.</span>
 +</p></blockquote>
 +
 +<p>On April 27th the American fleet sailed for Manila, six
 +hundred and twenty-eight miles away, and on the morning
 +of Saturday, April 30th, Luzon was sighted, and the
 +ships were ordered to clear for action.</p>
 +
 +<p>Under Commodore George Dewey were the <i>Olympia</i>,
 +the <i>Boston</i>, the <i>Petrel</i>, the <i>Concord</i>, the <i>Raleigh</i>, and the
 +<i>Baltimore</i>. The only armored vessel in the squadron was
 +the <i>Olympia</i>, the protecting belting, four inches thick,
 +being around the turret guns. The auxiliary force was
 +made up of the revenue-cutter <i>McCulloch</i> and two transports,
 +the <i>Vaughan</i> and the <i>Zafiro</i>. Altogether, the
 +American fighting force included four cruisers, two gunboats,
 +fifty-seven classified big guns, seventy-four rapid-fire
 +and machine guns, and 1808 men. On the other side,
 +Rear-Admiral Montojo commanded seven cruisers, five
 +gunboats, two torpedo-boats, fifty-two classified big
 +guns, eighty-three rapid-fire and machine guns, and 1948
 +men. It will thus be seen that the Americans mounted
 +a few more heavy guns, but the Spanish had several
 +more ships and over a hundred more men. Moreover,
 +the Spanish ships were assisted by the fort and land batteries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>
 +at Manila, and they also possessed the great advantage
 +of range-marks. Finally, the ship-channels were
 +supposed to be amply protected by mines and submarine
 +batteries. After satisfying himself that the ships of the
 +enemy were not in Subig Bay, Commodore Dewey resolved
 +to enter Manila Bay the same night. It was
 +known that the channel had been mined, but that risk
 +must be taken. With all lights except the stern ones
 +extinguished, the American vessels steamed steadily onward;
 +finally, Corregidor Island, with its lofty light-house,
 +came into view, and the fleet swept into the main ship-channel
 +known as the Boca Grande.</p>
 +
 +<p>Up to this point no sign had been made by the enemy
 +that the approach of the American ships had been discovered,
 +although the night was moonlit and it was only
 +a little after eleven o’clock. Then a fireman on the
 +<i>McCulloch</i> threw some soft coal in the furnace and a
 +shower of sparks flew from the cutter’s funnel. A solitary
 +rocket ascended from Corregidor, and there was an answering
 +light from the mainland. At a quarter-past
 +eleven a bugle sounded, and from the shore batteries
 +came a blinding glare, followed by the boom of a heavy
 +gun—the first shot of the Spanish-American War.</p>
 +
 +<p>The <i>Raleigh</i> had the honor of replying for the American
 +side, and the <i>Boston</i> followed quickly. A well-aimed six-inch
 +shell from the <i>Concord</i> plumped into the Spanish
 +fort; there was a crash and a cry, and all was still. The
 +forts had been silenced.</p>
 +
 +<p>At slow speed the squadron moved onward, for Commodore
 +Dewey did not wish to arrive at Manila before
 +dawn. Some of the men managed to get a little sleep,
 +but the ever-present danger of torpedoes and the excitement
 +of the approaching battle were not conducive to
 +peaceful slumbers.</p>
 +
 +<p>The morning of Sunday, May 1st, dawned clear and
 +beautiful, although the day promised to be hot. The
 +squadron found itself directly across the bay from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>
 +city of Manila; and there, under the guns of Cavité, lay
 +the Spanish fleet.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_353" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.0625em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_397.jpg" width="417" height="338" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BATTLE OF MANILA BAY</div></div>
 +
 +<p>According to Commodore Dewey’s report, the shore
 +batteries began firing at a quarter-past five. The <i>Olympia</i>,
 +flying the signal “Remember the Maine,” led the American
 +column, followed closely by the <i>Baltimore</i>, <i>Raleigh</i>,
 +<i>Petrel</i>, <i>Concord</i>, and <i>Boston</i> in the order named. The
 +ships came on in a line approximately parallel to that
 +of the enemy, reserving their fire until within effective
 +range. As the fleet advanced two submarine mines were
 +exploded, but neither did any damage. At twenty minutes
 +to six Commodore Dewey shouted to Captain Gridley
 +in the conning-tower of the flag-ship: “Fire as soon as you
 +get ready, Gridley.” Instantly the <i>Olympia</i> discharged
 +her broadside, the <i>Baltimore</i> followed the lead, and each
 +successive ship in turn discharged every gun that could
 +be brought to bear. The Spanish returned the fire with
 +great energy, but with inconclusive results. Several of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span>
 +the American ships were struck, but no casualties followed.
 +Lieutenant Brumby, of the flag-ship, had the signal halliards
 +shot out of his hands; a shot passed clean through
 +the <i>Baltimore</i>, and another smashed into the foremast of
 +the <i>Boston</i>. Incessantly firing, the battle-line steamed
 +past the whole length of the stationary Spanish fleet,
 +then swung slowly around and began the countermarch.
 +Once Montojo’s flag-ship, the <i>Reina Cristina</i>, made a
 +desperate attempt to leave the line and engage at close
 +quarters, but she was quickly driven back.</p>
 +
 +<p>A little after half-past seven the American commander
 +ordered the firing to be stopped, and the fleet headed for
 +the eastern side of the bay for breakfast and a redistribution
 +of ammunition for the big guns. The Spaniards,
 +seeing the withdrawal of the American vessels, rashly
 +concluded that the enemy had been repulsed and raised
 +a feeble cheer. In reality they were hopelessly beaten: several
 +of their ships were on fire, the decks of all were covered
 +with dead and dying men, and ammunition was running low.</p>
 +
 +<p>At a quarter-past eleven the battle was renewed. Several
 +of the Spanish ships were now disabled and on fire,
 +and Admiral Montojo had been forced to transfer his flag
 +to the <i>Isla de Cuba</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p>A few minutes later the <i>Reina Cristina</i>, his former flag-ship,
 +was blazing from end to end, and the explosion of
 +her magazine completed the destruction of the vessel.
 +One after another the Spanish ships succumbed under the
 +storm of shot and shell, and either surrendered or were
 +cut to pieces. The <i>Don Antonio de Ulloa</i>, riddled like a
 +sieve and on fire in a dozen places, refused to acknowledge
 +defeat, and went down with colors flying. Finally,
 +Admiral Montojo hauled down his flag, and, leaving the
 +<i>Isla de Cuba</i>, escaped to the shore. The arsenal building
 +at Cavité ran up the white flag, and at half-past one
 +Commodore Dewey signalled to his ships that they might
 +anchor at discretion.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_354" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.9375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_399.jpg" width="463" height="293" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">BATTLE OF MANILA BAY</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Never was victory more decisive. Not a man had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>
 +been killed on the American side, and but four men were
 +wounded—this through the explosion of a Spanish shell
 +on the <i>Baltimore</i>. None of the American ships received
 +any material damage. On the other hand, the following
 +Spanish ships were completely destroyed: <i>Reina Cristina</i>
 +(flag-ship), <i>Castilla</i>, <i>Don Antonio de Ulloa</i>, <i>Don Juan de
 +Austria</i>, <i>Isla de Luzon</i>, <i>Isla de Cuba</i>, <i>Marquiz del Duero</i>,
 +<i>General Lezo</i>, <i>Correo</i>, <i>Velasco</i>, and <i>Isla de Mandanao</i>.
 +The casualties on the Spanish side amounted to about
 +four hundred men. Moreover, the water-batteries of
 +Cavité had been demolished, the arsenal had been captured,
 +and the city of Manila lay defenceless under the
 +guns of the American fleet.</p>
 +
 +<p>But Commodore Dewey’s difficulties were by no means
 +at an end. He had immediately proclaimed a blockade
 +of the port. The German Pacific squadron, under Vice-Admiral
 +von Diederich, had arrived at Manila shortly after
 +the battle, and were, of course, in the position of neutrals,
 +having access to the harbor merely on the ground of
 +international courtesy. This privilege the Germans
 +quickly began to abuse, disregarding Commodore Dewey’s
 +regulations at will, and committing various acts inconsistent
 +with the neutrality laws. Their attitude was both
 +annoying and insolent, and it was evident that it must
 +be promptly and effectually checked if the American
 +supremacy were to be maintained.</p>
 +
 +<p>At last the opportunity came. Commodore Dewey
 +learned, on unquestionable authority, that one of the
 +German vessels had been landing provisions at Manila,
 +thereby violating neutrality. He immediately sent a
 +vigorous protest to Admiral von Diederich—a message
 +that ended with these significant words: “And, Brumby,
 +tell Admiral von Diederich that if he wants a fight he
 +can have it right now.”</p>
 +
 +<p>That was enough. The German admiral was not quite
 +ready to involve his country in a war with the United States;
 +he made an apology, and the incident was closed.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>
 +On June 30th the first army expedition from the United
 +States arrived at Manila, and Commodore Dewey’s long
 +vigil was at an end, the succeeding operations in the
 +Philippines being almost exclusively military, and consisting
 +of the capture of the city of Manila by the Americans
 +and subsequent warfare with Aguinaldo and insurgent
 +Filipinos.</p>
 +
 +<p>Such, in large outline, was the battle of Manila Bay.
 +Foreign critics have derided American enthusiasm on the
 +ground that the American fleet was far superior, that the
 +Spanish vessels, many of them mere gunboats, lacked
 +armor and adequate guns, and that they were imperfectly
 +manned. Yet the same critics ranked the naval forces
 +of Spain as quite equal to the American at the outset of
 +the war. Furthermore, the action of Dewey, without a
 +single battle-ship or torpedo-boat under his command,
 +in entering a mined harbor without waiting to countermine,
 +and in attacking a fleet whose strength was not
 +accurately known, under the guns of land batteries, must
 +be classed among the distinctive achievements of naval
 +history. The battle was decisive in its immediate outcome,
 +far-reaching in its ultimate consequences. Dewey’s
 +victory but presaged the final triumph of American arms.
 +The Battle of Manila Bay meant the expulsion of Spain
 +from the Pacific and the succession of the United States
 +to Spain’s heritage of Asiatic power. Politically, therefore,
 +in its establishment of the United States as a power
 +in the Orient, Manila Bay is to be placed among the
 +decisive battles of history.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">273</a></p>
 +
 +<hr />
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter">
 +<h2 id="XXII" class="vspace">XXII<br />
 +
 +<span id="t_24" class="subhead">THE BATTLES OF SANTIAGO, 1898</span></h2>
 +</div>
 +
 +<h3>I<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR IN THE
 +WEST INDIES</span></h3>
 +
 +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Ex-President Roosevelt</span> once said that the
 +most striking thing about the war with Spain was
 +the preparedness of the navy and the unpreparedness of
 +the army. For fifteen years the United States had been
 +building up a navy, and for months preceding the war
 +every effort was made, with the resources at the command
 +of the Navy Department, to put it in a state of
 +first-class efficiency. As early as January 11, 1898, instructions
 +were sent to the commanders of the several
 +squadrons to retain in the service men whose terms of
 +enlistment were about to expire. As the Cuban situation
 +grew more threatening, the North Atlantic Squadron and
 +a torpedo-boat flotilla were rapidly assembled in Florida
 +waters; and immediately after the destruction of the
 +<i>Maine</i> the ships on the European and South Atlantic
 +stations were ordered to Key West....</p>
 +
 +<p>Both from a political and a military point of view the
 +blockade of Cuba was the first step for the American government
 +to take, and the surest and quickest means of
 +bringing things to an issue. Cuba was the point in dispute
 +between the United States and Spain, and a blockade
 +would result in one of two things—the surrender of the
 +island or the despatch of a Spanish naval force to its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>
 +relief. The Navy Department had very little apprehension
 +of an attack on our coast, as no squadron could hope
 +to be in condition after crossing the Atlantic for offensive
 +operations without coaling, and the only places where
 +Spain could coal were in the West Indies. The public,
 +however, took a different view of the situation, and no
 +little alarm was felt in the Eastern cities. A few coast-defence
 +guns of modern pattern would have relieved the
 +department of the necessity of protecting the coast, and
 +enabled it to concentrate the whole fighting force around
 +Cuba. To meet popular demands, however, a Northern
 +Patrol Squadron was organized April 20th, under command
 +of Commodore Howell, to cover the New England
 +coast; and a more formidable Flying Squadron, under
 +Commodore Schley, was assembled at Hampton Roads,
 +and kept there until the appearance of the Spanish fleet
 +in the West Indies. The main squadron was stationed
 +at Key West under Rear-Admiral William T. Sampson,
 +who had just been promoted to that grade, and given
 +command of the entire naval force in North Atlantic
 +waters. His appointment over the heads of Schley and
 +other officers of superior rank and longer service created
 +a great deal of criticism, although he was everywhere
 +conceded to be one of the most efficient and progressive
 +officers of the new navy.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">274</a></p>
 +
 +<p>One hundred and twenty-eight ships [steam merchantmen,
 +revenue-cutters, light-house tenders, yachts, and
 +ocean liners] were added to the navy, and the government
 +yards were kept busy transforming them. To man
 +these ships the number of enlisted men was raised from
 +12,500 to 24,123, and a number of new officers appointed.<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">275</a>
 +The heavy fighting force consisted of four first-class
 +battle-ships, the <i>Indiana</i>, <i>Iowa</i>, <i>Massachusetts</i>, and <i>Oregon</i>;
 +one second-class battle-ship, the <i>Texas</i>; and two armored
 +cruisers, the <i>Brooklyn</i> and the <i>New York</i>. As against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span>
 +these seven armored ships Spain had five armored cruisers
 +of modern construction and of greater reputed speed than
 +any of ours except the <i>Brooklyn</i> and the <i>New York</i>, and
 +one battle-ship of the <i>Indiana</i> type. Spain had further a
 +type of vessel unknown to our navy and greatly feared by
 +us—namely, torpedo-boat destroyers, such as the <i>Furor</i>,
 +<i>Pluton</i>, and <i>Terror</i>. It was popularly supposed that the
 +Spanish navy was somewhat superior to the American.</p>
 +
 +<p>As soon as the Spanish minister withdrew from Washington,
 +a despatch was sent to Sampson at Key West
 +directing him to blockade the coast of Cuba immediately
 +from Cardenas to Bahia Honda, and to blockade Cienfuegos
 +if it was considered advisable. On April 29th,
 +Admiral Cervera’s division of the Spanish fleet left the
 +Cape de Verde Islands for an unknown destination, and
 +disappeared for two weeks from the knowledge of the
 +American authorities. This fleet was composed of four
 +armored cruisers, the <i>Infanta Maria Teresa</i>, <i>Cristobal
 +Colon</i>, <i>Oquendo</i>, and <i>Vizcaya</i>, and three torpedo-boat
 +destroyers. Its appearance in American waters was
 +eagerly looked for, and interest in the war became intense....</p>
 +
 +<p>[In the next two weeks Sampson’s patrol of the Windward
 +Islands and adjacent waters, and his visit to San
 +Juan, Porto Rico, produced no discoveries, and he started
 +to return to the blockade of Havana. At midnight,
 +May 12th–13th, thirty-six hours after the event, the Navy
 +Department learned that Cervera had appeared off Martinique.
 +Sampson, with his fleet, and Schley, with the
 +Flying Squadron, were ordered to Key West, which they
 +reached on May 18th.]</p>
 +
 +<p>The department had heard that Cervera had munitions
 +of war essential to the defence of Havana, and that his
 +orders were to reach Havana, Cienfuegos, or a port connected
 +with Havana by rail. As Cienfuegos seemed the
 +only place he would be likely to choose, Schley was ordered
 +there with the <i>Brooklyn</i>, <i>Massachusetts</i>, and <i>Texas</i>, May<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>
 +19th. He was joined later by the <i>Iowa</i>, under Captain
 +Evans, and by several cruisers. The Spanish squadron
 +slipped into Santiago, unobserved by the cruisers on
 +scouting duty, May 19th, two days before Schley arrived
 +at Cienfuegos, so that had Cervera known the conditions
 +he could easily have made the latter port. On the same
 +day the department received from spies in Havana probable
 +information, conveyed by the cable which had been
 +allowed to remain in operation, that Cervera had entered
 +Santiago. As we now know, he had entered early that
 +morning. Several auxiliary cruisers were immediately
 +ordered to assemble before Santiago in order to watch
 +Cervera and follow him in case he should leave.</p>
 +
 +<p>At the same time the department “strongly advised”
 +Sampson to send Schley to Santiago at once with his
 +whole command. Sampson replied that he had decided
 +to hold Schley at Cienfuegos until it was certain that
 +the Spanish fleet was in Santiago. Later he sent a despatch
 +to Schley, received May 23d, ordering him to
 +proceed to Santiago if satisfied that the enemy were not
 +at Cienfuegos.<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">276</a> The next day<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">277</a> Schley started, encountering
 +on the run much rain and rough weather, which
 +seriously delayed the squadron. At 5.30 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, May 26th,
 +he reached a point twenty-two miles south of Santiago,
 +where he was joined by several of the auxiliary cruisers
 +on scouting duty. Captain Sigsbee, of the <i>St. Paul</i>, informed
 +him that the scouts knew nothing positively
 +about the Spanish fleet. The collier <i>Merrimac</i> had been
 +disabled, which increased the difficulty of coaling. At
 +7.45 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, a little over two hours after his arrival, Schley
 +without explanation signalled to the squadron: “Destination,
 +Key West, <i>via</i> south side of Cuba and Yucatan
 +Channel, as soon as collier is ready; speed, nine knots.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>
 +Thus began the much-discussed retrograde movement
 +which occupied two days. Admiral Schley states in his
 +book that. Sigsbee’s report and other evidence led him
 +to conclude that the Spanish squadron was not in Santiago;
 +hence the retrograde movement to protect the
 +passage west of Cuba.<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">278</a> But he has never yet given any
 +satisfactory explanation why he did not definitely ascertain
 +the facts before turning back. Fortunately the
 +squadron did not proceed very far; the lines towing the
 +collier parted and other delays occurred. The next morning
 +Schley received a despatch from the department
 +stating that all the information at hand indicated that
 +Cervera was in Santiago, but he continued on his westward
 +course slowly and at times drifting while some of
 +the ships coaled. The next day, May 28th, Schley returned
 +to Santiago, arriving before that port about dusk,
 +and established a blockade.<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">279</a></p>
 +
 +<p>Admiral Sampson arrived off Santiago June 1st, and
 +assumed direct command of the squadron. The blockade,
 +which lasted for over a month, was eagerly watched
 +by the whole American people. The most thrilling incident
 +was the daring but unsuccessful attempt made by
 +Lieutenant Richmond Pearson Hobson to sink the collier
 +Merrimac across the entrance to Santiago harbor, undertaken
 +by direction of Admiral Sampson. Electric torpedoes
 +were attached to the hull of the ship, sea-valves
 +were cut, and anchor chains arranged on deck so that
 +she could be brought to a sudden stop. Early on the
 +morning of June 3d, Hobson, assisted by a crew of seven
 +seamen, took the collier into the entrance of the harbor
 +under heavy fire and sunk her. The unfortunate shooting
 +away of her steering-gear and the failure of some of
 +the torpedoes to explode kept the ship from sinking at
 +the place selected, so that the plan miscarried. Hobson<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>
 +and his men escaped death as by a miracle, but fell into
 +the hands of the Spaniards.<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">280</a></p>
 +
 +<h3>II<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE LAND CAMPAIGN</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>As soon as Cervera was blockaded in Santiago and the
 +government was satisfied that all his ships were with
 +him, it was decided to send an army to co-operate with
 +the navy. Hitherto the war had been a naval war exclusively,
 +and the two hundred thousand volunteers
 +who had responded to the calls of the President in May
 +had been kept in camp in different parts of the country.
 +Most of the regular infantry and cavalry, together with
 +several volunteer regiments, had been assembled at
 +Tampa and organized as the Fifth Army Corps, in readiness
 +to land in Cuba as soon as the navy had cleared the
 +way. Conspicuous among these troops was the First
 +Volunteer Cavalry, popularly known as Roosevelt’s
 +Rough Riders, a regiment which through the energetic
 +efforts of Dr. Leonard Wood, an army surgeon, who
 +became its colonel, and Theodore Roosevelt, who resigned
 +the position of assistant secretary of the navy
 +to become its lieutenant-colonel, had been enlisted, officered,
 +and equipped in fifty days. It was recruited largely
 +from Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, and had in
 +its ranks cowboys, hunters, ranchmen, and more than
 +one hundred and sixty full-blooded Indians, together
 +with a few graduates of Harvard, Yale, and other Eastern
 +colleges.</p>
 +
 +<p>Tampa was ill-suited for an instruction camp, and the
 +preparations made by the department for the accommodation
 +and provisioning of such large bodies of men were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span>
 +wholly inadequate. One of the main difficulties was the
 +inability of the Commissary and Quartermaster departments,
 +hampered by red tape, senseless regulations, and
 +political appointees, to distribute the train-loads of supplies
 +which blocked the tracks leading to Tampa; so
 +great was the congestion that the soldiers could not even
 +get their mail. This condition continued for weeks. The
 +great majority of the troops were finally sent to Santiago
 +to fight under a tropical sun in heavy woollen clothes;
 +lighter clothing was not supplied to them until they were
 +ready to return to Montauk Point, where they needed
 +the woollen. The sanitation of the camp was poor and
 +the water-supply bad; dysentery, malaria, and typhoid
 +soon made their appearance. Similar conditions prevailed
 +at the other camps. The administrative inefficiency
 +of the War Department was everywhere revealed
 +in striking contrast with the fine record of the Navy Department.
 +Secretary Alger had been too much occupied
 +with questions of patronage to look after the real needs
 +of the service. Although war had been regarded for
 +months as inevitable, when it finally came the department
 +was found to be utterly unprepared to equip troops
 +for service in Cuba. As the result of this neglect, for
 +which it should be said Congress was partly responsible,
 +it was necessary to improvise an army—a rather serious
 +undertaking!</p>
 +
 +<p>It had been the original intention to land the Fifth
 +Army Corps at Mariel, near Havana, and begin operations
 +against the capital city under the direct supervision
 +of General Miles; but the bottling-up of Cervera at
 +Santiago caused a change of plan, and General Miles,
 +who still expected the heavy fighting to take place at
 +Havana, selected Major-General William R. Shafter for
 +the movement against Santiago. By June 1st the battle-ship
 +<i>Indiana</i>, under Captain Henry C. Taylor, with a
 +dozen smaller vessels, was ready to convoy the expedition.
 +The army was very slow in embarking, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>
 +was not until June 8th that the force was ready to depart.
 +Further delay was caused by the unfounded rumor that
 +a Spanish cruiser and two torpedo-boat destroyers had
 +been sighted off the north coast of Cuba.<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">281</a> In order to
 +ascertain whether all the Spanish ships were at Santiago,
 +Lieutenant Victor Blue, of the navy, landed, and by personal
 +observation from the hills back of the city located
 +Cervera’s entire division in the harbor. On June 14th
 +the transports, about thirty in number, sailed from
 +Tampa with their convoy. They were crowded and ill-provided
 +with supplies, the whole movement showing
 +lack of experience in handling large bodies of men. The
 +expedition consisted of 815 officers and 16,072 enlisted
 +men, regulars except the Seventy-first New York, Second
 +Massachusetts, and the First Volunteer Cavalry.<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">282</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The expedition under Shafter began disembarking at
 +Daiquiri on the morning of June 22d, and by night six
 +thousand men had with great difficulty been put ashore.
 +No lighters or launches had been provided, and the only
 +wharf, a small wooden one, had been stripped of its
 +flooring: the War Department expected the navy to look
 +after these matters. In addition, the troops had been
 +crowded into the transports without any reference to
 +order, officers separated from their commands, artillery-pieces
 +on one transport, horses on another, harness on a
 +third, and no means of finding out where any of them
 +were. By the aid of a few launches borrowed from the
 +battle-ships, the men were put ashore, or near enough
 +to wade through the surf, but the animals had to be
 +thrown into the sea, where many of them perished, some
 +in their bewilderment swimming out to sea instead of
 +to shore.</p>
 +
 +<p>General Lawton advanced and seized Siboney next
 +day, and Kent’s division landed here, eight miles nearer
 +Santiago. General Wheeler pushed on with part of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span>
 +Young’s brigade, and on the morning of the 24th defeated
 +the Spanish force at Las Guasimas, with a loss of one officer
 +and fifteen men killed, six officers and forty-six men
 +wounded.<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">283</a> During the next week the army, including
 +Garcia’s Cuban command, was concentrated at Sevilla.
 +These were trying days. The troops suffered from the
 +heavy rains, poor rations, and bad camp accommodations.
 +No adequate provision had been made for landing supplies
 +or for transporting them to the camps, so that with
 +an abundance, such as they were, aboard the transports,
 +the soldiers were in actual want.</p>
 +
 +<p>On June 30th it was decided to advance. San Juan
 +Hill, a strategic point on the direct road to Santiago,
 +could not be taken or held while the Spaniards occupied
 +El Caney, on the right of the American advance. The
 +country was a jungle, and the roads from the coast little
 +more than bridle-paths. Lawton moved out to a position
 +south of El Caney that afternoon, so as to begin the
 +attack early next morning. Wheeler’s division of dismounted
 +cavalry and Kent’s division of infantry advanced
 +toward El Poso, accompanied by Grimes’ battery,
 +which was to take position early in the morning and open
 +the way for the advance toward San Juan. The attack
 +at this point was to be delayed until Lawton’s infantry
 +fire was heard at El Caney. After forcing the enemy
 +from this position, Lawton was to move toward Santiago
 +and take position on Wheeler’s right. Little was known
 +of the ground over which the troops were to move or
 +the position and strength of the forces they were to meet,
 +consequently they went into battle without knowing
 +what they were about and fought without any generalship
 +being displayed. General Shafter was too ill to
 +leave his headquarters in the rear.</p>
 +
 +<p>At El Caney, which was surrounded by trenches
 +and block-houses, the Spaniards developed unexpected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>
 +strength, and held Lawton in check until late in the
 +afternoon, when he finally carried the position. In this
 +fight about thirty-five hundred Americans were engaged,
 +and not more than six hundred or one thousand Spaniards.
 +The American loss was four officers and seventy-seven
 +men killed, and twenty-five officers and three hundred and
 +thirty-five men wounded. About one hundred and fifty
 +Spaniards were captured, and between three hundred and
 +four hundred killed and wounded.<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">284</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_366" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.75em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_413.jpg" width="444" height="322" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE CAPTURE OF THE BLOCK-HOUSE AT SAN JUAN</div></div>
 +
 +<p>Meanwhile there had been a desperate fight at San
 +Juan Hill. As soon as Lawton’s musket-fire was heard
 +at El Caney, Grimes’ battery opened fire from El Poso
 +on the San Juan block-house. This fire was immediately
 +returned by the enemy’s artillery, who had the range,
 +and a number of men were killed. The Spaniards used
 +smokeless powder, which made it difficult to locate
 +them, while some of the Americans had black powder,
 +which quickly indicated their position. The road along
 +which the troops had to advance was so narrow and
 +rough that at times they had to proceed in column of
 +twos. The progress made was very slow, and the long-range
 +guns of the enemy killed numbers of men before
 +they could get into position to return the fire. By
 +the middle of the day the advance had crossed the
 +river, the cavalry division under Sumner deploying
 +to the right in front of Kettle Hill, and Kent’s division
 +of infantry deploying to the left directly in front
 +of San Juan Hill. During this movement the troops
 +were exposed to a galling artillery and rifle fire and suffered
 +greatly, especially the third brigade of Kent’s
 +division, which lost three commanders in fifteen minutes,
 +General Wikoff being killed and Colonels Worth
 +and Liscum disabled. The suffering of the wounded,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367<a class="hidep" id="Page_368">368</a></span>
 +many of whom lay in the brush for hours without succor,
 +was the most terrible feature of the situation.</p>
 +
 +<p>Finally the long-expected order to advance was given.
 +The First Regular Cavalry, the Rough Riders, and the
 +Negro troopers of the Ninth and a part of the Tenth
 +advanced up Kettle Hill and drove the Spaniards from
 +the ranch-house, while the infantry division with the
 +Sixth and Sixteenth regiments under Hawkins in the
 +lead charged up San Juan Hill in the face of a destructive
 +fire and captured the block-house. Then the
 +cavalry under Sumner and Roosevelt advanced from
 +Kettle Hill and occupied the trenches on San Juan
 +Hill north of the block-house. The Spaniards fled to
 +their second line of trenches, six or eight hundred yards
 +in the rear.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_368" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.9375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_415.jpg" width="463" height="705" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">PLAN OF MILITARY OPERATIONS AROUND SANTIAGO</div></div>
 +
 +<p>After occupying San Juan Hill, the cavalry were still exposed
 +to a constant fire, and many were discouraged and
 +wanted to retire, but General Wheeler, who, though ill,
 +had come to the front early in the afternoon, put a stop
 +to this and set the men to work fortifying themselves.
 +The next day Lawton came up and advanced to a strong
 +position on Wheeler’s right. The fighting was resumed
 +on the two following days, but about noon, July 3d, the
 +Spaniards ceased firing. The losses in the three days’
 +fight were eighteen officers and one hundred and twenty-seven
 +men killed, sixty-five officers and eight hundred
 +and forty-nine men wounded, and seventy-two men
 +missing.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">285</a> The condition of the troops after the battle
 +was very bad; many of them were down with fever, and
 +all were suffering from lack of suitable equipment and
 +supplies. General Shafter cabled to the secretary of
 +war, July 3d, that it would be impossible to take Santiago
 +by storm with the forces he then had, and that he was
 +“seriously considering withdrawing about five miles and
 +taking up a new position on the high ground between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span>
 +the San Juan River and Siboney.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">286</a> The destruction of
 +Cervera’s fleet the same day materially changed the
 +situation.</p>
 +
 +<h3>III<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE DESTRUCTION OF CERVERA’S FLEET</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>The advance made by the American troops around
 +Santiago on July 1st and 2d forced the Spanish authorities
 +to come to a decision in regard to Cervera’s fleet. Captain-General
 +Blanco insisted that the fleet should not be
 +captured or destroyed without a fight. Cervera refused
 +to assume the responsibility of leaving the harbor, and
 +when ordered to do so went out with consummate bravery,
 +knowing that he was leading a forlorn-hope. Sampson
 +seems to have been under the impression all along that
 +the Spanish squadron would attempt to escape at night,
 +but the American ships kept in so close to the shore,
 +with dazzling search-lights directed against the entrance
 +of the harbor, as to render it almost impossible to steer
 +a ship out. On the morning of July 3d, at 8.55, Sampson
 +started east to meet General Shafter in conference at
 +Siboney, signalling to the fleet as he left: “Disregard
 +movements commander-in-chief.” The <i>Massachusetts</i>
 +had also left her place in the blockade to go to Guantanamo
 +for coal. The remaining ships formed a semicircle
 +around the entrance of the harbor, the <i>Brooklyn</i>
 +to the west, holding the left of the line, then the <i>Texas</i>,
 +next the <i>Iowa</i> in the centre and at the south of the curve,
 +then, as the line curved in to the coast on the right, the
 +<i>Oregon</i> and the <i>Indiana</i>. The <i>Brooklyn</i> and the <i>Indiana</i>,
 +holding the left and the right of the line, were about
 +two miles and one and a half miles respectively from the
 +shore, and near them, closer in, lay the converted gunboats
 +<i>Vixen</i> and <i>Gloucester</i>.</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>
 +At 9.35 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span>, while most of the men were at Sunday
 +inspection, the enemy’s ships were discovered slowly
 +steaming down the narrow channel of the harbor. In the
 +lead was the <i>Maria Teresa</i>, followed by the <i>Vizcaya</i>, the
 +<i>Colon</i>, the <i>Oquendo</i>, and the two torpedo-boat destroyers.
 +The <i>Iowa</i> was the first to signal that the enemy were
 +escaping, though the fact was noted on several ships at
 +almost the same moment, and no orders were necessary.
 +The American ships at once closed in and directed their
 +fire against the <i>Teresa</i>. For a moment there was doubt
 +as to whether the Spanish ships would separate and try
 +to scatter the fire of our fleet or whether they would stick
 +together. This was quickly settled when Cervera turned
 +west, followed by the remainder of his command. At
 +this point Commodore Schley’s flag-ship, the <i>Brooklyn</i>,
 +which was farthest west, turned to the eastward, away
 +from the hostile fleet, making a loop, at the end of which
 +she again steamed westward farther out to sea but still
 +ahead of any of the American vessels. The sudden and
 +unexpected turn of the <i>Brooklyn</i> caused the <i>Texas</i>, which
 +was behind her, to reverse her engines in order to avoid
 +a collision and to come to a standstill, thus losing position,
 +the <i>Oregon</i> and the <i>Iowa</i> both passing her. The
 +two destroyers, which came out last, were attacked by
 +the <i>Indiana</i> and the <i>Gloucester</i>, the commander of the
 +latter, Wainwright, dashing toward them in utter disregard
 +of the fragile character of his vessel. The <i>Furor</i>
 +was sunk and the <i>Pluton</i> was run ashore. The <i>Teresa</i>,
 +struck by several shells which exploded and set her on
 +fire, turned to the shore at 10.15 and was beached about
 +six miles west of the Morro. The <i>Oquendo</i> was riddled by
 +shell and likewise soon on fire. She was beached about
 +half a mile west of the <i>Teresa</i> at 10.20. The <i>Vizcaya</i> and
 +<i>Colon</i> were now left to bear the fire of the pursuing American
 +ships, which were practically uninjured. In this
 +running fight the <i>Indiana</i> dropped behind, owing to the
 +defective condition of her machinery, but kept up her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371<a class="hidep" id="Page_372">372</a></span>
 +fire. At 11.05 the <i>Vizcaya</i> turned to run ashore about fifteen
 +miles west of the Morro. The <i>Brooklyn</i> and the <i>Oregon</i>,
 +followed at some distance by the <i>Texas</i>, continued the
 +chase of the <i>Colon</i>. The <i>Indiana</i> and the <i>Iowa</i>, at the
 +order of Sampson, who had come up, went back to guard
 +the transports. At 1.15 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span> the <i>Colon</i> turned to shore
 +thirty miles west of the <i>Vizcaya</i> and surrendered.<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">287</a></p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_372" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_419.jpg" width="800" height="336" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption"><p>THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE SHIPS IN THE BATTLE OF JULY 3, 1898, OFF SANTIAGO</p>
 +
 +<p><span class="smcap">Abbreviations</span>:—N. Y., <i>New York</i>;
 +  B., <i>Brooklyn</i>; Tx., <i>Texas</i>; A., <i>Iowa</i>; I., <i>Indiana</i>;
 +  O., <i>Oregon</i>; G., <i>Gloucester</i>; Vx., <i>Vixen</i>;
 +  H., <i>Hist.</i>; E., <i>Ericsson</i>; T., <i>Teresa</i>; V., <i>Vizcaya</i>;
 +  C., <i>Colon</i>; Oq., <i>Oquendo</i>;
 + P., <i>Pluton</i>; F., <i>Furor</i>.</p>
 +
 +  <span class="browser center small"><a href="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_419f.jpg">(FULL SIZE)</a></span>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<div class="epub">
 +<div id="ip_372b" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_419l.jpg" width="800" height="664" alt="" /></div>
 +
 +<div id="ip_372c" class="figcenter">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_419r.jpg" width="800" height="664" alt="" /></div>
 +</div>
 +
 +<p>The fight was over, one of the most remarkable naval
 +battles on record. On the American side, though the
 +ships were struck many times, only one man was killed
 +and one wounded. These casualties both occurred on
 +Commodore Schley’s flag-ship, the <i>Brooklyn</i>. The Spaniards
 +lost about six hundred in killed and wounded. The
 +American sailors took an active part in the rescue of
 +the officers and crews of the burning Spanish ships.</p>
 +
 +<p>Only one hundred and twenty-three out of about eight
 +thousand American projectiles hit the Spanish ships.</p>
 +
 +<h3>IV<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">THE SPANISH SURRENDER</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>On July 3d, General Shafter demanded the surrender
 +of the Spanish forces in Santiago. This being refused, he
 +notified General Toral that the bombardment of Santiago
 +would begin at noon of the 5th, thus giving two days for
 +the women and children to leave the city. Nearly twenty
 +thousand people came out and filled the villages and
 +roads around. They were in an utterly destitute condition,
 +and had to be taken care of largely by the American
 +army—a great drain on their supplies. On the 10th and
 +11th the city was bombarded by the squadron. At this
 +point General Miles arrived off Santiago with additional
 +troops intended for Porto Rico. He and Shafter met
 +General Toral under a flag of truce and arranged terms
 +for the surrender, which took place on the 17th. Shafter’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span>
 +command was by this time in a serious state of health and
 +anxious to return home. Malarial fevers had so weakened
 +the men that an epidemic of yellow-fever, which had appeared
 +sporadically throughout the command, was greatly
 +feared. The situation was desperate, and the War Department
 +apparently deaf to all representations of the
 +case. Under these circumstances the division and brigade
 +commanders and the surgeons met at General Shafter’s
 +headquarters early in August and signed a round-robin
 +addressed to the secretary of war urging the immediate
 +removal of the corps to the United States. This
 +action was much criticised at the time, but it had the
 +desired effect, and on August 4th orders were given to
 +remove the command to Montauk Point, Long Island.
 +The movement was begun at once and completed before
 +the end of the month.</p>
 +
 +<div id="ip_373" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.4375em;">
 +  <img src="https://brian.carnell.com/wiki/_media/etext:r:ripley-hitchcock-decisive-battles-i_421.jpg" width="471" height="302" alt="" />
 +  <div class="caption">THE LAST OF CERVERA’S FLEET<br />
 +  <span class="smaller">(The <i>Colon’s</i> final effort)</span></div></div>
 +
 +<p>The surrender of Santiago left General Miles free to
 +carry out plans already matured for the invasion of
 +Porto Rico. He left Guantanamo, July 21st, with 3415
 +men, mostly volunteers, convoyed by a fleet under the
 +command of Captain Higginson, and landed at Guanica
 +on the 25th. Early next morning General Garretson pushed
 +forward with part of his brigade and drove the Spanish
 +forces from Yauco, thus getting possession of the railroad
 +to Ponce. General Miles was reinforced in a few days by
 +the commands of Generals Wilson, Brooke, and Schwan,
 +raising his entire force to 16,973 officers and men. In
 +about two weeks they had gained control of all the southern
 +and western portions of the island, but hostilities were
 +suspended by the peace protocol before the conquest of
 +Porto Rico was completed. The American losses in this
 +campaign were three killed and forty wounded.<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">288</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The last engagement of the war was the assault on
 +Manila, which was captured August 13, 1898, by the
 +forces under General Merritt, assisted by Admiral Dewey’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span>
 +squadron. This occurred the day after the signing of
 +the peace protocol, the news of which did not reach the
 +Philippines until several days later.</p>
 +
 +<h3>V<br />
 +
 +<span class="subhead">CONTROVERSIES CAUSED BY THE WAR</span></h3>
 +
 +<p>Two controversies growing out of the war with Spain
 +assumed such importance that they cannot be passed
 +by. The first related to the conduct of the War Department,
 +which was charged with inefficiency resulting from
 +political appointments and corruption in the purchase of
 +supplies. The most serious charge was that made by
 +Major-General Miles, commanding the army, who declared
 +that much of the refrigerated beef furnished the
 +troops was “embalmed beef,” preserved with secret
 +chemicals of an injurious character. In September, 1898,
 +President McKinley appointed a commission to investigate
 +these charges, and the hearings held were sensational
 +in the extreme. Commissary-General Eagan read a statement
 +before the commission which was so violent in its
 +abuse of the commanding general that he was later court-martialled
 +and sentenced to dismissal for conduct unbecoming
 +an officer and a gentleman, though this sentence
 +was commuted by the President to suspension from
 +rank and duty, but without loss of pay. The report of
 +the commission<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">289</a> failed to substantiate General Miles’
 +charges, but it was not satisfactory or convincing. In
 +spite of its efforts to whitewash things, the commission
 +had to report that the secretary of war had failed to
 +“grasp the situation.” Many leading newspapers demanded
 +Alger’s resignation, but President McKinley
 +feared to discredit the administration by dismissing him.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span>
 +Nevertheless, a coolness sprang up between them; and
 +several months later, when Alger became a candidate
 +for the Michigan senatorship, with the open support of
 +elements distinctly hostile to the administration, the
 +President asked for his resignation, which was tendered
 +July 19, 1899.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">290</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The other controversy, which waged in the papers for
 +months, was as to whether Sampson or Schley was in
 +command at the battle of Santiago. As a reward for
 +their work on that day, the President advanced Sampson
 +eight numbers, Schley six, Captain Clark of the Oregon
 +six, and the other captains five. These promotions were
 +all confirmed by the Senate save those of Sampson and
 +Schley, a number of senators holding that Schley should
 +have received at least equal recognition with Sampson.
 +The controversy was waged inside and outside of Congress
 +for three years. The officials of the Navy Department
 +were for the most part stanch supporters of Sampson,
 +while a large part of the public, under the impression
 +that the department was trying to discredit Schley,
 +eagerly championed his cause. Finally, at the request
 +of Admiral Schley, who was charged in certain publications
 +with inefficiency and even cowardice, a court of
 +inquiry was appointed July 26, 1901, with Admiral Dewey
 +as president, for the purpose of inquiring into the conduct
 +of Schley during the war with Spain. The opinion
 +of the court was that his service prior to June 1st was
 +“characterized by vacillation, dilatoriness, and lack of
 +enterprise.” Admiral Dewey differed from the opinions
 +of his colleagues on certain points, and delivered a separate
 +opinion, in the course of which he took up the question
 +as to who was in command at Santiago, a point which
 +had not been considered by the court. His conclusion
 +was that Schley “was in absolute command and is entitled
 +to the credit due to such commanding officer for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>
 +the glorious victory which resulted in the total destruction
 +of the Spanish ships.” This made matters worse
 +than ever. Secretary Long approved the findings of the
 +majority of the court, and disapproved Dewey’s separate
 +opinion. Schley appealed from the findings of the court
 +to the President. February 18, 1902, President Roosevelt’s
 +memorandum, in which he reviewed the whole controversy,
 +was made public. He declared that the court
 +had done substantial justice to Schley. As regards the
 +question of command at Santiago, he said that technically
 +Sampson commanded the fleet, and Schley the
 +western division, but that after the battle began not
 +a ship took orders from either Sampson or Schley, except
 +their own two vessels. “It was a captains’
 +fight.”<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">291</a></p>
 +
 +<p>The Spanish war revealed many serious defects in the
 +American military system, some of which have been
 +remedied by the reorganization of the army and the
 +creation of a general staff.<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">292</a> It demonstrated the necessity
 +of military evolutions on a large scale in time of
 +peace, so as to give the general officers experience in
 +handling and the Quartermaster and Commissary departments
 +experience in equipping and supplying large bodies
 +of troops; it showed the folly and danger of appointing
 +men from civil life through political influence to positions
 +of responsibility in any branch of the military or naval
 +service; it showed the value of field-artillery, of smokeless
 +powder, and of high-power rifles of the latest model;
 +it also showed the necessity of having on hand a large
 +supply of the best war material ready for use. While
 +every American is proud of the magnificent record of the
 +navy, it must not be imagined that the war with Spain
 +was a conclusive test of its invincibility, for, however<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span>
 +formidable the Spanish cruisers appeared at the time,
 +later information revealed the fact that through the
 +neglect of the Spanish government they were very far
 +from being in a state of first-class efficiency.</p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter"><div class="footnotes">
 +<h2 id="FOOTNOTES" class="nobreak p1">FOOTNOTES</h2>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Bourne, <i>Spain in America</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, III), 31; Hart,
 +<i>Contemporaries</i>, I, 40.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Andrews, <i>Colonial Self-Government</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, V), chap. v.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Mahan, <i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>, chaps. iv–viii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Cf. Howard, <i>Preliminaries of the Revolution</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>,
 +VIII), chap. i.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 229.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> <i>Cf.</i> Hart, <i>Foundations of Am. Foreign Policy</i>, 18.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> McLaughlin, <i>Confederation and Constitution</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, X).
 +chaps. vii, viii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Texts in <i>Am. Hist. Leaflets</i>, No. 32.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> <i>Federalist</i> (Lodge ed.), No. 14.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> Cf. Channing, <i>Jeffersonian System</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, XII),
 +chap. v.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Garrison, <i>Westward Extension</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, XVII), chap. v.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, chap. xi.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, chap. vii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Turner, <i>New West</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, XIV), 114–122.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> <i>See</i> chap. iii, below.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> Bourne, <i>Essays in Historical Criticism</i>, No. 9.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> Dunning, <i>Reconstruction</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, XXII), chap. x.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> Dewey, <i>National Problems</i> (<i>Am. Nation</i>, XXIV), chap. xviii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Official order addressed to Spanish commanders authorizing
 +the conversion, enslavement, or slaughter of the natives.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> “The shot from Champlain’s arquebus had determined the
 +part that was to be played in the approaching conflict by the
 +most powerful military force among the Indians of North America.
 +It had made the confederacy of the Iroquois and all its
 +nations and dependencies the implacable enemies of the French
 +and the fast friends of the English for all the long struggle that
 +was to come.” [This quotation is from Senator Elihu Root’s
 +eloquent address at the Champlain tercentenary celebration in
 +1909. Influential as Champlain’s act proved to be, it is well to
 +remember that it was the Dutch treatment of the Iroquois that
 +gained the latter’s friendship for the English, the successors of
 +the Dutch, and also that the Iroquois, as Doctor Thwaites points
 +out in his <i>France in America</i>, did in subsequent years negotiate
 +with the French. But the historic consequence of Champlain’s act
 +is of course obvious, although it is not necessary to accept unreservedly
 +one tercentenary dictum to the effect that “Few
 +decisive battles from Marathon to Waterloo had larger consequences.”
 +Cartier’s first voyage to the St. Lawrence decided the
 +immediate association of the French with their Algonquian neighbors.
 +It would have been impossible for them to be friends of
 +both Algonquians and Iroquois. The consequences of immediate
 +and prolonged hostility on the part of the Algonquians invite
 +curious speculation.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Clowes, <i>Royal Navy</i>, III, 186–189.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> <i>Ibid</i>., 210–214, on Boscawen’s victory; 216–222, on Hawke’s.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> Clowes, <i>Royal Navy</i>, III, 196–201.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 201–203.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, II, 80.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> For biographical details of Wolfe’s early career, see Wright,
 +<i>Life</i>, and Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>, I, 1–128; in
 +<i>ibid.</i>, II, 16, is a portrait of Wolfe’s fiancée.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Text in Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>, VI, 87–90.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> Lists in Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>, II, 22, 23.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Wood, <i>Fight for Canada</i>, 166, 167, 173.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> “Journal of the Expedition up the River St. Lawrence,” by
 +a sergeant-major of grenadiers, in Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege
 +of Quebec</i>, V, 1–11.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>, II, 51–53.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> Wood, <i>Fight for Canada</i>, 152.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> Authorities cited in Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, II, 233,
 +234. For details, consult Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>,
 +II, chap. vi.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> See Bougainville’s correspondence, in Doughty and Parmelee
 +<i>Siege of Quebec</i>, IV, 1–141.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> September 22, 1759, quoted in Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>,
 +II, 249.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Official journal of Amherst, in London <i>Magazine</i>, XXVII,
 +379–383.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Stanwix to Pitt, November 20, 1759, MS. in Public Record
 +Office.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> [There was one regular regiment of American origin with Wolfe,
 +the “Royal Americans,” represented by their second and third
 +battalions. One battalion was left to guard the landing. The
 +superior officers of this regiment were English. There seem to
 +have been also some provincial rangers, although the famous
 +Robert Rogers was not present.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Doughty and Parmelee, <i>Siege of Quebec</i>, II, 237.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, II, 332, with detailed British returns; Wood, <i>Fight for
 +Canada</i>, 262.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> Greene, <i>The Provincial Governor</i>, passim.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Barry, <i>Hist. of Mass.</i>, I, 288–295.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> For a detailed study of this subject, see Howard, <i>Preliminaries
 +of the Revolution</i> (<i>American Nation</i>, VIII).</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> 5 George III., chap. xii, given in Macdonald, <i>Select Charters</i>,
 +281.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Beer, <i>Commercial Policy of England</i>, 10–13.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> For details and exact references to laws, see Channing, <i>The
 +Navigation Laws</i>, in Amer. Antiq. Soc., <i>Proceedings</i>, new series,
 +VI. For discussion, see Andrews, <i>Colonial Self-Government</i>, chap.
 +i; Greene, <i>Colonial Commonwealths</i> (<i>American Nation</i>, V, VI).</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Beer, <i>Commercial Policy of England</i>, chap. vii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> 6 George II., chap. xiii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> Macdonald, <i>Select Charters</i>, 259.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> Lecky, <i>American Revolution</i> (Woodburn’s ed.), 48.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> J. Adams, <i>Works</i>, II, 523–525.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> 4 George III., chap. xv.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Osgood, in <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, XIII, 45.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> Lecky, <i>American Revolution</i> (Woodburn’s ed.), 64.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Dulany, in Tyler, <i>Lit. Hist. of Amer. Rev.</i>, I, 104–105.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> <i>Life, Correspondence, and Speeches of Patrick Henry</i>, I, 84–89.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Hart, <i>Contemporaries</i>, II, 402.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> <i>Walpole’s Letters</i>, February 12, 1765.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> Franklin, <i>Works</i> (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 161–198.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> 6 George III, chap. xii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> Morley, <i>Burke</i>, 146.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Franklin, <i>Works</i> (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 169.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Walpole, <i>Memoirs of George III.</i>, II, 275, III, 23–27.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> 7 George III., chaps. xli, xlvi, lvi. See Macdonald, <i>Select
 +Charters</i>, 320–330.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> Samuel Adams, <i>Writings</i> (Cushing’s ed.), I, 184.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> Hutchinson, <i>Hist. of Massachusetts Bay</i>, III, 494.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> Junius (ed. of 1799), II, 31.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> Collins, <i>Committees of Correspondence</i> (Amer. Hist. Assoc.,
 +<i>Report</i>, 1901), I, 247.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> <i>Va. Cal. of State Pap.</i>, VIII, 1–2.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> <i>R. I. Col. Records</i>, VII, 81, 108.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> Farrand, “Taxation of Tea,” in <i>Amer. Hist. Review</i>, III, 269.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> Macdonald, <i>Select Charters</i>, 337–356; Force, <i>Am. Archives</i>,
 +4th series, I, 216.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> “Quebec Act and the American Revolution,” in <i>Yale Review</i>,
 +August, 1895.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> Force, <i>Am. Archives</i>, 4th series, I, 421.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> Macdonald, <i>Select Charters</i>, 356, 362.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> Wells, <i>Samuel Adams</i>, I.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> Franklin, <i>Works</i> (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 41.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Franklin’s Plan, in <i>Works</i> (Sparks’ ed.), III, 26, 36–55.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> Van Tyne, <i>Loyalists</i>, 5.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Van Tyne, <i>Loyalists</i>, chap. i.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> Force, <i>Am. Archives</i>, 4th series, II, 365–368.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Hatch, <i>Administration of the Revolutionary Army</i>, 1.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Frothingham, <i>Siege of Boston</i>, 100–102.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 99–101.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> Bolton, <i>The Private Soldier Under Washington</i>, 90; Force,
 +<i>Am. Archives</i>, 4th series, III, 2.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Hatch, <i>Administration of the Revolutionary Army</i>, 13, 14.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> Frothingham, <i>Siege of Boston</i>, 105, 106.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> “Bunker Hill Monument celebrates a fact more important
 +than most victories—namely, that the raw provincials faced the
 +British army for two hours, they themselves being under so little
 +organization that it is impossible to tell even at this day who was
 +their commander; that they did this with only the protection of
 +an unfinished earthwork and a rail fence, retreating only when
 +their powder was out.... The newspapers of England, instead of
 +being exultant, were indignant or apologetic.”—<span class="smcap">Thomas Wentworth
 +Higginson.</span></p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> Later Bemis.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> “The surrender of Burgoyne turned the scale in favor of the
 +Americans so far as the judgment of Europe was concerned....
 +The first treaty with France—which was also the first treaty of
 +the United States with any foreign government—was signed February
 +6, 1778, two months after the news of Burgoyne’s surrender
 +had reached Paris.”—Higginson’s <i>History of the United States</i>.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> For the text of the articles of capitulation, and the general
 +return of the officers and privates surrendered, see <i>Harper’s
 +Encyclopædia of United States History</i>, X.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> A detailed description of the topography and events of the
 +Yorktown campaign is afforded in Lossing’s <i>Pictorial Field-Book
 +of the Revolution</i>, II, chap. xii. An elaborate and authoritative
 +study from a military point of view is provided in <i>The Yorktown
 +Campaign</i>, by Henry P. Johnston. Both histories are published
 +by Harper &amp; Brothers.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> <i>Annual Register</i>, XXV, 252–257.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> <i>Two Centuries of Irish History</i>, 91.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> <i>Treaties and Conventions</i>, 370, 375.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> <i>Journals of Congress</i>, January 13, 14, 1784.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> For the complete history of the American struggle for independence,
 +see Professor Van Tyne’s <i>The American Revolution</i>, IX,
 +in <i>The American Nation</i>. Harper &amp; Brothers.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> “The destruction of the British fleet gave the United States
 +supremacy on Lake Erie and compelled the abandonment of
 +Malden and Detroit; it recovered Michigan, and made a real invasion
 +of Canada once more a possibility, for by means of the
 +control of the lakes thus given Harrison was enabled to enter
 +at once upon an aggressive campaign on the Canadian side of
 +Lake Erie. His men were easily transported to the north side,
 +and his line of communication was no longer threatened by a
 +British fleet. Its effect, too, upon the American people was decidedly
 +important; for the first time an American fleet had met a
 +British fleet and defeated it. Nor was it fair to discount the
 +significance of the victory by saying that the vessels were small
 +and of hasty construction. The charm of British invincibility
 +had been broken in the great ship duels which made the names of
 +Decatur, Bainbridge, and Hull household words. To this list
 +was now added the name of Perry, who was looked upon by the
 +Americans as a hero of the same class as Nelson.”—Prof. Kendric
 +Charles Babcock in <i>The Rise of American Nationality</i>.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> “The decisiveness of this battle was evident at once to the
 +British. Hardly was the result known, when measures were
 +taken for the retreat of Prevost’s army into Canada. At best,
 +Prevost’s assault upon the land forces had been so poor as to
 +give little aid to the fleet; and for this failure and his prompt
 +retreat Prevost was ordered to trial by court-martial, but died
 +before the trial could take place. The war was practically
 +ended by this retreat of the British army from Plattsburg into
 +Canada. It would seem as though the persistent mismanagement
 +of the American forces in northern New York, the incompetency
 +of Dearborn and Wilkinson, the strange interference
 +of Secretary Armstrong, the diversion of the forces of Izard from
 +the front of Prevost’s army, were all atoned for by the brilliancy
 +of the accomplishment of Commodore Macdonough and his
 +handful of sailors and soldiers on Lake Champlain.”—Prof.
 +Kendric Charles Babcock in <i>The Rise of American Nationality</i>.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> For the whole correspondence beginning with this letter, see
 +<i>Senate Docs.</i>, 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 25–48.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, p. 28.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 38, 41.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 42–48.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> <i>Niles’ Register</i>, LXVIII, 84.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 135; Von Holst, <i>United States</i>, III, 80, <i>nn.</i> 3, 4.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> Dublán y Lozano, <i>Legislatión Mexicana</i>, V, 19–22.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> Taylor’s successive orders, in <i>House Exec. Docs.</i>, 30 Cong.,
 +1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 7, 79–82.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> <i>House Exec. Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 99.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 102–109.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> <i>House Exec. Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 90.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> <i>House Exec. Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 140.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 141.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> See Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, entry for May 9, 1846.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> Richardson, <i>Messages and Papers</i>, IV, 442.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> <i>Cong. Globe</i>, 29 Cong., 1 Sess., 795.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> [John Slidell, of New Orleans, appointed a commissioner to
 +Mexico in 1845 to endeavor to adjust the boundary and re-establish
 +relations.]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, February 17, 1846.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, p. 39.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> Ripley, <i>War with Mexico</i>, I, 149; Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, May 14,
 +16, 1846.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> Hittell, <i>California</i>, II, bk. vi., chaps. ii–v, passim.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> <i>Niles’ Register</i>, LXX, 310; <i>Cong. Globe</i>, 29 Cong., 2 Sess.,
 +298; Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, August 18, 19, 1847.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> <i>House Exec. Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 324,
 +353, especially Taylor to Adjutant-General, July 2, 1846, <i>ibid.</i>,
 +pp. 329–332; cf. Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, September 15, 1846.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> Taylor to Adjutant-General, October 15, 1846, in <i>House Exec.
 +Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 351–354.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>, November 14, 1846.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> Taylor to Adjutant-General, January 27, 1847, in <i>House Exec.
 +Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 1100–1102.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> Taylor to Adjutant-General, March 6, 1847, in <i>Senate Docs.</i>,
 +30 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 132–141.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> Scott to Marcy, March 29, 1847, <i>ibid.</i>, 229.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> Ripley, <i>War with Mexico</i>, II, 153–155; Polk, <i>MS. Diary</i>,
 +December 28, 1847.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 52, p. 345.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> Buchanan to Trist, October 6, 1847, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 91–93; Polk,
 +<i>MS. Diary</i>, October 5, 1847.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> See official reports of these operations, in <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 30
 +Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 354–471.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> <i>U. S. Treaties and Conventions</i>, 683.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> Gen. Lew Wallace, who reached Buena Vista two days after
 +the battle, furnishes a vigorous defence of the Indiana volunteers
 +in his <i>Autobiography</i>, vol. I, chaps. xviii and xix.—[<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> Cf. <i>Am. Nation</i>, XIV; XVI-XVIII, passim.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> Stephens, <i>War between the States</i>, II, 32.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> Davis, <i>Confederate Government</i>, I, 80.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> Adams, <i>New England Federalism</i>, 144–146.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> Buchanan, <i>Administration on Eve of Rebellion</i>, chap. v; <i>National
 +Intelligencer</i>, January 18, 1861.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> Secretary of War, <i>Report</i>, 1860, <i>Senate Exec. Docs.</i>, 36 Cong., 2
 +Sess., No. 1, pp. 214, 216.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> Secretary of Navy, <i>Report</i>, 1860, <i>ibid.</i>, 383.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> Secretary of War, <i>Report</i>, 1860, <i>ibid.</i>, 209, 213.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> Buchanan, <i>Administration on Eve of Rebellion</i>, 104.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> <i>National Intelligencer</i>, January 11, 1861.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 68.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 69; Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 57, 58.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> Trescot MS., quoted by Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 58, 59.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 70.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 74, 75.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 76.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 80.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 64.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 79–82.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 82.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 67.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 89.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 103.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 96–100; Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>,
 +77.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> <i>Trescot MS.</i>, quoted by Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 78.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 101.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 81–83.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 85, 86.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> Curtis, <i>Buchanan</i>, II, 385. The emphasis is Buchanan’s.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> Governor’s message to legislature, quoted by Crawford, <i>Fort
 +Sumter</i>, 87.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 111.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 91.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, chap. x.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 2.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 112.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 110, 111.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 3.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> Ward H. Lamon, a former law partner of President Lincoln,
 +who visited Charleston at this time and assumed to be a representative
 +of the President.—[<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 222.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 230.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 228.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 284, 285.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 285.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 377.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 283.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 241.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> Doubleday, <i>Sumter and Moultrie</i>, 98.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 235.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> Nicolay and Hay, <i>Abraham Lincoln</i>, IV, 31, 32.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 294.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 249–251.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> Talbot’s report, in <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 251.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> Roman, <i>Beauregard</i>, I, 33.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 12–25, 213–216.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 25–58.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> Statement of Ex-Confederate Secretary of War to writer;
 +Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 421.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 297.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 297.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 422.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 13.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 59; Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 424.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 301.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> Crawford, <i>Fort Sumter</i>, 425, 426.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> <i>Naval War Records</i>, IV, 248.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> Fox’s report, in <i>Naval War Records</i>, IV, 245–251.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> Doubleday, <i>Sumter and Moultrie</i>, 142.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> Doubleday, <i>Sumter and Moultrie</i>, 147.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> Foster’s report, in <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 20, 21.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 293.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 22.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="fnanchor">206</a> Doubleday, <i>Sumter and Moultrie</i>, 158.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> Foster’s report, in <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, p. 24.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="fnanchor">208</a> Foster’s report, in <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 1, pp. 23, 24.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> Doubleday, <i>Sumter and Moultrie</i>, App., where the names
 +appear.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> <i>Naval War Records</i>, IV, 251.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> J. E. Johnston, <i>Narrative</i>, 84.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> Commander J. M. Brooke, in <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, I, 715;
 +Scharf, <i>Navy of the Confederate States</i>, 145 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, I, 692 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> Nicolay and Hay, <i>Abraham Lincoln</i>, V, 226.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="fnanchor">215</a> Soley, <i>Blockade and Cruisers</i>, 54.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> See <i>The Appeal to Arms</i>, by Dr. J. K. Hosmer, p. 74.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> Poore, <i>Burnside</i>, 132.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 6, pp. 133–167.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> Soley, <i>Blockade and Cruisers</i>, 82 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> Farragut, <i>Farragut</i>, chaps. i, ii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> <i>Naval War Records</i>, XVIII, pp. xv, xvi.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> Farragut, <i>Farragut</i>, 207.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> <i>Naval War Records</i>, XVIII (West Gulf Blockading Squadron);
 +Mahan, <i>Gulf and Inland Waters</i>, 52.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> Beverly Kennon, a Southern officer, in <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, II,
 +76, criticises severely the management of the Confederate ships.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> <i>Naval War Records</i>, XVIII, 134 et seq.; Mahan, <i>Gulf and Inland
 +Waters</i>, 52 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> Parton, <i>Butler in New Orleans</i>, chap. xii.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 24, p. 511.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Grant, <i>Personal Memoirs</i>, I, 411.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> Sherman, <i>Memoirs</i>, I, 319.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> Nicolay and Hay, <i>Abraham Lincoln</i>, VII, 135.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> Sherman, <i>Memoirs</i>, I, 324.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> Cullum, <i>Register of Mil. Acad.</i>, art., “McPherson.”</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 36, pp. 371–467.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> Mahan, <i>Gulf and Inland Waters</i>, 110 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> Johnston, <i>Narrative</i>, 152.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 36, pp. 565 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 36, p. 32.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> Johnston, <i>Narrative</i>, 153.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> Admiral Porter’s fleet kept up a continuous bombardment for
 +forty days. Seven thousand mortar shells and forty-five hundred
 +shells from the gunboats were discharged at the city. As Grant
 +drew his lines closer, his cannonade was kept up day and night.
 +The people of Vicksburg had taken shelter in caves dug in the
 +clay hills on which the city stands. In these caves families lived
 +day and night, and children were born. Famine attacked the
 +city, and mule-meat made a savory dish. Grant mined under
 +some of the Confederate works, and one of them, Fort Hill Bastion,
 +was blown up on June 25th with terrible effect.—<i>Harper’s Encyclopædia
 +of United States History</i>.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 37, pp. 146–424.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 41, pp. 41–181 (Port Hudson).</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> Greene, <i>The Mississippi</i>.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial Nos. 43 and 44, pp. 1–775 (all on Gettysburg
 +campaign).</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> Longstreet, <i>Manassas to Appomattox</i>, 331.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 45, p. 31.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> F. H. Lee, <i>Robert E. Lee</i>, 265. For R. E. Lee’s report of
 +Gettysburg, see <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 44, pp. 293 et seq.; Long,
 +<i>Lee</i>, 280.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> But see controversy between Mosby and Robertson as to
 +management of the Confederate cavalry, <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III,
 +251.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> Cullum, <i>Register of Mil. Acad.</i>, art. “Meade.”</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> Hunt, in <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III, 258.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> Livermore, <i>Numbers and Losses</i>, 102.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> <i>War Records</i>, Serial No. 43, pp. 104–119 (Report of Meade).</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> F. H. Lee, <i>Robert E. Lee</i>, 270.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> Doubleday, <i>Chancellorsville and Gettysburg</i>, 132.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> Cullum, <i>Register of Mil. Acad.</i>, art. “Hancock.”</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="fnanchor">255</a> Walker, <i>Hancock</i>, in <i>Mass. Mil. Hist. Soc. Papers</i>, “Some
 +Federal and Confederate Commanders,” 49.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> Doubleday, <i>Chancellorsville and Gettysburg</i>, 156.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> A tradition at Gettysburg.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> Mrs. Longstreet, <i>Lee and Longstreet at High Tide</i>, 83, 84.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> For criticisms by the friends of Lee, see Davis, <i>Rise and Fall
 +of the Confederate Government</i>, II, 447; F. H. Lee, <i>Robert E. Lee</i>,
 +299; William Allan, in <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III, 355. Able and
 +impartial is G. F. R. Henderson, <i>Science of War</i>, 280 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="fnanchor">260</a> Hood, <i>Advance and Retreat</i>, 57 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> For Meade’s good judgment and activity, see Walker, in
 +<i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III, 406.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> Gibbon, in <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III, 313.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> Mrs. Longstreet, <i>Lee and Longstreet at High Tide</i>, 48.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> Pennypacker, <i>Meade</i>, 194.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> Longstreet, <i>Manassas to Appomattox</i>, 385 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> Fremantle, <i>Three Months in the Southern States</i>, 274 et seq.
 +Confirmed to the writer by General E. P. Alexander, who heard
 +the rebuke.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> <i>Battles and Leaders</i>, III, 349.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> Committee on Conduct of the War, <i>Report</i>, pt. i (1864–1865),
 +408 et seq.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> Nicolay and Hay, <i>Abraham Lincoln</i>, VII, 278.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> For a minute discussion of Meade’s management, and much
 +testimony, see Committee on Conduct of the War, <i>Report</i>, pt. i
 +(1864–1865), 295–524.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> Livermore, <i>Numbers and Losses</i>, 102.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> See the chapter on the Monroe Doctrine in <i>The Rise of the
 +New West</i>, by Prof. F. J. Turner, and also chaps. i and xi of
 +<i>America as a World Power</i>, by Prof. G. H. Latané. (<i>The American
 +Nation</i>, Harper &amp; Brothers.)—[<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> <i>The War with Spain</i>, by Henry Cabot Lodge, and <i>The Spanish
 +War</i>, by General Russell A. Alger, may be consulted with advantage.
 +Both are published by Harper &amp; Brothers. Harper’s
 +<i>Encyclopædia of United States History</i>, VI, affords a picturesque
 +account of the battle of Manila Bay, by Ramon Reyes Lala,
 +a Filipino author and lecturer. Professor Latané’s account of
 +the war, in his <i>America as a World Power</i> (Harper &amp; Brothers),
 +offers an excellent example of judicial historical treatment.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span></p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="fnanchor">274</a> Long, <i>New American Navy</i>, I, 209.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="fnanchor">275</a> <i>Messages and Docs.</i>, Abridgment, 1898–1899, II, 921.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="fnanchor">276</a> Sec. of the Navy, <i>Annual Report</i>, 1898, App., pp. 465, 466.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="fnanchor">277</a> It was on this date, May 24th, that the <i>Oregon</i>, Captain Clark,
 +appeared off Jupiter Inlet, Florida, ready for action, after a voyage
 +of fourteen thousand miles from San Francisco.—[<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="fnanchor">278</a> Schley, <i>Forty-five Years Under the Flag</i>, 276.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="fnanchor">279</a> Sec. of the Navy, <i>Annual Report</i>, 1898, App., p. 402; Long,
 +<i>New Am. Navy</i>, I, 258–287.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="fnanchor">280</a> Sec. of the Navy, <i>Annual Report</i>, 1898, App., p. 437.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="fnanchor">281</a> Sec. of the Navy, <i>Annual Report</i>, 1898, App., p. 667.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="fnanchor">282</a> Major-General commanding the army, <i>Report</i>, 1898, p. 149.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="fnanchor">283</a> Major-General commanding the army, <i>Report</i>, 1898, p. 162.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="fnanchor">284</a> Major-General commanding the army, <i>Report</i>, 1898, pp. 152,
 +169, 171, 319, 366, 381. [General Vara el Rey, one of the bravest
 +of the Spanish officers, was the leader in this desperate resistance,
 +and was killed while rallying his men in the village.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="fnanchor">285</a> Major-General commanding the army, <i>Report</i>, pp. 167, 173.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="fnanchor">286</a> <i>Messages and Docs.</i>, Abridgment, 1898–1899, I, 270.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="fnanchor">287</a> Sec. of the Navy, <i>Annual Report</i>, 1898, App., pp. 505–602;
 +Long, <i>New Am. Navy</i>, II, 28–42.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="fnanchor">288</a> Major-General commanding the army, <i>Report</i>, 1898, pp. 138–147,
 +226–243, 246–266.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="fnanchor">289</a> <i>Senate Docs.</i>, 56 Cong., I Sess., No. 221, 8 vols.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="fnanchor">290</a> <i>Nation</i>, LXIX, 61.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="fnanchor">291</a> Proceedings of the Schley Court of Inquiry, <i>House Docs.</i>, 57
 +Cong., I Sess., No. 485.</p></div>
 +
 +<div class="footnote">
 +
 +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="fnanchor">292</a> Act of February 14, 1903, <i>U. S. Statutes at Large</i>, XXXII, pt. i,
 +p. 830.</p></div>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span></p>
 +
 +<div class="chapter"><div class="index">
 +<h2 id="INDEX" class="nobreak">INDEX</h2>
 +
 +<ul class="index">
 +<li class="ifrst">Abercrombie, James, killed at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Adams, John, elected President, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Adams, John Quincy, interested in western exploration, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Texas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Adams, Samuel, circular letter, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">“committees of correspondence,” <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">on independence, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">outlawed, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Aguinaldo, Emilio, insurrection, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Alabama, admitted into the Union, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Alabama</i> and the <i>Kearsarge</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Claims, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Alaska, purchase, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Alger, R. A., Spanish War, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">resignation, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Alien acts, passage, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Alliance</i> fired upon, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Almonte, J. N., annexation of Texas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demands his passports, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Alston, Charles, at surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Amendment, Thirteenth, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Fourteenth, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Fifteenth, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">America, territorial history, <a href="#Page_1">1–12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">American, flag adopted, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">victory at Cowpens, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Embargo Act, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anti-Slavery Society, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Americans, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_102">102–108</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at White Plains, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bennington, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Saratoga, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Valley Forge, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">storm Stony Point, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">invade Canada, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Chippewa, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupy California, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">New Mexico, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Amherst, Jeffrey, commander-in-chief in America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advance down Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ampudia, Pedro de, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Anderson, Robert, commands Charleston forts, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fitness, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">urges reinforcements and occupation of Pinckney and Sumter, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state enrollment of fort laborers, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">instructions, <a href="#Page_246">246–247</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">refuses to return, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lamon’s statements, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Beauregard, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defensive instructions repeated, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">scarcity of provisions, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fears he has been abandoned, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">informed of Fox expedition, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">isolated, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">refuses to evacuate, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">offer on evacuation refused, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bombardment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrenders, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">André, John, capture and execution, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Andros, Sir Edward, Governor of New England, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Anne, Fort, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Anti-Slavery Society, formation, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Ariel</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Arizona, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Arkansas, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Arnold, Benedict, to the relief of Fort Schuyler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">deprived of command, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">wounded, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treason, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Arthur, C. A., succeeds to the Presidency, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Appleton, Major, in King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Appomattox campaign, <a href="#Page_329">329–342</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">meeting between Grant and Lee, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee’s surrender, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lincoln, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Appomattox Court-House, Lee’s surrender, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ashburton treaty, on northeastern boundary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Babcock, Colonel, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Babcock, Prof. Kendric Charles quoted, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Badeau, Adam, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Baltimore</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, discovers Pacific Ocean, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Banks, N. P., expedition against Port Hudson, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Barclay, Commodore, at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Baum, Colonel, at Bennington, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Beauregard, P. G. T., pledge from Anderson, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reports readiness to attack Fort Sumter, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">order to attack, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demands evacuation, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anderson’s offer, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bombardment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">terms of surrender, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Behmus’ Heights, battle, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Behring’s Strait, discovery, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bennington, battle, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bissell, Colonel, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Blue, Victor, at Santiago, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Black Hawk War, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Blanco, Ramon, and Cervera’s fleet, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bocanegra, J. M. de, on United States and Texas, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bonaparte, Napoleon, recaptures Toulon, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Emperor of France, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Boone, Daniel, settlement of Kentucky, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Boston</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Boston, founded, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Liberty</i> riots, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">arrival of troops, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">massacre, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">tea-party, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">port closed, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">aid for, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">military possession, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">siege, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">British forces in, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bougainville, at Quebec, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bowers, T. S., at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Boxer</i> taken by the <i>Enterprise</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bradford, Major, in King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Breed’s Hill, height, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fortified, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">redoubt on, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">anxious moments, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle, <a href="#Page_112">112–116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brener, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Breyman, Colonel, at Bennington, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bridge, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">British, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_102">102–118</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">evacuate Boston, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repulsed at Charleston, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at the battle of Long Island, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupy New York, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">enter Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_133">133–137</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">burn Esopus, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">evacuate New York, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupy Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">enter Savannah, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeated at King’s Mountain, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">evacuate Savannah and Charleston, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">evacuate New York, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">“Order in Council,” <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Frenchtown, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Sackett’s Harbor, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fleet at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bragg, Braxton, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brooke, J. R., in Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brooke, John M., and the <i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Brooklyn</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brooks, John, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brown, Colonel, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Brown, John, execution, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Buchanan, James, elected President, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reinforcement of Charleston forts, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">instructions to Anderson, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Picken’s demand for Sumter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">policy of delay, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Buckminster, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Buell, D. C., instructions to Anderson, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Buena Vista, battle, <a href="#Page_198">198–207</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Buford, John, cavalry in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Bunker Hill, battle, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102–118</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">topography, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">intrenchments, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">deserters, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces engaged, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">no victory, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">monument, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Burgoyne, John, arrival at Boston, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Canada, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">takes Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">proclamation, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">route (map), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Skenesborough, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Bennington, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Indian allies, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">St. Leder’s failure, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">crosses the Hudson, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">difficulties, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">news from Clinton, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">perplexity at Fort Edward, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Clinton’s advance, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">effects, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Burnside, Ambrose E., Roanoke Island, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">commands Army of the Potomac, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Burr, Aaron, arrest, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Butler, Benjamin F., New Orleans expedition, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Cabot, John, reaches North America, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cadwalader, George, at Contreras, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Caledonian</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">California, coast explored, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">annexation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">discovery of gold, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupation (1847), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Callender, Captain, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">cowardice, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Campbell, Major, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Canada restored to France, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Canonchet, death, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Carolina, purchased, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cartier, Jacques, voyage to the St. Lawrence, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cass, Lewis, resigns, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cassin, Lieutenant-Commandant, at the battle of Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Castilla</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Castro, José, faction in California, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cervera, Pasquale, squadron, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Santiago, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Champlain, Samuel, defeats Mohawks, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attacks Iroquois, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">founds Quebec, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Chapin, Cyrenus, at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Chapultepec, storming of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Charles I. executed, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Charleston Harbor forts, Scott advises reinforcement, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">available force, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Buchanan’s passive attitude, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">condition, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Moultrie repaired, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Gardner asks for reinforcements, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attempted removal of ammunition, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Porter’s report, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anderson advises reinforcement and occupation of Pinckney and Sumter, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state enrollment of fort laborers, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Buell’s instructions to Anderson, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Pinckney occupied, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state demands Sumter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demand withdrawn, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state patrol, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">consequent excitement, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anderson refuses to return, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state occupies other forts, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Star of the West</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anderson promised support, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">food problem at Sumter, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demand for surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Fox’s expedition to relieve, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Scott ridiculed plan of relief, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bombardment of Sumter, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">effect of relief expedition, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Chauncey, Isaac, command, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Lake Ontario, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Chesapeake</i> captured by the <i>Shannon</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Chestnut, James, at Fort Sumter, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Chicago fire, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Childs, Colonel, at Puebla, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Chippeway</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Choiseul, French premier, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Chubb</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Churubusco, battle, <a href="#Page_215">215–220</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Civil Rights Bill passed, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clark, Charles Edgar, in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clark, George Rogers, conquest of Northwest, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clay Compromise adopted, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clayton-Bulwer Treaty concluded, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cleveland, Grover, annexation of Hawaii, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Venezuela boundary dispute, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cuban Filibusters, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clinton, Fort, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clinton, James, at New York, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attacks Forts Clinton and Montgomery, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Clinton, Sir Henry, arrival at Boston, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Putnam, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attacks Forts Clinton and Montgomery, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captures Charleston, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Colorado, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Columbia River, mouth discovered, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lewis and Clark expedition, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Columbus discovers Western World, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Committee of Correspondence in Boston, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Committee of Safety in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Concord</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Confederate States, congress assembles, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Confiance</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Connecticut, settlement, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">constitution adopted, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">conscription, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Conner, David, before Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Conscription riots, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Constellation</i> captures <i>L’Insurgente</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Constitution, Fort, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Constitution</i> captures the <i>Guerrière</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Java</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Contreras, battle, <a href="#Page_211">211–214</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Continental Congress, adopts Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Continental Village, burned, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cook, James, pathfinder, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cornwallis, Lord Charles, defeats Gates at Camden, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeats Greene at Guilford Court-house, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">situation, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Correo</i>, in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cortez enters city of Mexico, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Cristobal Colon</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370–372</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cuba, insurrection, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">desires annexation, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">southern desire for, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Polk’s attempted purchase, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">“Ostend Manifesto,” <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Marcy’s attitude, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Virginius</i> affair, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Grant and, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">McKinley’s protest, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Spain’s reply, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blowing up of the <i>Maine</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Proctor’s speech, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war with Spain declared, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blockade, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Santiago campaign, <a href="#Page_362">362–368</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval battle off Santiago, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Spanish surrender, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cubans proclaim independence, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Culp’s Hill, battle, <a href="#Page_320">320–322</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Cushing, Caleb, visit to Pickens, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Custer, G. A., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Custer massacre by Sioux, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Davis, Jefferson, elected President of the Confederate States, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">capture, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Davis, Jefferson C., occupies Castle Pinckney, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Decatur, Stephen, destroys the <i>Philadelphia</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">imposes terms upon the Dey of Algiers, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Declaration of Independence adopted by Continental Congress, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Deerfield Massacre, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Delaware River occupied by Swedes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">De Ramezay at Quebec, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">De Riedesel, Baroness, at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">De Soto, Fernando, reaches the Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Detroit</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Deuxponts, William, Count de, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Devin, T. C, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dewey, George, preparations for Spanish War, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle in Manila Bay, <a href="#Page_352">352–354</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">German fleet, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">capture of Manila, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sampson-Schley controversy, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dickinson, John, on taxation, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Diederich, Admiral von, in Manila Bay, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dix, Major, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Don Antonio de Ulloa</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Don Juan de Austria</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Donelson, Fort, surrender, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Doniphan, A. W., expedition against Mexico, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Doubleday, Abner, and removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dred Scott decision, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dundas, Lieutenant-Colonel, Commissioner at the surrender of Cornwallis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Duquesne, Fort, captured, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Dutch, founded New Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">relations with Indians, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">West India Company, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Eagan, C. P., court-martial, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Eagle</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">East Florida, Spain cedes claim, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Edward, Fort, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">El Caney, battle, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Elliott, Lieutenant, at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">prize-money, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Endicott, John, avenges Oldham, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">England, expansion in America, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and France in America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and Spain in America, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">declares war against Spain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Enterprise</i> captures the <i>Boxer</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Erie, Fort, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ericsson, John, designs <i>Monitor</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Essex</i> surrenders to the <i>Phoebe</i> and <i>Cherub</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ewell, R. S., at Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Farragut, David Glasgow, on the <i>Essex</i> at Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">commands New Orleans expedition, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">passing of the forts, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">on to Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Farnsworth, E. J., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Faunce, John, Sumter relief expedition, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Febiger, Christian, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fillmore, Millard, succeeds to Presidency, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Finch</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fisher, Fort, captured, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fish, Major, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Flag, American, adopted, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fletcher, Captain, Sumter relief expedition, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Florida, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Florida ceded to England, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Floyd, J. B., and transfer of ammunition, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removes Gardner, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">on removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Forrest, Dulaney, at the battle of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Forrest, N. B., raids on federal communications, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Foster, J. G., reports progress on Sumter, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forty-muskets episode, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">exposes “excitement” fake, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fox, G. V., expedition to relieve Fort Sumter, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">France, settlements in America, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and England in America, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">driven from Guinea coast, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">progress of discoveries (map), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">lack of sea power, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Quebec campaign, <a href="#Page_68">68–76</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">independence of United States, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">declares war against England, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Francis, Colonel, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Franklin, Benjamin, Stamp Act, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">on colonial jealousy, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Fraser, General, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attacks St. Clair, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’s Heights, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Freedmen’s Bureau, organization, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">French, begin settlement of Louisiana, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_145">145–150</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Quebec, <a href="#Page_68">68–70</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">declare war against Mexico, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Frolic</i> captured by the <i>Wasp</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Frontenac, Fort, captured, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Frye, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Gage, Thomas, governor of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">seizes munitions of war, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reinforced, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">council of war, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gamble, Peter, at the battle of Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gamble, William, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gardner, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">mortally wounded, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gardner, J. L., commands Charleston forts, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attempts to secure ammunition, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removed, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Garfield, J. A., elected President, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">assassinated, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Garretson, G. A., in Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Garrison, William Lloyd, and the <i>Liberator</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Gaspee</i> commission, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gates, Horatio, supersedes Schuyler, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’s Heights, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">increase of army, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">deprives Arnold of command, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">terms proposed to Burgoyne, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reputation, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeated at Camden, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>General Lezo</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">George I., King of England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">George II., accession, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">George III., accession, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Georgia, charter, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Germaine, Lord George, and loyalists, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Germany, result of Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gerrish, Colonel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gettysburg campaign, Lee’s northward march, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Federal movements, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Federal cavalry, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">misuse of Confederate cavalry, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Meade displaces Hooker, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle first day, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">topography of field, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">second day, position of forces, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Longstreet and Lee, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Round Top and Valley, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Culp’s Hill, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Federal council, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">third day, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Pickett’s attack, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee confesses error, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">question of counter-charge, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lincoln’s disappointment, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gibbon, John, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, takes possession of Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gillis, J. P., Sumter relief expedition, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gimat, Colonel, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Gloucester</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gosnold, Bartholomew, attempts settlement on Massachusetts coast, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Grant, U. S., proposed annexation of Santo Domingo, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Fort Donelson, Lincoln’s faith in, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">destruction of Holly Springs depot, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in command before Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">opposing force, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval auxiliary, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">futile operations, <a href="#Page_300">300–301</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">crosses river below Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Port Gibson, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">abandons his base, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">victories in rear of Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">siege of Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">receives surrender of Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">commander-in-chief, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_335">335–342</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">meeting with Lee, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">appearance, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cuba, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Grasse, François Joseph Paul, Count de, visited by Washington, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blockades mouth of York River, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Graves, Admiral, in command of British fleet at the Battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Greene, Christopher, at the battle of Guilford, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Greene, Lieutenant, account of fight with the <i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284–287</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Greene, Lieutenant-Colonel, at Fort Monroe, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Greene, Nathaniel, joins army, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Jamaica Plains, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gregg, D. M., cavalry in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Grenville, George, premier, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">colonial policy, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Stamp Act, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fall, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gridley, Charles Vernon, Manila Bay battle, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gridley, Richard, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Gridley, Samuel, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Grierson, B. H., raid, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Guadalupe-Hidalgo, treaty of ratified, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Guadeloupe captured, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Guerrière</i> captured by the <i>Constitution</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Halleck, H. W., commander-in-chief, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">Grant, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Hooker, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hamilton, Alexander, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hancock, John, sloop <i>Liberty</i> seized, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">riots, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">outlawed, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hancock, W. S., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hardin, Colonel, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Harmar, Josiah, expedition, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Harrison, Benjamin, elected President, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Harrison, W. H., and Tecumseh, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Harvard College, foundation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Harvey, John, governor of Virginia, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hawaii, annexation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">republic, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">annexed to the United States, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hawke, Sir Edward, sea-fight off Quiberon Bay, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hayes, Rutherford B., awarded Presidency, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Henry, Fort, surrender, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Henry, Patrick, Stamp Act, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Herkimer, General, at the siege of Fort Schuyler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Herrera, J. J. de, against annexation of Texas, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Higginson, Captain, Porto Rico campaign, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, quoted, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Highlands of the Hudson, defences, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hill, A. P., in northern invasion, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Beaver Dam Creek, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hill, Fort, bastion blown up, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hobson, R. P., sinking of <i>Merrimac</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Holdup, Thomas, at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Holly Springs, destruction of federal depot, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Honduras, English settlement, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hooker, Joseph, commands Army of the Potomac, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">after Chancellorsville, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee’s invasion, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">pursuit of Lee, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">use of cavalry, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">relieved of command, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Hornet</i> captures the <i>Peacock</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">House of Commons, membership, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Howard, O. O., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Howell, J. A., in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Howe, Sir William, arrival at Boston, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in command at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Moulton’s Point, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">moves on Breed’s Hill, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repulsed, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bravery, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">wounded, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Philadelphia campaign, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hubberton, battle at, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hudson Bay Company, incorporated, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Hudson, Henry, ascends the Hudson River, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Hunter</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Illinois, admitted to the Union, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Independence, Fort, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">India, British possession, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Indiana, admitted into the Union, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Indiana</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Indians, American, treatment of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">distribution of (map), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">land purchases from, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">early warfare with, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">price on heads, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">massacre in Virginia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">period of peace, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treatment of prisoners, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">relations with the Dutch, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">with the English, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">with the French, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">praying, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Infanta Maria Teresa</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Inflation Bill vetoed, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ingalls, Rufus, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Iowa, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Iowa</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Iroquois (Five Nations), tribes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">friendship for Dutch, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">origin of hostilities to French, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">French expedition against, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">raids in Canada, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">weakened, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Isla de Cuba</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Isla de Luzon</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Isla de Mandanao</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Jackson, Andrew, and Creek Indians, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">seizes Pensacola, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captures Spanish fort, St. Mark’s, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jackson, Fort, Farragut passes, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrenders, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jackson, Major, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">James I. grants patent to London and Plymouth companies, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">James II., King of England, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jamestown, settlement, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jefferson, Thomas, and Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lewis and Clark Expedition, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">interest in western exploration, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jeffries, Doctor, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnson, Andrew, succeeds to the Presidency, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnson, Colonel, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnson, President, impeachment, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnson, Sir William, captures Fort Niagara, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnston, western command, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Johnstown flood, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Jones, D. R., and surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Kansas, civil war, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Kearny, S. W., occupies New Mexico, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Kearsarge</i> and the <i>Alabama</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">lost, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Kentucky, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Kilpatrick, H. J., cavalry in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">King George’s War, beginning, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><a id="King_Philip"></a>King Philip (Pometacom), chief of the Wampanoags, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attack on Swanzey, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Pocasset, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">returned to Mount Hope, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44–58</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">King William’s War, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Kossuth, Louis, arrival in United States, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Knowlton, Thomas, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">killed at Battle of Harlem Heights, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Knox, Henry, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst"><i>Lady Prevost</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">La Fayette, Marquis de, at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lake Champlain, battle, <a href="#Page_173">173–179</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lake Erie, battle, <a href="#Page_158">158–172</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Perry victorious, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">prize money, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lamon, W. H., visit to Charleston, 256<i>n</i>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">unauthorized statements, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lane, Henry S., at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Langdon, Samuel, President of Harvard College, at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Las Guasimas, battle, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">La Salle, explorations, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lathrop, Captain, in King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Laub, Henry, at the battle of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Laurens, John, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Commissioner at the surrender of Cornwallis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lauzun, Duke de, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Lawrence</i>, at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lawton, H. W., in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Learned, General, at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lee, Captain, and surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lee, R. E., occupies Winchester, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">enters Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">considered unconquerable, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">army at its best, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">northern invasion, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">misuse of cavalry, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">force in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle, first day, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">second day, position, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">rejects Longstreet’s advice, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">third day, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Pickett’s charge, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">confesses error, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">retreat, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Appomattox, surrender, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335–341</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lewis and Clark expedition, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lincoln, Abraham, elected President, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sumter, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">call for militia, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">protection of Washington, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">faith in Grant, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee’s invasion, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Hooker, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">failure to crush Lee, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee’s surrender, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">re-elected President, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">assassinated, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lincoln, Benjamin, and Stark, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">wounded, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrenders Charleston to Clinton, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lincoln, Captain, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lincoln, Robert T., at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Linnet</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>L’Insurgente</i> captured by the <i>Constellation</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Little Belt</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Locomotive, first, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Lombardini, Manuel, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Long Island, battle, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Longstreet, James, rejoins Lee, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">disapproves of northern invasion, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">dispute with Lee, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">expected counter-stroke, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Louis XIV. attempted consolidation of Spain and France, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Louis XVI. execution, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Louisiana, purchase, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">settlement, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">retrocession of, to France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><a id="Loyalists"></a>Loyalists, views, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">persecuted, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Boston, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in British army, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Tryon County, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">McClellan, G. B., commander-in-chief, Federal armies, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">force, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">his superiors, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McClernand, John A. B., in command before Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">placed under Grant, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>McCulloch</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Macdonough, Thomas, Jr., at Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">account of battle, <a href="#Page_176">176–178</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">testimonials, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Macedonian</i> captured by the <i>United States</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McKee, Colonel, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McKinley Tariff Bill, passed, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McKinley, William, elected President, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Spain, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cuba, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">declares war, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McLaws, Lafayette, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McPherson, James B., Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">McRea, Jenny, murdered, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Madison, James, elected President, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Maine admitted into the Union, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Maine</i> blown up, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Manhattan Island purchased, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Manila, naval battle, <a href="#Page_351">351–355</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Dewey’s command, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Montojo’s, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first shot, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Spanish surrender, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">capture of city, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Manning, J. L., and surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Marcy, W. L., plan of operations against Mexico, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Marie Antoinette, execution, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Marquette, Jacques, on Mississippi, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Marquis de Duero</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Maryland, settlement, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mason, John, in Pequot War, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mason, J. M., confederate commissioner, captured, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Massachusetts</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Massachusetts, war with Pequots, <a href="#Page_32">32–42</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_45">45–58</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">charter annulled, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">military government, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">conscription, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Maximilian, Archduke, assumes crown of Mexico, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captured and shot, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Meade, George Gordon, commands Army of Potomac, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">character and appearance, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces under, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reliance in Reynolds, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Gettysburg, first day, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">second day, position of forces, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">midnight council, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">third day, Culp’s Hill, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Pickett’s attack, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">question of counter-charge, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lee’s retreat, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Lincoln’s disappointment, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Meade, R. K., and removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mercer, Samuel, on Sumter relief expedition, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i><a id="Merrimac"></a>Merrimac</i>, construction, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">attack on Federal vessels, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fight with <i>Monitor</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Merrimac</i>, sinking of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Merritt, Wesley, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Manila, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mexican War, causes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">popular movement, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Taylor in Texas, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advances to Rio Grande, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first skirmish, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Polk’s war message, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war legislation, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Polk’s sincerity, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Slidell’s mission, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">purchase of California, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map (1846–1848), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupation of New Mexico and California, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Wool’s expedition, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Doniphan’s expedition, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">friction, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Taylor’s campaign, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">plan against city of Mexico, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advance on City of Mexico, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first mission, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bribe to Santa Anna, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">armistice, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">futile negotiations, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">recall of Trist, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">City of Mexico occupied, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">ratified, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_198">198–207</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cerro Gordo, <a href="#Page_209">209–211</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Contreras, <a href="#Page_211">211–214</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Churubusco, <a href="#Page_215">215–220</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Molino Del Rey, <a href="#Page_220">220–225</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_225">225–229</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">City of Mexico occupied, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mexico, City of, occupied, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">campaign against, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captured, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Miami Indians, defeat St. Clair, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeated by General Anthony Wayne, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Michigan, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Miles, N. A., in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Porto Rico campaign, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">charges of maladministration of army, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Miles, N. P., and surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Minnesota, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Minuit, Governor, purchased the island of Manhattan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Mississippi, admitted into the Union, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Missouri Compromise, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repealed, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Molasses Act, in effect, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">aim, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Molino Del Rey, battle, <a href="#Page_220">220–225</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Monitor</i> fight with the <i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281–287</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Monmouth, battle, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">“Monroe Doctrine” announced, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Monroe, James, elected President, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Montana, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Montcalm, Marquis de, capture of Fort William Henry, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">stand at Quebec, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">policy of defence, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">meets Wolfe, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeat and death, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Monterey, capture, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Montgomery, Fort, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Montojo, Admiral, Manila Bay battle, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Montreal, captured, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Moore, Major, killed at the battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Morgan, Daniel, at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Morgan, M. R., at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Moseley, Captain, in King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Moultrie, Fort, condition, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">guns spiked, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupied by state forces, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Napoleon I. sells Louisiana, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Narraganset Indians, and Pequot war, <a href="#Page_32">32–35</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51–54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Nebraska, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Nevada, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">New Amsterdam founded, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Newhall, Colonel, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">New Hampshire, settlement, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">conscription, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">New Haven purchased, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">New Jersey established, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">New Orleans, settlement, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Farragut’s expedition against, <a href="#Page_290">290–294</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>New York</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Niagara, Fort, captured, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Niagara</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Nixon, John, at the battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Noailles, Viscount de, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">North Carolina, secession, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">North Dakota, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Norton, Doctor, discovery of anæsthetics, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">O’Brien, Lieutenant, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ohio, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Oklahoma opened, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Oldham, John, killed, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Olympia</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Oquendo</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370–371</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ord, E. O. C, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Oregon, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Oregon</i>, in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">voyage around the Horn, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in battle off Santiago, <a href="#Page_369">369–370</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Oregon, Spain cedes claim, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">joint occupation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">annexation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ostend manifesto, draw up, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Otis, James, and “writs of assistance,” <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Palo Alto, battle of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Panama Canal, construction, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Parker, Ely, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Parsons, Usher, at the battle of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Paterson, General, at Prospect Hill (1775), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Peacock</i> captured by the <i>Hornet</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pemberton, J. C., Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">besieged, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrenders, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Penn, William, purchases East Jersey, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pequots, war with Massachusetts colony, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">killing of Stone, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">murder of Oldham, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Narraganset alliance, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">settlements attacked, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">capture of forts, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">exterminated, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Perry, Oliver Hazard, battle of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">boyhood, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">command, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">shifts flag, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">victory, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">message, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treatment of prisoners, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">promotion, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">prize money, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Petersburg, siege of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Petrel</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pettigrew, J. J., and Anderson, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Pickett’s charge, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Philadelphia, meeting of colonial delegates (1774), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Philippine Islands, United States’ possession, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pickens, F. W., request for Sumter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pickett, G. E., charge at Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pico, Pio, faction in California, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pierce, Franklin, elected President, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pigot, Sir Robert, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pillow, Fort, storming, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pillow, Gideon J., at Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Contreras, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Churubusco, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pinckney, Castle, condition, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupied by Anderson, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupied by state forces, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pitcairn, Major, shot at Breed’s Hill, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pitt, Fort, built, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pitt, William, in British cabinet, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval activity, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demands enforcement of restrictive laws in the colonies, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pizarro, conquest of Peru, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Plains of Abraham, battle, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Plassey, battle of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pleasonton, Alfred, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pocanokets. <i>See</i> <a href="#Wampanoags">Wampanoags</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Polk, James K., elected President, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war message, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Texas boundary, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Slidell’s mission, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">aggressiveness, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">policy of conquering a peace, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">plan of operations, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">friction, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Trist, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">accepts treaty, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cuba, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ponce de Leon, Juan, voyage to Florida, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pomeroy, Seth, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pometacom. <i>See</i> <a href="#King_Philip">King Philip</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Poor, Enoch, at Behmus’ Heights, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Porter, David D., at the battle of New Orleans, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, 304<i>n</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Porter, Fitz-John, report on Charleston harbor forts, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Porter, Horace, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Port Gibson, battle, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Port Hudson, Banks’ expedition against, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Port Royal, in Acadia, foundation, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Port Royal, Nova Scotia, captured, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Preble</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Prescott, Lieutenant, nephew of Colonel Prescott, killed at battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Prescott, William, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">fortifies Breed’s Hill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bravery, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">reinforced, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">offers command to Warren, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repulses Howe, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">retreat, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>President</i>, fight with <i>Little Belt</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Prevost, Sir George, at Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Prideaux, Brigadier, expedition to Niagara, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Proctor, Redfield, speech on Cuba, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Pryor, R. A., and surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Putnam, Israel, joins army, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at the Highlands, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Peekskill, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Quebec, settled, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">act, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">taken by English, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Wolfe’s expedition against, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Montcalm at, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">stronghold, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">river protection, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defensive force, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">progress of siege, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">plains of Abraham, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Queen Anne, accession, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Queen Anne’s War, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Queen Charlotte</i> at Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Quitman, John A., at Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst"><i>Raleigh</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Raleigh, Sir Walter, expedition to North Carolina, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rawlins, General, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Reconstruction Act, passage, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Reed, James, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Reina Cristina</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Resaca de la Palma, battle, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Revolution, American, primary causes, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Samuel Adams as factor, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">outbreak, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">military preparations, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Reynolds, John E., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rey, Vara el, at El Caney, 366<i>n</i>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rhett, R. B., Jr., and Anderson’s removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rhode Island, purchased, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">settlement, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Riedesel, General, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Roanoke Island, English settlement, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captured, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rochambeau, Count de, at Williamsburg (1781), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Roosevelt, Theodore, and the navy, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Rough Riders, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sampson-Schley controversy, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ross, Major, commissioner at the surrender of Cornwallis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Rowan, S. C., and Sumter relief expedition, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ruffin, Edmund, opens fire on Sumter, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">St. Augustine, founded, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">St. Clair, Arthur, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">pursued by British, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">defeat by Miami Indians, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">St. Leger, Colonel, siege of Fort Schuyler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">retreat, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">St. Marks captured, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>St. Paul</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">St. Simon, Marquis de, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Salem, settlement, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sampson, W. T., command, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">search for Cervera’s squadron, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blockade of coast of Cuba, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle off Santiago, <a href="#Page_369">369–371</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Schley controversy, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">San Juan d’Ulloa, Fort, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">San Juan Hill, battle, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Santa Anna, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198–207</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bribe, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">abdicates, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Cerro Gordo, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Contreras, <a href="#Page_211">211–214</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Churubusco, <a href="#Page_215">215–220</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Molino Del Rey, <a href="#Page_220">220–225</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_225">225–229</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Santiago de Cuba, Cervera’s squadron at, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blockade, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">sinking of <i>Merrimac</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">preparations of army against, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">voyage and landing of army, <a href="#Page_363">363–364</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Las Guasimas, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">El Caney, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">San Juan Hill, <a href="#Page_366">366–368</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval battle, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">condition of army <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">return of troops, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Santo Domingo, proposed annexation with United States, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Saratoga battle (1777), <a href="#Page_120">120–143</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Saratoga</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Saunders, Admiral, at siege of Quebec, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Savannah, founded, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Saybrook, Fort, beleaguered, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Schley, W. S., flying squadron, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">search for Cervera’s squadron, <a href="#Page_359">359–361</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">battle off Santiago, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sampson controversy, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Schuyler, Fort, relief, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Schuyler, Philip, command, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Fort Edward, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">prejudices against, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">proclamation, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">superseded by Gates, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Stillwater, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and Arnold, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">exonerated, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Schwan, Theodore, in Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Scott, Winfield, plan of operations against Mexico, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">commands Mexican expedition, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bribe to Santa Anna, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">proposed armistice, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captures Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cerro Gordo, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Contreras, <a href="#Page_211">211–214</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Churubusco, <a href="#Page_215">215–220</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Molino del Rey, <a href="#Page_220">220–225</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_225">225–229</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupies the City of Mexico, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advises reinforcement of Charleston Harbor forts, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">inaccurate statement of forces <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Fox’s plan of relief, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">succeeded by McClellan, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sedgwick, John, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sedition Act, passage, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Seminole War, beginning, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">termination, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, beginning, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Seward, W. H., purchase of Alaska, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Danish West India Islands, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Shafter, W. R., Santiago campaign, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Shannon</i> captures the <i>Chesapeake</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">suppression, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sheridan, P. H., at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sherman, William T., at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and McClernand, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Vicksburg campaign, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">march on Atlanta, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupies Charleston, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Shields, James, at Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Contreras, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Churubusco, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sickles, D. E., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sigsbee, C. D., in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Simmons, Colonel, at Bennington, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Six Nations (Indians), in council, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Skene, Philip K., Council at Castleton, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Slavery, introduced into Virginia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">enlistment, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">importation prohibited, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Slidell, John, mission to Mexico, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captured, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Slocum, H. W., in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Small, Major, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Smith, C. H., at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Smith, General, at Contreras, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Smith, Persifer, at Contreras, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Smith, John, on American Indians, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Smith, Kirby, at Molino del Rey, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">South Carolina, secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">South Dakota, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Spain, territorial growth in America, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">loss of territory, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">and England in America, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">colonial revolution, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">cedes claim to Oregon, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Cuba, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Spanish War, causes, <a href="#Page_347">347–349</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war declared, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Dewey at Manila, <a href="#Page_351">351–356</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval preparation, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">comparative naval forces, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">blockade of Cuba, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Santiago campaign, <a href="#Page_360">360–369</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">maps, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">naval battle, <a href="#Page_369">369–372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Porto Rico campaign, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">capture of Manila, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">army investigation, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sampson-Schley controversy, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Specie Payment, resumption, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Speedlove, Major, killed at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Spottsylvania Court-house, battle, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stamp Act, proposed, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first reception of proposal, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">resistance, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repeal urged, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">repealed, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stanwix, Fort, siege, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stanwix, John, sent to succor Pittsburg, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">built Fort Pitt, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stark, John, joins army, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Medford, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">insubordination, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bennington, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">censured by Congress, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">promoted, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Star of the West</i> expedition, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stillwater, battle of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stockton, R. F., in California, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stuart, J. E. B., and Lee’s northward march, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">raid during Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Stuyvesant, Peter, and Swedish settlers, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sumter, Fort, condition, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">state demands, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Anderson removes to, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">flag-raising, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1"><i>Star of the West</i> expedition, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">armament, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bombardment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrenders, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">“Swamp Fight,” King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Swedes occupy the Delaware River, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Sykes, George, in Gettysburg campaign, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Tarenteens (Eastern Indians), and King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tarleton, Banastre, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Taylor, Dick, at Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Taylor, H. C., in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Taylor, Zachary, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">in Texas, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advances to Rio Grande, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first skirmish, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">captures Monterey, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">plans against City of Mexico, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198–207</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Telephone, invention, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tennessee, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Territory, European claims in America, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">map of growth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">of the United States, <a href="#Page_7">7–12</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Texas</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Texas, rival claims, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">annexation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">republic proclaimed, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">revolution, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">annexation, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">cause of Mexican War, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Thirty Years’ War, result, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Thomas, John, at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Thompson, Waddy, and annexation of Texas, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Thomson, Charles, and Washington’s letter on the capitulation of Cornwallis, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ticonderoga, battle of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ticonderoga, Fort, defence, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Ticonderoga</i> at Lake George, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tilghman, Lieutenant-Colonel, bearer of despatches to Congress on surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Toral, José, surrenders Santiago, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tories. <i>See</i> <a href="#Loyalists">Loyalists</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Townshend, Charles, revenue scheme, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">tax measures repealed, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Treat, Major, and King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Treaty of Utrecht, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Treaty of Washington, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Trescot, W. H., on Floyd and reinforcement of forts, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">demand for Sumter, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">removal to Sumter, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Trist, N. P., mission, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Scott, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">first negotiations, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">recalled, but negotiates a treaty, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tryon, William, burns Continental Village, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Twiggs, David Emanuel, at Cerro Gordo, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Churubusco, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Tyler, John, succeeds to the Presidency, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">United States, territorial power, <a href="#Page_7">7–9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">buys Louisiana, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">occupies West Florida, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">territorial rivalry with Great Britain, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">acquires Spanish possession, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">independence recognized, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">dispute with Spain (1785), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">declares war with Great Britain, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">with Tripoli, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">supremacy on Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treaty with Spain, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war with Mexico, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">treaty with Great Britain, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">war with Spain (1898), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>United States</i> captures the <i>Macedonian</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Upham, A. P., and Mexico, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Utah, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Van Buren, Martin, elected President, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Van Dorn, Earl, destruction of Holly Springs depot, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Vane, Sir Henry, Governor of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Velasco</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Venezuela boundary dispute, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Vera Cruz captured, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Versailles, Peace of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Vicksburg, and destruction of Holly Springs depot, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Sherman’s failure, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span></li>
 +<li class="isub1">McClernand’s command, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Grant’s command, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">topography, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Confederate force, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Federal force, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">tentative operations, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">running the batteries, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Grant crosses river below, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Federal victories in rear, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">siege, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">surrender, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">losses, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">bombardment, 304<i>n</i>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Villamil, Ignacio de Mora y, at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Ville de Paris</i>, De Grasse’s flag-ship, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Virginia admitted (by proclamation) into the Union, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Virginia</i> affair, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Virginia.</i> See <i><a href="#Merrimac">Merrimac</a></i>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Virginia, slavery introduced, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">crown colony, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">secession, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Virginius</i> captured, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Vixen</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Vizcaya</i> in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Wadsworth, Captain, ambushed, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Walker, Captain, at the battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><a id="Wampanoags"></a>Wampanoags (Pocanokets) and King Philip’s War, <a href="#Page_44">44–58</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Ward, Artemas, in command, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Warner, Colonel, at Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Warren, Gouverneur K., at Gettysburg, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Warren, James, joins army, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">President of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">a volunteer at the battle of Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">killed, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Washington, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Washington, George, siege of Boston, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Trenton, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Princeton, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at battle of the Brandywine, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Germantown, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Morristown, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Philadelphia campaign, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">confers with Congress, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">confidence in Schuyler, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">loss of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Williamsburg, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147–149</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">elected President, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Washington, D. C., seat of government, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx"><i>Wasp</i> captures the <i>Frolic</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wayne, Anthony, defeats Miami Indians, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Weedon, George, at the siege of Yorktown, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Welles, Gideon, Secretary of the Navy, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">West, Captain, bought the site of Richmond, Va., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">West Indies, France, Spain, and England, in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, in Cuba, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wheeler, Joseph, in Spanish War, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Whiskey Insurrection in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wigfall, L. T., at the surrender of Sumter, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wilcox, C. M., and Pickett’s charge, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wilderness, battle of the, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wilkinson, James, commissioner <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Willett, Marinus, at the siege of Fort Schuyler, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">William Henry, Fort, captured, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">William III., death, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Williams, Major, killed at Bunker Hill, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Williams, Gen. Seth, at Appomattox, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Williams, Roger, purchase of Rhode Island, obtains patent from Parliament, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Winslow, Josiah, Governor of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wisconsin, admitted into the Union, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span></li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wolfe, James, expedition against Quebec, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">career and character, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">forces, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">advance, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">progress of siege, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">illness, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">on Plains of Abraham, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wood, Leonard, and Rough Riders, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wool, J. E., expedition against Mexico, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">at Buena Vista, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Worden, J. L., <i>Monitor-Virginia</i> fight, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">story of the fight, <a href="#Page_281">281–284</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">“Writs of assistance,” right of search, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">legalized, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wyoming, admission into the Union, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Wyoming Valley massacre, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="ifrst">Yarnell, Lieutenant, courage of, at the battle of Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
 +
 +<li class="indx">Yorktown, siege of, <a href="#Page_145">145–150</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">British forces, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">allied forces, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">Cornwallis’s surrender, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
 +<li class="isub1">results, <a href="#Page_150">150–153</a>.</li>
 +</ul>
 +</div></div>
 +
 +<p class="p2 center smaller wspace">THE END</p>
 +
 +</html>
decisive_battles_of_america.txt · Last modified: 2020/10/04 01:18 by briancarnell